Centrifugal Compressors A Basic Guide Boyce

Meherwan P download

https://ebookbell.com/product/centrifugal-compressors-a-basic-
guide-boyce-meherwan-p-4707622

Explore and download more ebooks at ebookbell.com

Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be
interested in. You can click the link to download.

Process Centrifugal Compressors Basics Function Operation Design

Application 1st Edition Dipling Klaus H Ldtke Auth

https://ebookbell.com/product/process-centrifugal-compressors-basics-
function-operation-design-application-1st-edition-dipling-klaus-h-
ldtke-auth-4190074

Aiche Equipment Testing Procedure Centrifugal Compressors A Guide To

Performance Evaluation And Site Testing Aiche

https://ebookbell.com/product/aiche-equipment-testing-procedure-
centrifugal-compressors-a-guide-to-performance-evaluation-and-site-
testing-aiche-4699828

Aerodynamic Optimization Design Of A 150 Kw High Performance

Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Centrifugal Compressor Without A High
Speed Requirement Dongbo Shi

https://ebookbell.com/product/aerodynamic-optimization-design-
of-a-150-kw-high-performance-supercritical-carbon-dioxide-centrifugal-
compressor-without-a-high-speed-requirement-dongbo-shi-10746472

Introduction To Centrifugal Compressors For Oil And Gas Applications

1st Edition Rainer Kurz

https://ebookbell.com/product/introduction-to-centrifugal-compressors-
for-oil-and-gas-applications-1st-edition-rainer-kurz-49049788
Design And Analysis Of Centrifugal Compressors 1st Edition Rene Van
Den Braembussche

https://ebookbell.com/product/design-and-analysis-of-centrifugal-
compressors-1st-edition-rene-van-den-braembussche-34708864

Control Of Surge In Centrifugal Compressors By Active Magnetic

Bearings Theory And Implementation 1st Edition Se Young Yoon

https://ebookbell.com/product/control-of-surge-in-centrifugal-
compressors-by-active-magnetic-bearings-theory-and-implementation-1st-
edition-se-young-yoon-4230608

Troubleshooting Rotating Machinery Including Centrifugal Pumps And

Compressors Reciprocating Pumps And Compressors Fans Steam Turbines
Electric Motors And More 1st Edition Robert X Perez

https://ebookbell.com/product/troubleshooting-rotating-machinery-
including-centrifugal-pumps-and-compressors-reciprocating-pumps-and-
compressors-fans-steam-turbines-electric-motors-and-more-1st-edition-
robert-x-perez-5699782

Centrifugal Empire Centrallocal Relations In China Jae Ho Chung

https://ebookbell.com/product/centrifugal-empire-centrallocal-
relations-in-china-jae-ho-chung-51903766

Centrifugal Pump Handbook 3d Sulzer Pumps

https://ebookbell.com/product/centrifugal-pump-handbook-3d-sulzer-
pumps-2021876
CENTRIFUGAL
COMPRESSORS
A Basic Guide

Dr. Meherwan P.Boyce, P.E.

 Disclaimer: The recommendations, advice, descriptions, and the methods
in this book are presented solely for educational purposes. The author and
publisher assume no liability whatsoever for any loss or damage that results
from the use of any of the material in this book. Use of the material in this
book is solely at the risk of the user.

Copyright © 2003 by
PennWell Corporation
1421 South Sheridan Road
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74112
(800) 752-9764

[email protected]
www.pennwell.com
www.pennwell-store.com

Cover design by Amy Spehar

Book design by Robin Remaley

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Boyce, Meherwan P.
Centrifugal compressors : a basic guide / by Meherwan P. Boyce
p. cm

ISBN 0-87814-801-9
ISBN 978-0-87814-801-1
1. Compressors. I. Title.

TJ267.5.C5 B59 2002

621.5’1--dc21
2002029815

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transcribed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical
including photocopying or recording, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America.

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 12 11 10 09 08
 Table of Contents

LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxi

LIST OF ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxiii

LIST OF CONSTANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxv

CHAPTER 1: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
CHAPTER 2: Aerothermodynamics of Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
CHAPTER 3: Compressor Definition and Standards Defining
Performance and Mechanical Equipment . . . . . . . . . . 69
CHAPTER 4: Design Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
CHAPTER 5: Diffuser Design Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
CHAPTER 6: Off-Design Performance Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . 205
CHAPTER 7: Surge Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
CHAPTER 8: Gas Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
CHAPTER 9: Steam Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
CHAPTER 10: Electric Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
CHAPTER 11: Rotor Dynamics, Bearings, Lubrication
Couplings, and Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
CHAPTER 12: Instrumentation Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
CHAPTER 13: Compressor Performance Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
CHAPTER 14: Maintenance Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643

| vii |
 1
Introduction

A compressor is a device that pressurizes a working fluid. One of the

basic aims of using a compressor is to compress the fluid and deliver it at
a pressure higher than its original pressure. Compression is required for a
variety of purposes, some of which are listed below:
• To provide air for combustion

• To transport process fluid through pipelines

• To provide compressed air for driving pneumatic tools

• To circulate process fluid through a certain process

Different types of compressors are shown in Figure 1-1. The positive-
displacement compressors are used for intermittent flow in which
successive volumes of fluid are confined in a closed space to increase
their pressures. The other broad class of compressors is the rotary type
for continuous flow. In this type of compressor, rapidly rotating parts
(impellers) accelerate fluid to a high speed; this velocity is then converted
into additional pressure by gradual deceleration in the diffuser or volute,
which surrounds the impeller. The positive-displacement type of
compressors can be further classified as either reciprocating or rotary
type, as shown in Figure 1-1. The reciprocating compressor has a piston
having a reciprocating motion within a cylinder. The rotary positive-
displacement compressors have rotating elements whose positive action

|1|
| Centrifugal Compressors |

results in compression and displacement. The rotary positive-

displacement can be further subdivided into sliding vane, liquid piston,
straight-lobe and helical-lobe type compressors.
The continuous-flow type compressors, as shown in Figure 1-1, can be
classified under dynamic or ejector type, entrain the inflowing fluid using
a high velocity gas or steam jet, and then convert the velocity of the
mixture to pressure in a diffuser. The dynamic compressors have rotating
elements, which accelerate the inflowing fluid, and convert the velocity
head into pressure head, partially in the rotating elements and partially in
the stationary diffusers or blade. The dynamic type can be further
subdivided into centrifugal, axial-flow, and mixed-flow compressors. The
main flow of gas in the centrifugal compressor is radial. The flow of gas in
an axial compressor is axial, and the mixed-flow compressor combines
some characteristics of centrifugal and axial compressors.

Compressor

Positive Displacement Continuous Flow

Reciprocating Rotary Ejector Dynamic

Sliding Vane Liquid Piston Straight Lobe Helical Centrifugal Axial Mixed Flow

Figure 1-1: Principal types of compressors.

COMPRESSOR SELECTIONS

It is not always obvious what type of compressor is needed for an

application. Of the many types of compressors mostly used in the process
industry, some of the more significant are the centrifugal, axial, rotary, and
the reciprocating compressors. They fall into three categories, as shown
in Figure 1-2. For very high flows and low-pressure ratios, an axial-flow
compressor is best. Axial-flow compressors usually have a higher
efficiency, as seen in Figure 1-3, but a smaller operating region than a
centrifugal machine. Centrifugal compressors operate most efficiently at
medium flow rates and high-pressure ratios. Rotary and reciprocating

|2|
 | Introduction |

compressors (positive-displacement machines) are best used for low flow

rates and high-pressure ratios. The positive displacement compressors,
more commonly known as the reciprocating compressor, were the most
widely used compressors in the process and pipeline industries up to and
through the 1960s.

