Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings
Class 12 History
A Glimpse of Sanchi
Nineteenth-century Europeans were very interested in the stupa at
Sanchi.
The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan
Jehan Begum, provided money for the preservation of the ancient
site.
One of the most important Buddhist centres, the discovery of Sanchi
has vastly transformed our understanding of early Buddhism. Today
it stands testimony to the successful restoration and preservation of a
key archaeological site by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
The Background: Sacrifices and Debates
The mid-first millennium BCE is often regarded as a turning point in
world history as it saw the emergence of thinkers. They tried to
understand the mysteries of existence and the relationship between
human beings and the cosmic order.
This was also the time when new kingdoms and cities were
developing and social and economic life was changing in a variety of
ways in the Ganga valley.
The Sacrificial Tradition
The early Vedic traditions, religious belief and practice were known
from the Rigveda, compiled between c.1500 and 1000 BCE.
Rigveda consisted of hymns, which were chanted when sacrifices
were performed, where people prayed for cattle, sons, good health,
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long life, etc.
At first, sacrifices were performed collectively. Later (c. 1000 BCE-500
BCE onwards) some were performed by the heads of households for
the wellbeing of the domestic unit.
More elaborate sacrifices, such as the rajasuya and ashvamedha,
were performed by chiefs and kings who depended on Brahmana
priests to conduct the ritual.
Sanchi Stupa
New Questions
Many ideas found in the Upanishads (c. sixth century BCE onwards)
show that people were curious about the meaning of life, the
possibility of life after death and rebirth.
Thinkers were concerned with understanding and expressing the
nature of the ultimate reality.
On the other hand, people outside the Vedic tradition began
speculating on the significance of the sacrificial tradition and
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questioned the existence of ultimate reality.
Debates and Discussions
Buddhist texts mention as many as 64 sects or schools of thought.
Debates took place in the kutagarashala – literally, a hut with a
pointed roof – or in groves where travelling mendicants halted.
Mahavira and Buddha, questioned the authority of the Vedas.
They also emphasised individual agency – suggesting that men and
women could strive to attain liberation from the trials and
tribulations of worldly existence.
This was a sharp contrast to the Brahmanical position, where an
individual’s existence was thought to be determined by his or her
birth in a specific caste or gender.
Beyond Worldly Pleasures: The Message of
Mahavira
The philosophy of the Jainas already existed before the birth of
Mahavira in the sixth century BCE.
Vardhamana who came to be known as Mahavira, was preceded by 23
other teachers or tirthankaras, according to Jaina tradition.
Tirthankaras are the teachers who guide men and women across the
river of existence.
The most important idea in Jainism is that the entire world is
animated: even stones, rocks and water have life.
The principle of ahimsa, emphasised within Jainism, has left its mark
on Indian thinking as a whole.
According to Jaina teachings, the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped
through karma.
Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of
karma. This can be achieved only by renouncing the world.
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Jaina monks and nuns took five vows: to abstain from killing, stealing
and lying; to observe celibacy; and to abstain from possessing
property.
Gradually, Jainism spread to many parts of India. Jaina scholars
produced a wealth of literature in a variety of languages – Prakrit,
Sanskrit and Tamil.
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The Buddha and The Quest for Enlightment
The teachings and message of Buddha spread across the
subcontinent and beyond – through Central Asia to China, Korea and
Japan, and through Sri Lanka, across the seas to Myanmar, Thailand
and Indonesia.
According to Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha, as the Buddha was
named at birth, was the son of a chief of the Sakya clan. He had a
sheltered upbringing within the palace but he was deeply anguished
when he saw an old man, a sick man and a corpse.
He also saw a homeless mendicant, who, it seemed to him, had come
to terms with old age, disease and death, and found peace.Siddhartha
decided that he too would adopt the same path. He then left the
palace and set out in search of his own truth.
He meditated for several days and finally attained enlightenment.
After this he came to be known as the Buddha or the Enlightened
One.
For the rest of his life, he taught dhamma or the path of righteous
living.
The Teachings of the Buddha
The Buddha’s teachings have been reconstructed from stories, found
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mainly in the Sutta Pitaka.
Some stories describe his miraculous powers, others suggest that the
Buddha tried to convince people through reason and persuasion
rather than through displays of supernatural power..
According to Buddhist philosophy, the world is transient (anicca) and
constantly changing; it is also soulless (anatta) as there is nothing
permanent or eternal in it. Within this transient world,
sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence.
