EEC 323 note 2 18/07/2024

CONTROL
ENGINEERING I
EEC 323

MODELLING CONTROL
SYSTEMS —
TRANSFER FUNCTION

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EEC 323 note 2 18/07/2024

Laplace Transform Review

• Laplace Transform is defined as
ℒ 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 𝑑𝑡

Where
𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔
• Inverse Laplace transform
1
ℒ 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝐹 𝑠 𝑒 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡
2𝜋
Where
𝑢 𝑡 =1 𝑡>0
=0 t<0
𝑢(𝑡) is called a unit step function

Laplace
Transform Table

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Laplace
Transform
Theorems

Transfer function
• control system consists of a number of sub-systems.
• All the sub-systems work in unison to achieve a desired output for a given input.
• Mathematical modelling of sub-systems and also of the whole system is required
for carrying out performance studies.
• transfer functions are commonly used to characterize the input-output
relationship of components or systems that can be described by linear, time-
invariant differential equations.
• The relationship between input and output is represented by a diagram known as
block

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Transfer function
• The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant system is defined as the ratio of Laplace
transform of the output to the Laplace transform of the input, under the assumption that
all initial conditions are zero.
• R(s) is the input, C(s) is the output.
• The output changes according to the system transfer function, G(s).
𝐶(𝑠)
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑅(𝑠)
• If we consider an LTI defined by the following differential equation:
𝑎 𝑦 +𝑎 𝑦 + ⋯+ 𝑎 𝑦 + 𝑎 = 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑏 𝑥+𝑏
where 𝑛 ≥ 𝑚
𝑦 is the output of the system and
𝑥 is the input of the system

Transfer function
• transfer function of the system is obtained by taking Laplace transform of both the sides
under the assumption that the initial conditions are zero.
𝑎 𝑠 +𝑎 𝑠 + ⋯+ 𝑎 𝑠 + 𝑎 𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑏 𝑠 + 𝑏 𝑠 + ⋯+ 𝑏 𝑠+𝑏 𝑋 𝑠
ℒ(𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡)
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐺 𝑠 = |
ℒ(𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡)
𝑌(𝑠) 𝑏 𝑠 + 𝑏 𝑠 + ⋯+ 𝑏 𝑠+𝑏
= =
𝑋(𝑠) 𝑎 𝑠 +𝑎 𝑠 + ⋯+ 𝑎 𝑠 + 𝑎
• With transfer function it is possible to represent system dynamics and at the same time,
calculate the order of the system by knowing the highest power of s in the denominator.
• The order of the system is the same as the highest power of s in the denominator.
• Type of a system is defined as the number of open-loop poles at the origin.
• The order of a control system is always greater than or equal to its type.

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Poles and Zeros of a transfer Function

• The expression for transfer function can be represented, after factorization as:
𝑘 𝑠 − 𝑧 𝑠 − 𝑧 … (𝑠 − 𝑧 )
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠 − 𝑝` 𝑠 − 𝑝 … (𝑠 − 𝑝
Where 𝑘 = , the gain factor of the transfer function

• If we put s equal to 𝑧 , 𝑧 , …, 𝑧 , the transfer function becomes zero.

• Hence they are called the zeros of the transfer function.
• if we put s equal to 𝑝 , 𝑝 , …, 𝑝 , the transfer function assumes infinite value.
• Hence they are called the poles of the transfer function.
• The positions of poles and zeros in the s-plane are important indicators of the performance
of the system.

Procedure for determining the transfer

function of a control system
Step 1: Formulate the mathematical equation for the system.
Step 2: Take the Laplace transform of the system equation assuming all the initial
conditions of the system as zero.
Step 3: Take the ratio of Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace transform of
the input.

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Example
• Let a system be described by the following differential equation:
Step 1: We write the equation representing the system
5𝑦⃛ + 3𝑦̈ + 2𝑦̇ + 𝑦 = 4𝑥̈ + 2𝑥̇ + 𝑥
where y is the system output and x is the system input.
Step 2: Take the Laplace transform of the equation. By assuming all the initial
conditions as zero, we get
5𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 1 𝑌 𝑠 = 4𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 1 𝑋(𝑠)
Step 3: Take the ratio of Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace transform of
the input,
𝑌(𝑠) 4𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 1
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑋(𝑠) 5𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 1
• The numerator and denominator can be factorised to obtain the poles and zeros

FORMULATION OF EQUATIONS
OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS
AND THEIR TRANSFER
FUNCTIONS
ELECTRICAL SYTEMS

