NEBOSH International General Certificate in Occupational Health and safety

Element 10
Fire
Element 10: Table of Contents

10.0 Learning outcomes 3

10.1 Introduction 4

UK figures...................................................................................................................................6

USA figures.................................................................................................................................7

10.2 Fire principles 8

Fire initiation................................................................................................................................8

Fire classification.......................................................................................................................11

Heat transmission and fire spread............................................................................................13

10.3 Preventing fire and fire spread 15

Fire prevention..........................................................................................................................16

Prevention of fire spread...........................................................................................................20

Properties of common building materials..................................................................................23

Electrical equipment in flammable atmospheres.......................................................................25

10.4 Fire alarms and fire-fighting 26

Common fire detection and alarm systems...............................................................................26

Portable Fire-fighting Equipment (PFE)....................................................................................31

Fire extinguishing media...........................................................................................................34

Fire suppression systems.........................................................................................................37

Access for fire and rescue services and vehicles.....................................................................39

10.5 Fire evacuation 40

Means of escape.......................................................................................................................40

Emergency evacuation procedures...........................................................................................46

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Element 10: Fire
10.0 Learning outcomes

The learner should be able to:

z Do a general risk assessment in their own workplace – profiling and prioritising risks,
inspecting the workplace, recognising a range of common hazards, evaluating risks (taking
account of current controls), recommending further control measures, planning actions.
5-11 Produce a risk assessment of a workplace which considers a wide range of
identified hazards (drawn from elements 5 - 11) and meets best practice standards
('suitable and sufficient').

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Element 10: Fire
10.1 Introduction

Costs due to losses from fire number in the tens of billions globally, and have been roughly
estimated as approximately 1 per cent of global GDP per annum.

For Europe as a whole, the annual toll of fire deaths is measured in many thousands, with
those suffering fire injuries numbered at many times more. Ways of protecting inhabitants
from these dangers therefore merit serious attention.

The World Fire Statistics Centre (WFSC) published research in 2011 indicating the direct
costs of fire losses across WFSC member countries as shown in Table 10.1.

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Element 10: Fire
 Direct losses
Country / Currency Cost as percentage of GDP 2006-2008
2006 2007 2008

Singapore S$ 125 110 110 0.05

Slovenia SIT 0.07 [2002-2004)

Australia * AU$ 860 885 990 0.08

Czech Republic Kc 2 200 2 450 3 700 0.08

Spain** € 910 0.08 [2008)

Poland zl 750 920 1 450 0.09

New Zealand NZ$ 165 180 0.11 [2005-2007)

United States US$ 13 000 16 500 17 500 0.11

Japan ¥ 625 600 605 0.12

Germany € 3 300 2 950 2 850 0.13

United Kingdom £ 1 650 1 700 1 900 0.13

Netherlands € 745 900 1 050 0.16

Finland € 260 315 305 0.17

Italy € 2 200 2 500 3 150 0.17

Sweden kr 4 300 5 400 5 950 0.17

Denmark kr 3 000 4 050 0.20 [2005-2007)

France € 3 300 3 400 4 550 0.20

Norway kr 0.22 [2003-2005)

* Australian data is calculated from figures provided in the Report on Government Services
2011 and may be influenced by specific methodological features of that publication.

** Spanish figures rely upon internal WFSC estimates derived from Spanish insurance data and
have not had adjustments applied. Consequently, this data should be regarded with caution.

Table 10.1: Adjusted direct losses (in millions, except for Japan-billions)

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Element 10: Fire
UK figures

Costs
In 2004, the total cost of fires in England and Wales was estimated at £7.03 bn, equivalent
to approximately 0.78% of the gross value added of the economy.

The average cost of a fire in a commercial building was estimated at £43 800, of which the
cost of fire damage to property was £27 700.

The impacts of fire are many and varied UK government reports typically break the total
costs down into three categories:

a. costs in anticipation: the costs of protection and prevention measures undertaken to

prevent or mitigate the damage caused by fire
b. costs as a consequence: the costs incurred as a result of fire, due to exposure of
property, individuals or the environment to fire and its products, the cost is borne by a
range of victims including individuals, private firms and society
c. costs in response: the costs of extinguishing and clearing up after fire, society bears
the majority of these costs.

Reported statistics for 2017 / 18 in Great Britain show:

z 167 150 fires attended (3% up on 2016 / 17)

z 334 fire-related deaths (27% up on 2016 / 17)
z 7 290 non-fatal casualties (3% up on 2016 / 17)
z There were 15 900 fires recorded in buildings other than dwellings compared to 15 600
in 2016 / 17.

Over the last 10 years the figures for all types of fires and fire injuries have been falling.

The tragic incident at Grenfell Tower in June 2017 has resulted in the statistical increases
shown above.

The Association of British Insurers (ABI) has reported an increasing trend for the insured
costs of fire with commercial fires costing £865 million plus an additional £200 million in
business interruption insurance costs in 2008.

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Element 10: Fire
USA figures

Costs
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has estimated the total costs of fire for
2014 at $328.5 billion, or roughly 1.9% of U.S. gross domestic product.

The total cost of fire in the United States, as it is defined, is a combination of the losses
caused by fire and the money spent on fire prevention, protection and mitigation to prevent
worse losses, by preventing them, containing them, detecting them quickly, and suppressing
them effectively. The 2014 figures are shown in Table 10.2.

Expenditure

Direct – Active fire protection (fire departments costs) $90.1

Indirect – Passive fire protection (building, maintenance, planning, $159.4

insurance etc)

Loss

Direct – Human loss (statistical deaths & injuries) $40.4

Direct – Property loss $13.2

Indirect $1.9

Total $328.5

Table 10.2: Total costs (in billions) of fire – USA, 2014.

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Element 10: Fire
10.2 Fire principles

Fire initiation

Fire comes from a chemical reaction between oxygen (usually from the air) and a fuel (e.g.
wood or petrol).

For the reaction (combustion) to occur the fuel must be heated to its ignition temperature.

Once the combustion process is underway it is self-perpetuating. The heat of the flame itself
keeps the fuel at the ignition temperature, so it continues to burn as long as there is fuel and
oxygen around it.

For a fire to start the three components of fuel, oxygen, and heat (ignition source) must
be present. To put out a fire one of the three components must be removed. This is often
presented as a ‘fire triangle’.
E N

HE
YG

AT
OX

FUEL
Figure 10.1: Fire triangle

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Element 10: Fire
Ignition sources
Potential ignition sources are any possible sources of heat which could get hot enough to
ignite material found in the workplace. These sources could include:

z smokers’ materials
z naked flames, e.g. gas or liquid-fuelled open-flame equipment
z electrical, gas or oil-fired room heaters
z hot processes / hot work, e.g. welding by contractors
z heat sources, such as microwaves or radio frequencies
z frictional generated heat from mechanical equipment
z static charge from mechanical equipment, e.g. conveyor belts
z poor electrical installations, e.g. overloads, heating from bunched cables, damaged cable
z light fittings and lighting equipment too close to stored products
z obstruction of equipment ventilation causing overheating
z spontaneous ignition and self-heating, e.g. oil soaked rags or paint scrapings
z malicious fire starting (arson).