It is by following the path of moderation between severe penance and
self-indulgence that human beings can rise above these worldly
troubles.
The Buddha regarded the social world as the creation of humans
rather than of divine origin. So he advised kings and gahapatis to be
humane and ethical.
The Buddha emphasised individual agency and righteous action as
the means to escape from the cycle of rebirth and attain self-
realisation and nirvana, literally the extinguishing of the ego and
desire – and thus end the cycle of suffering for those who renounced
the world.
Buddha’s last words to his followers were: “Be lamps unto yourselves
as all of you must work out your own liberation.”
Test: Thinkers, Beliefs And Buildings- 1
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Followers of Buddha
As the number of disciples of the Buddha increased and he founded
a sangha, an organisation of monks who too became teachers of
dhamma
These monks lived on alms, and so they were known as bhikkhus.
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Initially, only men were allowed into the sangha, but later women
also came to be admitted. The Buddha’s foster mother, Mahapajapati
Gotami was the first woman to be ordained as a bhikkhuni.
The Buddha’s followers came from many social groups. They
included kings, wealthy men and gahapatis, and also humbler folk:
workers, slaves and craftspeople.
Once within the sangha, all were regarded as equal, having shed their
earlier social identities on becoming bhikkhus and bhikkhunis.
Buddhism grew rapidly as it appealed to many people dissatisfied
with existing religious practices and confused by the rapid social
changes taking place around them.
The importance attached to conduct and values rather than claims of
superiority based on birth drew men and women to Buddhist
teachings.
Buddha Statue
Stupas
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In Buddhist ideas and practices, people tended to regard certain
places as sacred. These included sites with special trees or unique
rocks, or sites of awe-inspiring natural beauty. These sites, with small
shrines attached to them, were sometimes described as chaityas.
Buddhist literature mentions several chaityas. It also describes places
associated with the Buddha’s life – where he was born (Lumbini),
where he attained enlightenment (Bodh Gaya), where he gave his first
sermon (Sarnath) and where he attained nirvana (Kusinagara). Each
of these places came to be regarded as sacred.
About 200 years after the time of the Buddha, Asoka erected a pillar
at Lumbini to mark the fact that he had visited the place.
Why were Stupas Built?
Besides, there were some places where relics of the Buddha such as
his bodily remains or objects used by him were buried there. These
were mounds known as stupas.
According to a Buddhist text known as the Ashokavadana, Asoka
distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics to every important town
and ordered the construction of stupas over them.
By the second century BCE a number of stupas, including those at
Bharhut, Sanchi and Sarnath had been built.
How were Stupas Built?
Inscriptions found on the railings and pillars of stupas record
donations made for building and decorating them.
Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis also contributed towards building these
monuments.
The Structure of the Stupa
The stupa (a Sanskrit word meaning a heap) originated as a simple
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semi-circular mound of earth, later called anda. Gradually, it evolved
into a more complex structure, balancing round and square shapes.
Above the anda was the harmika, a balcony-like structure that
represented the abode of the gods.
Arising from the harmika was a mast called the yashti, often
surmounted by a chhatri or umbrella. Around the mound was a
railing, separating the sacred space from the secular world.
The early stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut were plain except for the
stone railings. Later, the mound of the stupas came to be elaborately
carved with niches and sculptures as at Amaravati, and Shahji-ki-
Dheri in Peshawar (Pakistan).
Each stupa has a history of its own. Sculptures of stupas were
removed from stupas and transported all the way to Europe.
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Sculpture
Stories in Stone
The Buddhist sculptures were beautiful and valuable.
The sculpture in Sanchi seems to depict a scene from the story of
Vessantara Jataka.
Symbols of Worship
Many early sculptors did not show the Buddha in human form –
instead, they showed his presence through symbols.
The empty seat was meant to indicate the meditation of the Buddha,
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and the stupa was meant to represent the mahaparinirvana.
Another frequently used symbol was the wheel. This stood for
the first sermon of the Buddha, delivered at Sarnath.
Popular traditions
A sculpture of a beautiful women swinging from the edge of the
gateway, holding onto a tree was the representation of shalabhanjika.
According to popular belief, shalabhanjika was a woman whose
touch caused trees to flower and bear fruit. It is likely that this was
regarded as an auspicious symbol and integrated into the decoration
of the stupa.
The shalabhanjika motif on most of the Buddhist sculptures suggests
that many people who turned to Buddhism enriched it with their
own pre-Buddhist and even non-Buddhist beliefs, practices and
ideas.
