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AJEC-65-milson_new16x24.qxd 10/17/2006 2:17 PM Page i

Art and Architecture of the Synagogue

in Late Antique Palestine
AJEC-65-milson_new16x24.qxd 10/17/2006 2:17 PM Page ii

Ancient Judaism
and
Early Christianity
Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken
Judentums und des Urchristentums

Editorial Board
Martin Hengel (Tübingen),
Pieter W. van der Horst (Utrecht),
Martin Goodman (Oxford),
Daniel R. Schwartz (Jerusalem),
Cilliers Breytenbach (Berlin),
Friedrich Avemarie (Marburg),
Seth Schwartz (New York)

VOLUME 65
AJEC-65-milson_new16x24.qxd 10/17/2006 2:17 PM Page iii

Art and Architecture

of the Synagogue in
Late Antique Palestine
In the Shadow of the Church

by

David Milson

LEIDEN BOSTON
•

2007
AJEC-65-milson_new16x24.qxd 10/17/2006 2:17 PM Page iv

Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity has previously been published as Arbeiten zur Geschichte
des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums (ISSN 0169-734X)

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Milson, David.
Art and architecture of the synagoge in late antique Palestine : in the shadow of the
church / by David Milson.
p. cm. — (Ancient Judaism and early Christianity, ISSN 1871-6636 ; v. 65)
Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
ISBN-13: 978-90-04-15186-4
ISBN-10: 90-04-15186-9 (hardback : alk. paper)
1. Synagogue architecture—Palestine. 2. Synagogues—Palestine—History. 3. Church
architecture—Palestine. 4. Church architecture—Influence. 5. Judaism—Relations—
Christianity. 6. Christianity and other religions—Judaism. I. Title. II. Series: Arbeiten
zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums ; Bd. 65.

NA5977.M55 2006
726’.30933—dc 22
2006043942

ISSN 1871–6636
ISBN-13: 978-90-04-15186-4
ISBN-10: 90-04-15186-9

© Copyright 2007 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands

Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill,
Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written
permission from the publisher.

Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal

use is granted by Brill provided that
the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright
Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910
Danvers, MA 01923, USA.
Fees are subject to change.

printed in the netherlands

 contents v

In memoriam
Stuart Earl Milson

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 vi contents

milson_AJEC65_1.indd vi 10/17/2006 3:46:09 PM

 contents vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

List of Maps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
Abbreviations of Often-Used Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiv

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter One
Evolution and ancient synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.1. Re-assessing past scholarship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.2. ‘Normative Judaism’ and the forbidden image . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3. Synagogue scholarship in the early nineteenth century . . . 20
1.4. Beginnings of the evolutionary theory of synagogue plans 22
1.4.1. ‘Galilean’ synagogues—the ‘early’ type . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4.2. Synagogues with apses—the ‘late’ type . . . . . . . . . 24
1.4.3. Broadhouse synagogues—the ‘transitional’ type . . . 26
1.4.4. How the theory has effected synagogue studies . . . 28
1.5. Galilean regionalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.6. Recent publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Chapter Two
Excavated synagogues dating to the Byzantine period . . . . . . . . 33
Introduction: Evidence for identification and dating of ancient
synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1. Archaeological evidence for unequivocal synagogues by
century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.1.1. Dated to the Fourth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.1.2. Dated to the Fifth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.1.3. Dated to the Sixth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.2. Archaeological evidence for undated synagogues or those
having equivocal building chronologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.2.1. #En Gedi—Southern Hebron Hills, Palaestina
Prima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.2.2. Susiya—Southern Hebron Hills,
Palaestina Prima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

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2.2.3. Beth She’arim, “Synagogue I and II”—Lower

Galilee, Palaestina Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.2.4. Ma’oz Hayyim, “Building A”—Beth She’an Valley,
Palaestina Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.2.5. Ma’oz Hayyim, “Building B”—Beth She’an Valley,
Palaestina Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.2.6. Ma’oz Hayyim, “Building C”—Beth She’an Valley,
Palaestina Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.2.7. Rehob, “Phase 3”—Beth She’an Valley,
Palaestina Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.2.8. Hammat Tiberias, “Synagogue IIA Severos”—
Eastern Lower Galilee, Palaestina Secunda . . . . . . 66
2.2.9. Hammat Tiberias, “Synagogue IB”—Eastern
Lower Galilee, Palaestina Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.2.10. Arbel, “Synagogue I and II”—Eastern
Lower Galilee, Palaestina Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.2.11. Beth Yerach, “Synagogue”—Eastern Lower
Galilee, Palaestina Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.2.12. Hammat Gader, “Synagogue”—Golan, Palaestina
Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.2.13. Nabratein, “Synagogue 2a and 2b”—Upper
Galilee, Palaestina Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.2.14. Meiron, “Synagogue”—Upper Galilee, Palaestina
Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.2.15. Bar’am, “Synagogue”—Upper Galilee, Palaestina
Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.2.16. Meroth, “Stages A and B”—Upper Galilee,
Phoenicia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.2.17. Meroth, “Stage C”—Upper Galilee, Phoenicia . . . 81
2.3. Metrological evidence corroborates material evidence for
Byzantine dating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Chapter Three
On the ‘Orientation’ of Ancient Synagogues and Churches . . . 84
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.1. Where was the Divine Presence? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.1.1. Jewish influence on Christian practice?. . . . . . . . . . 85
3.1.2. Christian influence on Jewish practice . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.2. “Orientation” of synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.2.1. Jewish prayer toward Jerusalem? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

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 contents ix

3.3. Christian prayer toward East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

3.3.1. Written sources for prayer toward the East . . . . . . 87
3.4. Archaeological evidence for Christian direction of prayer 88
3.4.1. Churches in Palestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.4.2. Several churches founded by Constantine have
apses in the West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.4.3. Syrian churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.5. Direction of influence: Jewish-Christian, Christian-Jewish,
or separate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.6. Written sources from the Jewish realm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.6.1. Location of the Divine Presence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.6.2. Direction of prayer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.7. Archaeological evidence in synagogues for direction of
prayer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.7.1. Criteria used by archeologists for describing
direction of prayer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.8. An obstacle: view and access to some platforms
interrupted by columns and entrances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.9. An enhanced axis in synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.9.1. Synagogues at Ma’oz Hayyim and at Rehob near
Scythopolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.10. Bema and chancel screens in churches and synagogues 102
3.11. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Chapter Four
The ‘façade motif’ in ancient synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.1. Introduction: the Torah Scrolls, the Torah Shrine and
the ‘façade motif’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.1.1. A ‘generic’ motif? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.1.2. The façade motif on synagogue pavements . . . . . . 111
4.2. Inscriptions referring to the Torah Shrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.3. Archaeological evidence for the Torah Shrine . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.4. Torah Shrine or Torah Ark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.5. Scrolls in late antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.6. Iconography of the façade motif from funerary contexts 124
4.7. A closer look at synagogue pavements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.8. Depictions of the Torah Shrine on glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.9. The façade motif in pagan and Christian contexts . . . . . . . 133
4.10. From iconography to object: the Torah Shrine . . . . . . . . . 135
4.11. An enlarged façade with columns motif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.12. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139

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Chapter Five
Dated Churches in Galilee and the Chancel Screen . . . . . . . . . 141
5.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.2. Historical sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.3. Churches Dated by Inscription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.3.1. ‘Evron 415, 443, and 490 CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.3.2. Shavei Tzion 486 CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.3.3. Horvat Esh-Shubeika 513 CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.3.4. Horvat Hesheq 519 CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.3.5. Philoteria (Beth Yerach) 528/9 CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.3.6. Horvat Bata (Carmiel) 543 CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.3.7. Suhmata 555 CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.3.8. Beth She’an, Monastery of Kyra Maria c. 567 CE 154
5.3.9. Gerasa Church of Bishop Marianos 570 CE . . . . . 156
5.3.10. Kursi 582-587 CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.3.11. Hippos-Sussita Cathedral and Baptistery 591 CE 159
5.4. Dating the Chancel Screen in Churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

Chapter Six
Ecclesiastical Furnishings in Synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.1. Introduction: apses and ecclesiastical furnishings in fourth
to sixth century synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.2. Written sources for platforms in synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.2.1. The platform in rabbinic liturgical discussion . . . . . 167
6.3. Archaeological evidence for the raised platforms in
synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.3.1. Platforms in a range of sizes (Table 6.1) . . . . . . . . . 172
6.4. Another type of small, stepped platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6.4.1. Written evidence for an ambo in the synagogue . . . 188
6.4.2. The Seat of the Elder at Dura-Europos . . . . . . . . . 189
6.4.3. Was there a wooden platform in the synagogue at
Dura-Europos? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.5. Archaeological evidence from Palestine for an ambo in
synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.6. The place where the Word is read aloud: sources on the
ambo in early churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6.7. Chancel screens: marking the ‘sacred space’ in churches 194
6.7.1. Evidence for chancel screens in the churches of
Hagia Sophia and St. Polyeuktos in Constanti-
nople . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

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 contents xi

6.8. Chancel screens in synagogues in late Antique Palestine 196

6.8.1. Archaeological evidence for chancel screens in
synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.8.2. Synagogues with chancel screens generally located
near cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
6.8.3. Motives for the introduction of chancel screens
into the synagogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
6.9. The ‘Chair of Moses’ or Kathedra in synagogues . . . . . . . . 201
6.10. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

Chapter Seven
The Niche and the Apse in Synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.1. Introduction: Where were the Holy Scrolls kept in the
ancient synagogue? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.2. Semicircular niches in synagogues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
7.2.1. Dura-Europos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
7.2.2. Eshtemo’a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
7.2.3. Susiya. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7.2.4. Arbel in Galilee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7.2.5. Nawa in Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
7.3. Rectangular niche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7.3.1. Horvat Rimmon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.3.2. Blocked Doorways at Beth She’arim and ‘En
Gedi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.4. Rectangular chambers as the synagogue’s focal point . . . . 218
7.4.1. Chambers at Hammat Tiberias, and Horvat
Sumaqa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.4.2. Rectangular recesses at Gerasa and Horvat Ma’on .220
7.5. Apses in churches and synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
7.5.1. Assumptions concerning apses in synagogues . . . . . 223
7.5.2. Some explanations for the appearance of the apse
in synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
7.6. The appearance of the apse as an architectural feature in
synagogues in relation to Byzantine liturgical practice . . . . 228
7.6.1. The First Entrance of the Gospel and Hetoimasia 229
7.7. Artistic Representations of The First Entrance and The
Gospel Enthroned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
7.7.1. Imagery of the imperial throne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
7.7.2. The Word of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

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7.8. Competition with Christianity and adaptation in the

synagogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Appendix A
On Vitruvius, a synagogue, and five churches in the Provinces
of Syria and Palestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
A.1. Introduction: Vitruvius and design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
A.1.1. Names of builders and their titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
A.1.2. Inscriptions from Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
A.2. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
A.3. Churches with identical dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
A.3.1. Churches at Nawa and Sugane in Syria . . . . . . . . . 249
A.3.2. Identical plans at Mampsis in Palestina Tertia
and et-Tuba, in Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
A.3.3. The southern church at Burdaqli in Syria . . . . . . . 254
A.3.4. The synagogue at Ma’oz Hayyim, Palestine
Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
A.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Table A:1. Metrology of Churches and Synagogues . . . . . . . . . . 259
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Archaeological Evidence for Ancient Synagogues:
The Catalogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

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 list of figures xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. I:1. Theodotos inscription, found in Jerusalem;

now in Istanbul (first century); (Weil, 1920) . . . . . . . 479
Fig. 1:1. Synagogue plans; Capernaum, Eshtemoa, and Beth
Alpha as typical of each of the “three types”
(second to sixth centuries (sic)); (drawings by author) 480
Fig. 2:1. Horvat Shema’; photo of meeting between ‘stylobate
wall’ and the northern wall of the building (not
integrally bound together) (fourth century);
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Fig. 2:2. Horvat Shema’; fragments of a small capital found
underneath stone bench next to S. wall (fourth
century); (Meyers, 1976, photo 3.4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Fig. 2:3. Gush Halav; N–S section through the synagogue
showing a thin plaster floor level, with later plaster
repair (fourth century); (Meyers, 1990, Fig. 5,
pg. 28–29) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Fig. 2:4. Gush Halav; photo of cyma recta mouldings found
in the synagogue (fourth century); (Meyers, 1990,
photo 18, pg. 50) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Fig. 2:5. Nabratein; photo of lintel bearing Hebrew inscrip-
tion: “In the year 494 since the destruction of the
temple, Hanina son of Lizar and Luliana son of
Yudan built this.” (564 CE); (author’s photo) . . . . . . 483
Fig. 2:6. Beth Alpha; photo of the nave mosaic (sixth
century); (author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Fig. 2:7. Susiya; photograph of the platform and north wall
within the synagogue (fourth–eighth centuries);
(Yeivin, 1989, Fig. 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Fig. 2:8. Hammath Tiberias; photo of apse floor of the
phase III synagogue, showing traces of an earlier
wall (fifth century); (author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Fig. 2:9. Hammath Tiberias; photo of small platform
relating to earlier phase of the synagogue (without
apse) (fifth century); (author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . 486