30
POSITIVE
DISPLACEMENT

20
Pressure Ratio

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

10

AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR

1
10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
Flow (CFM)

Figure 1-2: Performance characteristics of different types of compressors.

In the 1960s, the centrifugal flow compressors became popular

because their efficiency was comparable to that of the reciprocating
compressor, and because of its much lower maintenance costs. Today the
centrifugal compressor is the main compressor in the process and
pipeline industries. Due to its compact size and its comparable light
weight, the centrifugal compressor is used extensively in the offshore
industry. The centrifugal and axial flow compressors fall into the category
known as the turbomachinery group of machines. The turbomachine
group of machines mostly consists of high speed rotating machines, with
steady flow characteristics.
Centrifugal compressors are an integral part of the chemical process
industries. They are used extensively because of their smooth operation,
large tolerance-to-process fluctuations, and higher reliability than other
types of compressors. The centrifugal compressor may be known as a fan,

|3|
| Centrifugal Compressors |

blower, booster, or exhauster. Broadly speaking, fans are low-pressure

compressors and blowers are medium-pressure compressors. Boosters
and exhausters are named for their application. Before giving an in-depth
discussion about centrifugal compressors, let us look at different types of
compressors and their applications.

Figure 1-3: Variation of adiabatic efficiency with specific speed for three types of
compressors.

In turbomachinery the centrifugal flow and axial flow compressors,

which are continuous flow compressors, are the ones used for com-
pressing the air. Positive displacement compressors such as the,
reciprocating, gear type, or lobe type to name just a few, are widely used
in the industry for many applications. In this book, we are examining the
centrifugal compressor in its many applications from the large lower
pressure process compressor to the high-pressure centrifugal com-
pressors used in small gas turbine applications.
The characteristics of these compressors are given in Table 1-1. The
pressure ratio of the axial and centrifugal compressors has been classified
into three groups: industrial, aerospace, and research.
The industrial pressure ratio is low for the reasons that the operating
range needs to be large. The operating range is defined as the range
between the surge point and the choke point. Figure 1-4 shows the

|4|
 | Introduction |

operating characteristics of a compressor. The surge point is the point

when the flow is reversed in the compressor. The choke point is the point
when the flow has reached a Mach=1.0, the point where no more flow can
get through the unit, a “stone wall.” When surge occurs, the flow is
reversed and so are all the forces acting on the compressor, especially the
thrust forces, which can lead to total destruction of the compressor. Thus,
surge is a region that must be avoided. Choke conditions cause a large
drop in efficiency but do not lead to destruction of the unit.

TYPES OF OPERATING
COMPRESSORS PRESSURE RATIO EFFICIENCY RANGE
Industrial Aerospace Research
Positive Up to 30 - - 75%-82% -
Displacement
Centrifugal 1.2-1.9 2.0-7.0 13 75%-87% Large
25%
Axial 1.05-1.3 1.1-1.45 2.1 80%-91% Narrow
3%-10%
Table 1-1: Compressor characteristics. It is important to note that the operating
range is narrowed with the increase in pressure ratio and the number of stages.

Figure 1-4: Operating characteristics of a compressor.

|5|
| Centrifugal Compressors |

AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS

Axial-flow compressors are used mainly as the gas compressor in large

gas turbines, due to their smaller frontal area for the same high flow. They
have also been used as process compressors where efficiency is important,
the flow high, and the pressure ratio low. They are used sparingly in the
process industry because they are much more expensive than their
centrifugal counterpart, they have a narrower operation margin (surge to
choke margin), and they are very susceptible to foreign object damage.
An axial-flow compressor compresses its working fluid by first
accelerating the fluid, and then diffusing it to obtain a pressure increase.
The fluid is accelerated by a row of rotating airfoils or blades (the rotor)
and diffused by a row of stationary blades (the stator). The diffusion in the
stator converts the velocity increase gained in the rotor to a pressure
increase. One rotor and one stator make up a stage in a compressor. A
compressor usually consists of multiple stages. One additional row of
fixed blades (inlet guide vanes) is frequently used at the compressor inlet
to ensure that air enters the first-stage rotors at the desired angle. In
addition to the stators, an additional diffuser at the exit of the compressor
further diffuses the fluid and controls its velocity.
In an axial compressor, air passes from one stage to the next, with
each stage raising the pressure slightly. By producing low-pressure
increases on the order of 1.1:1-1.4:1, very high efficiencies can be
obtained. Using multiple stages permits overall pressure increases up to
40:1. The rule of thumb for a multiple stage gas turbine compressor is that
the energy rise per stage would be constant, rather than the pressure rise
per stage.
Figure 1-5 shows a multistage high-pressure axial flow turbine rotor.
The turbine rotor depicted in this figure has a low-pressure compressor
followed by a high-pressure compressor. There are also two turbine
sections; the reason there is a large space between the two turbine
sections is that this is a reheat turbine, and the second set of combustors
are located between the high pressure and the low pressure turbine
sections. The compressor produces 30:1 pressure in 22 stages.
As with other types of rotating machinery, an axial compressor can be
described by a cylindrical coordinate system. The Z-axis is taken as
running the length of the compressor shaft, the radius r is measured
outward from the shaft, and the angle of rotation θ is the angle turned by
the blades in Figure 1-6. This coordinate system will be used throughout
this discussion of compressors in this book.

|6|
 | Introduction |

Figure 1-5: A high pressure ratio turbine rotor. (Courtesy ALSTOM)

Figure 1-6: Coordinate system for axial flow compressor.

|7|
| Centrifugal Compressors |

Figure 1-7 shows the pressure, velocity, and total enthalpy variation
for flow through several stages of an axial compressor. It is important to
note here that the changes in the total conditions for pressure,
temperature, and enthalpy occur only in the rotating component where
energy is inputted into the system. As seen in Figure 1-6, the length of the
blades and the annulus area, which is the area between the shaft and
shroud, decreases through the length of the compressor. This reduction in
flow area compensates for the increase in fluid density as it is com-
pressed, permitting a constant axial velocity.

Figure 1-7: Variation of flow and thermodynamic properties in an axial flow

compressor.

CENTRIFUGAL FLOW COMPRESSORS

Centrifugal compressors are an integral part of the petrochemical

industry, finding extensive use because of their smooth operation, large
tolerance of process fluctuations, and their higher reliability compared to
other types of compressors. They are also used in small gas turbines.
The centrifugal compressors range in size from pressure ratios of 1.3:1
per stage in the process industries, to 3-7:1 per stage in small gas turbines,
and as high as 13:1 on experimental models. This means that the com-
pressor pressure ratio must be between. This is considered a highly loaded

