Tunnelling into a Sustainable Future – Methods and Technologies – Johansson et al (Eds)
© 2025 The Author(s), ISBN 978-1-032-90462-7
Open Access: www.taylorfrancis.com, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license
Use of artificial ground freezing for sprayed concrete lined cross
passages at Silvertown Tunnel under the river Thames
D.W. Morgan, T. Higuchi, K. Zeidler & M. Tinney
Gall Zeidler Consultants, London, UK
O.H. Lim
Wayss & Freytag Ingenieurbau AG, London, UK
ABSTRACT: Artificial Ground Freezing (AGF) was used for the temporary support for
four out of seven sprayed concrete lining (SCL) cross passages on the Silvertown Tunnel pro-
ject. Three of these cross passages were constructed under the River Thames, while the fourth
was located onshore on the Greenwich peninsula. The cross passages were situated within the
Lambeth Group, distinguished by interbedded layers of over-consolidated sand and clay with
cover as low as 13m. An overview covering the site’s ground conditions, laboratory testing
results of frozen soil samples, and the selected geotechnical design parameters is provided, fol-
lowed by a summary of the thermal design, freeze pipe layout details, and considerations
made for the structural design of the cross passages. Construction aspects, including records
of the surface settlements, ground temperature monitoring, target temperature criteria, freeze
durations, and thermal imaging, are also presented. The paper concludes an evaluation of the
method, offering recommendations based on the project experience.
1 INTRODUCTION
The Silvertown Tunnel project involved building two 1.4km-long, 10.66m internal diameter
road tunnels under the River Thames, connecting the Greenwich Peninsula and the Royal
Docks at Silvertown on the south and north banks of the river, respectively. This was the first
road tunnel constructed beneath the river in London since 1980 and is also the first to include
cross passages. Eight cross passages (CPs) were provided for safe emergency egress for tunnel
users, emergency intervention, and housing of utilities required for operation of the tunnels.
Seven CPs were constructed using the SCL method and AGF was adopted for four CPs. At
the other CPs, groundwater depressurisation or low-strength piling was utilised where they
are located onshore.
CPs constructed using AGF (CP3 to CP6) comprised of 250mm-thick steel fibre reinforced
sprayed concrete primary support and a 250mm-thick cast in-situ concrete secondary lining
reinforced with steel fibres. The collars to support the TBM tunnel openings are steel bar reinforced.
A compartmentalised PVC membrane waterproofing system was installed between the primary and
secondary linings with bespoke details at the interface with the TBM segmental lining.
This paper focuses on the design, construction, and geotechnical aspects of the ground
freezing system and the related construction of CPs.
2 BASIS FOR GROUND FREEZING
Artificial Ground Freezing was adopted at CP locations where water-bearing strata were
interbedded with cohesive soils. At the four CPs, AGF was deemed the most reliable and prac-
tical option over other ground treatments such as grouting and groundwater depressurisation.
The clay layers in this interbedding would have disrupted the flow of grouting, risking areas
DOI: 10.1201/9781003559047-295
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not receiving grout. Depressurisation of the aquifer at these CP locations was considered;
however, without the assistance of deep wells installed from the surface, in-tunnel well points
would have been insufficient. Due to surface constraints, dewatering wells couldn’t be
installed at CP3, which is why it was chosen for AGF.
The primary objectives of the AGF design for the Silvertown Tunnel CPs were to provide:
1. Watertight Frozen Body - Prevent water ingress during excavation until the waterproofing
system and secondary lining are installed; and
2. Stable Frozen Body - Provide a sufficiently thick and stable frozen zone around the CPs for
safe excavation until the primary lining and subsequent secondary lining are in place.
3 GROUND CONDITIONS
3.1 Geology and Hydrogeology
A typical London basin geological progression exists along the Silvertown Tunnel alignment,
comprising Made Ground, Alluvium, River Terrace Deposits, Thames Group (London Clay
Formation and Harwich Formation), Lambeth Group, Thanet Sand Formation, and Seaford
Chalk as shown in Figure 1.