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 xiv list of figures

Fig. 2:10. Nabratein; stone lintel with conch and pediment

flanked by lions found embedded in the platform
of Synagogue 2b (third century); (author’s photo) 486
Fig. 2:11. Meiron; photo of the east foundation wall, with
bond to southern annex (fourth century);
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Fig. 2:12. Meiron; section through E. wall of synagogue
looking south, showing location of Antonine
(Probus and Aurelian) coins (found below L1004)
(270–282 CE); (Meyers, 1977, Fig 2.9, pg. 123) 488
Fig. 2:13. Bar’am; photo of the spiral consolae flanking the
lintel of the main doorway (fifth century);
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
Fig. 2:14. Bar’am; photo of the W. wall showing possible
earlier wall below present wall (fifth century);
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Fig. 3:1. Dura–Europos; photo of the western wall of the
reconstructed synagogue (third century);
(Kraeling, 1956, Pl. 25:1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Fig. 3:2. Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem; plan of the martyrium
(fourth century); (Couasnon, 1972, Pl. 8) . . . . . . . . 491
Fig. 3:3. Tabgha; plan of the church of the Multiplication
of the Loaves and Fishes (fifth century);
(Schneider, 1937, Pl. 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Fig. 3:4. Fafirtin, Syria; plan, section and details of the
church (372 CE); (Butler, 1920, Ill. 370, pg. 328) 492
Fig. 3:5. Harab Sems; photo of the church (fifth century);
(Butler, 1920, Ill. 363) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Fig. 3:6. Baalbek; plan of the church built on the remains
of the temple of Jupiter (fourth century);
(Wiegand, 1921, Pl. 17) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Fig. 3:7. Horvat Shema’; photo of the platform abutting
the southern wall of the synagogue (fourth
century); (author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Fig. 3:8. Rehob; plan of the synagogue showing platform
against south wall (fourth–sixth centuries); (Vitto,
1981, pg. 90) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Fig. 3:9. Ma’oz Hayyim; orthogonal plan of the phase I
synagogue showing platform against southern wall
of the hall (fourth century); (Tsaferis, 1982, Fig. 3,
pg. 218) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495

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 list of figures xv

Fig. 4:1. Hammath Tiberias; façade motif as a Torah

Shrine flanked by menorot and other objects
(fourth century); (Dothan, 1981, Pl. 10) . . . . . . . . . 495
Fig. 4:2. Ben Ezra Synagogue, Cairo; reconstructed
wooden Torah Shrine from medieval synagogue
(eleventh (?) century); (Lambert, 1994, Fig. 7.4,
pg. 220) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Fig. 4:3. Pompeii; Lares altar with fresco framed by
columns and pediment from the House of the
Vettii (first century); (Eschebach, 1978, Fig. 147) 497
Fig. 4:4. Seleucia, near Antioch; motif as a frame for a
floor mosaic showing the inebriated Dionysus and
Heracles in the triclinium of the House of the
Drinking Contest (mid-third century); (Levi, ii,
1947, Pl. 30:b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Fig. 4:5. Sion tresure; silver book cover decorated with
façade motif and gilded cross (H: 37.5 x 27.6 cm.)
(sixth century); (Boyd and Mango, 1992,
Fig. S.22:5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Fig. 4:6. Victoria and Albert Museum; consular diptych
showing archangel Michael framed by the façade
motif (sixth century); (Rodley, 1994, Fig. 66) . . . . . 500
Fig. 4:7. Esquiline Treasure; Projecta Casket depiciting a
façade motif (mid–fourth century); (Rodley, 1994,
Fig. 30, pg. 47) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Fig. 4:8. Dura–Europos; façade motif used as a depiction
of the Temple door between double columns
(set above niche) (third century); (Kraeling, 1956,
Pl. 51) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Fig. 4:9. Beth She’arim; menorah framed by façade motif
in relief on lead sarcophagus found in the
necropolis (third century); (Avigad, 1976, Pl. 65:1) 503
Fig. 4:10. Beth Alpha; façade motif on the mosaic floor of
the synagogue (sixth century); (Sukenik, 1932,
Pl. 8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Fig. 4:11. El-Khirbe; drawing of synagogue mosaic with
Torah Shrine (?) or Temple façade (fifth century);
(Magen, 1993, ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Fig. 4:12. Khirbet Samara; mosaic depiction of Torah
Shrine with curtain wrapped around innermost

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 xvi list of figures

left-hand column (late fourth–early fifth centuries);

(Magen, 1993, Pl. 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Fig. 4:13. Beth She’an North; double façade motif depicting
a curtain hung on a pole set between columns
(fifth century); (Zori, 1967, Pl. 29:5) . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Fig. 4:14. Dalton; chancel post with partial inscription
(undated); (Naveh, 1978, Pl. 145) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
Fig. 4:15. Ostia; plan of the synagogue (fourth century);
(Runesson, 2001, Fig. 88, pg. 68) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Fig. 4:16. Ostia; photo of the aedicula of the phase II
synagogue (fifth century); (Runesson, 2001,
Fig. 54, pg. 57) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
Fig. 4:17. Sardis; plans of the three phases of the synagogue
(third–fifth centuries); (Seager, 1983, Fig. 271) . . . 509
Fig. 4:18. Sardis; photo of the reconstructed aedicule on the
eastern wall (late fourth century); (Seager, 1983,
Fig. 274) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Fig. 4:19. Chorazin; stone conch found loose in the syna-
gogue (fourth–fifth century); (author’s photo) . . . . 511
Fig. 4:20. Dura-Europos; fresco of the battle of Eben Ezer
showing a jewelled chest (third century);
(Kraeling, 1956, Pl. 54) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Fig. 4:21. Dura-Europos; fresco depicted on wing panel III
next to the aedicule, showing Ezra (or Moses)
reading a scroll, with a yellow chest (scroll case?)
with rounded top covered by a red cloth at his
right foot (third century); (Kraeling, 1956, Pl. 77) 512
Fig. 4:22. Beth She’arim; relief decoration in front of tomb,
showing a façade motifs with menorah (third
century); (Mazar, 1973, Pl. 32) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Fig. 4:23. Sepphoris; restored façade motif on mosaic
pavement from the synagogue (fifth century);
(Weiss, 2005, Fig. 11, pg. 66) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Fig. 4:24. Susiya; mosaic depiction of façade motif with
Torah Shrine flanked by menorot in front of
small platform (damaged by later chancel screen)
(fifth century); (Gutman et alii, 1981, pg. 125). . . . 514
Fig. 4:25. Na’aran; façade motif on mosaic floor (sixth
century); (Benoit, 1961, Pl. 7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Fig. 4:26. Pompeii, House of the Vettii; fresco of large open
armarium, with gods and perfume bottles set on

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 list of figures xvii

three shelves, and putti making perfume in the

foreground (first century); (Budde, 1939) . . . . . . . 516
Fig. 4:27. Herculaneum; wooden armarium from the
House of Sacello de legno (first century); (Mols,
1993, Fig 112, pg. 497) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Fig. 4:28. Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna; wall
mosaic showing open cabinet with Gospels on
shelves (450 CE); (Deichmann, 1958, Fig. 6) . . . . . 518
Fig. 4:29. Ostia; shoemaker in relief on stone sarcophagus
(first century); (Revel-Neher, 1984, Fig. 97) . . . . . . 519
Fig. 4:30. Khirbet el-Mekhayyat, Jordan; mosaic depiction
of a façade motif, with inscription flanked by two
lamps (sixth century); (Piccorillo, 1998, Fig. 210,
pg. 354) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Fig. 4:31. Syria-Palestine; glass chalice with a ciborium
motif with curtains, similar to the façade motif,
framing a cross (sixth century); (Israeli and
Mevorah, 2000, pg. 91) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Fig. 4:32. Nabratein; ceramic sherd with incised depiction
of a shrine (eighth century); (Meyers and Meyers,
1982, Fig. 3, pg. 179*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Fig. 5:1. Gerasa, Church of SS Peter and Paul; reconstruc-
tion of the chancel (mid-sixth century); (Crowfoot,
1941, frontispiece) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Fig. 5:2. Hippos-Sussita; restored and re-installed marble
chancel screens of the south aisle of the North-
west church (sixth century); (Segal, 2004,
Fig. 100) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
Fig. 6:1. Meroth; photo of the western raised platform
adjacent to the S wall, next to the main doorway
(sixth century); (author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
Fig. 6:2. Hammat Tiberias; marble chancel post with
incised menorah (sixth century); (Hachlili, 1996,
Pl. 28, pg. 108) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Fig. 6:3. Chorazin; photo of the basalt stone chair found
within the synagogue (fourth century); (Yeivin,
2000, Fig. 130) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Fig. 6:4. Beth She’arim; photo of the platform adjacent
to the S. wall of the civic basilica (third century);
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526

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 xviii list of figures

Fig. 6:5. Meiron; photo of the window in the S wall of the

synagogue (view to South) (third century);
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Fig. 6:6. Gush Halav; photo of remains of platform (phase
I) in the nave, adjacent to central doorway (fifth to
eighth centuries); (author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Fig. 6:7. Gush Halav; photo of platform (phase II) built in
the western aisle, adjacent to western stylobate
(fifth to eighth centuries); (author’s photo) . . . . . . . 528
Fig. 6:8. Chorazin; photo of the decorated basalt pilaster
from the synagogue (sixth to seventh centuries (?));
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Fig. 6:9. Hammath Tiberias; photo showing building seam
between earlier wall (to left) and later apse wall
(to right) (sixth century); (author’s photo) . . . . . . . . 530
Fig. 6:10. Hammath Tiberias; photo of stone door socket in
the platform in the west aisle (sixth century);
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
Fig. 6:11. Nabratein; reconstruction of the interior S. wall
with two platforms (note how the right column
has been erased, and the left platform supports a
table with menorah) (fourth century); (Meyers,
1996, Fig. 1.10b, pg. 14) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
Fig. 6:12. Capernaum; photo of the remains of the western
platform found in the southern section of the
nave, next to the main entrance (fifth century);
(Corbo, 1975, Fig. 52) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
Fig. 6:13. Charts of Platform Sizes; (third–fourth cen-
turies); (DM). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Fig. 6:14. Chart of Platform Sizes; (fifth–sixth centuries);
(DM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Fig. 6:15. Qasrin; photo of the platform (view to South)
(fifth century); (author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Fig. 6:16. Horvat #Anim; photo of the platform at the
northern end of the nave (fourth–seventh
centuries); (Ilan, 1991, Fig. 1, pg. 304) . . . . . . . . . . 533
Fig. 6:17. Horvat #Anim; reconstruction of the platform
(fourth–seventh centuries); (Amit, 2004, Fig. 4,
pg. 153) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534

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 list of figures xix

Fig. 6:18. Dura-Europos; photo of the niche and adjacent

“Seat of the Elder” (second–third century);
(Kraeling, 1956, Pl. 24) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Fig. 6:19. Dura-Europos; plan of the synagogue indicating
the locations of the holes in the plaster floor and
platform in the southwestern corner of the prayer
hall (second–third century); (Kraeling, 1956,
Plan 6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
Fig. 6:20. Beth She’an North; photo of the stepped platform
in the northern aisle (the later bench partially
covers the lowest step) (mid-sixth century);
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Fig. 6:21. Beth Alpha; photo of the platform adjacent to the
SE pier of the nave (sixth century); (Sukenik,
1932, Pl. V:2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Fig. 6:22. Gerasa; ambo in the church of the Bishop Isaiah
(seventh century); (Clark, 1986, Pl. 4, pg. 326) . . . 538
Fig. 6:23. Rehob; fragments of a chancel screen found in
the synagogue with a wreath motif surrounding a
menorah (sixth century); (Hachlili, 1996, Fig 5.9a) 538
Fig. 6:24. Massout Yitzhak; fragments of a chancel screen
found in the church with a wreath motif sur-
rounding a cross (sixth century); (Hachlili, 1996,
Fig 5.9b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Fig. 6:25. Gaza; fragments of carved marble chancel found
in the nave of the synagogue (sixth century);
(Ovadiah, 1995, Pl. 18a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Fig. 6:26. Susiya; reconstruction drawing of the chancel
arrangement on the platform, based on mosaic
depiction (cf. Fig. 5:31) (fifth century); (Yeivin,
1989, Pl. 52, Fig. 5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
Fig. 6:27. Hammat Gader; marble chancel posts found in
the synagogue (sixth century); (Sukenik, 1935,
Pl. 13a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Fig. 7:1. Sardis; photo of apse with three tiers of benches
(synthronon) (late fifth century); (Seager, 1989,
Fig. 256) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
Fig. 7:2. Sardis; photo showing both reconstructed
aediculae flanking central entrance (fifth
centuries); (Seager, 1989, Fig. 266) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542

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 xx list of figures

Fig. 7:3. Eshtemo’a; platform in front of three niches

adjacent to the northern wall (fourth century);
(Yeivin, 1981, pg. 121) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Fig. 7:4. Arbel; photo showing niche in S. wall of the late
phase of the synagogue (sixth to mid-eighth cen-
turies); (author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Fig. 7:5. Dura-Europos; photo of the square depression
found in the floor of the first phase of the syna-
gogue (second century); (Kraeling, 1956, Pl. 5:1) 544
Fig. 7:6. Dura-Europos; photograph of the remains of the
free-standing aedicule at the Temple of Bel (third
century); (Cumont, 1926, Pl. 27:1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
Fig. 7:7. Horvat Rimmon, Judean Hills; photo of the
remains of the north wall, with a shallow recess
(from N) (third–fourth centuries); (Kloner, 1983,
pg. 69) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Fig. 7:8. #En Gedi; photograph of the blocked doorway
(exterior view from the North) (fifth century);
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Fig. 7:9. #En Gedi; photograph of the charred remains
found within the synagogue, thought to be a
Torah Ark, and a bronze menorah nearby (fifth
century); (Barag, 1981, pg. 117) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Fig. 7:10. #En Gedi; photo of the platform adjacent to the
north wall of the synagogue (fifth to sixth centu-
ries); (Barag and Porat, 1970, pg. 99 ) . . . . . . . . . . 547
Fig. 7:11. Meroth; Isometric reconstruction drawing of the
late phase of the synagogue, showing positions of
the two platforms agains the S. wall (sixth cen-
tury); (Ilan, 1989, pg. 34) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Fig. 7:12. Hammath Tiberias; photograph of the small
paved room with cavity attached to the S of the
central nave (from S) (fourth–fifth centuries);
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Fig. 7:13. Beth Alpha; photograph of the cavity found in the
apse (sixth century); (Sukenik, 1932, Pl. V.2) . . . . . 548
Fig. 7:14. Orthodox Baptistery, Ravenna; mosaic depicting
the gospel, opened, placed on the altar (mid fifth
century); (Deichmann, 1958, Fig. 65) . . . . . . . . . . . 549