Fuel sources
Anything that burns is fuel for a fire. The risk assessment should identify anything that will
burn reasonably easily and could provide fuel for a fire or cause it to spread to another fuel
source. Some of the most common fuels found in workplaces are:

z flammable liquids and solvents or liquid based products, such as petrol, white spirit,
cooking oils, paints, varnishes, thinners and adhesives
z flammable gases such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), flammable refrigerants and
flammable gas propelled aerosols
z stored goods including foodstuffs, plastics and rubber, especially high piled or
racked storage
z paper products, such as stationery, advertising material and decorations
z packaging materials
z plastic and timber storage aids such as pallets
z textiles and soft furnishings
z waste products, particularly finely divided items such as shredded paper and wood
shavings, off-cuts, dust and litter.

Materials used to line walls and ceilings, e.g. polystyrene or carpet tiles, and the fixtures and
fittings should also be considered.

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Element 10: Fire
Oxygen sources
The main source of oxygen for a fire is in atmospheric air. This is provided in the workplace
by natural airflow through doors, windows and other openings or mechanical air conditioning
systems and air handling systems, or a combination of both.

Additional sources of oxygen include:

z oxidising materials (e.g. chemicals such as peroxides or fireworks / pyrotechnics) which

can provide a fire with additional oxygen and so help it burn
z oxygen supplies from cylinder storage and piped systems, e.g. oxygen used in welding
processes or for medical use.

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Element 10: Fire
Fire classification

Fires may be classified in a number of different ways e.g. by ignition source or fuel. The most
widely used system classifies fires according to the material undergoing combustion. This
system does not define a particular class of fire involving an electrical risk. Classes A, B, C,
D, F and electrical fires are explained in Table 10.3.

Pictogram Classification and examples

Class A: fires involving solid materials, usually organic in nature, typically

A results in the formation of glowing embers.

All solid materials, usually organic (contains compounds of carbon) e.g.

wood, textiles, paper, curtains furniture and plastics.

B Class B: fires involving liquids or liquefiable solids, e.g. petrol, oil, paint and
some waxes and plastics, (Not cooking fats or oils – see Class F). May be
sub-classified by whether or not they mix with water.

Class C: fires involving gases, e.g. natural mains gas, liquefied petroleum
C
gases (LPG, e.g. butane or propane) and medical or industrial gases.

Class D: fires involving metals. Combustible metals or metal powders such

D
as magnesium, potassium and sodium.

Class F: fires involving cooking media (vegetable or animal oils and fats)
F
in cooking appliances. The high temperature (>360°C) means that class B
extinguishants are not suitable.

Electrical Fires (Unofficial Class E): “Electrical fire” is not an official fire
class. Electricity is an ignition source that will feed the fire until removed.
Following isolation of the electrical supply the fire can b e treated (generally)
as Class A. If isolation o the electrical supply is not certain a non- conducting
extinguishant should be used.

Table 10.3: Fire classification

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 Green Class A extinguishers put out fires in ordinary
A combustible materials such as cloth, wood, rubber,
Ordinary paper, and many plastics.
Combustables

Red Class B extinguishers are used on fires involving

B flammable liquids, such as grease, gasoline, oil, and
Flammable oil-based paints.
Liquids

Blue Class C extinguishers are suitable for use on fires

C involving appliances, tools, or other equipment that
Electrical is electrically energized or plugged in.
Equipment

Yellow Class D extinguishers are designed for use on

D flammable metals and are often specific for the type
Combustible of metal in question. These are typically found only
Metals
in factories working with these metals.

White Class K fire extinguishers are intended for use on

K fires that involve vegetable oils, animal oils, or fats in
Combustible cooking appliances.
Cooking

Table 10.4: NFPA Fire Classifications - USA

The international pictograms for fire classifications as per ISO 7165:2009 ‘Fire-fighting
– Portable fire extinguishers – Performance and construction’ are shown in Figure 10.2.

A B C

D F

Figure 10.2: ISO fire classification pictograms

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Element 10: Fire
Heat transmission and fire spread

As mentioned earlier, fire is self-propagating through direct flame contact (i.e. direct burning).
Thermal energy is also transmitted by conduction, convection and radiation.

Conduction

Convection

Radiation

Figure 10.3: Conduction, convection and radiation

Conduction may occur in solids, liquids or gases, although it is most clearly present in solids.
In conduction, heat energy is passed between molecules with heat flowing away from the
source of heat towards low temperature regions.

The ability to conduct heat (thermal conductivity) varies between materials. Most metals are
classed as good conductors though the ability to conduct heat varies widely between metals.

In a building fire heat energy can be conducted along unprotected structural steelwork and
plumbing pipe work, enabling fire spread from compartment to compartment.

Convection occurs only in liquids and gases and involves the movement of heated liquid or
gas molecules from the source of heat to cooler areas allowing cooler molecules to replace
them before being heated and establishing a circulation of convection currents.

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Element 10: Fire
Convection causes the updraft in chimneys. In a building fire convection currents convey hot
gases upwards through stairwells and open lift shafts spreading the fire to the upper levels.
As the hot gases escape from the upper levels, cool air enters at low level to replace them.
This helps to maintain the burning.

Heat may also be transmitted by radiation which does not require an intervening medium.
Heat is radiated as infra-red radiation and behaves in the same way as light (visible radiation)
in that it travels in straight lines, will cast shadows, and will be transmitted through some
materials and not others.

Fire may spread between buildings by radiation, unless separation distances are adequate.

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Element 10: Fire
10.3 Preventing fire and fire spread

The traditional approach to fire safety management / management of fire precautions

involves a two tiered approach, as shown in Figure 10.4. Fire prevention strategies reduce
the likelihood of a fire and fire protection strategies protect the people, the building and other
assets should a fire occur.

Fire precautions

Fire prevention Fire protection

Control of

Active Passive
Ignition Fuel Oxygen
sources sources sources

Fire detection Fire-fighting Stuctural fire Means of

and alarm equipment protection escape

Figure 10.4: Fire precautions

This section discusses fire prevention and structural fire protection measures to prevent fire
spread. Fire alarms and fire-fighting equipment are discussed in Section 10.4, and means of
escape and evacuation strategies are addressed in Section 10.5.

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Element 10: Fire
Fire prevention

Fire prevention strategies are based on keeping the sides of the fire triangle apart, by
controlling ignition sources, fuel sources, and oxygen sources.

Control of ignition sources

Examples of expected precautions are shown in Table 10.5.

Ignition source Precautions

Smoking materials • Smoking not permitted in workplace

• Safe designated smoking areas

Plant and • Suitable equipment (for job and environment)

equipment • Properly maintained
• Suitably located (away from combustible materials)
• Safe systems for refuelling

Hot processes / hot • Correct equipment

work • Properly maintained
• Competent workers
• Permit to work

Electrical • Installation designed, inspected and maintained by competent

installations and person to BS7671 with no unauthorised modifications
electrical equipment • Inspection and testing of portable appliances

Malicious fire • Prevention of unauthorised access

starting (arson) • Secure storage of combustible and flammable materials
• Security patrols, security lighting, CCTV

Table 10.5: Control of ignition sources

Control of fuel sources

Most workplaces have plenty of potential fuel sources available. Furniture, fixtures and
fittings, packaging materials, waste, stationery supplies, raw materials and product may all
be combustible with sufficient ignition energy.