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Electrical systems
• A resistor, an inductor and a capacitor are the three basic elements of an electric
circuit.
• The circuit is analysed by the application of Kirchhoff ’s voltage and current laws.
• The relationship that exists between voltage and the current flowing through the
circuit elements may be expressed as:
• For a resistive circuit,
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅
• Taking Laplace Transform,
𝑉 𝑠 = 𝑅𝐼(𝑠)

Electrical systems
• For a capacitive circuit,
1
𝑣= 𝑖𝑑𝑡 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜)
𝐶
• Taking the Laplace Transform,
1
𝑉 𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑠
𝑠𝐶
• For an inductive circuit,
𝑑𝑖
𝑣=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
• Taking the Laplace Transform,
𝑉 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐿𝐼(𝑠)

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Electrical systems
• When these basic elements form an
electrical circuit, mathematical formulation
is made by using Kirchhoff ’s laws.
• When KVL is applied to the RLC circuit
shown, the system equation is:
𝑑𝑖 1
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐶

• Taking the Laplace Transform, we get

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𝐸 𝑠 = 𝐿𝑠𝐼 𝑠 + 𝑅𝐼 𝑠 + 𝐼(𝑠)
𝑠𝐶

Electrical systems
• Assuming zero initial conditions,
1
𝐸 𝑠 = 𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑠
𝐶𝑠
𝐿𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1
𝐸 𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑠
𝐶𝑠
• Considering the circuit we see that,
1
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶
•Laplace transform gives us
1
𝑉 𝑠 = 𝐼(𝑠)
𝐶𝑠
Assuming all initial conditions are zero

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Electrical systems
• The transfer function is:
𝑉 (𝑠) 1
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝐸(𝑠) 𝐿𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1
• The block diagram of the network is shown

FORMULATION OF EQUATIONS
OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS
AND THEIR TRANSFER
FUNCTIONS
MECHANICAL SYTEMS

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MECHANICAL SYTEMS

• In analysis of mechanical systems use is made of three idealized elements,

• inertial elements such as mass or moment of inertia,
• spring and
• a damper.

• A mechanical system may have either purely translational motion or purely

rotational motion.
• The equations of motion are generally formulated using Newton’s laws of motion.
• mass/inertia and the two types of spring are the energy storage elements.
• Energy can be stored and retrieved without loss so they are called conservative
elements.

MECHANICAL SYTEMS

• The energy stored in the elements can be expressed by:

Mass: 𝐸 = 𝑀𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐽); motional energy
Inertia: 𝐸 = 𝐽𝜔 = 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐽); motional energy
Spring (translatory): 𝐸 = 𝐾𝑥 = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐽); deformation energy
Spring (tortional): 𝐸 = 𝐾𝜃 = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐽); deformation energy
Damper is a dissipative element and the power it consumes (lost as heat) is given
by:
𝑃 = 𝑓𝑣 (𝑊)
= 𝑓𝜔 (𝑊)

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MECHANICAL
ELEMENTS :
Translational

MECHANICAL
ELEMENTS :
Rotational

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Friction
• Friction is modelled as a linear element, the damper.
• Friction occurs in physical systems when mechanical surfaces are operated in sliding
contact
• There are three types
• Coulomb Friction force
Force of sliding fiction between dry surface
The force is substantially constant
• Viscous friction force
Force between moving surfaces separated by a viscous fluid
Or the force between a solid body and a fluid medium
It is approximately proportional to velocity over a certain limited velocity range
• Striction
The force required to initiate motion between two contacting surfaces
This higher than the force required to keep them in relative motion

Friction
• In most physical situations of interest, viscous friction predominates
• Friction force acts in opposite direction to velocity but is not always undesireable

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Translational Systems
• Considering the system shown
• A Mass 𝑀 is attached to a spring and a dashpot
(viscous friction coefficient 𝑓) on which the force 𝐹
acts.
• Displacement x is positive in the direction shown.
• The zero position is taken to be at he point where
the spring and the mass are a in static equilibrium.
(effect of gravity eliminated)
• A systematic way of analyzing is to draw a free-
body diagram as shown then applying Newton’s
law of motion to the diagram

Translational Systems
𝑑𝑥 𝑑 𝑥 𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐹−𝑓 − 𝐾𝑥 = 𝑀 or 𝐹 = 𝑀 +𝑓 + 𝐾𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• The equation is a linear constant coefficient
differential equation of second order
• The system has two storage elements mass 𝑀 and
spring 𝐾

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References
• S. K. Bhattacharya Control Systems Engineering (Third Edition) Pearson Delhi
• I.J Nagrath & M Gopal Control Systems Engineering (Fourth Edition) New Age
International Publishers 2006

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