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 list of figures xxi

Fig. 7:15. San Vitale, Ravenna; mosaics of the N. wall of the

presbytery, depicting the First Entrance with
Justinian and attendants (534 CE); (Deichmann,
1958, Fig. 359, pg. 421) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Fig. 7:16. Orthodox Baptistery, Ravenna; mosaic (mid-fifth
century); (Deichmann, 1958, Fig. 65) . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Fig. A:1. Bethlehem; inscription prohibiting planting 15
podes from either side of the aqueduct, with a
ruler (598 CE); (Abel, 1926, Pl. V) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
Fig. A:2. Nawa, Syria; plan of the church (598 CE); (Bulter,
1920, Fig. 11, pg. 14) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
Fig. A:3. Sugane, Syria; plan of the bema church (sixth
century, CE); (Tchalenko, 1979, Fig. 114, pg. 62) 553
Fig. A:4. Nawa, Syria; geometric diagram of the plan
showing 5:4 grid based on 10 podes module (598
CE); (by author) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
Fig. A:5. Sugane, Syria; geometric diagram of the plan
showing 5:4 grid based on 10 podes module (sixth
century); (by author) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Fig. A:6. Mampsis, Palestina Tertia; plan of the church
(fourth–sixth centuries); (Negev, 1988, Plan 13) 556
Fig. A:7. Mampsis, Palestina Tertia; geometric diagram of
the plan showing 5:4 grid based on 9 pedes
module (mid-fourth (?) century CE); (based on
Chen, 1981, Pl. 11:1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Fig. A:8. et-Tuba, Syria; plan and section of the church
(583 CE); (Butler, 1920, Fig. 17, pg. 20) . . . . . . . . 558
Fig. A:9. et-Tuba, Syria; geometric diagram of the plan
showing 5:4 grid based on 9 pedes module (583
CE); (by author) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
Fig. A:10. Burdaqli, Syria; plan of the church (sixth–seventh
centuries); (Bulter, 1920, Fig. 235, pg. 235) . . . . . . 560
Fig. A:11. Burdaqli, Syria; geometric diagram of the plan
showing 5:4 grid based on 12 pedes module
(sixth–seventh centuries); (based on Butler, 1920,
Fig. 235, pg. 235) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Fig. A:12. Ma’oz Haim; geometric diagram of the synagogue
plan showing 5:4 grid based on 9 pedes module
(fifth–sixth centuries); (Chen, 1980, 256) . . . . . . . . 562

milson_AJEC65_1.indd xxi 10/17/2006 3:46:12 PM

 xxii list of figures

LIST OF MAPS

Map 1 Cities and major towns in Palestine . . . . . . . . . xxv

Map 2 Excavated synagogues in Palestine . . . . . . . . . . xxvi
Map 3 Excavated churches in Palestine . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxii
Map 4a-b Synagogue and church sites in Galilee (4th-
6th centuries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxviii

milson_AJEC65_1.indd xxii 10/17/2006 3:46:12 PM

 contents xxiii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Many people have freely given their time and energy to help complete
this Oxford dissertation and turn it into a book. First, I would like
to thank Doron Chen, who inspired me years ago to follow this long
road. Once I began studying archaeology, among my undergraduate
teachers in Jerusalem, Jan Gunneweg was especially helpful in his
encouragement in spite of many obstacles along the way.
In Oxford, there are many to thank. My gratitude is due to my
supervisor Marlia Mango, who took the responsibility for the topic,
and never showed the slightest tinge of anger on my lapses of Eng-
lish grammar. Her endless questioning helped me to re-think deep-
seated ideas. Several times in my research on ancient synagogues I
found Martin Goodman able to pick me out of a quandary, as well
as lead me along another more fruitful path. Julian Raby, ever with
fresh insight, showed me how to see things in a completely new way
when I thought the road was dark. James Coulton was most helpful
in our discussions on architects and architecture in antiquity and
Judith McKenzie was always available for serious questions and
helpful advice. Caroline Schulten is a dear soulmate, and was always
available when I needed support. My appreciation goes to Nicholas
Gendle for our long discussions, and for his help and advice on many
of the issues dealt with in the thesis. I would like to give particular
thanks to my examiners, Jodi Magness and Fergus Millar, and to
Catherine Hezser, Priscilla Lange and an anonymous reader for
their constructive comments and encouragement. My sincerest grati-
tude to Renee Otto and the editing staff at Brill who were ever so
diligent in making sure this work would see the light of day.
I am grateful to the Meyerstein Fund, to the Craven Committee,
to the Graduate Studies Office at Oxford University and to Merton
College for their financial help in the form of travel grants. Excur-
sions to Israel allowed me to see and examine some of the sites dealt
with here.
Finally, thanks and appreciation to my mom for never-ending
support for what must have seemed a long and arduous task. My
parents’ steadfast love over the years, even in difficult times, were
as bedrock. In that sense, I feel lucky and privileged. I dedicate this
work to my dearest father of blessed memory, whose much-too-early
passing taught me how transient this life can be.

milson_AJEC65_1.indd xxiii 10/17/2006 3:46:12 PM

 xxiv contents

ABBREVIATIONS OF OFTEN-USED SOURCES

Journals
Atiqot Atiqot-Journal of the Israel Antiquities Authority
BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
EI Eretz Israel
IEJ Israel Exploration Journal
ESI Excavations and Survey in Israel
LA Liber Annuus-Studium Biblicum Franciscanum
PEFQS Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement
PEQ Palestine Exploration Quarterly
Qadmoniot Qadmoniot-Journal of the Israel Exploration Society
ZDPV Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina Vereins

Books
AS Ancient Synagogues: Historical Analysis and Archaeological Dis-
covery
ASI Ancient Synagogues in Israel
ASR Ancient Synagogues Revealed
BT Babylonian Talmud
DASI Die antiken Synagogen in Israel
HSA Handbook of Synagogue Architecture
NEAEHL New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy
Land
PT Palestinian Talmud
SLA The Synagogue in Late Antiquity

milson_AJEC65_1.indd xxiv 10/17/2006 3:46:12 PM

 maps xxv

Map 1 Cities and major towns in Palestine

milson_AJEC65_1.indd xxv 10/17/2006 3:46:12 PM

 xxvi maps

Map 2 Excavated synagogues in Palestine

milson_AJEC65_1.indd xxvi 10/17/2006 3:46:22 PM

 maps xxvii

Map 3 Excavated churches in Palestine

milson_AJEC65_1.indd xxvii 10/17/2006 3:46:32 PM

 xxviii maps

Map 4a-b Synagogue and church sites in Galilee (4th-6th centuries)

milson_AJEC65_1.indd xxviii 10/17/2006 3:46:42 PM

 introduction 1

INTRODUCTION

This study re-assesses several aspects of the impact of Church art

and architecture on synagogues in Byzantine Palestine from the
mid-fourth to the early seventh centuries, when the eastern prov-
inces were lost to the Arab conquest (Map 1). As the Church grew
in strength, new concepts of liturgy and new forms of ecclesiastical
buildings evolved. Distinct building types became standardised over
the Empire, such as the basilica for parish churches or, in the East,
centrally planned round or octagonal pilgrimage shrines (martyria).1
Eventually in Palestine, several hundred churches, imperial endow-
ments included, stood not far from scores of synagogues. By the
mid-fourth century, Jewish liturgy and basic types of synagogues
were well established in the country too.2 Yet, literary and archaeo-
logical evidence present opposing pictures. According to textual
sources such as the Theodosian Code, imperial restrictions allowed
only renovations to existing structures.3 By the mid sixth-century,
imperial involvement in synagogue affairs seems to have had reached
a peak with the publication of Justinian’s Novella 146, in February
553 CE, by dictating which language could be used in the liturgy.4
However, archaeological evidence seems to indicate otherwise, as
new synagogues continued to be built at the same time as other
synagogues were renovated.
Hostility toward Jews in Late Antiquity might have been a char-

1 Shrines were built not only as sanctuaries for a martyr, but also on sites
referred to in the NT, such as the Nativity in Bethlehem, Krautheimer, 1986, 94;
Mango, 1976, 44-6.
2 Literature on the ancient synagogue is extensive and growing. For recent works

on the state of research, see for example: Safrai and Stern, 1976; Hüttenmeister and
Reeg, 1977; Schürer, 1979; Meyers, 1980; Gutmann, 1981; Levine, 1981b; Meyers,
Strange and Meyers 1981; Chiat, 1982b; Meyers, 1987; Levine, 1987; Ilan, 1991;
Urman and Flesher, 1995; Fine, 1996b; Fine, 1999a; Levine, 2000.
3 For collected references to Jews in the ancient world, see: Linder, 1987, esp.

287-289 (edict from 423 CE).

4 In this law, Justinian dictated that the liturgy could be performed in Greek,

and not just in Hebrew. Rutgers and others suggest that this law should not be
understood at face value, but rather was meant to help convert Jews en masse to
Christianity. See: Rutgers, 2003, 386.

milson_AJEC65_1.indd 1 10/17/2006 3:46:57 PM

 2 introduction

acteristic of Jewish-Christian relations.5 Some scholars have seen

growing imperial oppression in the early fifth century, epitomised
in the abolition of the Jewish patriarchate, as the reason why fewer
synagogues might have been built.6 By the sixth century, though,
restrictions seem to have been relaxed. New foundations, as well
as renovated synagogues, are known from this period both in the
north, in Palaestina Secunda, and in central Palestine, Palaestina
Prima. It is peculiar that at a time when Jews were allegedly being
downtrodden by the Christian Empire, several Jewish communities
near large cities decided to forego long-standing tradition. These
communities made radical changes to the interior layouts and fur-
nishings of their prayer halls. By the sixth century, plans of twelve
excavated buildings out of thirty-five securely-dated synagogues in
Palestine bear features typical of the early Byzantine church: in lay-
out, in architectural ornamentation, in floor mosaics, in furniture, or
occasionally in combinations of these features. The aim of this study
is to determine as precisely as possible what can be learned from the
archaeological evidence in particular, and to suggest some possible
motives for these fundamental changes to synagogues.
Mapping sites in Palestine where fourth- to sixth-century churches
and synagogues have been found provides visible evidence for the
distribution of Christians and Jews (Maps 2 & 3).7 Churches are
concentrated on the coast, in cities (Jerusalem, Scythopolis, and Sep-
phoris); by the Sea of Galilee (Capernaum, Tabgha), and at other
important Christian sites (Nazareth, Kefar Kana).8 Constantine’s
mother Helena played a major part in constructing churches at
the pilgrimage sites, such as the Holy Sepulchre, the Ascension in
Jerusalem, and the Nativity in Bethlehem. These imperial founda-
tions were large, well-funded institutions. From both excavations
and pilgrim’s accounts such as Egeria’s (end of the fourth century)

5 For a more qualified and complex view of Jewish–Christian relations, see:

Schwartz, 2003 and Schwartz, 2001.
6 “…[This legislation] followed the policy proclaimed by the ecclesiastical authori-

ties: the Jews were to be isolated, their growth was to be stunted, their status lowered,
and they should be pulverized by the suppression first of their central and then
their local authorities.” Avi-Yonah, 1984, 208-220, esp. 213.
7 Cf. the map of synagogues, churches, and temples in Frankel et al. 2001,

Fig. 4.4.
8 Tsafrir, DiSegni and Green, 1994.

milson_AJEC65_1.indd 2 10/17/2006 3:46:57 PM

 introduction 3

however, it seems that most village churches in Palaestina Secunda

were not constructed prior to the late fourth-early fifth centuries.9
Money brought into the country by European pilgrims began to
make its mark from the early fifth century onward.10
Synagogues dating from the fourth to sixth centuries are concen-
trated in Upper and Lower Galilee, and in the Golan. Synagogues
have also been found in and near large cities, for example at Caesarea,
Scythopolis, and Gaza Maioumas. Four Samaritan synagogues are
found near Mount Gerizim, but two have been found elsewhere (Tel
Qasile, Beth She’an North). Another concentration of four synagogues
has been found in the Judaean Hills.11 In light of this archaeologi-
cal evidence, contact between Jews and Christians would seem to
have been mainly in cities and large towns where both churches and
synagogues have been found (Map 4).12 Few villages have more than
one single church or one synagogue. Capernaum, having both, is
one exception. However, owing to the little material evidence that
we have, it is premature to assume that a Galilean village where a
single synagogue exists was exclusively Jewish.13
The institution known as the synagogue played a cardinal role in
the development of Judaism both before and after the destruction of
the Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE. The synagogue, or ‘gathering’, had
numerous functions, both religious and secular: reading and teaching
of the Law, and later, for communal prayer. As secular buildings,
synagogues were places for legal questions to be answered, for civil
administration, for communal meals, and also provided hospitality
for visitors. Some written sources attest to one communal official,
known as a hazan, who resided in the synagogue complex.14 Syna-
gogues were unlike the Temple in other ways too. Synagogues could

9 Wilkinson, 1981, 14; Stemberger, 1987, 65; Aviam, 1999, 283.

10 Ovadiah, 1970, Dauphin, 1998.
11 Amit and Ilan, 1989; for possible differences in first-century religious customs

between Galilee and Judaea, see: Goodman, 1999.

12 Stemberger, 1998, 133.
13 Earlier scholarship has been mixed in its assertions over how many Jewish

communities existed at any particular time. We have no evidence to substantiate

the claim that each village had a monoculture of a single ethnic group. Isaac points
out that many villages probably had mixed propulations of Jews, pagans, Samaritans
and Christians, see: Isaac, 1998, 73; Fine, 1999b; Taylor, 1993; Urman, 1995;
Dauphin, 1993; Dauphin, 1998; Dauphin and Gibson, 1994.
14 Krauss, 1922, 126-128; Schürer, 1986, 14, 34.

milson_AJEC65_1.indd 3 10/17/2006 3:46:57 PM

 4 introduction

be built anywhere. Worship was no longer limited to Jerusalem, since

sacrifice at the Temple ceased after its destruction in 70 CE.15
The origins of the synagogue are as yet unclear. The earliest ref-
erence to assemblies comes from the Bible, where several passages
mention groups of Jews who would gather to hear the prophets. In
the sixth century BCE, Ezekiel pressed hard in these assemblies for
the rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem during the Babylonian
exile.16 Levine suggested that synagogues might have taken func-
tions that once occurred in the city gate.17 Some first-century BCE
written evidence suggests that the synagogue fell under the category
of collegia by the Romans. Around 45 BCE collegia were prohibited
in the empire by Julius Caesar except for Judaism, as it was one of
the most ancient.18
Synagogues in Palestine as well as in the Diaspora are referred
to numerous times in the first century CE by Philo, Josephus, and
in the New Testament.19 Philo, the head of the Jewish community
in Alexandria, describes details of the synagogue there.20 Josephus
writes of the synagogue in Tiberias, where meetings were held fol-
lowing a service.21 In the NT, synagogues are mentioned often, e.g.
a centurion, whose servant Jesus healed, according to the Gospels,
built a synagogue at Capernaum.22 In Acts, the synagogue of the
freedmen (Libertini) is referred to in Jerusalem, where foreigners
frequently arrived.23

15 Flesher shows how the diaspora synagogue was understood by non-Jews as

in the category of a temple, see: Flesher, 2001, 123.