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Element 10: Fire
Control of fuel sources includes:

z specifying flame retardant / non-combustible furniture and furnishings

z effective stock control and efficient waste disposal to ensure quantities on site are kept
as low as possible
z good housekeeping to ensure that materials are stored appropriately in suitable locations
(away from ignition sources), and that dust is not allowed to accumulate.

Storage of flammable and highly flammable liquids in work rooms and other locations
Flammable and highly flammable liquids are categorised under the EU regulation on
Classification, Labelling and Packaging of substances and mixtures (CLP) as shown in
Table 10.6.

Hazard class and

CLP pictogram and signal word Hazard statement Criteria
category

Flammable liquids

Danger Flammable liquid H224: Extremely Flashpoint <23oC

Category 1 flammable liquid and initial boiling
and vapour point ≤35oC

Flammable liquid H225: Highly Flashpoint <23oC

Category 2 flammable liquid and initial boiling
and vapour point ≤35oC

Warning Flammable liquid H226: Flammable Flashpoint ≥23oC

Category 3 liquid and vapour and ≤60oC

Note:
≤ means less than or equal to ≥ means greater than or equal to

Flashpoint the lowest temperature at which a substance vaporises sufficiently to form an

ignitable mixture in air. Flashes when an ignition source is introduced but stops burning
when the ignition source is removed.

Table 10.6 CLP flammable liquid categories

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The basic principles for safe working with flammable liquids can be summarised with the
acronym VICES (Table 10.7).

Ventilation Prevents volatile vapours forming a flammable or explosive mix with air.

Ignition Ignition sources should be removed or controlled so that should a

flammable mix of vapour and air occur it cannot be ignited.

Containment Suitable storage of flammable liquids to contain spills.

Exchange Swapping flammable materials for less flammable materials.

Separation Storage of flammables away from other stored materials and processes.

Table 10.7 VICES

Examples of HFLs include petrol, solvents, thinners and adhesives, which give off vapours
which are highly flammable, toxic, and generally heavier than air.

Only the minimum amount of flammable liquid needed to carry out work should be stored
in workrooms.

Plastic containers of highly flammable liquids will melt in a fire spilling their contents and
fuelling rapid fire growth.

The risk is reduced by:

z keeping quantities to a minimum

z proper arrangements for storage
z suitable arrangements for the disposal of solvent contaminated materials.

No more than 50 litres of highly flammable liquids should be stored in a workroom and then
only in a suitably located, fire-resisting cabinet or bin that will contain any leaks.

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Element 10: Fire
30 minute fire Non-combustible
resistant exterior high melting
point hinges

Bonded / fire-stopped
junction

Maximum
50 litres total

Figure 10.5: HFL storage cabinet

Quantities greater than 50 litres should be stored in a dedicated store and containers which
are nominally empty or are not currently needed should be returned to that store.

There should be no potential ignition sources in areas where flammable liquids are used or
stored and flammable concentrations of vapours may be present.

Any electrical equipment used in these areas, including fire alarm and emergency lighting
systems, needs to be suitable for use in flammable atmospheres.

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Element 10: Fire
Prevention of fire spread

Compartmentation
Compartmentation is the division of a building into fire-resisting compartments (a fire
compartment may comprise one or more rooms and may encompass more than one storey).

A fire-resisting compartment is separated from adjacent areas by fire-resisting elements of

construction and is designed to contain a fire for a predetermined duration to limit the spread
of fire and smoke.

The compartment provides time for occupants to escape or take refuge by containing a
fire until it can be extinguished, and limits the extent of fire damage, aiding recovery and
business continuity.

A fire compartment is only as good as its weakest link. To be effective, the enclosing
boundaries (i.e. walls floors and ceilings) must be able to resist the spread of fire. This
requires that:

z all enclosing surfaces have an appropriate level of fire resistance (30 minute steps)
z all junctions of constructional elements are effectively sealed
z all holes are fire stopped
z ducting that passes through a compartment boundary must be fire resisting and / or
provided with fire dampers
z openings are protected by self-closing fire doors, fire-resisting shutters or curtains
z structural stability must be maintained for the required period.

Fire-resisting doors
Fire-resisting doors are necessary in any doorway located in a fire-resisting compartment.
An effective fire-resisting door will hold back fire and smoke, preventing escape routes
becoming unusable, and preventing the fire spreading from one area to another.

All fire-resisting doors are rated by their performance when tested to an appropriate British
or European standard. The level of protection provided by the door is measured, primarily
by determining the time taken for a fire to breach the integrity of the door assembly, together
with its resistance to the passage of hot gases and flame.

Fire resistant doors are available providing 20, 30, 60 or 120 minutes of protection.

Timber doors typically require a gap of 2-4 mm between the door leaf and the frame to

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Element 10: Fire
ensure that the door closes flush into its frame when smoke seals are fitted. For fire-resisting
purposes the gap is normally protected by installing an intumescent seal, in either the door
or, preferably, the frame.

The intumescent seal expands in the early stages of a fire and enhances the protection
given by the door.

Glazing units, hinges and door furniture must provide the same level of protection as the
door. The complete door and frame should be tested as a set.

Fire-resisting doors should be fitted with an appropriately controlled self-closing device that
will effectively close the door from any angle.

On escape routes that are used regularly by significant numbers of people, or by people with
impaired mobility an automatic door hold-open / release device may be more appropriate
than self-closer. These use an electromagnetic device to hold open self-closing fire doors
during normal use and releasing the door in the event of a fire alarm allowing the self-closing
mechanism to close the door.

Frame – should ideally be to the same

standard as the door, purchased together
as a door set

Door closer

Hinges – should be tested as part of the

door set

Vision panel – fire resistant glazing

Door handles and locks – should be tested

as part of the door set

Inturnescent strip and cold smoke

seal to resist the passage of fire

Figure 10.6: Fire resistant door

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Element 10: Fire
Protection of whatever the type of building, typical situations that may assist the spread of
fire and smoke include:

z Vertical shafts – examples: lifts, open stairways, dumb-waiters or holes for moving
stock around.
z False ceilings, especially if they are not fire-stopped above walls.
z Voids behind wall panelling.
z Large roof cavities, particularly in cold stores.
z Unsealed holes in walls and ceilings where pipe work, cables or other services have
been installed.
z Doors, particularly to stairways, which are ill-fitting or routinely left open.

Fire stopping
The term ‘fire-stopping’ relates to products used for sealing apertures (e.g. where services
pass through compartment walls) and rectifying imperfections of fit or design tolerance
between the fire-resisting fixed elements of a building to restrict the passage of fire and
smoke. The fire-stopping products must take up any imperfections of fit at all times and have
the same fire rating as the fixed elements of which they form a part and / or interface. This
may be achieved by:

z swelling, spreading or deforming to achieve their performance (intumescent materials)

z remaining stable and resilient.