|8|
 | Introduction |

compressor. With pressure ratios that exceed 5:1, flows entering the
diffuser from the impeller are supersonic in their mach number (M>1.0).
This requires special design of the diffuser.
The centrifugal compressor has a limited stable operating range. The
capacity varies from 45% to 90% of rated capacity. This may affect the
economics of operating at partial load. The centrifugal type compressor
should be selected for the worst possible conditions, but at the same time,
meet other design requirements.
The operating speed of the centrifugal compressor is higher than that
for other compressors. For aircraft and space applications, the rpm can
range from 50,000 to 100,000. Most commercial units run below 20,000
rpm. With the trend toward increasing the rpm, problems due to bearing
lubrication, vibration, and balancing are becoming more significant at
higher speeds. Centrifugal compressors are well suited for direct
connection to gas or steam turbine drives which have variable-speed
control. Due to absence of inertia forces, centrifugal compressors require
smaller and less expensive foundations. These machines have a high
availability factor, frequently operate for 2 to 3 years without shutdown,
and require less maintenance than the reciprocating type.
In a typical centrifugal compressor, the fluid is forced through the
impeller by rapidly rotating impeller blades. The velocity of the fluid is
converted to pressure, partially in the impeller and partially in the
stationary diffusers. Most of the velocity leaving the impeller is converted
into pressure energy in the diffuser as shown in Figure 1-8. It is normal
practice to design the compressor so that half the pressure rise takes
place in the impeller and the other half in the diffuser. The diffuser
consists essentially of vanes, which are tangential to the impeller. These
vane passages diverge to convert the velocity head into pressure energy.
The inner edge of the vanes is in line with the direction of the resultant
airflow from the impeller, as shown in Figure 1-9.
In the centrifugal or mixed-flow compressor, the air enters the com-
pressor in an axial direction and exits in a radial direction into a diffuser.
This combination of rotor (or impeller) and diffuser comprises a single
stage. The air initially enters a centrifugal compressor at the inducer, as
shown in Figure 1-8. The inducer, usually an integral part of the impeller,
is very much like an axial-flow compressor rotor. Many earlier designs
kept the inducer separate. The air then goes through a 90º turn and exits
into a diffuser, which usually consists of a vaneless space followed by a
vaned diffuser. This is especially true if the compressor exit is supersonic,
as is the case with high-pressure ratio compressors. The vaneless space is

|9|
| Centrifugal Compressors |

Figure 1-8: Aerodynamic and thermodynamic properties in a centrifugal compressor

stage.

Figure 1-9: Flow in a vaned diffuser.

| 10 |
 | Introduction |

used to reduce the velocity leaving the rotor to a value lower than Mach
number =1 (M<1). From the exit of the diffuser, the air enters a scroll or
collector. The centrifugal compressor is slightly less efficient than the
axial-flow compressor, but it has higher stability. A higher stability means
that its operating range is greater (surge-to-choke margin).
The fluid comes into the compressor through an intake duct and can
be given a prewhirl by the IGVs. The inlet guide vanes give circumferential
velocity to the fluid at the inducer inlet. IGVs are installed directly in front
of the inducer or, where an axial entry is not possible, located radially in
an intake duct. The purpose of installing the IGVs is usually to decrease
the relative Mach number at the inducer-tip (impeller eye) inlet because
the highest relative velocity at the inducer inlet is at the shroud. When the
relative velocity is close to or greater than the sonic velocity, a shock wave
takes place in the inducer section. A shock wave produces shock loss and
chokes the inducer.
The flow can enter the impeller axially, with a positive rotation
(rotation of the flow in the direction of rotation of the impeller), or with a
negative rotation (rotation of the flow in the direction opposite to the
rotation of the impeller). It then flows into an inducer with a minimal
incidence angle, and its flow direction is changed from axial to radial.
An impeller in a centrifugal compressor imparts energy to a fluid. The
impeller consists of two basic components: (1) an inducer such as an
axial-flow rotor, and (2) the blades in the radial direction where energy is
imparted by centrifugal force. Flow enters the impeller in the axial
direction and leaves in the radial direction. The velocity variations from
hub to shroud resulting from these changes in flow directions complicate
the design procedure for centrifugal compressors. The fluid is given
energy at this stage by the rotor as it goes through the impeller while
compressing. It is then discharged into a diffuser, where the kinetic energy
is converted into static pressure. The flow enters the scroll from which the
compressor discharge is taken.
There are three impeller vane types, as shown in Figure 1-10. These
are defined according to the exit blade angles. Impellers with exit blade
angle β2 = 90° are radial vanes. Impellers with β2 < 90° are backward-
curved or backward-swept vanes, and for β2 > 90°, the vanes are forward-
curved or forward-swept. They have different characteristics of
theoretical head-flow relationship to each other. In Figure 1-10, the
forward-curved blade has the highest theoretical head. In actual practice,
the head characteristics of all the impellers are similar to the backward-
curved impeller. Most applications use backward curved blades since they

| 11 |
| Centrifugal Compressors |

Figure 1-10: Theoretical head characteristics as a function of the flow in a centrifugal

impeller.

TYPES OF
IMPELLERS ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Radial Blades 1. Reasonable compromise Surge Margin
between low energy transfer is Narrow
and high absolute outlet velocity
2. No complex bending stress
3. Ease in manufacturing
Backward 1. Low outlet kinetic energy 1. Low energy transfer
Curved Blades 2. Low diffuser inlet Mach Number 2. Complex Bending
3. Surge margin is widest of Stress
the three 3. Difficulty in
Manufacturing
Forward High Energy Transfer 1. High-outlet
Curved Blades Kinetic Energy
2. High Diffuser Inlet
Mach Number
3. Complex Bending
Stress
4. Difficulty in
Manufacturing
Table 1-2: Impeller designs—advantages and disadvantages.

| 12 |
 | Introduction |

have the lowest velocity leaving the impeller, thus the diffuser has a much
smaller dynamic head to convert. Also, backward curved blades have a
much larger operational margin. Table 1-2 shows the advantages and
disadvantages of various impeller designs.
Diffusers form an important part of a centrifugal compressor, and
usually are the most difficult to design. The function of the diffuser in a
compressor is the conversion of dynamic or kinetic head generated by the
impeller to pressure energy. This conversion is essential for obtaining the
required pressure rise of the compressor and also for achieving good
efficiency in the gas transmission along the supply pipe. In a gas turbine
engine using a centrifugal compressor, the air is required to negotiate
through several narrow passages and bends before arriving at the
combustion chamber. The bends in these narrow passages will reduce the
total energy of airflow; this energy loss can be reduced when an efficient
diffuser, and hence low velocities, occur in these passages and bends. A
low velocity is also essential in the combustion chamber for achieving
high combustion efficiencies. A diffuser is, hence, a component of critical
importance when optimum efficiency is a requirement in turbomachinery.
Figure 1-8 shows the static pressure and velocity changes in a centrifugal
compressor and diffuser.
The diffuser assembly may be an integral part of the compressor
casing or a separately attached assembly. In each instance, it consists of a
number of vanes formed tangentially to the impeller as seen in Figure 1-9.
The vane passages are divergent to convert the kinetic energy into
pressure energy, and the inner edges of the vanes are in line with the
direction of the resultant airflow from the impeller. The clearance
between the impeller and the diffuser is an important factor, as too small
a clearance will set up aerodynamic buffeting impulses that could be
transferred to the impeller and create unsteady airflow and vibration.

A P P L I C AT I O N O F C E N T R I F U G A L C O M P R E S S O R S

The centrifugal compressor has many applications, requiring it to

have many performance characteristics. Centrifugal compressors used in
gas turbines are required to have a high-pressure ratio and have a narrow
operating range. Centrifugal compressors operating in the process
industry have a need for a large operating range and thus operate at a
small pressure ratio. Table 1-3 summarizes some important applications of
centrifugal compressors.

| 13 |
| Centrifugal Compressors |

INDUSTRY OR SERVICE OR TYPICAL GAS

APPLICATION PROCESS HANDLED
Gas Turbines Power Compression Air
Drive Compression Air
Iron and Steel Blast furnace Combustion Air
Off gas Blast furnace gas
Bessemer Oxidation Air
Converter
Cupola Combustion Air
Coke Oven Compression Coke Oven Gas
Mining and Power For Tools and Machinery Air
Metallurgy Furnaces Copper and nickel Air
Purification
Pelletizing Air
(Iron Ore Concentration)
Natural Gas Production Re-pressuring oil wells Natural Gas
Distribution Transmission Natural Gas
Processing Natural Gasoline Natural Gas
Separation
Refrigeration Propane and methane
Refrigeration Chemical Various Processes Butane, Propane,
Ethylene, Ammonia
Special Refrigerants
Industrial & Air conditioning Special Refrigerants
Commercial
Utilities Steam Soot blowing Air
Generators
Combustion Air
Cyclone furnaces Air
City Gas Manufacturing Fuel gas
Distribution Fuel gas
Miscellaneous Sewage Agitation Air
Treatment
Industrial Power for tools Air
Power and Machines
Paper Fourdrinier vacuum Air and water vapor
Making
Material Conveying
handling
Gas Engines Supercharging Air
Table 1-3: Applications of centrifugal compressors.