16 Ez. 11:16 “I will remove them far off among the nations and scatter them

among the countries and I will be a little sanctuary (miqdash me’at) to them in the
countries where they are scattered”. This passage is far from sufficient evidence
for the claim that synagogues existed during the Babylonian exile.
17 Levine, 2000, 26ff. For a discussion of the secular and religious functions

that may have been part of the synagogue’s early development see: Binder, 1999,
210-213 and Claussen 2002, 156-158. The fullest assessment of the first-century
synagogue and possible criteria for its re-evaluation as a communal institution is
in Levine, 2004, 91-94.
18 Smallwood, 1981 and Richardson, 1996, 93.
19 For a recent treatment, see: Horsley, 1999.
20 Philo, Leg. ad Gaium 156, Vita Mosis 2:216, Dreams 2:156.
21 Josephus, Life 277.
22 Matt. 8:5; Luke 7:5.
23 Acts 6:9. Cohen discussed the early evidence for the leaders of synagogues

as Pharisees or rabbis, and came to the conclusion that: “…it was predominantly
a democratic lay organization, not beholden to a single group or party. … No

milson_AJEC65_1.indd 4 10/17/2006 3:46:58 PM

 introduction 5

The earliest epigraphic evidence for the existence of the synagogue

however, comes not from Palestine, but from mid third-century Hel-
lenistic Egypt, where dedicatory inscriptions from Shedia, Nitria, Ath-
ribis, and Arsinoe-Crocodilopolis mention Jewish buildings, referred
to as a proseuche.24 It must be emphasised that this term is found on
inscriptions outside of Palestine.25
The most important Greek inscription found in Jerusalem from
the first century CE describes a synagogue built by Theodotos the
priest and head of the synagogue, the archisynagogos: (Fig. 1:1)26

office was empowered to enforce standards (for example, birkat ha minim) in all
synagogues, and no political mechanism existed to enforce standards. The liturgy
was not standardized.” Cohen, 1999, 103-4.
24 Shedia (SW of Alexandria, after 246 BCE):

H Up`er basiléwß / Ptolemaíou ka`I / basilíssjß / Bereníkjß hadel- f¨jß ka`i

gunaik`oß ka`i / t¨wn téknwn / t`jn proseuc`jn / oHi h Ioudaïoi
“On behalf of king Ptolemy and queen Berenice his sister and wife and their
children the Jews (dedicated) the proseuche” CIJ II, 1440 (=Lifshitz 1967, 92;
Horbury and Noy, 1992, 22);
Arsinoe (246-221 BCE):
H Uper basiléwß / Ptolemaíou toü / Ptolemaíou ka`i / basilíssjß / Bere-
níkjß t¨jß / gunaik`oß kahi / hadelf¨jß ka`i t¨wn / téknwn oHi hen Krok[o]- / dílwn
pólei h Iou[daï]- / oi t`jn pro[s]e[uc`jn]
“On behalf of king Ptolemy, son of Ptolemy, and queen Berenice his wife and
sister and their children, the Jews in Crocodilopolis (dedicated) the proseuche”
Lifshitz 99; Horbury and Noy, 1992, 117;
Nitria (2nd century BCE): CIJ II 1442 (=Lifshitz 94; Horbury and Noy, 1992,
25);
Athribis (early 2nd century BCE): CIJ II 1443, 1444 (=Lifshitz 95, 96; Horbury
and Noy, 1992, 27,28).
25 Josephus uses proseuche to describe the synagogue at Halicarnassus (Ant. 14.258)

and at Tiberias (Vita 277, 280, 293), but not the synagogues at Dora, Caesarea,
and Antioch. Tiberias in the first century was a new Hellenized settlement. For the
geographic distribution of these two terms: Hengel, 1975, and also Reisner, 1995,
183; Claussen, 2002, 114-120. For other related terms found in the Graeco-Roman
Diaspora, see: Rajak, 2002.
26 The inscription was found mixed with rubble in a cistern by Weill, who

believed that it belongs to the first century on paleographic grounds, see: Weill,
1920. CIJ II, 1404 (=Lifshitz 79). This inscription is critical for an understanding
of the synagogue in Jerusalem before the destruction of the Temple. Kee unfortu-
nately proposed to date this inscription in the second century, an idea rejected by
Sanders, Riesner, and others, see: Kee, 1990; Sanders, 1990, 341; Reisner, 1995;
and Van der Horst, 1999; For an overall re-assessment of this inscription, see:
Kloppenborg Verbin, 2000.
Q[e]ódotoß Ohuett´jnou, iH ere`uß ka`i | / a
h [r]cisunágwgoß, uHio
` ßah rcisun[ag´w]|g[o]u,
uHiwn`oß / a
h rcisun[a]g´wgou, w^h ko|dómjse t`jn sunagwg`jn ehiß / a h n[ágn]w|s[in] nómou
ka`i ehiß [d]idac[`j]n hentol¨wn, / ka`i | t[ó]n xen¨wna, ka[`i t`a] d´wmata ka`i t`a crj
/ s[t]´jria t¨wn hudátwn ehiß katáluma toï|ß / [c]r´jzouin hap`o t¨jß xé[n]jß, “jn

milson_AJEC65_1.indd 5 10/17/2006 3:46:58 PM

 6 introduction

Theodotos, son of Vettenos priest and archisynagogos, son of an archi-

synagogos and grandson of an archisynagogos, had this synagogue
built for reading of the Law and instruction in the commandments,
and also the guest lodgings, and the rooms and the water systems
for the accommodation of those who come from abroad and need
[accommodation]. [This synagogue] was founded by his ancestors,
the elders, and Simonides.
This inscription makes clear some of the functions that the synagogue
had, as well as the titles of its leaders.27 These include study of the
Law and instruction in the commandments. Interestingly, prayer is
not mentioned at all. The building also served as a hostel. Those
who come from abroad surely refer to pilgrims. Water installations
probably refer to ritual baths (Hebrew: miqvah; pl. miqva’ot), a neces-
sary facility for pilgrims wishing to visit the Temple.
The earliest archaeological evidence for a possible synagogue
building dates to the first century BCE at Delos.28 Four buildings
thought to be synagogues from the first century CE are known from
Palestine: at Gamla, Herodion, Masada and Magdala.29 These halls
are considered to be synagogues on account of the benches along
their walls, and the location of columns supporting the roofs.30 At
Masada, a genizah containing several scrolls was found buried in the
northwestern room.31 At both Masada and Herodion the buildings
have ritual baths nearby, further evidence suggesting that these two,
at least, could have served as synagogues.32 A small water installation
was also found in the northwest corner of the building at Gamla.33
Recently, three additional buildings thought to be synagogues and

heqeme|l[íw]san oHi / patéreß [a]hutoü ka`i oHi pre|s[b]úteroi ka`i / Simwn[í]djß

27 On the archisynagogos as a title, see: Rajak and Noy, 1993; Brooten, 1982,
17.
28
Bruneau, 1970.
29
For a recent assessment, see Netzer, 2003.
30 One critic of this view is Flesher, who finds no basis for the claim that

the rooms at Masada or at Herodium were synagogues, Flesher, 1995, 35-38; cf.
Gutmann, 1999, 48-49. The origin of this type of plan has been sought in Greek
assembly halls, such as the bouleuteria and ecclesiasteria, in Nabatean temple courtyards,
and in Herodian triclinia; see: Foerster, 1981a, and Netzer, 1981.
31 The genizah related to the second stage of this building contained the remains

of scrolls of Deuteronomy and Ezekiel. Netzer rejects the idea that the first phase
was a synagogue, and suggests its first use was a stable; Netzer, 1991, 402-413,
especially 410.
32 Foerster, 1981b, 26.
33 Gutman, 1981, 32.

milson_AJEC65_1.indd 6 10/17/2006 3:46:58 PM

 introduction 7

contemporaneous with Delos have been excavated in Palestine.

One was excavated at Jericho, near the Hasmonean winter palace.
The other two are in small villages in the foothills on the road to
Jerusalem.34 In all these buildings however, no decoration or spe-
cifically ‘Jewish’ artifact has been found attesting to their function.
Scholars assume that these buildings were communal gathering places
on account of their size, form, and interior with stone benches around
one or more walls. This is one example of the difficulties involved
in the study of ancient synagogues.
In the early part of this century, rabbinic Judaism (i.e. ‘normative
Judaism’) was understood to have been followed by all Jews, an idea
given full account by Moore.35 Moore’s 1927 publication Judaism in
the First Centuries of the Christian Era, received immediate acclaim for
his synthesis of the literary tradition. However, the picture created
by Moore and others after him had two basic inaccuracies: first,
that this kind of Judaism was ‘normative’ (i.e. normal or authentic);
and second, Moore did not use all the available texts to hand, but
chose only those rabbinic texts which helped create his picture of
a religion followed by all Jews.36 Sukenik relied on Moore when he
proposed his typology of ancient synagogues.37
A second problem in modern research relates to an understand-
ing of the role of the Byzantine Empire in local affairs. Avi-Yonah
thought that the pressure of tyrannical local authorities, coupled with
economic hardship, underscored the relation of Jews to the state in
Byzantine times.38 This idea has its origin in an over-reliance on
early Jewish rabbinic literature, such as the Mishnah (redacted in
c. 200 CE), the Tosephta (variously dated from the third to sixth

34 These buildings are identified as synagogues on account of circumstantial

evidence, as no positively identified Jewish motif has been found in either, see:
Netzer, Kalman and Loris, 1999, Netzer, 1999, and Magen, Zionit and Sirkis,
1999; Onn et alii, 2002. Ma’oz suggests that the building at Jericho is a portico
with a central garden, similar to the small first-century BCE palace at Horvat El-
Muraq in the Hebron hills, Ma’oz, 1999, 121. See the recent collection of papers
on the early synagogue from the conference held at Lund University, Olsson and
Zetterholm, 2003.
35 Moore, 1927.
36 Cohen, 1999, 925; Horbury, 1998, 4; Freyne, 1998, xv; Hoppe, 1994, 19-25;

Neusner, 1966; Neusner, 1980.

37 Sukenik, 1934, 2.
38 See Avi-Yonah’s chapter nine, entitled: ‘The Great Assault on the Jews and

Judaism 363-439’, Avi-Yonah, 1984, 208-231.

milson_AJEC65_1.indd 7 10/17/2006 3:46:58 PM

 8 introduction

centuries CE) and the Palestinian and Babylonian Talmuds (thought

to be redacted from mid-fourth to early fifth century for the PT and
sixth to eighth centuries CE for the BT).39 Too little weight had been
placed on the evidence from the rabbis themselves, that opinions
of some rabbis are often contravened or ignored.40 Scholars have
found it difficult to accept the view that the rabbinic writings may
not even be representative of the majority of Jews living in Galilee.41
Furthermore, we have little written evidence from non-Jewish sources
about Jews living in this area. Consequently, archaeological evidence
has been a boon, supplementing and sometimes contradicting the
information provided by the literary sources. For example, in the
Tosephta it is written that synagogue entrances are to face east, as
the Temple doorways did.42 Very few excavated synagogue entrances
in fact face east, while most of those in Galilee face south.
A third problem in the on-going discussion of the synagogue relates
to the power and influence of the rabbis in both the everyday affairs
of this institution, as well as their possible input in determining what
form the synagogue building took. Catherine Hezser’s treatment
of the topic in her Social Structure of the Rabbinic Movement in Palestine
points to modern network theory as being the best way to understand
relationships between rabbis and the nature of their authority.43 In
this model, the rabbinic movement was not at all institutionalized,
but relied upon informal meetings, direct contacts with few other
rabbis, and indirect contacts to other rabbis when necessary.44 Good-
man points out that it was voluntary adherence to Judaism and to
the authority of the nasi, modelled perhaps on the authority granted
to Christian clergy, that Jews accepted their power.45 This implies
that the rabbinic movement had much less power and control over
the synagogue than was previously thought.46

39 For some of the problems in dating these works, see: Stemberger, 1991,

133-140; 152-155; 170-171; 194-197 respectively.

40 Goodman, 1983, 102-107; Cohen, 1992, 160-8; Levine, 1992, 207.
41 See: Neusner, 1976; Hezser, 1997; Rajak, 1998, 350-1; and Hezser, 1993.
42 Tos. Meg. IV; 22.