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Element 10: Fire
Properties of common building materials

Table 10.8 details the major structural materials and their typical performance characteristics
in a fire.

Material Characteristics in fire

Timber Timber burns though the burning or charring rate is predictable and varies
slightly with the type of timber and not with the severity of the fire.

The timber behind the charring plane is largely unaffected and able to
perform structurally as intended.

Stone Building stone is typically granite, limestone or sandstone.

Granite contains free quartz which expands very rapidly at 575oC completely
shattering the rock.

Limestone (calcium carbonate) decomposes into free lime and CO2 at

approximately 800oC. The interior is protected by the outer skin.

Sandstone will shrink and crack in a fire at temperatures between granite

and limestone.

Bricks Traditionally in the UK bricks were made of fired clay. Concrete bricks and
sand-lime bricks (calcium silicate) are now also popular.

Brick performs better than stone in a fire

Concrete Concrete consists of aggregates, cement and water mixed to form a

mouldable material which sets hard with high compressive strength and
durability. Concrete expands on heating and then shrinks as it dries out.
The stresses arising can result in spalling of surface material.

Concrete Blocks made with limestone aggregates have higher fire resistance. The
blocks fire resistance is greatly improved if plastered both sides with a lightweight
gypsum plaster.

Table 10.8: Characteristics of structural materials in fire (1 of 2)

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Element 10: Fire
 Material Characteristics in fire

Reinforced Fire resistance depends on the mass of concrete around the steel
or pre- reinforcement. Critical temperature (loss of 50% of cold strength) for mild
stressed steel is 550oC and 400oC for high tensile steel. Reinforced concrete will
concrete deflect considerably under load but is unlikely to collapse suddenly.

Structural Structural steel loses 2 / 3 of its strength at 593oC and will sag and twist in
Steel the direction of and in proportion to the load applied. Steel joists expand
on heating (A 10m joist will expand 600mm at 500oC) which may cause
load bearing support walls to collapse.

Other metals Lead flashings and plumbing melt at 327oC

Aluminium alloy cladding: Stability affected at 100oC to 225oC, high

expansion rate, high thermal conductivity, melts at 660oC

Glass Non-combustible. May be a weak point in a fire barrier as it will break at

high temperatures.

Plasterboard Consists of a core of set gypsum or anhydrite plaster bonded to external

facings of heavy paper. Gypsum is non-combustible. Will retard fire spread
until paper burns and gypsum core breaks up.

Asbestos Asbestos cement sheets contain up to 15% asbestos. Shatter in the early
sheets and stages of fire.
boards
Asbestos insulating / wall boards are 80% asbestos 20% lime-silica bonding
agent. Non-combustible but will contract and bow away from heat source.

Plastics The term covers a broad range of chemicals. Generally plastics are
combustible and the combustion products are likely to be toxic.

Table 10.8: Characteristics of structural materials in fire (2 of 2)

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Element 10: Fire
Electrical equipment in flammable atmospheres

Hazardous areas are defined as ‘any place in which an explosive atmosphere may occur in
quantities such as to require special precautions to protect the safety of workers.’

Hazardous areas are classified into zones based on an assessment of the frequency of the
occurrence and duration of an explosive gas atmosphere, as follows:

Zone Description Common limit values

Zone 0 (Gases) An area in which an explosive Explosive atmosphere for more

Zone 20 (Dusts) gas atmosphere is present than 1000 h / yr
continuously or for long periods
Zone 1 (Gases) An area in which an explosive Explosive atmosphere for more
Zone 21 (Dusts) gas atmosphere is likely to occur than 10, but less than 1000 h / yr
in normal operation
Zone 2 (Gases) An area in which an explosive gas Explosive atmosphere for less
Zone 22 (Dusts) atmosphere is not likely to occur in than 10 h / yr, but still sufficiently
normal operation and, if it occurs, likely as to require controls over
will only exist for a short time ignition sources

Table 10.9: Hazardous zones

Selection of appropriate electrical equipment requires knowledge of the classification of the

hazardous area (as in Table 10.9) and the temperature class or ignition temperature of the
gas or vapour involved.

The types of electrical protection suitable for use in different zones are shown in Table 10.10.

Zone 0 Zone 1 Zone 2

Category 1 Equipment Category 2 Equipment Category 3 Equipment
‘ia’ Intrinsically safe ‘d’ – Flameproof enclosure Type ‘n’
‘p’ – Pressurised
Ex s – Special protection ‘q’ – Powder filling
if specifically certified for ‘o’ – Oil immersion
Zone 0 ‘e’ – Increased safety
‘ib’ – Intrinsic safety
‘m’ – Encapsulation
‘s’ – Special protection

Table 10.10: Types of electrical protection

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Element 10: Fire
10.4 Fire alarms and fire-fighting

Common fire detection and alarm systems

A fire detection and alarm system may be manual or automatic.

A manual alarm system consists of break-glass units and alarm sounders connected to a
control panel and can only be activated by an individual operating a break glass unit after
detecting a fire.

An automatic system adds smoke and heat detectors to the above and is designed to raise
the alarm to give early warning, whether or not people are present.

Automatic fire alarm systems are designed as ‘P systems’ which are designed with an
emphasis on property protection or ‘L systems’ which are primarily designed for the protection
of life.

Information from a fire detectors signal is sent to and processed by the fire alarm control
panel. Fire detection systems are classified according to the way the information is sent and
processed as either:

z conventional monitored systems

z addressable systems (including addressable analogue).

In a conventional monitored system the detection points (either smoke or heat) are wired in
radial circuits from the control panel. At the end of each circuit, a resistor or semiconductor
device creates a known resistance across the circuit providing a steady-state reference.
If a detector is activated by a fire, the steady-state resistance of the circuit to which it is
connected will be altered and the fire alarm will be raised.

As each radial circuit from the control panel will have a number of detectors connected to it,
identification of the location of a fire is limited to the affected circuit (or Zone).

In an addressable system detectors are connected in loops rather than radial circuits and
each detector is allocated a unique identification ‘address’.

Addressable analogue systems use detectors that constantly relay information on their
operating condition to the control panel.

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Element 10: Fire
Break-glass call points
A break-glass call point is designed to allow a person to raise the alarm, in the event of a fire,
by breaking a glass cover to activate the alarm.

Break-glass call points should be located:

z on exit routes and, in particular, on floor landings or staircases and at all exits to the
open air
z so that no person need travel more than 45 m in order to operate one
z at a height of 1.2 m above the floor in a conspicuous, readily accessible position.

Fire detectors
Fire detectors are designed to detect one or more of the four characteristics of fire, namely:

z heat
z smoke
z combustion gas (such as carbon monoxide)
z infra-red or ultraviolet radiation.

They may detect:

z a pre-determined threshold of a characteristic (e.g. a temperature)

z a rate-of-change of the characteristic (e.g. a rate of increase of temperature).

They may be designed as point or line detectors, where:

z point detectors detect at a defined point(s) within a protected area

z line detectors are capable of detecting the characteristic along a defined line within the
protected space.

