ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

College of Business and economics, School of Commerce.

Department of Business Administration and Information Systems

Course: Research Methodology

Instructor: Dr Meshesha Legese

Assignment Title:
Research Paradigm, theories and Methodologies

Prepared By
Name ID No Section
Barkon Mussie GSE/6162/17 3
Robel Solomon GSE/8669/17 3
Yehualashet Shenegelegn GSE/7582/17 3
Zelalem Damene GSE/5282/17 3
Research Paradigm
Definitions on Research Paradigm:

A paradigm is “a philosophical and theoretical framework of a

scientific school or discipline within which theories, laws, and
generalizations and the experiments performed in support of them are
formulated. (Merriam-Webster Dictionary)

As applied in the context of research, a research paradigm is a

worldview or philosophical framework, including ideas, beliefs,
and biases, that guides the research process. The research
paradigm in which a study is situated helps determine the manner in
which the research will be conducted.

The research paradigm is the framework into which the theories and
practices of your discipline fit to create the research plan. This
foundation guides all areas of your research plan, including the aim of
the study, research question, instruments or measurements used, and
analysis methods.

Most research paradigms are based on one of two model types:

positivism or interpretivism. These guide the theories and
methodologies used in the research project.

In general, positivist research paradigms lead to quantitative studies

and interpretivist research paradigms lead to qualitative studies. Of
course, there are many variations of both of these research
paradigm types, some of which lead to mixed-method studies.

Pillars of Research Paradigm

1
The research paradigm framework is supported by three pillars:

 Ontology,
 Epistemology, and
 Methodology.

Ontology is the study of the nature of reality. Is there a single reality,

multiple realities, or no reality at all? These are the questions that the
philosophy of ontology attempts to answer.

The oft-used example of an ontological question is “Does God exists?”

Two possible single realities exist: yes or no.

Epistemology is the study of knowledge and how we can know

reality. It incorporates the extent and ways to gain knowledge and how
to validate that knowledge. A frequently used example question in
epistemology is “How is it possible to know whether or not God
exists?”

Methodology is the study of how one investigates the environment

and validates the knowledge gained. It attempts to answer the
question “how to go about discovering the answer/reality.” Addressing
this pillar leads to specific data collection and analysis plans.

The purpose of research paradigms

 Put all the information about the three pillars of a research
paradigm together, and you can see the purpose of research
paradigms.
 Research paradigms establish the structure and foundation for a
research project.

Once the research paradigm has been determined, an appropriate

research plan can be created. The philosophical basis of the study
guides what knowledge is sought, how that knowledge can be
discovered, and how to form the collected information or data into the
knowledge being sought.

2
 The research paradigm clearly outlines the path to investigate your
topic. This brings clarity to the study and improves the quality of the
methods and analysis.

In addition, it is important for researchers to understand how their own

beliefs, assumptions, and biases can affect the research process. The
study’s data collection, analysis, and interpretation will be impacted by
the worldview of the researcher. Knowing the underlying research
paradigm and how it frames the study allows researchers to better
understand the effect of their perspective on the study results.

Types of research paradigms

Positivist paradigm – Proponents of a positivist paradigm believe
that there is a single reality that can be measured and understood.
Therefore, these researchers are likely to utilize quantitative methods
in their studies.

Interpretivism paradigm – Interpretivists believe in the existence

of multiple realities rather than a single reality. This is the research
paradigm used by the majority of qualitative studies conducted in the
social sciences.

Research paradigm examples

Pragmatism paradigm – Pragmatists believe that reality is
continually changing amid the flow of constantly changing situations.
Therefore, rather than use a single research paradigm, they employ
the framework that is most applicable to the research question they
are examining.

Both qualitative and quantitative techniques are often used as

positivist and interpretivist approaches are combined. Pragmatists
believe that the best research method is the one that will most
effectively address the research question.

3
Constructivist paradigm – Like interpretivists, constructivists
believe that there are numerous realities, not a single reality. The
constructivist paradigm holds that people construct their own
understanding of the world through experiencing and reflecting on
those experiences.

Constructivist research seeks to understand the meanings that people

attach to those experiences. Therefore, qualitative techniques, such as
interviews and case studies, are frequently used.

Constructivists are seeking the “why” of events. Constructivism is also

a popular theory of learning that focuses on how children and other
learners create knowledge from their experiences and learn better
through experimentation than through direct instruction.

Post-positivism paradigm – Post-positivists veer away from the

concept of reality as being an absolute certainty and view it instead in
a more probabilistic manner, thus taking a more subjective viewpoint.
They believe that research outcomes can never be totally objective
and a researcher’s worldview and biases can never be completely
removed from the research results.