The strata encountered at the CP3 to CP6 were Lambeth Group. Specific units encountered
within Lambeth Group were Laminated Beds (sand), Lower Shelly Beds (clay) and Lower
Mottled Beds (sand).
Three out of the four AGF CPs (CP4 to CP6) were constructed directly below the River
Thames whilst CP3 was located onshore on the Greenwich peninsula. Approximate overbur-
den depths above each CP crown were: 25m (CP3); 20.5m (CP4); 13m (CP5); and 14m (CP6).
Figure 1. Geological long section along Silvertown Tunnel.
3.2 Frozen/Thawed soil properties
Laboratory testing established the thermal and structural design parameters of frozen soil.
Thermal parameters were applied within the thermal analyses to predict the size and propaga-
tion of the freeze front and define the required freeze time and required freeze plant. Struc-
tural parameters were applied in the ground-structure interaction analyses during the CPs
design. Selected results of the thermal soil tests and the frozen/thawed soil strength tests are
presented in Tables 1 and 2, respectively.
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Table 1. Laboratory-derived soil thermal parameters.
Plasticity Thermal conductivity [W/mK] Frost pressure
Strata index “Unfrozen” “Frozen” at –15 °C [kPa]
London Clay (LC) 49 1.95 3.47 55
Harwich Formation (HF) 40 1.87 3.44 39
Laminated Beds (LB) 6 2.21 4.05 138
Lower Shelly Beds (LSB) 28 2.08 3.69 288
Lower Mottled Beds (LMB) 21 1.93 3.46 131
Table 2. Laboratory-derived soil shear strength parameters.
Unfrozen Frozen UCS [MPa] Frozen strength Thawed strength
strength (strain at failure) cf [kPa] and φf (from –10 °C),
Strata cᵤ [kPa] and φ’ –10 °C –20 °C –10 °C –20 °C ct [kPa] and φ’t
LC 110, 23° 2.5 (11%) 5.2 (11%) 1200, 3.0° 2100, 3.0° 30, 18.7°
HF 140, 23° 2.4 (15%) 5.0 (14%) 1100, 2.5° 2100, 2.5° 30, 17.8°
LB -, 35° 4.1 (20%) 7.0 (19%) 1460, 3.5° 2400, 3.5° 27, 24.8°
LSB 150, 24° 2.6 (17%) 5.0 (14%) 1100, 3.0° 2050, 2.0° 4, 26.1°
LMB 250, 28° 3.0 (18%) 4.8 (10%) 1000, 4.0° 1800, 4.0° 25, 18.1°
Notes: 1) cᵤ is the undrained shear strength.
2) cᵤ increases with depth, and the parameters presented are the average value of each stratum.
3) c and φ are the cohesion and the angle of shearing resistance, respectively.
4) The drained cohesion, c’, for the “unfrozen” soils is zero.
Based on the results from the laboratory testing presented above, the frozen (–10°C) and
thawed properties of the various soils were established, enabling the derivation of geotechnical
design parameters for use in the soil-structure interaction analysis, as provided in Table 3. The
time- and temperature-dependent characteristics of the elastic modulus of the frozen soils
were calculated from a series of uniaxial creep tests using the power law equation, proposed
by Klein (1978) as given below:
where A, B and C = creep test parameters; E₀ = initial Young’s modulus; t = time; and σ₁ =
constant axial stress.
The values of stiffness determined from the creep tests, Ef,0 (2 weeks) and Ef (3 months),
represent those at the start of excavation and at the deactivation of AGF. The friction angle
φ’f and Poisson’s ratio of frozen soil were assumed to be 0° and 0.4, respectively.
Table 3. Frozen (–10°C) /thawed geotechnical design parameters of the soils encountered at cross passages.