Heat detectors may be point type or line type detectors, they may respond to a fixed
temperature or a rate of rise of temperature.

Point smoke detectors utilize one (or both) of two principles:

z ionization chamber smoke detectors detect smoke by the reduction it causes in current
flow between electrodes in an ionization chamber
z optical smoke detectors detect smoke by means of the light scatter that results from the
presence of a small light source within the detector.

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Element 10: Fire
Optical beam smoke detectors are effectively line type smoke detectors. They comprise
a light source (usually infra-red) and a receiver. They detect the presence of smoke as it
obscures the light source.

Aspirating smoke detection systems draw air samples, by a pump or fan, through sampling
points to a central detector which may be an ionization chamber or optical detector.

Smoke may also be detected by video techniques, in which closed circuit television (CCTV)
cameras monitor the protected space. The CCTV signals are analysed electronically to
detect the presence of smoke by as it obscures the camera’s field of view.

Combustion gas detectors are point-type detectors that respond to one (or more) of the
gases produced by a fire, e.g. carbon monoxide.

Flame detectors detect the infra-red and / or ultraviolet radiation that is emitted by flame.
Both types use radiation-sensitive cells that ‘see’ the fire either directly or through built-in
lenses or reflectors.

Multi-sensor fire detectors contain more than one sensor, each of which responds to a
different physical and / or chemical characteristic of fire.

Choice of fire detection principle

No individual detector is suitable for all applications. The choice will depend primarily on:

z the speed of response required (to satisfy the fire safety objective, e.g. safe evacuation)
z the need to minimize false alarms
z the nature of the fire hazard.

The following also need to be taken into account:

z the nature and quantity of the combustible materials present, including ease of ignition,
heat release rate, likely form of combustion (e.g. smouldering or flaming) and propensity
for smoke production
z probable rate of fire growth and spread
z the nature of the environment (e.g. humidity, temperature, cleanliness, extent of pollutants
and nature of work processes)
z the proposed fire evacuation strategy
z the height and geometry of the protected area
z the attendance time of the fire service (particularly in the case of Category P systems)

28
Element 10: Fire
z other active and passive fire protection measures present
z the susceptibility of contents to heat, smoke and water
z the speed of response to fire and the probable false alarm rates, of different types of
fire detector.

Cost, suitability for the environment and maintenance requirements are also considerations.
In some circumstances, a mixture of different types of detector may be necessary to ensure
early detection or to minimise false alarms.

The pros and cons of the different detector types are shown in Table 10.11.

Type of
Pros Cons
detector

Heat Can detect clean burning fires, Less sensitive to most fires than all
detectors (e.g. alcohol) before a smoke or other types of fire detector.
combustion gas detector.
Unlikely to detect smouldering fires.
Greatest resistance to environmental
conditions and greatest immunity to Will not operate until flames reach
false alarms. about one-third of the distance to
the ceiling
Require minimum attention during
system maintenance. Not suitable in clean rooms where
early warning of the presence of
smoke is required.

Optical Sensitive to optically dense smoke. Less sensitive to the small particles
smoke Well suited for use in escape routes found in clean-burning fires with little
detectors because they detect visible smoke visible smoke.
and might operate before the escape
route becomes impassable. Cannot detect the products from
clean-burning fires (e.g. alcohol)
(Unless incorporating thermal
turbulence detection).

Ionization Particularly sensitive to smoke Less sensitive to the larger particles

chamber containing small particles, such found in optically dense smoke from
smoke as are produced in rapidly burning smouldering fires.
detectors flaming fires.

29
Element 10: Fire
 Type of
Pros Cons
detector

Smoke Much faster response to most fires Likely to give false alarms from work
detectors than heat detectors. process fumes and dust etc.
(general)

Aspirating Much higher sensitivity than other Relatively insensitive to free burning
smoke smoke detectors. Used in clean fires supported by a plentiful supply
detection rooms where a small fire could of oxygen.
systems cause unacceptable damage.

Flame Specialized applications, such as Unable to detect smouldering fires.

detectors detection of fires in plants handling
or storing highly flammable liquids Relatively high cost.
or gases.

Combustion Most sensitive to smouldering fires. CO detectors can be immune to

gas false alarms from dust, steam and
detectors cigarette smoke.

Table 10.11: Pros and cons of fire detectors

30
Element 10: Fire
Portable Fire-fighting Equipment (PFE)

Provision of PFE
Class A (carbonaceous solids) materials are generally present in all premises and
occupancies.

Minimum provision of Class A portable fire extinguishers (PFE) would be 2 x 13A extinguishers
on each storey for floor spaces of up to 400 m2. For smaller premises <100 m2 1 x 13A
extinguisher would suffice.

For larger spaces the provision can be calculated by multiplying the floor area in m2 x 0.065.

A 13A rating means that the extinguisher is capable of extinguishing a fire in a 1.3 m test crib
under test conditions.

In addition to general Class A provision the risk assessment should determine the need for
additional hazard specific provision.

Class B (flammable liquids) should be provided for on a room by room basis. And is based on
the surface area of a single open-topped container of flammable liquid (e.g. mixing vessel,
dip tank, spillage in bunded area).

A rating of 21B means that the extinguisher is capable of extinguishing a fire of 21 litres of
fuel in a test tray with a surface area of approximately 0.66 m2 under test conditions.

Different types of extinguisher with the same rating may have different characteristics.

Powders are probably the most effective medium against class B fires but are not effective
if part of the fuel surface is shielded from the powder discharge. Foam is effective against
contained fires where it will provide semi-permanent protection, but is not effective against
running fires.

z Re-ignition of fuel is less likely with a foam extinguisher than powders or gases.
z Class C (gas) fires require the presence of 1 x special powder extinguisher.
z Class D (metal) fires require a specialist assessment for provision of PFE.

Class F (fats and cooking oils) provision is based on the ability to cope with a fire of specified
surface areas under test conditions.

For electrical and class F fires the first objective should be to isolate the power. For class C
the fuel supply should be isolated.

31
Element 10: Fire
Siting of PFE
Extinguishers should be located in conspicuous positions on brackets or stands where they
will be readily seen by persons following an escape route, but not where a potential fire
might prevent access to them.

Suitable locations include: near to room exits, corridors, stairways, lobbies and landings.

A record should be kept, on a plan, of the type, number and location of the extinguishers.

Small extinguishers (<4 kg) should be mounted so that the handle is approx. 1.5 m from the
floor. For larger, heavier extinguishers this should be about 1 m from the floor.

Heavy extinguishers should not pose a risk of injury by being dislodged. Suitable brackets
should be used if necessary to hold the extinguisher in place.

Extinguishers should be available for immediate use at all times. It should not be necessary
to travel more than 30 m from the site of the fire to reach an extinguisher (20 m in higher risk
situations). Similar positions on each floor are advisable.

Extinguishers should not be placed in concealed positions behind doors, in cupboards

or deep recesses, or in positions where they might cause obstruction to exit routes or be
damaged by trolleys, nor should they be placed over or close to heating appliances.

If the view of an extinguishers is obscured its position should be indicated by suitable signs.