| 14 |
 | Introduction |

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
IN GAS TURBINES

Many small gas turbines that produce below 5 MW incorporate centri-

fugal compressors, or combinations of centrifugal and axial compressors,
as well as radial-inflow turbines. A small turbine will often consist of a
single-stage centrifugal compressor producing a pressure ratio as high as
6:1, a single side combustor where temperatures of about 1,800°F (982°C)
are reached, and radial-inflow turbines. Figure 1-11 shows a schematic of
such a typical turbine. Air is induced through an inlet duct to the centri-
fugal compressor, which, rotating at a high speed, imparts energy to the
air. On leaving the impeller air with increased pressure and velocity, it
passes through a high-efficiency diffuser, which converts the velocity
energy to static pressure. The compressed air, contained in a pressure
casing, flows at low speed to the combustion chamber, which is a side
combustor. A portion of the air enters the combustor head, mixes with the
fuel, and burns continuously. The remainder of the air enters through the
wall of the combustor and mixes with the hot gases. Good fuel
atomization and controlled mixing ensure an even temperature
distribution in the hot gases, which pass through the volute to enter the
radial inflow turbine nozzles. High acceleration and expansion of the
gases through the nozzle guide vane passages and turbine combine to
impart rotational energy, which is used to drive the external load and
auxiliaries on the cool side of the turbine.

Figure 1-11: A small radial flow gas turbine cutaway showing the turbine rotor.

| 15 |
| Centrifugal Compressors |

The efficiency of a small turbine is usually much lower than a larger

unit because of the limitation of the turbine inlet temperature and the
lower component efficiencies. Turbine inlet temperature is limited
because the turbine blades are not cooled. Radial-flow compressors and
impellers inherently have lower efficiencies than their axial counterparts.
These units are rugged, and their simplicity in design assures many hours
of trouble-free operation. A way to improve the lower overall cycle
efficiencies, 18%-23%, is to use the waste heat from the turbine unit. High
thermal efficiencies (30%-35%) can be obtained, since nearly all the heat
not converted into mechanical energy is available in the exhaust, and most
of this energy can be converted into useful work. These units, when
placed in a combined heat power application, can reach efficiencies of the
total process as high as 60%-70%.
Figure 1-12 shows an aeroderivative small gas turbine. This unit has
three independent rotating assemblies mounted on three concentric
shafts. This turbine has a three-stage axial flow compressor followed by a
centrifugal compressor, each driven by a single stage axial flow
compressor. Power is extracted by a two-stage axial flow turbine and
delivered to the inlet end of the machine by one of the concentric shafts.
The combustion system comprises a reverse flow annular combustion
chamber, with multiple fuel nozzles and a spark igniter. This
aeroderivative engine produces 4.9 MW and has an efficiency of 32%.

Axial Flow Compressor Centrifugal Compressor

Axial Flow Turbine
Concentric Shafts

Figure 1-12: A small aeroderivative gas turbine. ST30 marine and industrial gas
turbine engine. (Courtesy Pratt & Whitney Canada Corporation)

| 16 |
 | Introduction |

Micro-turbines usually refer to units of less than 350 kW. These units
are usually powered by either diesel fuel or natural gas. The micro
turbines can be either axial flow or centrifugal-radial inflow units. The
initial cost, efficiency, and emissions will be the three most important
criteria in the design of these units. As seen in Figure 1-13, today’s micro
turbines are using radial flow turbines and compressors, due to the
compactness and ruggedness of these types of compressors and turbines.

Figure 1-13: A compact microturbine schematic. (Courtesy Capstone Corporation)

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS IN THE

PROCESS INDUSTRY

The common method of classifying process-type centrifugal

compressors is based on the number of impellers and the casing design.
Table 1-4 shows three types of centrifugal compressors. For each type of
compressor, approximate maximum ratings of pressure, capacity, and
brake horsepower are also shown.

| 17 |
| Centrifugal Compressors |

CASING TYPE APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM RATINGS

Approximate Approximate Approximate
Pressure Inlet Capacity Power
psig (Bar) cfm (cmm) Horsepower (kW)
1. Integral Gear Type Compressor
Single Stage 45 psig 250,000 cfm 3,000 HP
(3.0 bar) (7,079 cmm) (2,241 kW)
Multistage More than 600 psig 60,000 cfm 10,000 HP
(40 bar) (102 cmm) (7,470 kW)
2. Horizontally Split Casings
Single Stage 15 psig 650,000 cfm 10,000 HP
(double suction) (1.03 bar) (18,406 cmm) (7,457 kW)
Multistage 1000 psig 200,000 cfm 35,000 HP
(69 bar) 5,663 cmm (26,100 kW)
3. Barrel Type Compressor
Pipeline 1200 psig 25,000 cfm 20,000HP
(82 bar) (708 cmm) (14,914 kW)
Multistage More than 5500 psig 20,000 cfm 15,000 HP
(379 bar) (566 cmm) (11,185 kW)
Table 1-4: Industrial centrifugal compressor classification based on casing design.

Figure 1-14: An integral geared centrifugal compressor, showing intercoolers below

the compressor base plate. (Courtesy Atlas Copco Comptec, Inc.)

| 18 |
 | Introduction |

Figure 1-15: Horizontally split centrifugal compressor, with closed-face impellers.

(Courtesy Man-Turbo)

Integrated gear type units have impellers, which are usually mounted
on the extended motor shaft, and similar sections are mounted to obtain
the desired number of stages. Casing material is either steel or cast iron.
These machines require minimum supervision and maintenance and are
quite economic in their operating range. The integrated gear casing design
is used extensively in supply of lighter gases, such as CO, CO2, H2, and air.
Figure 1-14 is a typical integral gear multistage centrifugal compressor.
The horizontally split type have casings split horizontally at the mid-
section and the top as shown in Figure 1-15. The bottom halves are bolted
and doweled together as shown in Figure 1-16. This design type is preferred
for large multistage units. The internal parts such as shaft, impellers,
bearings, and seals are readily accessible for inspection and repairs by
removing the top half. The casing material is cast iron or cast steel.
There are various types of barrel or centrifugal compressors. Low-
pressure types with overhung impellers are used for combustion
processes, ventilation, and conveying applications. Multistage barrel
casings are used for high-pressures in which the horizontally split joint is

| 19 |
| Centrifugal Compressors |

Figure 1-16: Horizontal casing centrifugal compressor. (Courtesy MAN

Turbomaschinen AG Schweiz)

inadequate. Figure 1-17 shows the barrel compressor in the background

and the inner bundle from the compressor in front. Once the casing is
removed from the barrel, it is horizontally split, as shown in Figure 1-18.
Compressor trains can be a combination of axial flow compressors as
well as centrifugal compressors. Figure 1-19 shows a long train, which is
a typical arrangement for nitric acid plants. Here the train is driven by a
5.9 MW steam turbine, an axial air compressor, followed by a centrifugal
compressor for the nitrous gas, and a tail gas 11MW axial flow expander.