Thawed Thawed
Stiffness Stiffness undrained drained
Cohesion (2 weeks) (3 months) stiffness stiffness
Strata Soil type cf [kPa] Ef,0 [MPa] Ef [MPa] Eᵤ,t [MPa] E’t [MPa]
LC/HF clay 450 100 50 25 20
HF/LB/LMB sand 900 150 75 - 120
LSB/LMB clay 450 100 50 75 60
4 AGF DESIGN
As shown in Figure 2, the freeze pipe layout consisted of a total of 26 no. freeze pipes
arranged in a ‘picture frame’ layout surrounding the CP collar excavation profile, installed
from the southbound tunnel. Ground freezing consultant, CDM Smith, conducted thermal
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design calculations for the freeze pipes. The resulting ground freezing system design identified
the following requirements:
1) Required thickness of the frozen soil ring around CP = 1.5m
2) Average temperature of the frozen soil body = –10°C, between the –2°C isotherms; and
3) A single 94kW Freeze Unit to freeze a complete ring around each CP using liquid brine
cooled to –35°C.
Figure 2. Freeze pipe layout (CP4 as built) and photograph during excavation from southbound
tunnel, showing black insulation tiles and ice formed on the freeze pipes.
The thermal calculations determined that the initial freeze time required for each CP was 70
days to build up the required minimum freeze thickness, including sealing on to each TBM
tunnel’s extrados. This estimated freeze time was required before the initial breakout and
excavation could commence for each CP.
4.1 CP design considering AGF
The temporary and permanent linings for the AGF CPs were assessed using 2D finite element
(FE) modelling with the geotechnical frozen-ground parameters. FE analyses were conducted to
evaluate models incorporating the Mohr-Coulomb elasto-plastic behaviour of the ground, soil-
structure interaction of support elements, and the loading on the lining in various construction
stages under the applicable soil properties. Only the 1.5m thick frozen ring area surrounding the
CP excavation line was considered using frozen ground parameters at the appropriate modelling
stages. Unchanged ground parameters were used for the remaining ground. Thawed ground
parameters were later applied to the 1.5m ring after sufficient curing of the secondary lining.
For the design of the CP primary lining, the initial 50mm of sprayed concrete was con-
sidered sacrificial due to the high uncertainty of the effect that freezing would have on con-
crete strength development and was ignored in the structural analysis. To consider the
uncertainty of strength development of C30/35 concrete when sprayed against frozen ground
and cured at low temperature, the design strength of the concrete was cautiously reduced by
50%. Therefore, for the purposes of the structural analysis, the primary lining thickness was
200mm and its concrete strength was assumed to be 15 MPa rather than 30 MPa.
5 CONSTRUCTION
Specialist Contractor Züblin was commissioned to undertake the ground freezing works. The
designer and ground freezing contractor worked collaboratively during the entire ground
freezing works. The AGF CPs were constructed sequentially from CP3 to CP6. Freeze pipe
drilling and installation commenced in May 2023 with the first freeze plant at CP3 activated
in July 2023 and the last plant deactivated in late December 2023.
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5.1 Insulation
To reduce the heat transfer from the tunnel through the segments and into the ground, insula-
tion material consisting of FOAMGLAS® T3+ 100mm-thick tiles was installed on the intra-
dos of both the southbound (SB) tunnel and northbound (NB) tunnel linings as shown on
Figure 2. Approximate areas of the TBM tunnel wall covered by the insulation tiles were 70m2
of the SB tunnel and 130m2 of the NB (target) tunnel.
5.2 Freeze pipe survey and assessment
Upon completing the freeze pipe installations, Züblin conducted a gyroscopic borehole survey
to provide the as-built coordinates of the pipes. A 3D as-built model of the freeze pipes was
prepared and used to assess the adequacy of the pipe positions, ensuring a minimum clearance
of 400mm between the freeze pipe and the CP excavation profile.
5.3 Ground temperature monitoring
Critically, to determine the progress of ground freezing, freeze maintenance, and to evaluate
the performance of the freeze system, ground temperatures were monitored. 3 no. temperature
sensor pipes (TSPs) were installed at each CP (see Figure 2), strategically positioned between
freeze pipes and at the outer perimeter of the required 1.5m frozen ring. The TSPs contained
thermocouples spaced at 1m intervals along the length of the pipe.