Extinguishers provided to deal with special fire risks should be sited near to the fire risk
concerned, but not so near as to be inaccessible or place the operator in undue danger in
case of fire.

The operation of extinguishers is affected by temperature. Extinguishers are marked with the
temperature range within which they will perform satisfactorily and should not be exposed to
storage temperatures outside the marked range.

Extinguishers should not be located in unduly corrosive atmospheres unless they have been:

z specially treated by the manufacturer

z specially housed in purpose designed boxes
z provided with protective covers designed for the purpose.

32
Element 10: Fire
Inspection and maintenance of PFE
All portable fire extinguishers will require periodic inspection, maintenance and testing by a
competent person.

Depending on local conditions such as the likelihood of vandalism or the environment where
extinguishers are located, carry out brief checks to ensure that they remain serviceable.

In normal conditions a monthly visual check by a competent person should be appropriate.

Local environmental conditions or risk of vandalism may dictate more frequent checks.

The monthly check should ensure that:

a. each extinguisher is correctly located in the designated place

b. each extinguisher is unobstructed and visible
c. the operating instructions are clean, legible outward facing
d. each extinguisher has not been operated, is not damaged, and has no missing parts
e. the pressure gauge or indicator reading is within operational and safety limits
f. the seals and tamper indicators are not broken or missing.

The responsible person should also ensure that extinguishers, along with any spare gas
cartridges and replacement charges, are maintained regularly.

Basic services of all extinguishers should be conducted annually, an extended service of

water and powder extinguishers should be undertaken every five years, and an overhaul of
gas extinguishers every ten years.

Training in the use of PFE

Decisions will need to be made regarding who is expected to use PFE. This may be emergency
response team members, staff with specific responsibilities such as fire marshals, or staff
in an area with a specific fire risk. It is unlikely that all staff would be expected to use PFE.

All staff identified as expected to use PFE will require adequate training. Such training should
deal with:

z how to operate the different types of fire extinguisher

z an assessment of the physical capability of staff to carry and operate different sizes of
fire extinguisher
z the maximum distance it is reasonable for individuals to carry a fire extinguisher

33
Element 10: Fire
z the necessity of maintaining a route to safety so that the operator can turn away from the
fire and escape
z an indication of the maximum size of fire a staff member should try to extinguish
(expressed in common terms such as a single wastepaper basket).

All training should be repeated at least annually.

Fire extinguishing media

Methods of extinguishing fire

The fire triangle (Figure 10.1) showed that fuel, oxygen and heat energy are needed for
combustion to occur.

Fire-fighting generally involves depriving the fire of one or more of these factors, so methods
of extinguishing fire can be classified as:

z starvation – limiting fuel

z smothering – limiting oxygen
z cooling – limiting heat.

1. Starvation
Fires can be starved of fuel in three ways:

z by removing potential fuel from the vicinity of the fire, e.g. by draining fuel from
burning tanks
z by removing the fire from the mass of combustible material e.g. pulling apart a
burning haystack
z by dividing the burning material into smaller fires.

2. Smothering
Smothering works by preventing fresh air reaching the seat of the fire and thus
allowing combustion to reduce the oxygen content in the confined atmosphere until it
extinguishes itself.

Fire blankets and foam, powder and gas extinguisher can all help to smother a fire.

34
Element 10: Fire
 Starvation:
Limiting fuel

HE
E
YG

AT
OX

Smothering:
Limiting oxygen

HE
FUEL AT
N E
YG

Cooling:
OX

Limiting temperature
FUEL

Figure 10.7: Starvation, smothering and cooling

3. Cooling

Combustion will stop as soon as the rate of cooling exceeds the rate of heat generated by
the combustion process.

Cooling the fuel is the main way in which water is used to extinguish fires.

35
Element 10: Fire
 Water Dry Powder Foam CO2 Wet chemical
Carbon dioxode

For use on For use on For use on For use on For use on
A Wood, Paper, A Wood, Paper, A Wood, Paper, B Flammable A Wood, Paper,
Textiles etc. Textiles etc. Textiles etc. liquids Textiles etc.

B Flammable B Flammable Live electrical F Cooking oil

liquids liquids equipment fires

C Gaseous fires

Live electrical
equipment

Do not use on Do not use on Do not use in

B Flammable Live electrical a confined space
liquids equipment

Live electrical
equipment

Figure 10.8: Portable Fire Extinguishers – extinguishing Media

Extinguishing media
Water
Water is the most efficient, cheapest and most readily available medium for extinguishing
fires of a general nature.

Water is generally ineffective against fires involving liquid fuels (as it sinks below the surface
of the fire), and is not suitable for use around live electrical equipment.

Foam
Fire-fighting foams have been developed primarily to deal with the hazards posed by liquid
fuel fires.

They are either protein based or synthetic based, depending on the chemicals used to
produce them.

Carbon dioxide and inert gases

Carbon dioxide extinguishes by smothering. Reducing the oxygen content of the air by
about 20 to 30% is necessary to cause complete extinction, depending on the nature of the
burning material.

36
Element 10: Fire
Carbon dioxide is quick and clean, electrically non-conducting, non-toxic and non-corrosive.
Most fabrics are unharmed by it.

Dry chemical powders

Dry powder is very effective at extinguishing flame (‘rapid knock-down’), and is particularly
valuable in tackling a fire involving an incident in which someone’s clothes have been soaked
in flammable liquid, and ignited.

Fire suppression systems

Water sprinkler systems

A conventional automatic sprinkler system

consists of pipes and heat-sensitive
sprinkler heads connected to a water
supply. Fire is detected by individual
sprinkler heads, which open to release
water, in the form of spray, to the seat of
the fire. The alarm is raised at the same
time and the fire is kept under control until
the arrival of the fire brigade.

When sprinklers are present, the chances

of dying in a fire are reduced by 50% to
75% and the average property loss per
fire is cut by 50% to 65%.

As the action of the sprinklers is likely to

reduce the rate of burning of a fire, and
the mass smoke flow, there are number
of possible benefits to building designers,
Figure 10.9: Sprinkler head in warehouse racking
including:

z the travel distance to an exit can potentially be increased without reducing the level
of peoples
z building compartment areas / volumes may be increased over that for a similar
non-sprinkler system building

37
Element 10: Fire
z fire resistance levels of structural components may be reduced
z the separating distance between buildings may be reduced by one half.

Foam
Foam systems are most commonly used to protect flammable liquid pool / surface fire hazards.
Foam is not suitable for live electrical hazards or three-dimensional running fuel fires.

Gas flooding
Gaseous systems are an effective means of attacking fires in electrical risks such as electronic
data processing (EDP) facilities, control rooms and communications equipment, ordinary
class A hazards such as record stores, as well as class B hazards such as flammable liquid
fires in plant enclosures and flammable liquid stores.

Modern gas flooding systems use halocarbons or inert gas mixes.

Gaseous systems are ‘clean’, i.e. they limit smoke generation and leave no post-fire residues
for clear-up.