| 20 |
 | Introduction |

Figure 1-17: Horizontal casing centrifugal compressor. (Courtesy Dresser Rand

Corporation)

Figure 1-18: The inner bundle of a barrel centrifugal compressor opened (Courtesy
MAN Turbomaschinen AG Schweiz)

| 21 |
| Centrifugal Compressors |

Figure 1-19: The long train is a typical arrangement for acid nitric plants (process
UHDE): steam turbine (43.5 t/h; 5.9MW) as driver, axial air compressor (AV56-14;
139300Nm3/h), centrifugal compressor (R71-3; 122500Nm3/h) for nitrous gas and
tail gas expander (E56-4; 111300Nm3/h, 11MW). (Courtesy MAN Turbomaschinen
AG Schweiz)

C O M P R E S S O R I N T E R N A L C O N F I G U R AT I O N

To properly design a centrifugal compressor, one must know the

operating conditions – the type of gas, its pressure, temperature, and
molecular weight. One must also know the corrosion properties of the gas
so that proper metallurgical selection can be made. Gas fluctuations due
to process instabilities must be pinpointed so that the compressor can
operate without surging.
The process compressors are all designed to meet the rigorous API
specifications. The API specifications, which govern the compressors
from a mechanical point of view, are API Std 617, Centrifugal
Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry Services, 6th
Edition, February 1995, and the API Std 672, Packaged, Integrally Geared
Centrifugal Air Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry
Services, 3rd Edition, September 1996. The performance of these
compressors is based on the ASME, Performance Test Code on
Compressors and Exhausters, ASME PTC 10 1997, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers 1997. There are two types of centrifugal
compressors used in the process industry one for air and lighter gases and
the other for process gases. The process air compressors are usually
compressors with open-faced impellers, each stage having a single stage
pressure ratio of up to 3:1, as seen in Figure 1-20. The process gas
compressors have close-faced impellers, as shown in Figure 1-21, with a

| 22 |
 | Introduction |

Figure 1-20: An integral geared centrifugal compressor rotor assembly showing

intercoolers below the compressor base plate. (Courtesy Atlas Copco Comptec, Inc.)

Figure 1-21: Two sets of closed-face impellers used in a centrifugal compressor. Note
the wide size differential. (Courtesy Dresser Rand Corporation)

| 23 |
| Centrifugal Compressors |

very low-pressure ratio up to 1.1-1.3, and thus have large operating

margins (surge-to-choke margins). The two rotor assemblies shown in
Figure 1-21 show the large variation in flow and pressure that these
compressors cover. Figure 1-22 shows centrifugal compressor rotors and
axial flow compressors.

Figure 1-22: Axial flow compressors and centrifugal compressor. (Courtesy Sulzer
Corporation)

Centrifugal compressors for industrial applications have relatively

low-pressure ratios per stage. This condition is necessary so that the
compressors can have a wide operating range while stress levels are kept
at a minimum. Because of the low-pressure ratios for each stage, a single
machine may have a number of stages in one “barrel” to achieve the
desired overall pressure ratio. Figure 1-23 shows some of the many
configurations.
The first two schematics shown in Figure 1-23 are integrally geared
centrifugal compressors. The rest of the schematics are for a large process
gas compressor.

| 24 |
 | Introduction |

Figure 1-23: Various configurations of centrifugal compressors.

| 25 |
| Centrifugal Compressors |

Some factors to be considered when selecting a configuration to meet

plant needs are:
• Intercooling between stages can considerably reduce the power
consumed.

• Back-to-back impellers allow for a balanced rotor thrust and

minimized overloading of the thrust bearings.

• Cold inlet or hot discharge at the middle of the case reduces oil-
seal and lubrication problems.

• Single inlet or single discharge reduces external piping problems.

• Balance planes that are easily accessible in the field can

appreciably reduce field-balancing time.

• Balance piston with no external leakage will greatly reduce wear

on the thrust bearings.

• Hot and cold sections of the case that are adjacent to each other
will reduce thermal gradients and thus reduce case distortion.

• Horizontally split casings are easier to open for inspection than

vertically split ones, reducing maintenance time.

• Overhung rotors present an easier alignment problem because

shaft-end alignment is necessary only at the coupling between the
compressor and driver.

• Smaller, high-pressure compressors that do the same job will

reduce foundation problems but will have greatly reduced
operational range.
These integrally geared centrifugal compressors have open-faced
impellers, which are cantilevered. These compressors are used in many
services, such as compressing air, CO, CO2, and H2. They can also be used
for the simultaneous processing of different gases and for energy recovery
and process control applications. The integrally geared compressor has
many varied configurations. These range from single-stage units to multi-
stage units. In these compressors the power is usually transmitted through
the bull gear to the pinion gear on which the impeller is assembled, as
shown in Figure 1-24. Figure 1-25 shows an integral geared single stage

| 26 |
 | Introduction |

Figure 1-24: An integral geared single stage centrifugal compressor, with a cast
scroll exit, for mechanical vapor recompression service. (Courtesy Atlas Copco
Comptec, Inc.)

Figure 1-25: Schematic of an integral geared centrifugal compressor. (Courtesy Atlas

Copco Comptec, Inc.)

| 27 |
| Centrifugal Compressors |

Figure 1-26: Schematic of a typical rotor/bull gear configuration for a six stage
compressor. (Courtesy Atlas Copco Comptec, Inc.)

centrifugal compressor, with a cast scroll exit, for mechanical vapor

recompression service. In multiple stage integrally geared centrifugal
compressors, the power is usually transmitted through the bull gear to the
two pinion gears for a four stage compressor, as shown in Figure 1-26,
which is a schematic of such an arrangement. Multistaging with up to six
stages on one gearbox, as shown in Figure 1-27, is a uniquely cost effective
configuration. Placing an expander on one pinion to recover waste energy
is another unique way to have an efficient compressor. These compressors
can use multiple gases in the same compressor.

| 28 |
 | Introduction |

Figure 1-27: An integral geared centrifugal compressor, showing intercoolers below

the compressor base plate. (Courtesy Atlas Copco Comptec, Inc.)

Figure 1-28 shows a typical multistage, integrally geared compressor.

Note the three intercoolers under the base plate. This is to provide inter-
cooling between stages, thus reducing the power needed to compress
the gases.
The large industrial compressors have many configurations, as shown
in Figure 1-23. The most common type is a straight, flow-through
compressor with all compressor impellers facing the same direction, as
shown in Figure 1-28. This type of compressor has a high thrust load. The
back-to-back pressure compressor, as shown in Figure 1-29, is a double
flow inlet with many advantages. It reduces the inlet relative mach
number, and also reduces the thrust created due to the balanced rotor
thrust. If knockout drums are needed between stages, the back-to-back
compressor, as shown in Figure 1-30, has a great advantage, since it does
not contaminate the flow entering the stage after the knockout drum due
to leakage from the previous higher-pressure stage. This action does not
pollute the cleaner gas, as it would occur in straight flow-through
compressors. Back-to-back impellers allow for a balanced rotor thrust and
minimized overloading of the thrust bearings.

| 29 |
| Centrifugal Compressors |

Figure 1-28: Straight flow-through centrifugal compressor. (Courtesy Dresser Rand

Corporation)

Figure 1-29: Back-to-back compressor with double flow inlet. (Courtesy Dresser Rand
Corporation)

Side loaded compressors are also often used in process plants. These
types of compressors have side loadings, as seen in Figure 1-31. In this
compressor, the gases are brought in at three sections. This type of
compressor requires a complex surge system, and, during startup, there
are loading problems that must be taken into account to reduce the
torque requirements.

| 30 |
 | Introduction |

Rotation

2nd Section Discharge

1st Section Discharge

2nd Section Entry

1st Section Entry

Figure 1-30: Back-to-back centrifugal compressor. (Courtesy Dresser Rand

Corporation)

Figure 1-31: Side-loaded compressor. (Courtesy Enterprise LLP)

| 31 |
| Centrifugal Compressors |

I M P E L L E R FA B R I C AT I O N

Centrifugal compressor impellers are either shrouded or unshrouded.