As expected, sensors within the TSPs close to both TBM tunnels measured higher ground tem-
peratures compared to those close to the mid-point between the TBM tunnels. Despite the insula-
tion tiles installed at the segmental lining the sensors immediately adjacent to the TBM tunnels
indicated approximately 5 to 7°C higher temperatures than those at the mid-section of CPs.
At the NB (target) tunnel, an initial 14 no. of Temperature Sensor (TS) locations were
installed within the segmental lining to monitor ground freezing at the CP-TBM interface and
to verify the closure of the frozen ring at the extrados of the NB segmental lining.
5.3.1 Target temperature criteria to commence excavation
A comprehensive assessment was conducted of the entire ground freezing system across each
CP to establish the acceptance criteria for target temperatures for the commencement of exca-
vation. This assessment encompassed:
1. Temperature Monitoring Data was analysed to track the development of the freeze body.
This analysis considered the as-built locations of the freeze pipes, temperature sensor pipes,
and temperature sensors in the NB tunnel. Target temperatures were set for each CP, consid-
ering the position of the temperature sensors relative to the as-built freeze pipes. These target
temperatures were designed to align with the thermal design requirements of a 1.5m frozen
body thickness and an average temperature of –10°C between the –2°C isotherms. Due to
the low salinity of porewater (< 2.7%), a reduction of the freeze point was not expected; and
2. Groundwater Pressure Data evaluation of build-up within the frozen envelope. Excessive
water pressure had to be released through drainage pipes installed during freeze pipe instal-
lations to avoid excessive pressure on the TBM lining. This also allowed monitoring of the
stability and integrity of the frozen ground body. Groundwater was drained by two drain-
age pipes strategically positioned in the upper half of the CP excavation profile to align
with the anticipated sand layers in the middle to upper part of the profile. The design basis
was that the porewater pressure inside the ground freezing ring should not exceed 1.8bar to
maintain the integrity of tunnel segmental lining.
Durations for the AGF phases are shown in Table 4.
5.4 Excavation
The AGF CPs had a typical excavation advance length of 1.0m, and the length of the 4 no.
AGF CPs ranged between 9 and 12m. Excavation and primary lining installation took up to
12 days, as shown in Table 4. Figure 2 shows the construction of an AGF CP from within the
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Table 4. Number of freeze and excavation days for each cross passage.
CP3 CP4 CP5 CP6
No. of freezing days before excavation 52 55 60 69
Total no. of freeze days before plant deactivation 122 120 122 126
No. of excavation days 10 9 12 12
SB tunnel. The ends of the freeze pipes protrude from the tunnel lining approximately 1m and
the insulation panels remain fixed to the tunnel lining for the duration of freezing.
5.5 Thermal imaging of CP face
Thermal imaging was performed by the designer’s site representatives allowing monitoring of
ground temperatures at the tunnel face during excavation. Before each excavation round, ther-
mal images of the tunnel face were captured, providing a visual representation of the tempera-
ture distribution and effectively indicating the extent of the frozen ground. These thermal
images were analysed to identify any warm spots, which could suggest areas where the ground
is not adequately frozen or seepage may be present. Figure 3 shows an example of thermal
images against a photograph of the tunnel face at CP3; the thermal images clearly show the
frozen annulus and the warmer centre of the tunnel face.
Figure 3. Thermal imaging and photograph of the frozen tunnel face (CP3).
5.5.1 Sprayed concrete adhesion and mix design
To mitigate against the risk of spayed concrete failing to adhere to the frozen ground, warm
water (30 to 35°C) with 6.5-7.0% accelerator dosage was used in the C30/35 concrete mix. This
measure proved effective, and when this procedure was followed, there were no issues with
sprayed concrete adherence to the ground. No pre-construction trials were conducted to deter-
mine the optimal concrete mix temperature for enhanced adhesion.