.‫ שכן מצינו בהיכל שהיה פתוח למזרח‬,‫אין פותחין פתחי בתי כנסת אלא למזרח‬
43 Hezser, 1997, 228-239.
44 Hezser, 1997, 238.
45 Goodman, 1992, 138-9; Cohen, 1999; Levine, 1979, and 2000; Schwartz
2001.
46 Levine, 2000, 470; Schwartz, 2001, 239.

milson_AJEC65_1.indd 8 10/17/2006 3:46:59 PM

 introduction 9

Priests too might be another group with considerable authority

over the synagogue.47 Owing to some archaeological finds such as
the plaque with 24 priestly courses from the synagogue at Caesarea,
menorahs, and themes on mosaic synagogue pavements dealing with
the Temple, as well as priestly themes in ancient Jewish literature,
some modern scholars have understood that evidence to indicate a
greater than heretofore understood prominence of priests in syna-
gogue affairs. Yet, Weiss could find no evidence to support the idea
that Jewish priests had any role in the design of any synagogue
prayer hall.48 Fine too, in his recent harsh critique of the idea of an
empowered priestly class, and call for caution shows that a consensus
between scholars is far from near.49
In modern Israel, over one hundred buildings that have been
surveyed or excavated are thought to be synagogues. The synagogue
building here refers to a structure whose main function was a place
for the worship service. Validation of the identity of these buildings as
synagogues is only one of the problems faced in interpreting archaeo-
logical evidence. By using the term validation, we mean that some
Jewish symbol or inscription, whether painted, inscribed, depicted
on mosaic, or found in relief on some architectural member of the
building must have been found at the site. These symbols include
the menorah (seven-branched candelabra), the shofar (ram’s horn for
blowing), and the etrog (citron fruit).
On the basis of their Samaritan inscriptions, remains of six build-
ings are thought to be Samaritan synagogues.50 Numerous structures
found by excavation and understood by some to be synagogues need
not necessarily be included in our category of verified synagogues
unless positive artistic or epigraphic evidence shows this to be so.
With this in mind, whereas several ancient buildings allegedly used
as synagogues may be excluded from our total number of positively
identified synagogue sites, in no case should a building that is not a
synagogue be included in our list. One disadvantage of this view is
that we have no means of being certain that each ancient synagogue
left material remains indicating its function.

47
Yahalom, 1999; Irshai, 2004.
48
Weiss, 2005, 248-249.
49 Fine, 2005.
50 These are: Sha’alivim, Tel Qasile, Beth She’an North (?), Zur Natan, Khirbet

Samara, and El Khirbe; Magen, 1992; Magen, 1993; Pummer, 1999.

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 10 introduction

Modern understanding of the development of the synagogue from

the first century to the Persian conquest has followed a long and wind-
ing path. In the early work of Sukenik and others, an attempt was
made to construct a typological overview of synagogue development in
terms of architectural history. This methodological approach follows
a long tradition of nineteenth- and twentieth-century scholarship. In
the mid-nineteenth century, Fergusson treated the development of
Gothic churches with their huge enclosed spaces in the Middle Ages
as ‘Progress in Art’.51 These churches follow a progression from simple
to more complex, both in overall form and architectural details.
Similarly, on the development of synagogue layouts, the ‘three-
types’ theory posited chronological groups of buildings according to
certain characteristics. According to this theory, those of the ‘early’
type were considered to be the long basilica (‘Galilean’), with three
decorated entrances in the short, southern wall. These buildings typi-
cally had flagstone floors, and one or two rows of benches along the
walls for seating. This type of building was dated to the second/third
century, for example, the synagogue at Capernaum. The ‘transitional’
broad house type (or ‘Judaean type’) of synagogue had its entrances
in the short east wall, with no columns or roof supports in the prayer
hall. Instead, massive external walls supported a flat roof. This type
has been dated to the fourth century, and is typified by the synagogue
at Susiya with its broad hall. Those of the ‘late’ type were basilical,
but had an apse in the short, southern wall, and usually had floors
covered with mosaics. Often an atrium was found to the north of
a small narthex, which led to the entrance. Typical of this type is
the synagogue at Beth Alpha (sixth century). While not completely
invalid, this theory needs to be qualified.52 It is true that basilical
synagogues with apses do appear in the fifth and sixth centuries, but
other types are not confined to a particular century or area.
A wealth of recent discoveries runs against the geographical distri-
bution as well as the dating criteria proposed by this theory. Reasons
why the theory should be abandoned are abundant, even though some
scholars continue to uphold its tenets.53 This concept had its origins
in Moore’s inaccurate understanding of ‘normative Judaism’, where,

51 Fergusson, 1849; Steadman, 1979, 79-82.

52 Foerster, 1995.
53 See Foerster, 2004, 1989c, and Tsafrir, 1995b.

milson_AJEC65_1.indd 10 10/17/2006 3:46:59 PM

 introduction 11

at a particular period of time, Jews followed (more or less) a single

way of life.54 With all Jews coherently adhering to the same religious
precepts, a progression of synagogue ‘types’ from the second to sixth
centuries neatly fits architectural facts into the ‘normative’ theory.
Pluralism is not even considered part of the Jewish tradition.
Moreover, the ‘three-types’ theory was advanced when excava-
tion methods were unsophisticated, and little account was taken of
numismatics, ceramic evidence, or stratigraphy. Several buildings
thought to date from the second to third century in fact were con-
structed two hundred years later (or more), such as the synagogues
at Capernaum and Bar’am. Furthermore, inscriptions are rare, while
unreliable material has sometimes been used as evidence for the
absolute dating of a particular building. For example, coins found
underneath flagstone floors do not necessarily provide the exact
date of construction, but instead provide only a terminus ante quem
for the floor. Determining the ‘deposition date’ of a coin within an
archaeological context is far from an exact science. The limitations of
archaeological evidence cannot be over-stated. In this work, we follow
a restricted interpretation of archaeological evidence for synagogues
concerning both identification and dating of a building.
Even with its inherent disadvantages, numismatic evidence is typi-
cally considered a useful tool for the archaeologist in dating ancient
buildings. Yet, this evidence needs to be treated carefully. Safrai held
that a demographic decline during the fifth century CE is indicated by
the decrease in the number of coins found in archaeological excava-
tions dating from 408 onward.55 In stark contrast, Bijovsky recently
pointed out that absolute coin numbers are not a valid means to
show either prosperity or decline, especially since we have no means
to know which coins were in circulation at any particular time.56
Studies presenting numismatic evidence from a site reflect minting
dates from the coins themselves, rather than the period of use (‘shelf
time’). Indeed, there are many other factors that must be considered
in using coins for dating purposes. The mechanisms whereby coins
travel are not yet fully known. Coins found in excavations must have

54 Neusner, 1966, 230 and Gutmann, 1999, 83.

55 Safrai, 1998.
56 Bijovsky, 2002, 204.

milson_AJEC65_1.indd 11 10/17/2006 3:46:59 PM

 12 introduction

either been dropped on purpose, or remain there through chance.57

However, as more evidence becomes available from excavations, it
seems even more unlikely that the hundreds (sometimes thousands)
of coins having little value found under floors of several ancient
synagogues could possibly have been left accidentally.58
In discussing the dating of the synagogue at Khirbet Shema’,
Magness explored the difficulties involved in basing site chronologies
on numismatic evidence alone (see below).59 Similarly for the syna-
gogue at Sardis, Magness points to coin finds dating the synagogue
to the mid-sixth century, two hundred years later than the excavators
suggested.60 Kingsley showed that in the Sumaqa synagogue, coin and
pottery evidence for occupation of the site diverges.61 Only two per-
cent of the coins found there date from the mid-fifth to mid-seventh
centuries. However, imported fifth-century fine wares concurrently
increased at this site as the number of coin finds decreased. This
extremely important fact indicates that we must be vigilant in what
evidence we use for dating ancient synagogues. An over-reliance on
coin finds for absolute dating is common in archaeological reports.
Layouts of several fifth- and sixth-century synagogues in Palestine
conform to the plan of the early Byzantine mono-apsidal church.
These synagogues were often aligned along the longitudinal axis: an
atrium, a narthex, a prayer hall with the nave and two or four lateral
aisles, and at the end of the hall, an apse. In six examples an apse
was added to an existing structure, as for example at Ma’oz Hayyim
(phase II) near Scythopolis, where an opening was constructed in the
south wall to allow an apse to be built, probably in the late fourth
or early fifth century. The inclusion of the apse in the synagogue
marked an abrupt departure from former conventions, which either
set a raised platform against the back wall of the hall (as at Ma’oz
Hayyim, phase I), or alternatively, fixed raised platforms between

57 Ariel points out that small coins found at the synagogue of #En Nashut were

almost valueless, owing to inflation; Ariel, 1987, 148.

58 For possible reasons related to Jewish law for coins to have been spread

beneath a synagogue floor, see Magness, 2001a, 27.

59 Magness, 1997, 217. For problems relating to misdating ceramic forms:

Magness, 1993, 165. Magness re-dated the forts at Ein Boqeq and Upper Zohar
to the mid-sixth century by isolating and examining sealed deposits (including both
ceramics and coins) beneath plaster floors; Magness, 1999, 198.
60 Magness, 2005, 455
61 Kingsley, 1999, 264-266.

milson_AJEC65_1.indd 12 10/17/2006 3:47:00 PM

 introduction 13

doorways of the front wall, as in the basilical synagogue at Meroth

in Upper Galilee.
In Chapter Two we discuss over twenty sites where synagogues
have been found and excavated. These sites have well-documented
excavation reports that provide a basis for evaluating their date.
Additionally, in the Catalogue, over one hundred synagogues from
Palestine are collected, showing re-drawn plans and describing details
of the archaeological evidence used for identifying and dating each.
For full descriptions of these sites, the reader is referred to any one
of the corpora of ancient buildings, such as Hüttenmeister and Reeg’s
Die Antiken Synagogen in Israel (1977), Ovadiah’s Corpus of Byzantine
Churches in the Holy Land (1970, 1981, 1982, 1984), Chiat’s Handbook of
Synagogue Architecture (1982), Hachlili’s Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology
in the Land of Israel (1988), Ilan’s Ancient Synagogues in Israel (Hebrew,
1991), the New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land
(1994) or Dauphin’s La Palestine Byzantine (1998).
Chapter Three investigates the possible reasons for change in
synagogue architecture in light of the contradictory explanations for
the direction of prayer given by the rabbis concerning the location
of the ‘Divine Presence,’ that is God’s manifestation on earth. When
the Roman Legio X Fretensis destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem in
70 CE, the Divine Presence was thought to have lost its supposed
dwelling. From the second century on, some rabbis believed that the
location of the Divine Presence shifted from the Temple in Jerusalem
to synagogue buildings themselves. Other rabbis believed that the
Divine Presence was inside the synagogue, in the Torah Ark together
with the Scrolls. Even others believed (as many do today) that the
Presence did not abandon Jerusalem at all, but resides near the West-
ern Wall—part of the surviving temenos enclosure on the Temple
Mount. This ambiguity over the location of the Divine Presence
might have led to confusion over direction of prayer in synagogues,
and ultimately to modern pre-conceived ideas over both the layouts
of ancient synagogues and the furniture within.
The most important objects in the synagogue were the Torah
Scrolls, the Five Books of the Hebrew Bible. Embodied within the
sacred scrolls, and the place where they were kept was the focus of
godliness for the community.62 The Word, written in the ancient

62 Fine, 1996a, 33.

milson_AJEC65_1.indd 13 10/17/2006 3:47:00 PM

 14 introduction

language on parchment, held the basis for Jewish fortitude and con-
fidence in God. The scrolls were either kept in a container of some
sort, which was then brought to the prayer hall when needed, or
possibly placed in some receptacle or shrine within the prayer hall.
However, we do not know how many scrolls or texts were kept in
a typical synagogue.63 At present, archaeological evidence provides
an important additional means for our understanding of how scrolls
were stored or displayed. Therefore, it is worth examining plans
of synagogues to look for nearby rooms where the scrolls might
be placed while not in use in the service. One synagogue at Naro
(Hammam Lif) in Tunisia has a room attached to the prayer hall.
On the mosaic floor of this room is a depiction of an open text,
which has been interpreted as indicating that this room is the place
where the scrolls were kept.64
Mosaic depictions of a shrine for keeping the scrolls are exam-
ined in Chapter Four. The Shrine motif appears in six synagogue
mosaic pavements, as well as on stone, glass, and ceramic lamps.
In its generic form, the motif is composed of a pediment supported
by two columns flanking a central object. On most pavements two
doors are depicted between columns. In Byzantine art, a similar motif
is used to decorate silver book covers, ivory diptychs, gold glasses,
and illuminated manuscripts. These Christian objects clearly were
not meant to evoke images of the Torah Shrine. Instead, the generic
motif, when found in Jewish contexts, is one of the means by which
we can ascertain that a pavement belongs to a synagogue and not
a church. What does this motif represent? According to one school
of thought, this motif is allegorical, representing the Temple façade
in Jerusalem or perhaps the Tabernacle. Steven Fine has advocated
that this motif, being both a representation of the Torah Shrine and
symbolically the Tabernacle from the destroyed Temple in Jerusa-
lem is indicative of the increasing holiness of the synagogue, and
its conversion into a ‘Holy Place.’65 Weiss and Netzer suggest that
the image represented in the mosaic pavement of the synagogue at

63 In comparison, the fragmentary seventh- or eighth-century Leiden papyrus

gives an inventory of 26 books for an unknown monastery in Egypt. The actual

number of books in this monastery is estimated at 75-100. See: Van Minnen, 1992,
229. On Jewish libraries, see: Hezser, 2001, 160-68.
64 Goodenough, 1952, II, 89-100; see also Fine, 1997, 140-41.
65 Fine, 1997, 112-121.

milson_AJEC65_1.indd 14 10/17/2006 3:47:00 PM

 introduction 15

Sepphoris is indicative of redemption, and promise that the Temple

would be rebuilt.66 According to a second school of thought, this
motif is simply decorative, representing some kind of container for
the Torah Scrolls, either a movable wooden cabinet or a stone-built
Shrine. Indeed, the mosaic pavement at Sepphoris might indicate
that there is some truth to both views.67
In Chapter Five, we turn to the archaeological evidence for the
construction of chancel screens in churches in the area from the
Decapolis west to Acco. This material is examined for helping us to
pinpoint and date church furnishings, before we make a comparison
to similar evidence from synagogues. Evidently, the greatest boom
in church building existed from the late fifth century to the early
seventh century—the same time period as when synagogues with
apses and chancel screens were built. We look at this material for
specific references for their dating mainly by inscriptions on mosaic
floors.
Ecclesiastical furnishings in synagogues, including the raised plat-
form known as the bema, smaller platforms similar to the ambo, and
chancel screens are examined in Chapter Six. Several synagogues
have remains of single raised platforms to one side of the main
entrance. Other sites have two platforms flanking the main entrance.
These platforms are thought to be either bases for a wooden cabinet
in which the Torah Scrolls were kept, or a base for a stone aedicule,
or possibly the location where the scrolls were set during the prayer
service. This arrangement for the platforms flanking the main doors
would have positioned the Torah Ark against the entrance wall of
the synagogue. At least three synagogues having these features dating
not earlier than the fifth century had their main southern doorways
blocked at a later stage, while the entrance of the prayer hall shifted
to the north wall, opposite their original location.68 However, at
Meroth the platforms next to the original doors were not moved.
Concerning furniture in synagogues, the ‘Seat of Moses’—an
elaborate chair carved out of stone—was found in two synagogues
in Palestine. Only one was discovered in situ. This chair recalls the
Christian bishop’s throne in form if not in function. More striking

66Weiss and Netzer, 1996b, 70.

