University of Eastern Philippines
College of Engineering
Module 1:
SLOPE STABILITY
Submitted by: Dula, Valerie Anne Olaco
Submitted to: Engr. Bee Jay Macuha
Overview
This module is all about slope stability analysis, which is essential in geotechnical
engineering for keeping both natural hillsides and man-made structures like
embankments and excavations from collapsing.
We'll be looking into why slopes fail, how they fail (different modes), and the methods
we use to figure out how safe they actually are. A big part of this will be really digging into
the factor of safety concept, understanding how soil strength and groundwater
significantly impact stability, and getting familiar with both the basic and more advanced
analytical techniques
Objectives
Upon successful completion of this module, a student should be able to accomplish the
ff:
• Define and articulate the fundamental concept of slope stability and its
importance in civil engineering.
• Identify and categorize the various types of slopes and their common failure
mechanisms (rotational, translational, etc.).
• Explain the role of key geotechnical parameters (shear strength, unit weight, pore
water pressure) and external factors (slope geometry, seismic loads) in influencing
slope stability.
• Apply the principles of infinite slope analysis to determine the factor of safety
for both dry and saturated soil conditions.
• Understand the basic principles and assumptions behind common limit
equilibrium methods for finite slopes, such as the Ordinary Method of Slices
(Fellenius) and Bishop's Simplified Method.
• Interpret and evaluate the calculated factor of safety to assess the stability of a
given slope.
• Recognize the limitations of simplified analytical methods and appreciate the
need for more advanced techniques or software in complex scenarios.
Discussion
Slope stability analysis is a cornerstone of geotechnical design, ensuring that natural
landforms, excavations, and earth structures (like embankments, earth dams, and levees)
remain stable under various loading conditions and environmental influences. The core
objective is to evaluate the balance between the forces attempting to cause slope
movement (driving forces) and those resisting it (resisting forces).
What is Soil Stability?
Soil stability refers to the capacity of a soil mass, whether in its natural state or
as part of an engineered structure, to remain intact and resist deformation or
failure under various applied loads and environmental conditions. Essentially, it's about
whether a slope, an excavation, or a piece of ground will stay where it is or slide, slump,
or collapse.
What Does "Stable" Mean in Geotechnical Terms?
In geotechnical engineering, "stable" doesn't just
mean standing still. It means the soil mass has
sufficient internal strength and external support to
withstand all the forces acting on it, maintaining its
intended form and function without undergoing
excessive deformation or catastrophic failure.
This is often quantified by a Factor of Safety (FS),
which is the ratio of the forces resisting movement to
the forces causing movement. A factor of safety
greater than 1 indicates stability, with higher
values implying greater safety.
As mentioned above, soil stability is the ability of the soil to withstand all the forces acting
on it. These forces are governed by key principles, fundamentally involving a balance
between driving and resisting forces.
Imagine a pile of sand, or a hill, or even the dirt beside a ditch. Soil stability is simply how
well that soil can stay in place without collapsing, sliding, or crumbling.
Think of it like a tug-of-war:
gravity
1. Pulling Forces (Driving Forces): These are the things trying to make the soil
move. The biggest one is gravity, which is always pulling the soil downhill. Other
things that can add to this pull include heavy buildings on top of the soil, cars
driving by, or even an earthquake shaking the ground.
2. Holding Forces (Resisting Forces): These are the things trying to keep the soil
in place. This is mostly the soil's own strength, which comes from two main things:
o Stickiness (Cohesion): How well the soil particles stick together, like glue
(common in clays).
o Friction: How much the soil particles rub against each other and interlock,
making it hard for them to slide past each other (common in sands).
o
3. Factor of Safety (FS): The most critical parameter in slope stability analysis. It is
defined as the ratio of the total available shear strength (or resisting moment) to
the total mobilized shear stress (or driving moment) along the most critical potential
failure surface.
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠/𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝐹𝑆 = =
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠/𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
A factor of safety greater than 1.0 indicates stability, with typical design values
ranging from 1.25 to 1.5, providing a margin of safety against uncertainties in soil
parameters and applied loads.
Factors Influencing Slope Stability
The stability of a slope is a complex interplay of various factors, and changes in
any one of them can significantly impact whether a slope remains stable or fails.
1. Soil Properties:
a. Shear Strength (c′,ϕ′): The ultimate resistance of the soil to deformation and
rupture. Higher shear strength leads to greater stability. Understanding
effective stress (c′ and ϕ′) is paramount.
b. Unit Weight (γ): A heavier soil mass increases the driving forces, thus
decreasing stability.
c. Compressibility: Highly compressible soils can lead to deformations that
initiate failure.