Transformative paradigm – Proponents of transformative research

reject both positivism and interpretivism, believing that these
frameworks do not accurately represent the experiences of
marginalized communities. Transformative researchers generally use
both qualitative and quantitative techniques to better understand the
disparities in community relationships, support social justice, and
ultimately ensure transformative change.

4
Research Theories
Definitions on Theory
 Theory is a systematic explanation of phenomena based on
observation, experimentation, and reasoning. It provides a
framework for understanding complex concepts and
predicting future events or behaviors.
 Theories are central to academic disciplines, offering a
foundation for research, analysis, and application.
 A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of an aspect of
the natural or social world that is grounded in facts,
evidence, and tested hypotheses.
 It is developed through a systematic process of observation
and reasoning and serves to organize knowledge into
coherent frameworks.
 Theories often evolve over time, with new evidence either
refining or challenging their validity.

Key Characteristics of a Theory

 Based on Evidence: Supported by empirical data and
experimentation.
 Predictive Power: Enables predictions about phenomena under
specific conditions.
 Systematic: Organized and coherent, connecting various
concepts.
 Subject to Testing: Open to falsification and further refinement.
 Broad Applicability: Explains phenomena across different
contexts or disciplines.

5
Types of Theories
1. Descriptive Theories
 Explain and describe phenomena as they are observed, without
making predictions.
 Useful in initial stages of research to understand and categorize
phenomena.

Example:
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs describes human motivation in terms of a
hierarchy of basic to self-actualization needs.

2. Explanatory Theories
 Aim to explain why certain phenomena occur and establish causal
relationships.
 Useful and common in science, medicine, and sociology to identify
underlying mechanisms.
Example:
Germ Theory of Disease explains how microorganisms cause illness.

3. Predictive Theories
 Allow predictions about future events or behaviors based on
current knowledge.
 Often used in economics, psychology, and environmental studies,
Financial news subscriptions
Example:
Behavioral Finance Theory predicts how psychological factors influence
investment decisions.

4. Prescriptive Theories
 Provide guidance or recommendations for action to achieve
desired outcomes.
 Widely used in business, military strategy, and policy-making.
Example:
Game Theory prescribes strategies for decision-making in competitive
environments.

5. Grand Theories
 Broad, abstract frameworks that provide comprehensive
explanations of phenomena.
 Often used in foundational research across disciplines like
cosmology and sociology.

6
Example:
Big Bang Theory explains the origins of the universe.

6. Middle-Range Theories
 Narrower in scope, focusing on specific aspects of a
phenomenon.
 Useful in applied research and addressing practical issues.

Example:
Social Exchange Theory explores interpersonal relationships and exchanges.

Steps to Develop a Theory

1. Observation: Identify patterns, behaviors, or phenomena that
require explanation.
Example: Observing the correlation between diet and health
outcomes.
2. Formulate a Hypothesis: Develop testable predictions based
on observations.
Example: “A diet rich in fruits and vegetables reduces the risk of
chronic diseases.”
3. Collect Data: Gather evidence through experiments, surveys, or
observations.
Example: Conducting a longitudinal study on dietary habits and
health markers.
4. Analyze Results: Test the hypothesis and identify causal
relationships.
Example: Use statistical methods to evaluate the relationship
between diet and disease incidence.
5. Refine and Validate: Modify the theory based on results and
repeat testing.
Example: Adjust the theory to account for additional factors like
exercise and genetics.
Financial news subscriptions

6. Present and Publish: Share findings through academic papers,

presentations, or reports.

7
Advantages of Theories
1. Simplify Complexity: Break down complex phenomena
into manageable concepts.

2. Guide Research: Provide direction for data collection,

analysis, and interpretation.

3. Enable Predictions: Help anticipate outcomes in various

scenarios.
4. Support Generalization: Theories often apply across
different contexts, enhancing their utility.

Limitations of Theories
Dependence on Assumptions: Some theories rely on
assumptions that may not hold universally.

Subject to Change: New evidence can challenge or overturn

established theories.

Limited Scope: Not all theories can explain every aspect of a

phenomenon.

Potential Bias: The development and acceptance of theories may

be influenced by cultural or institutional factors.

What is a Research Theory?