67For the recent discussion, see: Levine, 2000, and especially Talgam, 2000,
95-104.
68 These include Tiberias, Hammat Tiberias, #En Gedi, and Meroth.

milson_AJEC65_1.indd 15 10/17/2006 3:47:00 PM

 16 introduction

are the remains of chancel screens that have been found in nine
synagogues, most of which have apses. The chancel screens in these
synagogues are located in a position similar to those found in early
Byzantine churches. The decoration of chancel screens uncovered
in synagogues also shows stylistic affinities with those found in early
churches. The introduction of chancel screens into synagogue prayer
halls considerably altered the traditional arrangement in the interior
of the synagogue, for the Torah Ark in the apse was now separated
from the congregation. This arrangement in synagogues is similar
to the layout of an early Byzantine church.
The appearance of an apse in synagogues seems to reflect the
influence of Christian architecture, which we consider in Chapter
Seven. While the apse is a common feature of Roman basilicae, and
a feature of several fourth-century imperial church foundations in
Palestine, such as the Holy Sepulchre Martyrium in Jerusalem, the
Eleona Church on the Mount of Olives, or the church at Mambre,
it does not appear in any synagogue dating earlier than the second
half or even last quarter of the fourth century CE. No basilical
synagogue with an apse has yet been uncovered in one of the small
villages in Upper Galilee or the Golan, where the largest concentra-
tion of Jews apparently dwelt. Apses are found in synagogues that
were located near sizeable non-Jewish communities, such as the syna-
gogue at Ma’oz Hayyim, near the city of Scythopolis. We compare
the functional aspects of the apse in churches with synagogues, and
in particular, its use as an architectural means to focus attention.
Evidence from five synagogues uncovered with apses, raised bemas
and chancel screens suggests that the Torah Ark became the sole
focal point of liturgy, following the model of the altar in church
architecture.
The change in synagogue layouts from rectangular prayer halls
without apses to those with apses might have occurred because those
Jewish communities felt that their synagogues lacked features that
nearby churches possessed. Modern theories for this change have
focused on the interaction of Jews and Christians in larger cities in
Palestine. One hypothesis understands the chancel screen as a barrier
to the Scrolls from ‘unclean eyes’, perhaps a reflection of changes in
the liturgy.69 Another focuses on the donor inscriptions and priestly

69 See: Branham, 1992 and Branham, 1995. According to Schwartz, “Many

such synagogues also had chancel screens, sometimes finely carved in marble, in

milson_AJEC65_1.indd 16 10/17/2006 3:47:00 PM

 introduction 17

courses in piyyutim as evidence for the increasing power and influ-

ence of a Jewish priestly class over the building of synagogues in
the fifth and sixth centuries.70 A third concentrates on an underly-
ing competition with the growing Church.71 In Chapter Seven we
discuss possible reasons for the shift from synagogues without apses
to those having an apse in light of the early Eucharistic liturgy in
the Eastern Church.
One final aspect of Christian art and its relationship to synagogues
is considered in the Appendix. This concerns the application of iden-
tical geometric and modular patterns in planning naoi of churches
and prayer halls of synagogues from the fourth to the sixth centuries.
These six buildings are part of a larger opus concerning the metro-
logical analysis of individual churches and synagogues in the region
(Table A.1).72 The measured plans of five churches and a synagogue
from Syria Secunda, Palaestina Secunda and Palaestina Tertia are
compared. In four of these, identical dimensions are found in several
critical lengths: the inner length of the bema church at Sugane and
the inner length of the church at Nawa are both 16.00 m. Similarly,
the inner width of the church at Mampsis in Palaestina Tertia is
10.65 m. and the inner width of the church at et-Tuba is 10.60 m.
(a difference of 5 centimetres).
The common denominator is the application of patterns and har-
monic proportions as recorded by Vitruvius that were used through-
out the early Roman Empire. Identical dimensions are the clue that
point to fundamental design similarities in building in Byzantine
Palestine and Syria. Apparently, Roman rules of proportion and
geometric patterns were followed by those who constructed both
churches and synagogues.

front of the apses (another borrowing from ecclesiastical design), often produced
in the same workshops as the church screens. The precise interpretation of this
development is unclear.” Schwartz, 2001, 242.
70 Levine, 1992, 209; Levine, 2000, 500.
71 Fine, 1997; Schwartz, 2000, 180-181; for rivalry on the part of Christians

see: Millar, 1992, 116.

72 For Illyricum see: Spremo-Petrovic, 1971. For Palestine: Chen, 1989b; Chen,

1990b and for Syria: Wilkinson, 1984b.

milson_AJEC65_1.indd 17 10/17/2006 3:47:01 PM

 18 chapter one

CHAPTER ONE

EVOLUTION AND ANCIENT SYNAGOGUES

1.1. Re-assessing past scholarship

Ever since the first remains of ancient synagogues were identified

in the nineteenth century, attempts have been made to categorise
these buildings. By the turn of the twentieth century, eight had
been discovered with a similar form and layout. These ‘Galilean’
synagogues had basilical interiors, finely-cut masonry walls, stone
floors, entrances in the southern walls, and elaborately decorated
lintels and door-jambs.
By the 1930’s, numerous synagogues with different features than
those ‘Galilean’ ones had been uncovered. These had mosaic floors,
chancel screens and apses. Since these features were previously
unknown in synagogues, but are common in churches, several theories
were advanced to explain the introduction of church-like features in
synagogues. One theory was that synagogue layouts evolved from
one form (or ‘type’) to another during the second to the seventh
centuries.1
The idea of an evolutionary development of synagogue buildings
owes its underpinning to an inherently flawed, nineteenth-century
concept of Jews and Judaism in the aftermath of the Jerusalem Tem-
ple’s destruction.2 This concept held that at a particular period of
time all Jews followed a similar Jewish way of life, as can be inferred
from the Jewish written sources. The ‘evolutionary’ concept was
popular in the late nineteenth century, especially after Darwin’s 1859
publication of On the Origin of Species. Already in the mid-1800’s, the
term ‘evolution’ was applied to artefacts as well as buildings, even
before it was used to explain the development of animal and plant

1 This concept is tenaciously held even today by some Israeli scholars, but has

been rejected by most, see: Foerster, 2004; Chiat and Mauck, 1991, 70-71; Meyers,
1996, 24; Chiat, 1981, 56.
2 See below, section 1.3; Neusner, 1980, 142.

milson_AJEC65_1.indd 18 10/17/2006 3:47:01 PM

 evolution and ancient synagogues 19

populations.3 In fact, the idea of evolution in medieval churches

was a general idea that can be found, for example, in Fergusson’s
An Historical Inquiry into the True Principles of Beauty in Art published in
1849. According to him, technical progress in building was consid-
ered to be:4
…the product of extended historical processes of trial and error by
many generations of architects and craftsmen…In every case it is not
the contributions of individual geniuses alone which are the source of
progress; it is the existence of an organised system in which each gen-
eration builds on the achievements of its predecessors, and knowledge
and skill are built up cumulatively.
This evolutionary concept underlies the ‘three-types’ model of ancient
synagogue development.
Archaeological evidence points to a much more complicated pic-
ture than previously thought. The variety of excavated synagogue
plans suggests a diverse development, with many layouts and forms
co-existing, rather than simple evolution from one form to another.5
This variety is corroborated in the modern understanding of progres-
sive pluralism in the ancient Jewish world.6

1.2. ‘Normative Judaism’ and the forbidden image

At this point we must consider a general theory regarding Jews and

Judaism in the first centuries of our era. In 1927, Moore’s seminal
work discussed the character of Judaism from the first century on.
According to Moore, the reason that Judaism alone outlasted all the
pagan religions is because:7
… it succeeded in achieving a unity of belief and observance among
Jews in all their wide dispersion then and since. The danger of a
widening gulf between Aramaic speaking Jews and Greek speaking
Jews… was completely overcome.
Moore traced the conformity in Jewish observance in the dietary
laws and in worship. He believed that as a consequence of the

3 Steadman, 1979, 78.

4 ibid, 83.
5 Levine, 1981a, 10.
6 Baumgarten, 1997, 11-18; Miller, 1999, 60.
7 Moore, 1927, 109.

milson_AJEC65_1.indd 19 10/17/2006 3:47:01 PM

 20 chapter one

destruction of the Temple, Jewish sectarianism ceased. This means

that when the Pharisees gathered together in Yavneh after the fall
of Jerusalem, a new orthodoxy was formed, excluding all others.
The Sadducees (the priestly class), not having a Temple, no longer
had a livelihood. The Essenes disappeared after the war, and the
Christians were excommunicated. The Pharisaic sect was the only
group of Jews left. Moore’s concept of ‘normative Judaism’ was
widely accepted.8
Rabbinic literature opposes figural representation, or approves
of it, ex post facto. Under the ‘normative’ view, it was held that Jews
did not have figurative art, since the Second Commandment forbids
the depiction of human or animal forms.9 Archaeological remains
of synagogues from the third century onward demonstrate just the
opposite, namely, that Jews did use figurative art.

1.3. Synagogue scholarship in the early nineteenth century

In examining archaeological aspects of synagogue studies, we

will look back two centuries, to see how explorers’ views of these
buildings changed over time. Accompanied by teams of scholars,
geographers, and engineers, Napoleon’s 1798 expedition to Egypt
elevated interest in sites of the ancient world from simple lore to
critical scientific enquiry. In the 1800’s, explorers’ accounts of the
Holy Land, such as that of the German Ulrich Seetzen, the Swiss
Johann Burckhardt and the American Reverend Edward Robinson
provoked great interest and marked a turning point in the study of
the topography of the area. Robinson’s Biblical Researches in Palestine
first brought archaeological remains in Palestine to the attention of
Europeans and Americans after it was published simultaneously in
the United States, Germany, and England.10 Although Robinson’s
primary goal was to study the physical geography of Palestine, at
the same time he hoped to identify sites mentioned in the Bible, as

8 Cohen re-enforces Neusner’s arguments in refuting Moore on the basis of

methodology and scope. Cohen also points out that the Mishnah preserves the
earliest account of conflicting legal opinions by named individuals who belong
to the same fraternity. Different sects “agreed to disagree”, see: Neusner, 1966;
Neusner, 1980; Neusner and Frerichs, 1985; Cohen, 1984, 29.
9 Ex. 20:4-5.
10 Robinson, 1867.

milson_AJEC65_1.indd 20 10/17/2006 3:47:01 PM

 evolution and ancient synagogues 21

the title of his book implies. Robinson saw numerous ruins in 1838,
but not until his second trip in 1852 did he identify some of those
ruins as synagogues.11
In 1861 a French team led by the biblical scholar Ernest Renan
was able to correctly read a number of synagogue inscriptions.12
Hebrew inscriptions from the façades at Bar’am and Nabratein pro-
vided the clue to the identity of these buildings. At Gischala (Gush
Halav), Renan dated the Hebrew inscription mentioning Yose bar
Nachum to the fourth or fifth century.13 Three years later, British
explorers under the aegis of the Palestine Exploration Fund set out
to discover the boundaries of the Biblical twelve tribes, and to map
the routes of the campaigns of Joshua and David.
On the 12th of May 1865, at the meeting held in the Jerusalem
Chamber of Westminster, the prospectus of the Palestine Exploration
Fund was drawn up. It states:14
No country should be of so much interest to us as that in which the
documents of our Faith were written, and the momentous events they
describe enacted. At the same time no country more urgently requires
illustration. The face of the landscape, the climate, the productions,
the manners, dress, and modes of life of its inhabitants, differ in so
many material respects from those of the Western world, that without
an accurate knowledge of them it is not too much to say the outward
form and complexion of the events and much of the significance of
the records must remain more or less obscure. Even to a casual trav-
eler in the Holy Land the Bible becomes, in its form and therefore
to some extent in its substance, a new book. ... Who can doubt that
if the same intelligence, zeal, knowledge, and outlay were applied to
the exploration of Palestine that have recently been brought to bear
on Halicarnassus, Carthage, Cyrene–places without a single sacred
association and with little bearing on the Bible–the result would be
a great accession to our knowledge of the successive inhabitants of
Syria–Cannanite, Israelite, Roman?
The Survey of Western Palestine found a total of twelve structures
which, owing to several Hebrew inscriptions and similarities in style

11 Robinson did not know that tels were the stratified remains of ancient settle-

ments. Instead, he thought these sites were natural formations, and therefore was
unable to identify some sites. See the observations by King, 1983, 2-5.
12 Renan read the now-missing Hebrew inscription at Bar’am as: “Peace be

on this dwelling-place”, and dated the building to the first century CE; Renan,
1864, 770.
13 idem.
14 Conder and Kitchener, 1881, I, 7.

milson_AJEC65_1.indd 21 10/17/2006 3:47:02 PM

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Accidental Jeopardy. © 31Mar61;

LP21133.

The baby. © 28Oct60; LP21112.

The boy who said no. © 26Apr62;

LP25392.

The broken hand. © 2Jun61; LP21141.

C'est la show biz. © 28Jun62; LP25393.

Christmas is a legal holiday.

© 23Dec60; LP21119.

Cold turkey. © 3Mar61; LP21129.

The concert. © 10Mar61; LP21130.

The cooperatives. © 7Jun62; LP25396.

Drivel. © 4Nov60; LP21113.

The end justifies the end.

© 10Feb61; LP21126.

The enemy. © 28Apr61; LP21136.