38
Element 10: Fire
Access for fire and rescue services and vehicles

As highlighted in Element 8, consideration should be given to access for fire and rescue
services and other vehicles when planning traffic routes. For example:

z Roadways:
• width of gateways – minimum 3.1 m for most emergency vehicles
• width of road – minimum 3.7 m for most emergency vehicles
• turning circle
• clearance height – gantries, overhead pipework etc.
• laden weight of emergency vehicle (e.g. pumping fire appliance approx. 12.5 tonnes
and hydraulic platforms approx. 17 tonnes).

Obstructions to access
All access roads for Fire & Rescue Service appliances should be kept clear of any
obstructions, including trees, lamp standards, etc. which may obstruct vehicular movement
or foul the ladders on vehicles. It may, however, be considered necessary to restrict
unauthorised entry and various arrangements as discussed below. Before any obstructions
are installed the proposed arrangements should be agreed with the Fire and Rescue
Service. Key issues include:

z posts and bollards – obstruction of hydrants and / or access by emergency vehicles

z speed control humps
z pedestrianisation of high streets and shopping areas etc.
z enforced no parking zones and / or the provision of passing bays on roads reduced to a
single lane
z provision of an extra ‘emergency gate’ for large and / or hazardous premises
z padlocks for the purpose of securing bollards, posts or gates must be capable of being
cut open in an emergency with the bolt croppers carried on emergency vehicles.

39
Element 10: Fire
10.5 Fire evacuation

Means of escape

Once a fire has started, been detected and a warning given, everyone in the premises
should be able to escape to a place of total safety unaided (staff will need to be appointed
to assist people with disabilities or special needs).

Escape routes should be designed to ensure, as far as possible, that any person
confronted by fire can turn away from it and escape to a place of reasonable safety, e.g.
a protected stairway.

Fire resisting construction

Where an escape route needs to be separated from the rest of the premises by fire-resisting
construction, e.g. a dead-end corridor or protected stairway:

z doors walls, floors and ceilings on protected escape routes should be capable of resisting
the passage of smoke and fire for long enough so that people can escape from the
building
z where suspended or false ceilings are provided, the fire resistance should extend up to
the floor slab level above
z cavity barriers, fire stopping and dampers in ducts should be appropriately installed.

For means of escape purposes a 30 minutes fire-resisting rating is normally enough.

Capacity of escape routes and stairways

The escape routes must have adequate capacity for people to escape safely in sufficient
time to ensure their safety in case of fire.

The capacity of an escape route is measured by the number of persons per minute that can
pass through the effective usable width (narrowest point) of the escape route.

The capacity is determined by a number of factors including the:

z width of the route

z time available for escape
z ability of the persons using them.

40
Element 10: Fire
Route width
A width of at least 750 mm can accommodate up to:

z 80 people in higher risk premises

z 100 people in normal risk premises
z 120 people in lower risk premises.

A width of at least 1050 mm can accommodate up to:

z 160 people in higher risk premises

z 200 people in normal risk premises
z 240 people in lower risk premises.

An additional 75 mm should be allowed for each additional 15 persons (or part of 15).

Note:
The minimum width of an escape route should not be less than 750 mm (unless it is for
use by less than five people in part of the premises) and, where wheelchair users are
likely to use it, not less than 900 mm.

Stairways should be at least 1050 mm wide and in any case not less than the width of the
escape routes that lead to them.

Stairways wider than 2100 mm should normally be divided into sections, each separated from
the adjacent section by a handrail, so that each section measured between the handrails is
not less than 1050 mm wide.

Doors
Doors on escape routes should

z open in the direction of escape

z ideally be fitted with a safety vision panel.

At least two exits should be provided if a room / area is to be occupied by more than
60 persons.

While not normally acceptable, the use of ladders, floor hatches, wall hatches or window exits
may be suitable for small numbers of able-bodied, trained staff in exceptional circumstances.

41
Element 10: Fire
Time available for escape
About two thirds of the time available to escape is taken up by the initial reaction to the
developing situation, checking what other people are doing and working out whether the
situation is real or false. The actual movement away from the area of the fire takes up the
final third.

To take account for the limited available time for people to travel to a place of reasonable
safety, the length of escape routes needs to be kept as short as possible. The suggested
travel distances are shown in Table 6.9.

Travel distance
Having established the number and location of people and the exit capacity required to
evacuate them safely, the adequacy of the number and location of existing exits should
be determined.

This is done by considering the distance people have to travel to reach them (Table 10.12).

Escape routes Suggested range of travel distance

Where only a single route is provided 12 m – Higher fire-risk areas

18 m - Normal fire-risk areas
25 m – Lower fire-risk areas

Where more than one escape route 25 m – Higher fire-risk areas

is provided 45 m - Normal fire-risk areas
60 m – Lower fire-risk areas

Table 10.12: Travel distances

Travel distances are flexible and may be increased or decreased depending upon the level
of risk (see later) after appropriate fire-prevention measures are in place.

In new buildings, designed and constructed in accordance with modern building standards,
the travel distances will already have been calculated.

The actual distances to be travelled by people when escaping needs to be considered,

allowing for walking around furniture or display material etc. (see Figure 10.10).

42
Element 10: Fire
 Storeroom

Exit

Figure 10.10: Measuring travel distances

The distance should be measured from all parts of the premises (e.g. from the most remote
part of the workplace) to the nearest place of reasonable safety which is:

z a protected stairway enclosure (a storey exit)

z a separate fire compartment from which there is a final exit to a place of total safety
z the nearest available final exit.

Levels of risk
Appropriate travel distances vary according to the level of risk in the premises (or part of them).

Most workplaces will be normal risk.

Higher risk premises are those where:

z there is a likelihood of a fire starting and spreading quickly

z a fire could start and grow without being quickly detected and a warning given and affect
the escape routes before people are able to use them.
z Higher risk premises include those where:
z significant quantities of flammable materials are used or stored
z ready sources of ignition are present, e.g. heat producing machinery and processes
z significant numbers of the people present are likely to move slowly or be unable to move
without assistance
z the construction provides hidden voids or flues through which a fire could quickly spread.

43
Element 10: Fire
Lower risk premises will have:

z low occupancy levels / able bodied occupants

z very little chance of a fire
z few (or no) highly combustible or flammable materials or other fuels
z fire cannot spread quickly and will be quickly detected.

Management of escape routes

Escape routes should be managed and maintained to ensure that they remain usable and
available at all times when the premises are occupied.

Corridors and stairways that form part of escape routes should be kept clear and hazard free
at all times. Items that may be a source of fuel or pose an ignition risk should not normally
be located on any corridor or stairway that will be used as an escape route.

Emergency escape lighting

People will need sufficient lighting to be able to find their way to a place of total safety if there
is a fire.

Where escape routes are internal and without windows, or the workplace is used during
periods of darkness, including early darkness on winter days, then some form of backup to
the normal escape route lighting (emergency escape lighting) is likely to be required.

In small premises, where the escape routes are simple and straightforward, borrowed lighting
from street lamps or provision of torches may be acceptable.

In larger, more complex premises it is likely that an automatic emergency escape lighting
system will be needed to illuminate all the escape routes. Where people have difficulty
seeing conventional signs, a ‘way-guidance’ system may need to be considered.

