Reference Books

Introductory Circuit Analysis

Robert L. Boylestad
 OBJECTIVES
 Become familiar with the superposition theorem and its unique ability to separate
the impact of each source on the quantity of interest.

 Be able to apply Thévenin’s theorem to reduce any two-terminal, series-parallel

network with any number of sources to a single voltage source and series resistor.

 Become familiar with Norton’s theorem and how it can be used to reduce any two-
terminal, series-parallel network with any number of sources to a single current
source and a parallel resistor.

 Understand how to apply the maximum power transfer theorem to determine the
maximum power to a load and to choose a load that will receive maximum power.

 Become aware of the reduction powers of Millman’s theorem and the powerful
implications of the substitution and reciprocity theorems.
 INTRODUCTION
 This chapter introduces important fundamental theorems of network
analysis. They are the

Superposition theorem
Thévenin’s theorem
Norton’s theorem
Maximum power transfer theorem
Substitution Theorem
Millman’s theorem
Reciprocity theorem
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
 In general, the theorem can be used to do the following:

Analyze networks such as introduced in the last chapter that have two
or more sources that are not in series or parallel.

Reveal the effect of each source on a particular quantity of interest.

For sources of different types (such as dc and ac which affect the

parameters of the network in a different manner), apply a separate
analysis for each type, with the total result simply the algebraic sum of
the results.
 Superposition Theorem:
The current through, or voltage across, any element of a network is equal to
the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages produced independently by each
source.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
 When removing a voltage source from a network schematic, replace it with a direct
connection (short circuit) of zero ohms. Any internal resistance associated with the source
must remain in the network.

 When removing a current source from a network schematic, replace it by an open circuit
of infinite ohms. Any internal resistance associated with the source must remain in the
network.

 Since the effect of each source will be determined independently, the number of networks
to be analyzed will equal the number of sources.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
 EXAMPLE 9.1: Using the superposition theorem, determine current I1 for
the network in Fig. 9.2.

Ans: I1= 5A.

 See Example 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4.

 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
 EXAMPLE 9.5: Find the current through the 2 Ω resistor of the network in
Fig. 9.18. The presence of three sources results in three different net-
works to be analyzed.

Ans: I1= 1A.

 THÉVENIN’S THEOREM
 In general, the theorem can be used to do the following:
Analyze networks with sources that are not in series or parallel.
Reduce the number of components required to establish the same
characteristics at the output terminals.
Investigate the effect of changing a particular component on the behavior
of a network without having to analyze the entire network after each
change.
 Thévenin’s theorem:
Any two-terminal dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting solely of a voltage source and a series resistor as shown in Fig.
9.23.
 THÉVENIN’S THEOREM
 EXAMPLE 9.6: Find the Thévenin equivalent circuit for the network in the
shaded area of the network in Fig. 9.26. Then find the current through RL
for values of 2 Ω, 10 Ω, and 100 Ω.

Step 1 & 2

Step 3
 THÉVENIN’S THEOREM

Step 4

 See Example 9.7.

Step 5
 THÉVENIN’S THEOREM
 EXAMPLE 9.8: Find the Thévenin equivalent circuit for the network in the
shaded area of the network in Fig. 9.37. Note in this example that there is
no need for the section of the network to be preserved to be at the “end” of
the configuration.

Ans: Rth= 2.4 Ω; Eth = 4.8 V.

Step 1 & 2
 THÉVENIN’S THEOREM

Step 3

Step 4 Step 5
 THÉVENIN’S THEOREM
 EXAMPLE 9.9: Find the Thévenin equivalent circuit for the network in the
shaded area of the bridge network in Fig. 9.43.

Step 1 & 2

Step 3
 THÉVENIN’S THEOREM

Step 4

Step 5
 THÉVENIN’S THEOREM
 EXAMPLE 9.10: (Two sources) Find the Thévenin circuit for the network
within the shaded area of Fig. 9.48.

Step 1 & 2

Step 3
 THÉVENIN’S THEOREM

Step 4

Step 5
 NORTON’S THEOREM
 Any two-terminal linear bilateral dc network can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a current source and a parallel resistor, as shown in Fig. 9.59.

 Norton’s Theorem Procedure:

 Preliminary:
1. Remove that portion of the network across which
the Norton equivalent circuit is found.
2. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal
network.
 RN:
3. Calculate RN by first setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced with
short circuits, and current sources with open circuits) and then finding the resultant
resistance between the two marked terminals. (If the internal resistance of the voltage
and/or current sources is included in the original network, it must remain when the
sources are set to zero.) Since RN = RTh , the procedure and value obtained using the
approach described for Thévenin’s theorem will determine the proper value of RN.
 NORTON’S THEOREM
 IN:
4. Calculate IN by first returning all sources to their original position and then
finding the short-circuit current between the marked terminals. It is the same
current that would be measured by an ammeter placed between the marked
terminals.

 Conclusion:
5. Draw the Norton equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously
removed replaced between the terminals of the equivalent circuit.
 NORTON’S THEOREM
 EXAMPLE 9.11: Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the network in the
shaded area in Fig. 9.61.

Step 1 & 2

Step 4

Step 3
 NORTON’S THEOREM

Step 5
 NORTON’S THEOREM
 EXAMPLE 9.13: (Two sources) Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the
portion of the network to the left of a-b in Fig. 9.72.

Step 1 & 2

Step 3
 NORTON’S THEOREM

Step 4

Step 5
 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM:
A load will receive maximum power from a network when its resistance is
exactly equal to the Thévenin resistance of the network applied to the load.
That is,

 Maximum power transfer occurs when the load voltage and current are
one-half of their maximum possible values.
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
 EXAMPLE 9.15: The analysis of a transistor network resulted in the
reduced equivalent in Fig. 9.86.
a. Find the load resistance that will result in maximum power transfer to the
load, and find the maximum power delivered.

Ans: Rth= 40 kΩ; Eth= 400 V; PLmax= 1 W.

 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
 EXAMPLE 9.17: Given the network in Fig. 9.88, find the value of RL for
maximum power to the load, and find the maximum power to the load.
Ans: Rth = 15 Ω; Eth =128 V;
PLmax= 273.07 W.
 MILLMAN’S THEOREM
 Through the application of Millman’s theorem, any number of parallel
voltage sources can be reduced to one.

 This permits finding the current through or voltage across RL without

having to apply a method such as mesh analysis, nodal analysis,
superposition and so on.
1. Convert all voltage sources to current sources.
2. Combine parallel current sources.
3. Convert the resulting current source to a voltage source and the
desired single-source network is obtained.
 MILLMAN’S THEOREM

Step 1

Step 2 Step 3
 MILLMAN’S THEOREM
 See Example 9.18 & 9.19.
 RECIPROCITY THEOREM
 The current I in any branch of a network, due to a single voltage source E
anywhere else in the network, will equal the current through the branch in
which the source was originally located if the source is placed in the
branch in which the current I was originally measured.
 RECIPROCITY THEOREM
 Example:

Ans: Both results should be equal 1.5 A.

END