 A research theory is a system of interrelated concepts,
definitions, and propositions that present a view of
phenomena by specifying relations among variables.
 In essence, it is an organized framework that helps researchers
understand why certain things happen the way they do.
 Theories explain the relationships between variables, helping
researchers formulate hypotheses and make predictions.
 In the field of research, theories provide a framework for
understanding, explaining, and predicting phenomena.

8
  Research theories are fundamental to guiding the design,
methodology, and interpretation of research studies.
 They serve as the foundation upon which scientific inquiries are
built and help in making sense of the data collected.

The Role of Theories in Research

1. Guiding Hypothesis Development:
o Theories help researchers generate hypotheses, which are
testable predictions about the relationships between
variables.
o A well-developed theory often suggests specific relationships
that can be tested in empirical research.
2. Framing Research Questions:
o Theories shape the types of questions researchers ask.
o They provide a conceptual lens through which to view
problems, often determining the scope and direction of
inquiry.
3. Informing Research Design:
o Theories influence how research is designed, including the
selection of research methods, data collection techniques,
and analytical strategies.
o For instance, a causal theory may lead to an experimental
design, whereas a descriptive theory may suggest
observational methods.
4. Interpreting Results:
o Theories guide the interpretation of data by providing a
framework to make sense of findings.
o Researchers compare their results with the predictions made
by theories to understand if the data support or contradict
existing explanations.
5. Contributing to Knowledge Building:
o Over time, theories are tested, refined, and expanded,
contributing to the cumulative body of scientific knowledge.
o A theory's robustness is judged by its ability to explain and
predict across a wide range of settings.

9
Research
methodology
Definitions:
 Research methodology refers to the systematic approach,
strategies, and techniques used to gather, analyze, and interpret
data in a research study.
 It involves the principles and procedures that guide the research
process, ensuring that the study is conducted in a reliable, valid,
and ethical manner.
 The choice of methodology is influenced by the research
questions, objectives, the nature of the research problem, and
the type of data required.

Key components of research

methodology
1. Research Design: This is the overall plan or blueprint for the
research study. It determines how data will be collected,
analyzed, and interpreted. Common research designs include:

o Descriptive (to describe characteristics of a phenomenon),

o Correlational (to explore relationships between variables),

o Experimental (to determine cause-and-effect relationships),

o Exploratory (to investigate new areas or phenomena).

2. Data Collection Methods: These are the techniques used to

gather data from participants or sources. Common methods
include:

10
o Qualitative methods (e.g., interviews, focus groups, case
studies, ethnography),

o Quantitative methods (e.g., surveys, experiments,

observational studies).

3. Sampling: The process of selecting participants or units from a

larger population for inclusion in the study. Sampling methods
can be:

o Random sampling (every member of the population has an

equal chance of being selected),

o Non-random sampling (e.g., convenience sampling, purposive

sampling, snowball sampling).

4. Data Analysis: This involves processing and interpreting the

data to answer the research questions. For quantitative research,
statistical techniques are often used. For qualitative research,
methods such as thematic analysis, content analysis, or
grounded theory may be employed.

5. Ethical Considerations: Researchers must adhere to ethical

principles to protect participants' rights, privacy, and well-being.
This includes informed consent, confidentiality, and avoiding
harm.

6. Validity and Reliability: These are key concepts in ensuring

the accuracy and consistency of research findings. Validity refers
to the extent to which the study measures what it intends to
measure, while reliability refers to the consistency of the results.

7. Interpretation and Conclusion: After analyzing the data,

the researcher draws conclusions, discusses the implications of
the findings, and suggests areas for future research.

11
Research Methods
Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing
data. Developing research methods is an integral part of research
design. When planning methods, there are two key decisions one
has to make.

 First, decide how you will collect data. Your methods depend on
what type of data you need to answer your research question:

o Qualitative vs. quantitative: Will your data take the form of

words or numbers?

o Primary vs. secondary: Will you collect original data yourself,

or will you use data that has already been collected by someone
else?

o Descriptive vs. experimental: Will you take measurements

of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

 Second, decide how you will analyze the data.

o For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods

to test relationships between variables.

o For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic

analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

Methods for collecting data

Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering
your research question. The type of data you need depends on the
aims of your research.

Qualitative vs. quantitative data

12
Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on
the type of knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study

something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data.

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or

your research involves hypothesis testing, collect quantitative data.