2. Groundwater Conditions (Pore Water Pressure):
a. Crucial Factor: Water within the soil pores exerts pressure (pore water
pressure, u), which reduces the effective normal stress (σ′=σ−u). Since shear
strength is directly dependent on effective normal stress, increasing pore water
pressure significantly reduces the available shear strength and thus the factor
of safety.
b. Effects: Infiltration from rainfall, rising water table, or seepage can all increase
pore water pressure, leading to slope instability.
3. Slope Geometry:
a. Height (H): Taller slopes are inherently less stable than shorter ones, all else
being equal.
b. Slope Angle (β): Steeper slopes are less stable as the gravitational component
acting along the potential failure surface increases.
4. External Loads:
a. Surcharge Loads: Buildings, stockpiles, or traffic on the crest of a slope add
to the driving forces.
b. Seismic Forces (Earthquakes): Dynamic loading from earthquakes can
induce additional inertial forces that significantly reduce the factor of safety,
often leading to rapid failures (liquefaction in saturated sands).
5. Geological Features:
a. Weak Layers/Stratification: Presence of soft clay seams, weathered rock, or
loose sand layers can act as preferential planes for failure.
b. Folds, Faults, Joints: These discontinuities can create kinematic possibilities
for failure or act as conduits for water, exacerbating instability.
Methods of Slope Stability Analysis
Analyzing slope stability primarily involves Limit Equilibrium Methods, which assume that
the soil mass along a potential failure surface is at a state of impending failure.
1. Infinite Slope Analysis:
Concept: Assumes a planar failure surface parallel to the ground surface. It's suitable for
long, uniform slopes.
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅
Formula (Dry Granular Soil, c=0): 𝐹𝑆 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
Formula (Cohesive Soil with Parallel Seepage): This formula considers the effective
stress principle:
where z is the depth of the failure plane.
2. Limit Equilibrium Methods for Finite Slopes (Method of Slices): These methods
involve dividing the potential sliding mass into vertical slices and analyzing the forces
acting on each slice. They are used for complex finite slopes, where circular or non-
circular failure surfaces are common.
• Ordinary Method of Slices (Fellenius Method): Simplifies assumptions about
interslice forces (often assumed zero), leading to a more conservative (lower)
factor of safety.
• Bishop's Simplified Method: Accounts for normal interslice forces, providing
more accurate results than Fellenius, but still simplifies shear interslice forces.
Often requires iterative solutions.
• More Rigorous Methods (e.g., Spencer, Morgenstern-Price): These methods
satisfy all conditions of static equilibrium (both force and moment equilibrium) for
each slice and typically require specialized geotechnical software for their complex
calculation
Importance of Slope Stability Analysis
Slope stability analysis is paramount in civil engineering for:
• Safety Assurance: Preventing landslides and slope failures that can endanger
lives, destroy infrastructure, and cause significant economic losses.
• Design of Earth Structures: Guiding the safe design of embankments for roads,
railways, and dams, as well as cuts for excavations.
• Mitigation Measures: Identifying unstable slopes and designing appropriate
stabilization measures (e.g., retaining walls, soil nails, drainage systems, slope
flattening).
• Risk Assessment: Evaluating potential risks associated with natural slopes in
mountainous or hilly terrain, especially in seismically active regions.
• Environmental Protection: Minimizing soil erosion and protecting ecosystems
from the impacts of slope instability.
Problem Solving
Problem 1: Infinite Slope - Dry Granular Soil Problem
A uniform slope in dry sand has a height of 10 meters and a slope angle (β) of 28 degrees.
The sand has an angle of internal friction (ϕ) of 34 degrees and a unit weight (γ) of 19
kN/m³. Assuming an infinite slope condition, determine the factor of safety against failure.
Type of slope and soil condition:
infinite slope.
Dry granular soil (c=0, no pore water pressure
ϕ=34∘
β=28∘
tan34∘≈0.6745
tan28∘≈0.5317
Answer: The factor of safety against failure for this infinite slope is approximately 1.27.
Since FS>1.0, the slope is considered stable under these conditions.
Problem 2: Infinite Slope - Cohesive Soil with Seepage Parallel to Slope
An infinite slope in a saturated clay deposit has a slope angle (β) of 15 degrees. The soil
properties are: effective cohesion (c′) = 15 kPa, effective angle of internal friction (ϕ′) = 22
degrees, and saturated unit weight (γsat) = 19.5 kN/m³. Assume steady seepage parallel
to the slope (i.e., water table is at the ground surface). The unit weight of water (γw) =
9.81 kN/m³. Consider a potential failure plane at a depth (z) of 5 meters below the surface.