There are other motifs as well. Some of the finest depictions of
animals are found there. These animals include elephants, horses,
monkeys and cattle. While the Jatakas contain several animal stories
that are depicted at Sanchi, it is likely that many of these animals
were carved to create lively scenes to draw viewers.
Animals were often used as symbols of human attributes. Elephants,
for example, were depicted to signify strength and wisdom.
Another motif is that of a woman surrounded by lotuses and
elephants, which seem to be sprinkling water on her as if performing
an abhisheka or consecration.
The serpent motif is also found on several pillars. One of the earliest
modern art historians, James Fergusson, considered Sanchi to be a
centre of tree and serpent worship.
New Religious Traditions
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The development of Mahayana Buddhism
Early Buddhist teachings had given great importance to self-effort in
achieving nirvana. Buddha was regarded as a human being who
attained enlightenment and nirvana. Gradually the idea of a saviour
emerged.
Simultaneously, the concept of the Bodhisatta also developed.
Bodhisattas were perceived as deeply compassionate beings who
accumulated merit through their efforts but used this not to attain
nirvana and thereby abandon the world, but to help others. The
worship of images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas became an
important part of this tradition.
This new way of thinking was called Mahayana – literally, the “great
vehicle”. Those who adopted these beliefs described the older
tradition as Hinayana or the “lesser vehicle”.
The Growth of Puranic Hinduism
The notion of a saviour was not unique to Buddhism, it was also a
part of Hinduism. Sects of Vaishnavism and Shaivism emerged in
Hinduism, in which there was growing emphasis on the worship of a
chosen deity.
Vaishnavism – is a form of Hinduism within which Vishnu was
worshipped as the principal deity and Shaivism is a tradition within
which Shiva was regarded as the chief god. In such worship the bond
between the devotee and the god was visualised as one of love and
devotion, or bhakti.
In Vaishnavism, cults developed around the various avatars or
incarnations of the deity. Ten avatars were recognised within the
tradition. Different avatars were popular in different parts of the
country.
Some of the avatars were represented in sculptures. For example,
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Shiva was symbolised by the linga.
All such representations depicted a complex set of ideas about the
deities and their attributes through symbols.
Much of what is contained in the Puranas evolved through
interaction amongst people who travelled from place to place sharing
ideas and beliefs.
Building Temples
The early temple was a small square room, called the garbhagriha,
with a single doorway for the worshipper to enter and offer worship
to the image.
Gradually, a tall structure, known as the shikhara, was built over the
central shrine. Temple walls were often decorated with sculpture.
Later temples became far more elaborate – with assembly halls, huge
walls and gateways, and arrangements for supplying water.
One of the unique features of early temples was that some of these
were hollowed out of huge rocks, as artificial caves. The tradition of
building artificial caves was an old one. Some of the earliest of these
were constructed in the third century BCE on the orders of Asoka for
renouncers who belonged to the Ajivika sect.
This tradition evolved through various stages and culminated much
later – in the eighth century – in the carving out of an entire temple,
that of (a name of Shiva).
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Download the notes
Chapter Notes: Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings
Download as PDF
Can we See Everything?
The European scholars were horrified by what seemed to them
grotesque figures, with multiple arms and heads or with
combinations of human and animal forms (of gods and goddess).
They compared and often found early Indian sculpture inferior to the
works of Greek artists, they were very excited when they discovered
images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas that were evidently based on
Greek models. These were, more often than not, found in the
northwest, in cities such as Taxila and Peshawar, where Indo-Greek
rulers had established kingdoms in the second century BCE. As these
images were closest to the Greek statues these scholars were familiar
with, they were considered to be the best examples of early Indian
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art.
Summary
Buildings of Sanchi Kannakkheda are the most wonderful ancient
buildings in the state of Bhopal.
Buddhist, Jaina and Brahamanical text, monument and inscription
are the some of the important historical sources of the age of C 600
BCE-600CE, which help in reconstructing Indian history.
Many was provided by rulers of Bhopal, Shahjahan Begum and her
successor Sultan Jahan Begum to preserved the ancient sites.
The Rigveda is a collection of hymns, praise of many deities like Agni,
Indra, Soma etc.
The basic philosophy of Jainism already existed in north India even
before the birth of vardhamana Mahavira.
Tha Bhuddha was the most influential teachers of his times.
Two traditions were including in modern Hinduism – Vaishnavism
and Shaivism.
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