Everybody is money. © 17May62;

LP25395.

Everybody vs. Timmy Dayton.

© 17Mar61; LP21131.

Exit. © 27Jan61; LP21124.

A fool for a client. © 21Apr61;

LP21135.

The great gambling raid. © 6Jan61;

LP21121.

Indian war. © 20Jan61; LP21123.

The last commencement. © 19May61;

LP21139.
Lethal weapons. © 17Feb61; LP21127.

The long echo. © 30Dec60; LP21120.

The man who wanted to die. © 31May62;

LP25394.

Mea culpa. © 7Apr61; LP21134.

Music to hurt by. © 14Oct60; LP21111.

My worthy colleague. © 5Jul62;

LP25398.

No law for ghosts. © 26May61; LP21140.

No news is good news. © 19Apr62;

LP25391.

No sale. © 2Dec60; LP21117.

One by one. © 5May61; LP21137.

One for the money. © 24Feb61; LP21128.

Poor Eddie's dead. © 12Jul62; LP25397.

Promise of life. © 18Nov60; LP21115.

A question of guilt. © 16Dec60;

LP21118.

A quiet town. © 12May61; LP21138.

Reunion. © 3May62; LP25402.

 Semper fidelis. © 11Nov60; LP21114.

The Storyville gang. © 25Nov60;

LP21116.

Thicker than water. © 14Jun62; LP25400.

The trophy. © 13Jan61; LP21122.

Unbury the dead. © 3Feb61; LP21125.

A very special citizen. © 24Mar61;

LP21132.

The walkout. © 10May62; LP25401.

What can you learn from smoke signals?

© 21Jun62; LP25399.

What's in a name? © 7Oct60; LP21110.

Wilderness. © 24May62; LP25390.

THE LAW AND MR. MCCOY. See

THE REAL MCCOYS.

THE LAW AND MR. TARLETON. See

TAMMY.

LAW AND ORDER. See

JEFFERSON DRUM.
LAW AND ORDER DAY. See

DESTRY.

LAW AND ORDER, INC. See

DISNEYLAND. 14.

THE LAW AND THE PROPHETS. See

PROJECT 20.

A LAW IS MADE. McGraw-Hill Book Co.

29 min., sd., b&w, 16 mm. (Problems
and promise of American democracy)
© McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.; 5Dec60;
MP11298.

THE LAW MAKER. See

BONANZA.

THE LAW MUST BE FAIR. See

THE LIFE AND LEGEND OF WYATT EARP.

LAW OF COSINES. Calvin Productions.

30 min., sd., b&w, 16 mm. © Calvin
Productions, Inc.; 28Apr61; MP12105.

LAW OF SINES. Calvin Productions.

30 min., sd., b&w, 16 mm. © Calvin
Productions, Inc.; 28Apr61; MP12095.

LAW OF TANGENTS. Calvin Productions.

28 min., sd., b&w, 16 mm. © Calvin
 Productions, Inc.; 28Apr61; MP12102.

LAW OF THE LAND. Bankers Trust Co.

457 min., sd., b&w. Videotape.
Appl. author: Barrister Productions,
Inc. © Bankers Trust Co.; 2Jul69;
MU8059.

THE LAW OF THE LAND. See

IT TAKES A THIEF.

MAN WITHOUT A GUN.

LAW OF THE LAWLESS. A. C. Lyles Productions.

Released by Paramount
Pictures Corp. 87 min., sd., color,
35 mm. Technicolor. Techniscope.
© Paramount Pictures Corp. & A. C.
Lyles Productions, Inc.; 31Dec63; LP28069.

LAW OF THE PLAINSMAN. Four Star in

association with NBC Television Network.
1 reel each, sd., b&w, 16 mm.
© Four Star-Cardiff.

No.

3101. A matter of life and death.

© 15Oct59; LP17860.

3103. Prairie incident. © 1Oct59;

LP17858.

3105. Full circle. © 8Oct59; LP17859.

3107. The dude. © 3Dec59; LP17868.

3109. Blood trails. © 5Nov59; LP17863.

3111. The hostiles. © 22Oct59; LP17861.

3113. Passenger to Mescalero.

© 29Oct59; LP17862.

3115. The innocent. © 10Dec59; LP17869.

3117. Desperate decision. © 12Nov59;

LP17864.

3119. Appointment In Santa Fe. © 19Nov59;

LP17865.

3121. Calculated risk. © 3Dec59;

LP17867.

3123. The gibbet. © 26Nov59; LP17866.

3125. Clear title. © 17Dec59; LP17870.

3127. The toll road. © 24Dec59; LP17871.

3129. Fear. © 7Jan60; LP17872.

3131. The comet. © 21Jan60; LP17874.

3133. Endurance. © 14Jan60; LP17873.

3135. The rawhiders. © 28Jan60; LP17875.

3137. The imposter. © 4Feb60; LP17876.

 3139. Common ground. © 11Feb60; LP17877.

3141. The matriarch. © 18Feb60; LP17878.

3143. A question of courage. © 25Feb60;

LP17879.

3145. Dangerous barriers. © 10Mar60;

LP17880.

3147. The show off. © 17Mar60; LP17881.

3149. The rabbit's fang. © 24Mar60;

LP17882.

3151. The Trojan horse. © 5May60; LP17886.

3153. Stella. © 31May60; LP17887.

3155. Amnesty. © 7Apr60; LP17883.

3157. Jeb's daughter. © 14Apr60; LP17884.

3159. Cavern of the wind. © 21Apr60;

LP17885.

LAW OF THE ROUND TENT. See

DEATH VALLEY DAYS.

LAW WEST OF THE PECOS. See

COLT .45.

THE LAWBREAKERS. See

 LARAMIE.

THE LAWLESS. See

JEFFERSON DRUM.

THE LAWLESS HAVE LAWS. See

DEATH VALLEY DAYS.

THE LAWLESS SEVEN. See

LARAMIE.

THE LAWLESS YEARS. Jack Chertok Television.

3 reels each, sd., b&w,
16 mm. © Jack Chertok Television, Inc.

The Al Brown story. © 1Oct59; LP15077.

Artie Moon. © 25Aug61 (in notice:

1959); LP20489.

The Big Greeny story. © 8Oct59; LP15078.

Blood brothers. © 11Aug61; LP20495.

Gang war story. © 19May61 (in notice:

1959); LP20062.

Ginny. © 14Jul61 (in notice: 1959);

LP20108.

Ike, the novelty king. © 22Sep61

(in notice: 1959); LP20492.
Jack Legs Diamond. © 12May61 (in
notice: 1959); LP20061.

Jonathan Wills. © 8Sep61 (in notice:

1959); LP20491.

The kid dropper story. © 7Jul61 (in

notice: 1959); LP20107.

Little Augie. © 21Jul61 (in notice:

1959); LP20487.

Louy K. Pt. 2: Sing Sing. © 2Jun61; LP20064.

Louy K. Pt. 3: Birth of the organization.

© 9Jun61; LP20065.

Louy K. Pt. 4: Heydays of the organization.

© 16Jun61; LP20066.

Louy K. Pt. 5: The disintegration

of the organization. © 23Jun61; LP20067.

Mad Mick. Pt. 1: Vincent Coll.

© 28Jul61; LP20493.

Mad Mick. Pt. 2: Vincent Coll. © 4Aug61; LP20494.

Miles Miller story. © 30Jun61; LP20106.

Romeo and Rose. © 15Sep61; LP20496.

The Sonny Rosen story. © 26May61

(in notice: 1959); LP20063.

Triple cross. © 1Sep61 (in notice:

 1959); LP20490.

Victor Gorido. © 18Aug61 (in notice:

1959); LP20488.

3201. The Nick Joseph story.

© 16Apr59 (in notice: 1958); LP15315.

3210. The Dutch Schultz story.

© 14May59; LP15316.

3213. Maxey Gorman story. © 25Jun59; LP16349.

3214. Tony Morelli. © 30Jul59; LP15318.

3215. Four, the hard way. © 23Jul59;

LP15317.

3216. The story of Lucky Silva.

© 31Aug59; LP15319.

3219. The Ray Baker story. © 6Aug59;

LP15603.

3220. The Morrison story. © 20Aug59;

LP15320.

3221. Prantera story. © 3Sep59; LP15604.

3228. The Joe Angelo story. © 29Oct59; LP15607.

3229. The Billy Grimes story.

© 5Nov59; LP15608.

3230. The Billy Boy Rockabye Creel

story. © 22Oct59; LP15606.
 3231. The Art Harris story. © 15Oct59; LP15605.

LAWMAN. Warner Bros. Pictures. Approx.

30 min. each, sd., b&w, 16 mm.
© Warner Bros. Pictures, Inc.

The actor. © 27May62; LP26144.

The appointment. © 26Nov61; LP26118.

The badge. © 23Nov58; LP24368.

The bandit. © 31May59; LP24395.

The barber. © 25Feb62; LP26135.

Battle scar. © 22Mar59; LP24386.

Belding's girl. © 3Apr60; LP24946.

The big hat. © 22Feb59; LP24382.

Blind hate. © 14May61; LP25279.

Bloodline. © 30Nov58; LP24369.

Blue Boss and Willie Shay. © 12May61

(in notice: 1960); LP25270.

The brand release. © 25Jan59; LP24378.

The break-in. © 21May61; LP25280.

The breakup. © 8Nov59; LP24924.

The bride. © 1Apr62; LP26138.

By the book. © 24Dec61; LP26122.

The captives. © 11Jan59; LP24376.

The catalog woman. © 5Nov61; LP26115.

The catcher. © 4Dec60; LP25256.

Change of venue. © 11Feb62; LP26133.

Chantay. © 13Nov60; LP25253.

The chef. © 1Mar59; LP24383.

Clootey Hutter. © 11Mar62; LP26137.

Cold fear. © 4Jun61; LP25282.

The cold one. © 12Nov61; LP26116.

The conclave. © 14Jun59; LP24397.

Conditional surrender. © 28May61;

LP25281.

Cornered. © 11Dec60; LP25257.

Cort. © 29Apr62; LP26142.

The deputy. © 5Oct58; LP24361.

Detweiler's kid. © 26Feb61 (in notice:

1960); LP25268.
Dilemma. © 30Oct60; LP25251.

The doctor. © 6May62; LP26143.

The encounter. © 18Jan59; LP24377.

The escape of Joe Killmer. © 18Dec60;

LP25258.

The exchange. © 25Oct59; LP24922.

Explosion. © 3Jun62 (in notice: 1961);

LP26131.

Fast trip to Cheyenne. © 19Jun60;

LP24955.

Firehouse Lil. © 8Jan61 (in notice:

1960); LP25261.

The four. © 1Oct61; LP26110.

The frame-up. © 15Jan61 (in notice:

1960); LP25262.

The friend. © 28Jun59; LP24399.

A friend of the family. © 14Jan62

(in notice: 1961); LP26125.

Fugitive. © 2Apr61 (in notice: 1960);

LP25273.

The gang. © 29Mar59; LP24387.

Get out of town. © 20May62 (in

 notice: 1961); LP26130.

Girl from Grantsville. © 10Apr60;

LP24947.

The go-between. © 25Sep60; LP24957.

The grubstake. © 16Apr61; LP25275.

The gunman. © 15Feb59; LP24381.

The hardcase. © 31Jan60 (in notice:

1959); LP24935.

Hassayampa. © 12Feb61 (in notice:

1960); LP25266.

Heritage of hate. © 18Mar62 (in

notice: 1961); LP26128.

The hoax. © 20Dec59; LP24929.

The holdout. © 18Feb62; LP26134.

Homecoming. © 5Feb61 (in notice:

1960); LP25265.

The hunch. © 11Oct59; LP24920.

The huntress. © 3May59; LP24391.

The inheritance. © 5Mar61 (in notice:

1960); LP25269.

The intruders. © 7Dec58; LP24370.

Jailbreak. © 10Jun62; LP26145.

The joker. © 19Oct58; LP24363.

The journey. © 26Apr59; LP24390.

The judge. © 15May60; LP24952.

The juror. © 24Sep61; LP25285.

The jury. © 9Nov58; LP24366.

The kids. © 21Feb60 (in notice:

1959); LP24938.

The Lady Belle. © 1May60; LP24950.

Lady in question. © 21Dec58; LP24372.

The last man. © 1Nov59; LP24923.

Last stop. © 3Jan60 (in notice: 1959);

LP24931.

Left hand of the law. © 27Mar60;

LP24945.

Lily. © 4Oct59; LP24919.

The locket. © 7Jan62 (in notice:

1961); LP26124.

The long gun. © 4Mar62; LP26136.

The Lords of Darkness. © 3Dec61;

LP26119.
The Mad Bunch. © 2Oct60; LP25247.

The man behind the news. © 13May62

(in notice: 1959); LP26109.

The man from New York. © 19Mar61 (in

notice: 1960); LP25271.

Man on a mountain. © 12Jun60 (in

notice: 1959); LP24941.

Man on a wire. © 22May60; LP24953.

Mark of Cain. © 26Mar61 (in notice:

1960); LP25272.

The marked man. © 22Jan61 (in notice:

1960); LP25263.

The master. © 28Dec58; LP24373.

Mountain man. © 25Mar62 (in notice:

1961); LP26129.

9:05 to North Platte. © 6Dec59;

LP24928.

No contest. © 4Feb62 (in notice:

1961); LP26127.

The oath. © 26Oct58; LP24364.

Old Stefano. © 25Dec60; LP25259.

The old war horse. © 9Oct60; LP25248.

The outcast. © 2Nov58; LP24365.

The outsider. © 4Jan59; LP24375.

Owny O'Reilly, Esquire. © 15Oct61;

LP26112.

The parting. © 29May60; LP24954.

The payment. © 8May60; LP24951.

The persecuted. © 9Apr61; LP25274.

Porphyria's lover. © 19Nov61; LP26117.

The posse. © 8Mar59; LP24384.

The post. © 6Nov60; LP25252.

The press. © 29Nov59; LP24927.

The prisoner. © 12Oct58; LP24362.

The prodigal. © 22Nov59; LP24926.

The prodigal mother. © 17Dec61;

LP26121.