Determine the factor of safety against failure.
c′=15kPa
ϕ′=22∘
γsat=19.5kN/m3
γw=9.81kN/m3
β=15∘
z=5m
(γsat−γw)=19.5−9.81=9.69kN/m3
Answer: The factor of safety for this infinite slope with seepage parallel to the slope
surface is approximately 1.37. Since FS>1.0, the slope is considered stable under these
conditions.
Definition of Terms
• Soil Stability: Refers to the capacity of a soil mass, whether in its natural state or as
part of an engineered structure, to remain intact and resist deformation or failure under
various applied loads and environmental conditions. Essentially, it's about whether a
slope, an excavation, or a piece of ground will stay where it is or slide, slump, or
collapse.
• Stable (in Geotechnical Terms): Means the soil mass has sufficient internal strength
and external support to withstand all the forces acting on it, maintaining its intended
form and function without undergoing excessive deformation or catastrophic failure.
• Driving Forces: These primarily include gravity acting on the weight of the soil mass,
along with any external loads such as buildings, traffic, seismic forces, or water
pressure, all of which tend to push the soil downwards or outwards.
• Resisting Forces: These forces originate from the soil's shear strength, which is its
internal resistance to sliding or shearing.
• Cohesion (c): The inherent "stickiness" or bonding of soil particles to one another,
common in clays.
• Internal Friction (ϕ): The resistance to sliding between soil particles due to their
interlocking and roughness, common in sands.
• Effective Stress Principle: States that the shear strength of a soil is controlled not
by the total stress (σ) but by the effective stress (σ′), which is the total stress minus
the pore water pressure (u): σ′=σ−u.
• Pore Water Pressure (u): The pressure exerted by water within the soil pores. When
it increases, it reduces the effective normal stress between soil particles, thereby
lowering shear strength.
• Factor of Safety (FS): The most critical parameter in slope stability analysis. It is
defined as the ratio of the total available shear strength (or resisting moment) to the
total mobilized shear stress (or driving moment) along the most critical potential failure
surface. A factor of safety greater than 1.0 indicates stability.
• Shear Strength (c′,ϕ′): The ultimate resistance of the soil to deformation and rupture.
Higher shear strength leads to greater stability.
• Unit Weight (γ): The weight per unit volume of the soil. A heavier soil mass increases
the driving forces, thus decreasing stability.
• Compressibility: The tendency of soil to decrease in volume under pressure. Highly
compressible soils can lead to deformations that initiate failure.
• Slope Height (H): Taller slopes are inherently less stable than shorter ones, all else
being equal.
• Slope Angle (β): Steeper slopes are less stable as the gravitational component acting
along the potential failure surface increases.
• Surcharge Loads: External loads such as buildings, stockpiles, or traffic on the crest
of a slope that add to the driving forces.
• Seismic Forces (Earthquakes): Dynamic loading from earthquakes that can induce
additional inertial forces, significantly reducing the factor of safety.
• Weak Layers/Stratification: Presence of soft clay seams, weathered rock, or loose
sand layers that can act as preferential planes for failure.
• Folds, Faults, Joints: Geological discontinuities that can create kinematic
possibilities for failure or act as conduits for water, exacerbating instability.
• Limit Equilibrium Methods: Analytical methods that assume the soil mass along a
potential failure surface is at a state of impending failure. These are primarily used for
slope stability analysis.
• Infinite Slope Analysis: A limit equilibrium method that assumes a planar failure
surface parallel to the ground surface. It is suitable for long, uniform slopes.
• Method of Slices: Limit equilibrium methods for finite slopes that involve dividing the
potential sliding mass into vertical slices and analyzing the forces acting on each slice.
Used for complex finite slopes where circular or non-circular failure surfaces are
common.
• Ordinary Method of Slices (Fellenius Method): A method of slices that simplifies
assumptions about interslice forces (often assumed zero), leading to a more
conservative (lower) factor of safety.
• Bishop's Simplified Method: A method of slices that accounts for normal interslice
forces, providing more accurate results than Fellenius, but still simplifies shear
interslice forces. It often requires iterative solutions.
• More Rigorous Methods (e.g., Spencer, Morgenstern-Price): Methods that satisfy
all conditions of static equilibrium (both force and moment equilibrium) for each slice
and typically require specialized geotechnical software for their complex calculations.
REFERENCES:
https://www.tensarinternational.com/resources/articles/pore-water-
pressure#:~:text=If%20the%20clay%20fill%20were,in%20a%20loss%20of%20strength
https://www.geoengineer.org/education/soil-mechanics/shear-strength-of-underground-
materials
https://www.larimit.com/mitigation_measures/994/
https://www2.tulane.edu/~sanelson/Natural_Disasters/slopestability.htm
https://skyciv.com/docs/skyciv-retaining-wall/articles/lateral-earth-pressure-due-to-
surcharge-loads/