Ecology

Ecological Issues

Ecological issues are environmental problems that harm ecosystems, biodiversity, and natural resources. These problems are often
interconnected and caused by both human activity and natural processes.

Key Problems:

• Deforestation: Large-scale forest loss reduces biodiversity and carbon absorption.

• Biodiversity Loss: Driven by habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change.

• Pollution: Air, water, and soil pollution harm ecosystems and human health.

• Resource Overuse: Overfishing, mining, and groundwater depletion strain ecosystems.

• Waste Generation: Plastic, electronic, and hazardous wastes persist in the environment.

2. Climate Change

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperature, weather patterns, and sea levels due to greenhouse gas emissions.

Causes:

• Greenhouse Gases (GHGs): Carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), etc.

• Industrial Activity & Fossil Fuels: Coal, oil, and gas burning.

• Deforestation & Agriculture: Reduce carbon sinks and emit methane.

Effects:

• Rising Temperatures

• Melting Ice & Rising Seas

• Extreme Weather Events

• Ecosystem Shifts & Extinctions

• Health Risks & Food Insecurity

Ozone ‘Hole’:

Ozone layer in stratosphere protect the earth from coming from deadly ultraviolet rays the sun. Beginning 1980s, scientists noticed ‘hole’
in the ozone layer, especially over
Antarctica. This hole was mainly due to a chemical CFC, which was released by refrigerators and air conditioners.

Global nature of environmental issues

Environmental issues such as deforestation, global warming, climate change, and loss of biodiversity are not confined to national
boundaries. These problems have global impacts affecting multiple countries, regardless of where their origin.

For example, carbon emission in one country can contribute to climate change that affects the entire planet. This makes
environmental issues a matter of global concern requiring Corporation among nations.

Global Commons Defined:

◦ The term refers to resources that are not owned by any one nation but are shared collectively by all. These include
the high seas, the atmosphere, Antarctica, and outer space.

◦ These areas fall outside national jurisdictions and are managed through international cooperation.
Need for Global Cooperation:

◦ Protecting global commons requires multilateral cooperation, where all nations act collectively in the interest of
long-term sustainability.

However, achieving this global corporation is difficult, each country has its own economic and political priorities, which often
conflicts with the broader environmental Agenda

For example, while all countries agree on the seriousness of climate change, not all countries are willing to compromise their national
interest for collective goals. This create a gap between commitment and action.

Key international treaties

1. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 1992

What it is:

The UNFCCC is a big international agreement made at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992. It was the first step in getting countries to
work together to fight climate change.

Main goal:

To stabilize greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere so they don’t cause dangerous changes to the climate.

Key points:

• It doesn’t set any legal limits on emissions but creates a framework for future actions.

• All countries that join are expected to report their emissions and take steps to reduce them.

• It led to future agreements like the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.

2. Rio Earth Summit (1992)

What it is:

Officially called the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), the Rio Summit was a major global
meeting held in Rio de Janeiro.

Main goals:

• Promote sustainable development (development that doesn’t harm future generations).

• Deal with issues like climate change, deforestation, and loss of biodiversity.

Key outcomes:

• Creation of the UNFCCC (to address climate change).

• Agenda 21, a global plan for sustainable development.

• Agreements on forests and biodiversity.

3. Kyoto Protocol (1997, came into force in 2005)

What it is:

An international treaty under the UNFCCC. It was the first legally binding agreement where countries committed to cut greenhouse
gas emissions.

Main goal:

To get developed countries (like the US, Canada, EU nations) to reduce their emissions by 5% below 1990 levels between 2008 and
2012.
Key points:

• Only developed countries had targets because they were considered more responsible for past emissions.

• Introduced mechanisms like carbon trading (countries could “buy” or “sell” emission credits).

• Some big emitters like the USA did not ratify it; others, like Canada, later withdrew.

4. Paris Agreement (2015)

What it is:

An agreement under the UNFCCC to replace the Kyoto Protocol with a more inclusive and flexible plan to fight climate change.

Main goal:

To limit global warming to below 2°C, preferably 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.

Key points:

• All countries, both rich and poor, agreed to voluntarily set targets for cutting emissions (called Nationally Determined
Contributions or NDCs).

• Countries must report their progress every 5 years.

• It focuses on both mitigation (reducing emissions) and adaptation (preparing for climate impacts).

• Unlike Kyoto, it is not legally binding, but there is strong global pressure to comply.

5. Montreal Protocol (1987)

What it is:

A treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of substances that cause ozone depletion, like CFCs used
in refrigerators and sprays.

Main goal:

To reduce and eliminate ozone-depleting chemicals.

Key points:

• One of the most successful environmental treaties ever—ozone layer is now healing.

• Includes a clear schedule to phase out harmful chemicals.

• Has been amended over time (like the Kigali Amendment in 2016 to reduce HFCs, which are also greenhouse gases).

Environmental governance face resistance due to north South divide

This divide referred to a difference in responsibilities between the developed (global north) and developing (global South)

Developed countries have historically contributed more to the pollution and industrialisation is yet now expect developing countries
to also reduce emission, developing countries, argue that they should not be an equal responsibility or burden as they are still in the
process of industrialisation.