Emergency lighting systems should be tested regularly to ensure they will work effectively
when required.

44
Element 10: Fire
Signs
Signs must be used, where necessary, to help people
identify escape routes, find fire-fighting equipment and
emergency fire telephones.

Signs must be in pictogram form to comply with the Health and Safety (Safety Signs and
Signals) Regulations. The pictogram can be supplemented by text if this is considered
necessary to make the sign more easily understood.

Notices
Notices must be used, where necessary, to
Your Fire Marshals are:
provide the following:

z instructions on how to use any fire safety

equipment
z the actions to be taken in the event of fire
z help for the fire and rescue service (e.g.
Location of sprinkler valves or Electrical cut- Fire Action
Any person discovering a fire
off switches). 1 Sound the alarm
2 to call the fire brigade
All signs and notices should be positioned so 3 Attack the fire if possible using the
appliances provided
that they can be easily seen and understood. On hearing the fire alarm
4 Leave the building by route
5 Close all doors behind you
6 Report to assembly point

Do not take risks

Do not return to the building for any reason
until authorised to do so

Do not use lifts

45
Element 10: Fire
Emergency evacuation procedures

The primary objective of an evacuation strategy is to ensure that in the event of a fire, the
occupants of a building can reach a place of ultimate safety outside the building.

There are two basic approaches to evacuation:

z total evacuation, which may be simultaneous or phased

z progressive evacuation.

Total evacuation strategies

Total simultaneous evacuation is the standard approach used in premises where it would
be unreasonable to expect the occupants to remain in an affected area for a prolonged time
when there is a fire.

Typically the fire alarm sounders indicate an immediate evacuation and all occupants
proceed to a place of ultimate safety.

A phased evacuation occurs in two stages. Key staff is alerted before the alarm sounders are
activated giving an opportunity to investigate, confirm the fire and prepare the evacuation
response. A phased approach is commonly used in multi-storey premises where people on
the storey most at risk are evacuated in the first instance and then the remaining storeys are
evacuated at phased intervals.

Progressive evacuation
Progressive horizontal evacuation strategies are typically used in hospitals and nursing
homes. Vulnerable people are initially evacuated into an adjoining fire compartment on the
same storey, allowing time for the fire service response and organising for full evacuation to
a place of ultimate safety, if necessary.

Zoned evacuation strategies are often adopted in large retail developments, to avoid
significant operational losses as a consequence of a relatively small fire. Occupants are
moved away from the affected zone to an adjacent zone while the fire-affected zone is
brought under control.

Fire marshals
Staff expected to undertake the role of fire marshals (often called fire wardens) would require

46
Element 10: Fire
more comprehensive training. Their role may include:

z helping those on the premises to leave

z checking the premises to ensure everyone has left
z using fire-fighting equipment if safe to do so
z liaising with the fire and rescue service on arrival
z shutting down vital or dangerous equipment
z performing a supervisory / managing role in any fire situation.

Training for this role may include:

z detailed knowledge of the fire safety strategy of the premises

z awareness of human behaviour in fires
z how to encourage others to use the most appropriate escape route
z how to search safely and recognise areas that are unsafe to enter
z the difficulties that some people, particularly if disabled, may have in escaping and any
special evacuation arrangements that have been pre-planned
z additional training in the use of fire-fighting equipment
z an understanding of the purpose of any fixed fire-fighting equipment such as sprinklers
or gas flooding systems
z reporting of faults, incidents and near misses.

Fire drills
The best way to evaluate the effectiveness of the emergency plan is to perform a fire drill.
This should be carried out at least annually but may need to carry them out more often, e.g.
in workplaces with high staff turnover.

A well-planned and executed fire drill will confirm understanding of the training and provide
helpful information for future training.

The responsible person should determine the possible objectives of the drill such as to:

z identify any weaknesses in the evacuation strategy

z test the procedure following any recent alteration or changes to working practices
z familiarise new members of staff with procedures
z test the arrangements for disabled people.

47
Element 10: Fire
Who should take part?
Within each building the evacuation should be for all occupants except those who may need
to ensure the security of the premises, or people who, on a risk-assessed basis, are required
to remain with particular equipment or processes that cannot be closed down.

Premises that consist of several buildings on the same site should be dealt with one building
at a time over an appropriate period unless the emergency procedure dictates otherwise.

Where appropriate it may be helpful to include members of the public in the fire drill –
ensuring that all necessary health and safety issues are addressed beforehand.

Carrying out the drill

For premises that have more than one escape route, the escape plan should be designed
to evacuate all people on the assumption that one exit or stairway is unavailable because
of the fire.

This can be simulated by a designated person being located at a suitable point on an exit
route. Applying this scenario to different escape routes at each fire drill will encourage
individuals to use alternative escape routes which they may not normally use.

When carrying out the drill it may be helpful to:

z circulate details concerning the drill and inform all staff of their duty to participate. It may
not be beneficial to have ‘surprise drills’ as the health and safety risks introduced may
outweigh the benefits
z ensure that equipment can be safely left
z nominate observers
z inform the alarm receiving centre if the fire-warning system is monitored (if the fire
and rescue service is normally called directly from your premises, ensure that this
does not happen)
z inform visitors and members of the public if they are present
z ask a member of staff at random to set off the alarm by operating the nearest alarm call
point using the test key, this will indicate the level of knowledge regarding the location of
the nearest call point.

The roll call / checking the premises have been evacuated

A roll call should be undertaken as soon as possible at the designated assembly point(s),
and / or fire wardens’ reports following their ‘sweep’ of the premises. People who are
unaccounted for should be noted. In a real evacuation this information will need to be passed
to the fire and rescue service on arrival.

48
Element 10: Fire
Check that people have assembled at the evacuation point
Once the roll call is complete or all reports have been received, allow people to return to the
building. If the fire-warning system is monitored inform the alarm receiving centre that the
drill has now been completed and record the outcomes of the drill.

Monitoring and debrief

Throughout the drill the responsible person and nominated observers should pay particular
attention to:

z communication difficulties with regard to the roll call and establishing that everyone is
accounted for
z the use of the nearest available escape routes as opposed to common circulation routes
z difficulties with the opening of final exit doors
z difficulties experienced by people with disabilities
z the roles of specified people, e.g. fire wardens
z inappropriate actions, e.g. stopping to collect personal items, attempting to use lifts etc.
z windows and doors not being closed as people leave.

On-the-spot debriefs are useful to discuss the fire drill, encouraging feedback from everybody.

Later, reports from fire wardens and observations from people should be collated and
reviewed.

Any conclusions and remedial actions should be recorded and implemented.

49
Element 10: Fire
© Astutis Ltd.

All rights reserved.

No part of this study material may be stored in a retrieval system,

reproduced or transmitted in any form, or by any electronic, photographic
or other means without the express written permission of Astutis Ltd.

Applications for written permission to reproduce any part of this study

material should be sent to Astutis Ltd., 6 Charnwood Court, Parc
Nantgarw, Cardiff, CF15 7QZ.

Information sourced from the Health and Safety Executive and

Government Departments has been reproduced and / or adapted under
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Version 1.0 2019