The promise. © 11Jun61; LP25283.

The promoter. © 19Feb61 (in notice:

1960); LP25267.

Red ransom. © 21Jun59; LP24398.

The return. © 10May59; LP24392.

The return of Owny O'Reilly.

© 16Oct60; LP25249.

Reunion in Laramie. © 13May60;

LP24943.

Riding shotgun. © 19Apr59 (in notice:

1958); LP24374.

The ring. © 24May59; LP24394.

The robbery. © 1Jan61 (in notice:

1960); LP25260.

The runaway. © 1Feb59; LP24379.

The salvation of Owny O'Reilly.

© 24Apr60; LP24949.

Samson the great. © 20Nov60; LP25254.

The second son. © 27Nov60; LP24255.

The senator. © 17May59; LP24393.

Shackled. © 18Oct59; LP24921.

Shadow witness. © 15Nov59; LP24925.

The shelter. © 27Dec59; LP24930.

Short straw. © 14Dec58; LP24371.

The showdown. © 10Jan60 (in notice:

 1959); LP24932.

The son. © 8Oct61; LP26111.

The souvenir. © 5Apr59; LP24388.

The squatters. © 29Jan61 (in notice:

1960); LP25264.

The stalker. © 29Oct61; LP26114.

The stranger. © 17Jan60 (in notice:

1959); LP24933.

The substitute. © 22Oct61; LP26113.

Sunday. © 15Apr62; LP26140.

The surface of truth. © 17Apr60;

LP24948.

The swamper. © 5Jun60 (in notice:

1959); LP24940.

The tarnished badge. © 28Jan62;

LP26132.

Tarot. © 10Dec61; LP26120.

The thimblerigger. © 28Feb60; LP24942.

Thirty minutes. © 20Mar60; LP24944.

The threat. © 30Apr61; LP25277.

To capture the West. © 7Feb60 (in

 notice: 1959); LP24936.

The town boys. © 18Sep60; LP24956.

Trapped. © 17Sep61; LP25284.

The trial. © 7May61; LP25278.

Trojan Horse. © 31Dec61; LP26123.

The truce. © 6Mar60 (in notice:

1959); LP24939.

The ugly man. © 14Feb60 (in notice:

1959); LP24937.

The unmasked. © 17Jun62; LP26146.

The vintage. © 21Jan62 (in notice:

1961); LP26126.

The visitor. © 15Mar59; LP24385.

Wanted. © 16Nov58; LP24367.

The wanted man. © 8Apr62; LP26139.

Warpath. © 8Feb59; LP24380.

The wayfarer. © 7Jun59; LP24396.

Whiphand. © 23Apr61; LP25276.

The witness. © 24Jun62; LP26147.

The wolfer. © 24Jan60 (in notice:

 1959); LP24934.

Yawkey. © 23Oct60; LP25250.

The young toughs. © 12Apr59; LP24389.

The youngest. © 22Apr62; LP26141.

THE LAW MAN. See

CHEYENNE.

LAWMAN BARNEY. See

THE ANDY GRIFFITH SHOW.

LAWMAN OR GUNMAN. See

DISNEYLAND. 12.

LAWMAN'S BLOOD. See

THE DEPUTY.

LAWMAN'S CONSCIENCE. See

THE DEPUTY.

LAWN MOWER. See

PROCTER & GAMBLE CO. TELEVISION COMMERCIALS.

LAWRENCE LANGNER AND EDDIE ALBERT. See

PERSON TO PERSON.
LAWRENCE LION. Wm. Wrigley, Jr. Co.
60 sec., sd., color, 16 mm.
© Wm. Wrigley, Jr. Co.; 31Jul67;
MU7848.

LAWRENCE OF ARABIA. Horizon Pictures

(G.B.) Released by Columbia Pictures
Corp. 221 min., sd., color, 35 mm. &
70 mm. Technicolor. Super Panavision
70. © Horizon Pictures (G.B.)
Ltd.; 19Dec62; LP25769.

THE LAWRENCE WELK SHOW. See

THE JACK BENNY PROGRAM.

LAWS OF HEREDITY. Encyclopaedia

Britannica Films. 15 min., sd.,
color, 16 mm. (Biology program,
unit V: Heredity and adaptive change)
Eastman color. © Encyclopaedia Britannica
Films, Inc.; 2Apr63; MP13407.

LAWS OF KEPLER. See

PLANETS IN ORBIT—THE LAWS OF KEPLER.

THE LAWSUIT. See

THE REAL MCCOYS.

LAWYER IN PETTICOATS. See

OVERLAND TRAIL.

THE LAY CATECHIST. George A. Pflaum,

 Publisher, Inc. 17 min., sd., color,
16 mm. Eastman color. © George A.
Pflaum, Publisher, Inc.; 26Jul63;
MP14043.

LAY MY BURDEN DOWN. National Educational

Television & Radio Center.
59 min., sd., b&w, 16 mm. © National
Educational Television & Radio
Center; 21Nov66; MP17154.

LAYA. See

I SPY.

LAYING OUT A LINE WITH THE SURFACE GAGE. See

MACHINE SHOP SERIES: BENCH WORK,

SET I.

LAYING OUT AND CUTTING A GAIN. See

WOODWORKING SERIES: HANDTOOL OPERATIONS,

SET 3.

LAYING OUT AND CUTTING AN END LAP

JOINT. See

WOODWORKING SERIES: HANDTOOL OPERATIONS,

SET 3.

LAYING OUT CORNER RADII. See

WOODWORKING SERIES: HANDTOOL OPERATIONS,

SET 1.
LAYING THE PATTERN. See

CLOTHING CONSTRUCTION SERIES.

LAYOFF CHARLEY. See

THE ROARING 20'S.

LAYOUT AT GLEN CANYON. See

ROUTE 66.

LAYOUT OF RADII. See

MACHINE SHOP SERIES: BENCH WORK,

SET I.

LAYOVER AT JAMESTOWN. See

CASEY JONES. 20.

THE LAYUP. McGraw-Hill Book Co.

3 min., si., color, 8 mm. (Basketball
series) Presented by McGraw-Hill
Text-Films in collaboration with
Joshua Tree Productions. © McGraw-Hill,
Inc.; 30Sep68 (in notice: 1967);
MP18736.

LAY-UP SHOT. See

BASKETBALL SKILLS SERIES.

LAZARUS. See

HAVE GUN—WILL TRAVEL.

LAZARUS WALKS AGAIN. See

AWARD THEATRE.

LAZYFOOT, WHERE ARE YOU? See

LAREDO.

THE LEADER. See

COMBAT!

SUSPENSE.

LEADING CITIZEN. See

TALES OF WELLS FARGO.

LEADING LADY. See

JOHNNY MIDNIGHT.

THE LEADVILLE KID GANG. See

MR. LUCKY. 3913.

THE LEAF IN THE FOREST. See

IRONSIDE.

LEAF PRINTS. Thorne Films. 3 min.,

si., color, 8 mm. (Art techniques
series, no. 188) © Thorne Films, Inc.;
1Dec68; MP18988.
LEAGUE OF NATIONS DISSOLVED. See

GREATEST HEADLINES OF THE CENTURY.

A LEAK IN THE DIKE. Paramount Pictures

Corp. 6 min., sd., color, 35 mm.
(Noveltoon) © Paramount Pictures
Corp.; 1Apr65; LP30542.

THE LEAKY FAUCET. Terrytoons. Released

by Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corp.
1 reel, sd., Technicolor, 35 mm. (A
Terrytoon cartoon) CinemaScope.
© Terrytoons, a division of CBS Films,
Inc.; 16Oct50; LP15092.

THE LEAN AND HUNGRY LOOK. See

THE DONNA REED SHOW.

LEAN-MUSCLED MIGHT! Chevrolet Division.

Made by Jam Handy Organization.
2 min., sd., color, 35 mm. Eastman
color. © Chevrolet Division, General
Motors Corp.; 9Apr63; MU7299.

THE LEAN YEARS. See

THE ROAD WEST.

THE LEANING TOWER OF RIDGEMONT. See

PLEASE DON'T EAT THE DAISIES.

LEAP FOR LIFE. See

 RESCUE 8.

LEAP, MY LOVELY. See

77 SUNSET STRIP.

LEARN TO FLY. See

BORDER PATROL.

LEARN TO LIPREAD. Photo-School Films.

Approx. 11 min. each, sd., color,
16 mm. Appl. author: Virginia
McKinney. © Photo-School Films, Inc.
Pt. 3, basic lesson

1. Long a as in able. © 31Aug65;

MP16413.

2. Short a as in add. © 31Aug65;

MP18313.

3. Two-dot a as in arm. © 31Aug65;

MP18314.

4. Long e as in Eve. © 31Aug65;

MP18315.

5. Short e as in end. © 31Aug65;

MP18316.

6. Long i as in ice. © 31Aug65;

MP18317.

8. Long o as in old. © 31Aug65;

MP18318.
 9. Short o as in odd. © 31Aug65;
MP18469.

10. Long u as in cube. © 31Aug65;

MP18470.

11. Short u as in up. © 31Aug65;

MP18471.

17. F, fl, fr. © 31Aug65; MP18472.

18. Sh, ch, j, soft g. © 31Aug65;

MP18473.

19. P, b, m. © 31Aug65; MP18474.

20. Bl, br, pl, pr. © 31Aug65;

MP18475.

22. Tr & dr. © 31Aug65; MP18476.

23. Th & thr. © 31Aug65; MP18477.

Pt. 4, basic lesson.

1. Long a as in able. © 31Aug65;

MP18312.

LEARN TO LIPREAD; BASIC LESSON 1,

PARTS I & II. Virginia McKinney.
344 ft., sd., color, 8 mm. © Virginia
McKinney; 8Jan65 (in notice: 1964);
MP15216.

LEARN TO SAY GOODBYE. See

 GENERAL ELECTRIC THEATER.

LEARNIN' AT DIRTY DEVIL. See

DEATH VALLEY DAYS. 604.

LEARNING ABOUT AIR. Society for Visual

Education. 4 reels (approx. 3 min.
each) si., color, 8 mm. Contents:
Does air take up space?—Does air
have weight?—Does air expand and
contract?—Does air exert pressure.
Appl. authors: Burton M. Munk &
Patrick E. McNamara. © Society for
Visual Education, Inc.; 1Oct68;
MP18614.

LEARNING ABOUT BEARS. Encyclopaedia

Britannica Films. 11 min., sd., color,
16 mm. © Encyclopaedia Britannica
Films, Inc.; 16Aug60; MP10890.

LEARNING ABOUT LEARNING. See

FOCUS ON BEHAVIOR.

LEARNING ABOUT LEAVES. Coronet Instructional

Films. 12 min., sd.,
b&w, 16 mm. © Coronet Instructional
Films, a division of Esquire, Inc.;
1Nov68; MP18904.

LEARNING ABOUT NOTES. See

READING MUSIC: LEARNING ABOUT NOTES.

LEARNING ABOUT SEEDS. Encyclopaedia
Britannica Films. 11 min., sd., color,
16 mm. © Encyclopaedia Britannica
Films, Inc.; 14Sep60; MP10891.

LEARNING ABOUT WATER COLORS. PT. 1:

LINE AND SHAPE. See

CHANDLER ART EXPERIENCE FILMS.

LEARNING ABOUT WATER COLORS. PT. 2:

DARK AND LIGHT VALUE. See

CHANDLER ART EXPERIENCE FILMS.

LEARNING EXPERIENCES, COLORS. Webster

Division, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Made
by Bendick Associates. 10 col. loop
films. © McGraw-Hill, Inc.; 30Dec68;
MP19453.

LEARNING FOR LIFE. National Education

Assn. 29 min., sd., b&w, 16 mm.
© National Education Assn.; 1Apr61;
MP12274.

LEARNING FRENCH THE MODERN WAY. Purdue

Research Foundation. Approx. 3 min.
each, sd., color, 16 mm. © Purdue
Research Foundation.

Ces chers petits, pt. 1-2. © 5Oct61;

MP12118-12119.

La distribution des prix. © 5Oct61;

 MP12128.

Francoise va aux beaux-arts, pt. 1-2.

© 5Oct61; MP12125-12126.

Jean-Pierre a la maison, pt. 1-2.

© 5Oct61; MP12123-12124.

Madame Celle continue ses courses.

© 5Oct61; MP12122.

Madame Celle fait ses courses, pt. 1-2.

© 5Oct61; MP12120-12121.

Maisonee a trois, pt. 1-2. © 5Oct61;

MP12116-12117.

On se Marie. © 5Oct61; MP12127.

Portrait d'un artiste. © 5Oct61;

MP12129.

LEARNING FROM DISAPPOINTMENTS. Coronet

Instructional Films. 11 min., sd.,
b&w, 16 mm. © Coronet Instructional
Films, a division of Esquire, Inc.;
1Dec61; MP12142.

LEARNING FROM PETS IN THE CLASSROOM.

Reinald Werrenrath. Released by
Journal Films. 15 min., sd., color,
16 mm. Appl. author: Elizabeth I.
Werrenrath. © Reinald Werrenrath;
1Oct61; MP12153.

LEARNING FROM VISUALS. American

 Institute For Research. 36 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. © American
Institute For Research; 28Feb64
(in notice: 1963); MP15105.

THE LEARNING PROCESS. National Broadcasting

Co. 52 min., sd., color,
16 mm. © National Broadcasting Co.,
Inc.; 8Jun67; MP19344.

LEARNING SPANISH THE MODERN WAY.

Purdue Research Foundation. Approx.
4 min. each, sd., color, 16 mm.
© Purdue Research Foundation.

La agricultura. © 5Oct61; MP12133.

La ciudad de Mexico. © 5Oct61;

MP12130.

De tiendas. © 5Oct61; MP12136.

Los deportes. © 5Oct61; MP12137.

Haciendo canastas. © 5Oct61; MP12135.

En el colegio. © 5Oct61; MP12132.

En El Rancho Grande. © 5Oct61;

MP12139.

En la zapateria. © 5Oct61; MP12134.

La universidad. © 5Oct61; MP12131.

Visitando las piramides. © 5Oct61;

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