 Pros  Cons
Qualitativ  Flexible – you can often adjust  Can’t be analyzed
e your methods as you go to develop statistically, and
new knowledge. not generalizable to
 Can be conducted with small broader populations.
samples.  Difficult to
standardize research,
at higher risk
for research bias.
Quantitati  Can be used to systematically  Requires statistical
ve describe large collections of things. training to analyze
 Generates reproducible data.
knowledge.  Requires
larger samples.
You can also take a mixed methods approach, where you use both
qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Primary vs. secondary research

Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the
purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys,
observations and experiments). Secondary research is data that has
already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government
census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to

collect primary data. But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge,
analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large
scale, secondary data might be a better choice.

13
  Pros  Cons
Primary  Can be collected to  More expensive and
answer your time-consuming to
specific research collect.
question.  Requires training
 You have control over in data
the sampling and collection methods.
measurement methods.
Seconda  Easier and faster to  No control over how
ry access. data was generated.
 You can collect data that  Requires extra
spans longer timescales processing to make
and broader sure it works for your
geographical locations. analysis.

Descriptive vs. experimental data

In descriptive research, you collect data about your study subject
without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on
your sampling method.

In experimental research, you systematically intervene in a process

and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on
your experimental design.

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary

your independent variable, precisely measure your dependent
variable, and control for confounding variables. If it’s practically and
ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering
questions about cause and effect.

 Pros  Cons
14
Descriptive  Allows you to describe  No control over confounding
your research subject variables.
without influencing it.  Can’t establish causality.
 Accessible – you can
gather more data on a
larger scale.
Experimental  More control over  You might influence your
confounding variables. research subject in
 Can establish causality. unexpected ways.
 Usually requires more
expertise and resources to
collect data.

Research methods for collecting data

Research Primary Qualitative or When to use
method or quantitative?
secondary
?
Experiment Primary Quantitative To test cause-and-effect
relationships.
Survey Primary Quantitative To understand general
characteristics of a population.
Interview/ Primary Qualitative To gain more in-depth
focus group understanding of a topic.
Observation Primary Either To understand how something
occurs in its natural setting.
Literature Secondary Either To situate your research in an
review existing body of work, or to
evaluate trends within a
research topic.
Case study Either Either To gain an in-depth
understanding of a specific
group or context, or when you
don’t have the resources for a
large study.

15
Methods for analyzing data
Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect
and how you prepare it for analysis.

Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For

example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying
the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the
frequencies of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and
experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:

o From open-ended surveys and interviews, literature reviews, case

studies, ethnographies, and other sources that use text rather than
numbers.

o Using non-probability sampling methods.

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the

researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your
choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias.

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand

frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or
cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected
either:

o During an experiment.

o Using probability sampling methods.

Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way,

the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and
shared among researchers.

16
Examples of data analysis methods

Research methods for analyzing data

Researc Qualitative or When to use
h quantitative?
method
Statistic Quantitative To analyze data collected in a statistically
al valid manner (e.g. from experiments, surveys,
analysis and observations).
Meta- Quantitative To statistically analyze the results of a large
analysis collection of studies.
Can only be applied to studies that collected
data in a statistically valid manner.
Themati Qualitative To analyze data collected from
c interviews, focus groups, or textual sources.
analysis To understand general themes in the data
and how they are communicated.
Content Either To analyze large volumes of textual or visual
analysis data collected from surveys, literature
reviews, or other sources.
Can be quantitative (i.e. frequencies of words)
or qualitative (i.e. meanings of words).

17
References
 Creswell, J. W. (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed
Methods Approaches. Sage Publications.

 Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. University of

Chicago Press.

 Babbie, E. R. (2020). The Practice of Social Research. Cengage Learning.

 Glanz, K., Rimer, B. K., & Viswanath, K. (2015). Health Behavior: Theory,
Research, and Practice. Jossey-Bass.

 Popper, K. R. (2002). The Logic of Scientific Discovery. Routledge.

 Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/paradigm [Accessed March 10,
2023]

 What is research paradigm – explanation and examples. Peachy Essay.

https://peachyessay.com/blogs/what-is-research-paradigm/ [Accessed March
10, 2023]

 Editage All Access is a subscription-based platform that unifies the best AI

tools and services designed to speed up, simplify, and streamline every step
of a researcher’s journey. The Editage All Access Pack is a one-of-a-kind
subscription that unlocks full access to an AI writing assistant, literature
recommender, journal finder, scientific illustration tool, and exclusive
discounts on professional publication services from Editage.

 Based on 22+ years of experience in academia, Editage All Access empowers

researchers to put their best research forward and move closer to success.
Explore our top AI Tools pack, AI Tools + Publication Services pack, or Build
Your Own Plan. Find everything a researcher needs to succeed, all in one
place – Get All Access now starting at just $14 a month!

18