Open, shrouded impellers that are mainly used in single-stage applications
are made by investment casting techniques, or by three-dimensional
milling, as seen in Figure 1-32. Such impellers are used, in most cases, for
the high-pressure ratio stages. The shrouded impeller (as shown in Figure
1-33) is commonly used in the process compressor because of its low-
pressure ratio stages. The low tip stresses in this application make it a
feasible design. Figure 1-34 shows several fabrication techniques. The
most common type of construction is seen in A and B where the blades are
fillet-welded to the hub and shroud. In B, the welds are full penetration.
The disadvantage in this type of construction is the obstruction of the
aerodynamic passage. In C, the blades are partially machined with the
covers and then butt-welded down the middle. For backward lean-angled
blades, this technique has not been very successful, and there has been
difficulty in achieving a smooth contour around the leading edge.
D illustrates a slot-welding technique and is used where blade-passage
height is too small (or the backward lean-angle too high) to permit
conventional fillet welding. In E, an electron-beam technique is still in its
infancy, and work needs to be done to perfect it. Its major disadvantage is
that electron-beam welds should preferably be stressed in tension but, for
the configuration of E, they are in shear. Configurations G through J use
rivets. Where the rivet heads protrude into the passage, aerodynamic
performance is reduced.
Materials for fabricating these impellers are usually low-alloy steels,
such as AISI 4140 or AISI 4340. For most application, AISI 4140 is
satisfactory. AISI 4340 is used for larger impellers requiring higher
strengths. For corrosive gases, AISI 410 stainless steel (about 12%
chromium) is used. Monel K-500 is employed in halogen gas atmospheres
and oxygen compressors because of its resistance to sparking. Titanium
impellers have been applied to chlorine service. Aluminum-alloy impellers
have been used in great numbers, especially at lower temperatures (below
300°F). With new developments in aluminum alloys, this range is
increasing. Aluminum and titanium are sometimes selected because of
their low density. This low density can cause a shift in the critical speed of
the rotor, which may be advantageous.

| 32 |
 | Introduction |

Figure 1-32: Open-faced impeller fabrication. (Courtesy MAN Turbomaschinen AG

Schweiz)

| 33 |
| Centrifugal Compressors |

Figure 1-33: Closed-faced impeller. (Courtesy MAN Turbomaschinen AG Schweiz)

Figure 1-34: Several fabrication techniques for centrifugal impellers.

| 34 |
 2
Aerodynamics of Compressors

This chapter examines the overall performance characteristics of

centrifugal compressors. This material will familiarize the reader with
the behavior of these machines, classified under the broad term
turbomachinery. Pumps and compressors are used to produce pressure;
turbines produce power. These machines have some common
characteristics. The main element is a rotor with blades or vanes, and the
path of the fluid in the rotor may be axial, radial, or a combination of both.
There are three methods of studying the elements of turbomachinery
operation. First, by examining forces and velocity diagrams, it is possible
to discover some general relationships between capacity, pressure, speed,
and power. Second, comprehensive experimentation can be undertaken to
study relationships between different variables. Third, without
considering the actual mechanics, one can use dimensional analysis to
derive a set of factors whose grouping can shed light on overall behavior.
The analysis presented in this chapter shows the typical performance
diagrams one can expect from turbomachines.
Aerothermodynamics is fundamental to the aerodynamics and
thermodynamics of all types of turbomachines. Turbomachines are
considered to be steady-flow machinery, operating with gases that have a
low viscosity, and are rotating at a high velocity. The equations and
processes described in this chapter govern all types of turbomachines
with emphasis on the centrifugal compressor.

| 35 |
| Centrifugal Compressors |

D I M E N S I O N A L A N A LY S I S

In attempting to predict the behavior of a proposed design in

engineering, several approaches are possible. One approach is to use
empirical equations based upon previous experience in similar
situations. This approach to a problem is quite satisfactory for situations
that do not differ greatly from those used to develop the empirical
information. The empirical approach must be used in some cases where
no other method is available. The shortcoming of this method is that it
may not be used with any degree of confidence in situations that are
entirely new or different.
In design situations where no previous experience in the proposed
area is available, the engineer may choose to perform laboratory
experiments to develop the needed information. In such cases the use of
dimensional analysis is most helpful. It permits the use of experimental
equipment of a scale, which differs from actual equipment and also
permits a reduction in the number of measurements required. This
method has been used in the field of turbomachinery to scale models to
predict the behavior of full-scale compressors or turbines. The method
has limitations in that not all desired conditions can be simulated in the
laboratory and not all physical phenomenon can be easily scaled. This is
especially true when it comes to the structural and mechanical integrity of
the scaled up system. Nevertheless, the method is powerful and very
commonly used, but must be used with great care.
Another method for predicting behavior of a proposed engineering
system is by the use of analogies. An analogy is a similarity in some
respects between things otherwise unlike. Some engineering systems
behave in similar ways to an entirely different type of system. For
example, the flow of electricity and the flow of heat in a solid conductor
are mathematically similar. The engineer may study the behavior of a
certain selected electrical system and predict the behavior of a similar
thermal system by analogy. This method is particularly useful since
electrical circuits are easily assembled and electrical measurements may
be easily made.
The analytical approach often yields valuable results. The physical
laws governing the engineering system may be applied and predictions
made from these laws. The reliability of this method is limited only by the
number of simplifying assumptions made and by the mathematical
techniques used to obtain desired information. This method is particularly
useful in predicting behavior of physical systems where no experience is

| 36 |
 | Aerothermodynamics of Compressors |

available, and where the analogies cannot be applied. In fluid mechanics

and heat transfer, the physical laws that are important in predicting
behavior may be classified as follows:
• Conservation of mass

• Conservation of momentum (Navier–Stokes Equation)

• Conservation of energy (First Law of Thermodynamics)

• Second law of thermodynamics

• Phenomenological equations

A partial list of some phenomenological laws includes:

• Equation of state (for gases)

• Newton’s viscosity law

• Hooke’s law (for elastic solids)

• Fourier’s heat conduction law

• Stefan-Boltzmann’s radiation law

• Newton’s law of cooling

• Fick’s law of diffusion

• Ohm’s law (for electrical conductors)

A solution to a problem may be obtained by formulating the above
laws as they apply to control volumes or systems and deriving suitable
equations. In some cases these laws are expressed in terms of differential
equations, valid at each point in the substance under study. By appropriate
simplification of the equations and by application of suitable boundary
and initial conditions, the equations may be solved for the desired
information. The solution in some cases may be approximate in nature; for
example, certain differential equations yield only to numerical solutions.
Turbomachines can be compared with each other by dimensional
analysis. This analysis produces various types of geometrically similar
parameters. Dimensional analysis is a procedure where variables
representing a physical situation are reduced into dimensionless groups.

| 37 |
| Centrifugal Compressors |

These dimensionless groups can then be used to compare performance of

various types of machines with each other. Dimensional analysis as used
in turbomachines can be employed to: (1) compare data from various
types of machines—it is a useful technique in the development of blade
passages and blade profiles, (2) select various types of units based on
maximum efficiency and pressure head required, and (3) predict a
prototype’s performance from tests conducted on a smaller scale model or
at lower speeds.
Dimensional analysis leads to various dimensionless parameters,
which are based on the dimension’s Force (F), Mass (M), Length (L),
Temperature (T), time (t) and Heat (Q). Based on these elements, one can
obtain various independent parameters such as density (ρ), viscosity (µ),
speed (N), diameter (D), and velocity (V), as shown in Table 2-1.
The independent parameters lead to forming various dimensionless
groups, which are used in the fluid mechanics of turbomachines.
The specific speed compares the head and flow rate in geometrically
similar machines at various speeds.

N Q (2-1)
Ns = 3
H 4

where H is the adiabiatic head, Q is the volume rate, and N the speed.
The specific diameter compares head and flow rates in geometrically
similar machines at various diameters.

1
DH 4 (2-2)
Ds =
Q
The flow coefficient is the capacity of the flow rate expressed in
dimensionless form.

Q (2-3)
φ=
ND 3
Many compressor applications, especially centrifugal compressors,
are also given by the following relationship:

φ = Vm (2-4)
U2

where Vm is the meridional value and U2 is the tip speed of the

impeller.

| 38 |
 | Aerothermodynamics of Compressors |

BRITISH METRIC
DIMENSIONAL ENGINEERING ENGINEERING
SYSTEM FMLTtQ* UNITS UNITS
Mass (m) M lbm kg
Force (f) F lbf newton
Length (L) L ft m
Time (t) t sec sec
Temperature (T) T °R °K
Work (w) FL lbf-ft dyne-cm
Heat (q) Q Btu kJ
Volume L3 ft3 m3
Velocity (v) Lt -1 ft/sec m/sec
Acceleration (a) Lt -2 ft/sec2 cm/sec2
Frequency (N) t -1 1/sec 1/sec
Area (a) t2 ft2 cm2
Coefficient of thermal 1 1/°R 1/°K
expansion (β) T
M
Density (ρ) lbm /ft3 kg/m3
T
Dimensional ML lbm /lfbfsec2 m/sec2
constant (gc) T
Specific heat at
constant pressure (cp) _Q_ Btu/lbm°R kJ/kg°K
at constant MT
volume (cv)
Heat transfer _Q_ Btu/sec ft2°R kJ/sec m2°K
coefficient (h) tL2T
overall (U)
FL
Work rate (W) t ft lbf /sec kJ/sec
FL
Heat flow rate (q) Btu/sec kJ/sec
t
L2
Kinematic ft2/sec cm2/sec
t
viscosity (v)
M
Mass flow rate (m) lb/sec kg/sec
t
F
Pressure (p) lbf /ft2 bar
t
Angular velocity (ω) t -1 rad/sec rad/sec
Volume flow rate L3t -1 ft 3/sec m3/sec
Q
Thermal conductivity (k) ft/lbf /ft-sec-°R dyne-cm/cm-sec-°K
t
Thermal Diffusivity L t -1
2 ft 2/sec m2/sec
M
Viscosity, absolute (µ) lbm /sec-ft kg/sec-m
Lt
TABLE 2-1: Dimensions of Major Variables.

| 39 |
| Centrifugal Compressors |

The pressure coefficient is the pressure or pressure rise expressed in

dimensionless form

ϕ= H (2-5)
N2D2

For many applications, the pressure coefficient can be written as:

P2 - P1
ϕ= (2-6)
ρU 2
2
The temperature coefficient is given as
T2 - T1
θ=
U2 (2-7)
2 gc p
The previous equations are some of the major dimensionless
parameters. For the flow to remain dynamically similar, all the parameters
must remain constant; however, constancy is not possible in a practical
sense, so one much make choices.
Reducing the Momentum Equation (Navier-Stokes) to non-dimen-
sional form obtained the Reynolds Number and the Froude Number.
Reducing the Energy Equation of a viscous compressible flow to a non-
dimensional form introduces the non-dimensional parameters such as
Mach Number, Reynolds Number, and the Prandtl Number.
The significance of the Reynolds number and the Froude Number can
be seen from the requirements of dynamic similarity of an incompressible
viscous flow.
The Reynolds number is the ratio of the inertia forces to the viscous
forces.

rVD (2-8)
Re =
ν

Where ρ is the density of the gas, V the velocity, D the diameter of the
impeller, and v the viscosity of the gas. The significance of the Reynolds
number can be seen in the requirement of similarity of flows of an
incompressible viscous fluid, where not only the bodies must be
geometrically similar but also the Reynolds number in the two flow
patterns must be equal in magnitude. This is a major requirement in the
testing of Compressors.

| 40 |
 | Aerothermodynamics of Compressors |

The Froude Number is a very useful parameter in open channel flow

when the flow is mainly due to gravity; it is the ratio of the dynamic force
to the gravitational force:
2
Fr = V (2-9)
gL
where g is the gravitational force and L is the length
In the case of flows in similar bodies in various compressible fluids,
there are three additional similarity parameters: Mach Number, ratio of
specific heats, and the Prandtl Number.
The Mach Number is the ratio of velocity to the acoustic speed (a) of
a gas at a given temperature
M = V/a (2-10)
The ratio of the specific heats is
cp
γ =c (2-11)
v

The Prandtl Number is a ratio of the momentum diffusivity or

kinematic viscosity to the mass thermal diffusivity.

Kinematic viscosity µ / ρp µ cp
Pr = = = (2-12)
Thermal diffusivity γ / ρc p γ

For a complete similarity of flows of viscous compressible fluids, the

flows must have the same Reynolds Number, Mach Number, Froude
Number, Prandtl Number, and the ratio of specific heats.
Flow coefficients and pressure coefficients can be used to determine
various off-design characteristics. The Reynolds number affects the flow
calculations for skin friction and velocity distribution.
When using dimensional analysis in computing or predicting
performance-based tests performed on smaller-scale units, it is not
physically possible to keep all parameters constant. The variations of
the final results depend on the scale-up factor and the difference in the
fluid medium. It is important in any type of dimensionless study to
understand the limit of the parameters and that the geometrical scale-
up of similar parameters must remain constant. Many scale-ups have
developed major problems because stress, vibration, and other dynamic
factors were not considered.

| 41 |
| Centrifugal Compressors |

NOZZLES AND DIFFUSERS

It is in the nozzle that a change in enthalpy is converted into a change

in kinetic energy, and in the diffuser, a change in kinetic energy is con-
verted into a pressure head. In the nozzle the velocity is increased and the
static pressure and temperature are reduced, while in the diffuser the
velocity is decreased and the static pressure and temperature are
increased. There are no changes in total pressure and temperature in the
nozzle or diffuser. The two equations of some importance in steady state
flow-through nozzles are the energy equation and the continuity equation
and these are shown below.
For a stationary nozzle
The Energy Equation:
V12 V2 (2-13)
h1 + = h2 + 2
2g c J 2g c J
and
The Continuity Equation:
.
m = A1 V1 ρ1 = A2 V2 ρ2 (2-14)

where
A = Area
V = Velocity
ρ = Density
J = Mechanical equivalent of heat
gc= Gravitational constant
h = Enthalpy
.
m = Mass flow

the flow per unit area can be written as follows:

.
m γ P M
= γ +1 (2-15)
A R T γ - 1 2 2(γ - 1)
(1+ M )
2
where the Mach Number (M ) is defined as:
V (2-16)
M =
a
It is important to note that the Mach Number is based on Static
Temperature.

| 42 |
 | Aerothermodynamics of Compressors |

The acoustic velocity (a) in a gas is defined by the following

relationship:

∂P
a2 ≡ ) s= c (2-17)
∂ρ
For an adiabatic process (s = entropy = constant), the acoustic speed
can be written as follows:

γ g c RTs (2-18)
a=
MW
where Ts = static Temperature
cp
For an isentropic adiabatic process; γ = c v
where cp and cv are the specific heats of the gas at constant pressure and
volume respectively and can be written as:
c p - cv = R (2-19)

where
γR and
cp = cv = R (2-20)
γ -1 γ -1

It is important to note that the pressure measured can be either total

or static, however, only total temperature can be measured. The relation-
ship between total and static conditions for pressure and temperature are
as follows:
2
To = Ts + V (2-21)
2c p
where Ts = static temperature, and V= gas stream velocity
and
2
Po = Ps + ρ V (2-22)
2 gc

Equations 2-17, and 2-18 can be written in terms of the Mach Number
as follows:
To γ-1 2 (2-23)
= (1 + M )
Ts 2

and
γ
Po  γ - 1 2  γ - 1 (2-24)
= 1+ M 
Ps  2 

| 43 |
| Centrifugal Compressors |

The point in the nozzle where the minimum area occurs and the Mach
Number = 1 is known as the throat. This reduces the above relationships
as follows:
.
m γ P 1
= γ +1 (2-25)
A R T γ - 1 2(γ - 1)
(1 + )
2

T* = To ( γ 2+1 )
(2-26)
γ
P* = Po ( γ 2+1 ) γ - 1

where γ = 1.329 for steam

γ = 1.12 for wet steam
γ = 1.3 for superheated steam (2-27)
γ = 1.4 for air at 60°F
To reach the Mach number above, M=1.0, a convergent-divergent
nozzle would have to be used. The speed of sound (acoustic velocity)
results from three-dimensional effects, and accurate results occur from
the one-dimensional effect of small disturbances. Large disturbances such
as shock waves propagate at a much higher velocity. These small
disturbances, which are pressure waves, propagate in a gaseous medium,
in this case superheated steam.
Figure 2-1 shows the aero-thermal properties of the flow in a
convergent-divergent nozzle. The flow leaving the nozzle is supersonic. A
convergent-divergent nozzle is designed to handle an expansion between
certain expansion states. If the backpressure of the discharge region is
less than the design pressure at the discharge boundary, an under-
expansion occurs. A free expansion occurs after the steam leaves the
nozzle, and since the steam is supersonic, an expansion wave will occur.
If the backpressure of the discharge region is higher than the design
pressure at the discharge boundary, an over-expansion occurs. A standing
shock wave occurs in the divergent area of the nozzle. Across this shock
there is a sharp irreversible increase in pressure, an increase in entropy,
and a decrease in velocity.
The convergent-divergent nozzle may have any cross sectional shape
to fit the application. The elements of the surface of the divergent nozzle
are generally straight for ease of manufacture of nozzles used in steam
turbines. The nozzle is proportioned after the nozzle throat area is deter-
mined. The throat area is the smallest area in the nozzle and is where the

| 44 |
 | Aerothermodynamics of Compressors |

flow reaches a Mach Number equal to one. The flare of the sides of the
divergent section should be within good fluid dynamic limits, so that no
separation of the flow occurs, which is an inclusive angle between 12°-15°.

Figure 2-1: An ideal convergent divergent nozzle.

TURBOMACHINERY

The turbocompressors discussed in this section transfer energy by

dynamic means from a rotating member to the continuously flowing fluid.
The four basic governing relationships in any turbomachine are the
following equations:
• Equation of State

• Energy Equation

• Continuity Equation

• Momentum Equation

| 45 |
| Centrifugal Compressors |

In this chapter these four equations are examined and relationships

obtained, which would be applicable to the thermodynamic and fluid
mechanic relationships in centrifugal compressors:

E Q U AT I O N O F S TAT E

P / ρ/ζγ = Constant (2-28)

where
P = pressure
ρ = Density
cp
γ = for an isentropic adiabatic process where __
cp are the specific heats
of the gas at constant pressure and volume respectively and can be written
as:
cp - cv = R (2-29)

where
γR cv = R (2-30)
cp = and γ -1
γ -1

IDEAL GAS

Ideal gas obeys the equation of state PV = MRT or P/ρ = MRT, where
P denotes the pressures, V the volume, ρ the density, M the mass, T the
temperature of the gas, and R the gas constant per unit of mass
independent of pressure and temperature. In most cases, the ideal gas
laws are sufficient to describe the flow within 5% of actual conditions.
When the perfect gas compressibility factor Z can be introduced:

PV (2-31)
Z (P, T ) =
RT

Figure 2-2 shows the relationship between the compressibility factor

and pressure and temperature, couched in terms of reduced pressure and
temperature:
P T (2-32)
Pr = , Tr =
Pc Tc

Pc and Tc are the pressure and temperature of the gas at the critical
point.

| 46 |
 | Aerothermodynamics of Compressors |

Figure 2-2: Compressibility factor chart for a simple fluid.

Static pressure is the pressure of the moving fluid. The static pressure
of a gas is the same in all directions and is a scalar point function. It can
be measured by drilling a hole in the pipe and keeping a probe flush with
the pipe wall.
Total pressure is the pressure of the gas brought to rest in a reversible
adiabatic manner. It can be measured by a pitot tube placed in the flow
stream. The gas is brought to rest at the probe tip. The relationship
between total and static pressure is given in the following relationship:
ρV 2 (2-33)
Pt = Ps +
2 gc
Where ρV 2/2gc is the dynamic pressure head that denotes the velocity
of the moving gas.

| 47 |
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
Page 84: Under VAR. 13: Changed "041" to "401".

Page 103: Changed "discriptions" to "descriptions".

(replace the discriptions of these varieties)
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DIE VARIETIES
OF THE NESBITT SERIES OF UNITED STATES ENVELOPES ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in
these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it
in the United States without permission and without paying
copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of
Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything
for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is
very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as
creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research.
Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given
away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with
eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject
to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
 PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free

distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or
any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree
to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be
bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund
from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in
paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be

used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people
who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a
few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic
works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.
See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with
Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law
in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do
not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing,
performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the
work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of
course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™
mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely
sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated
with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this
agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached
full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge
with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the
United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the
terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying,
performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this
work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes
no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in
any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™
work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears,
or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is
accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
 This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived

from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a
notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright
holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the
United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must
comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted

with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted
with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning
of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a
part of this work or any other work associated with Project
Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this

electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1
with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you
provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work
in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in
the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or
expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or
a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original
“Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must
include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in
paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive
from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
 about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt
that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project
Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or
destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
Project Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe
and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating
the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may
be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to,
incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a
copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or
damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer
codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for

the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3,
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the
Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim
all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR
NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR
BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH
1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK
OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL
NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT,
CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF
YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving
it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or
entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide
a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation,

the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation,
anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with
the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the
following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or
any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission

of Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.
It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and
donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a
secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help,
see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can
be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the
widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many
small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to
maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and
keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in
locations where we have not received written confirmation of
compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of
compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where

we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no
prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in
such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About

Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how
to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
Welcome to our website – the perfect destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. We believe that every book holds a new world,
offering opportunities for learning, discovery, and personal growth.
That’s why we are dedicated to bringing you a diverse collection of
books, ranging from classic literature and specialized publications to
self-development guides and children's books.

More than just a book-buying platform, we strive to be a bridge

connecting you with timeless cultural and intellectual values. With an
elegant, user-friendly interface and a smart search system, you can
quickly find the books that best suit your interests. Additionally,
our special promotions and home delivery services help you save time
and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Join us on a journey of knowledge exploration, passion nurturing, and

personal growth every day!

ebookbell.com