To evaluate the actual strength of the primary lining three core samples were taken at CP6 13
days after spraying. Their compressive strengths at 14 days ranged from 20.0 to 23.8MPa. The
results indicate a significant effect of the low-temperature curing on the development of concrete
strength as non-AGF SCL cores had achieved the design strength of 30MPa by 14 days.
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5.5.2 Decommissioning
The freezing plant for each CP was deactivated but decommissioning began only after the sec-
ondary lining had achieved its design strength. Reliance could not be placed on the secondary
lining concrete test panels and test cores for strength development results due to the influence
of AGF on the secondary lining’s temperature, which was assumed to affect concrete curing.
Consequently, the concrete test samples did not accurately represent the actual in-situ curing
conditions. In-situ strength testing, by Schmidt hammer, was explored to estimate the second-
ary lining’s strength and to ascertain when the design strength had been met.
6 GROUND TEMPERATURE MONITORING
The average ground temperature at CP3 (except the collars) versus time graphs, generated from
evaluation of the TSP data, provides a comprehensive understanding of the ground freezing pro-
cess. Figure 4 shows how ground around CP3 initially had a baseline temperature of approxi-
mately +17 to +19°C before freezing. During the first two weeks of freezing, there was a rapid
decrease in ground temperature at the CP mid-section, reaching 0°C by the end of this period.
The sensor closest to the SB tunnel recorded the highest temperatures due to the influence of the
higher tunnel temperatures, while the middle sensors recorded the coldest temperatures.
Excavation of CP3 commenced after 53 days of freezing on 18th September 2023. The exca-
vation stage increased ground temperature by up to 8°C, with the mid-section sensors less
impacted, showing an increase by up to 4°C.
Following the completion of excavation, ground temperatures continued to decrease as sub-
sequent CP construction works, such as waterproofing and secondary lining installations,
were carried out over the next month. It is worth noting that ground temperature increases
were observed only during excavation and sprayed concrete works. This increase is primarily
attributed to the heat generated by concrete hydration and tunnelling equipment in the first
two weeks after completing the primary lining. For CP3, the temperatures at the TSPs reached
a minimum of –23°C.
Figure 4. CP3 ground temperature development and ground movement over time.
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7 GROUND MOVEMENTS DURING CONSTRUCTION
Figure 4 also displays ground surface monitoring at CP3 (an onshore cross passage) alongside
the ground temperatures records. The CP3 ground conditions comprise of 15m-thick superfi-
cial deposits underlain by 8m-thick Thames Group and 10m-thick Lambeth Group with the
surface level at 5.0m AOD. CP3 was built within Laminated Beds (sand) and Lower Shelly
Beds (clay) with an approximate overburden depth above the tunnel crown of 25m.
Since CP3 is located only 150m from the River Thames, the upper aquifer levels and
recorded surface ground movements would have been influenced by a large amplitude tidal
range (±3m). While the temperature of the ground surrounding the CP decreased from
approximately +17°C to –20°C over the first eight weeks, a slightly upward trend in the sur-
face ground movements (heave) was observed. During a 10-day period of excavation negli-
gible surface settlements were recorded.
The settlement only occurred following the end of AGF and the trend gently continued
over the next two months and was likely caused by a reduction in the ground stiffness due to
thawing and the restart of stress redistribution. At the end of the monitoring period, i.e., three
months after AGF switch off, the overall settlement around CP3 ranged from 3 to 6mm.
The neighbouring CP2 is located approximately 165m to southwest of CP3 and its ground
conditions are similar to those at CP3, as shown in Figure 1. CP2 was constructed by ground-
water depressurisation technique. The maximum surface settlement monitored above CP2 was
26mm. These monitoring results at CP2 and CP3 indicate that ground freezing causes less
settlement, making it a viable option for underground works where water-bearing strata are
present and adjacent to sensitive structures.
8 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
AGF was used as a temporary support system during the construction of four SCL cross pas-
sages. This method provided necessary ground support and groundwater cut-off, facilitating
excavation and the installation of primary lining, and no design changes were made based on
experience during construction.
The freeze time was shorter than anticipated and the optimal moment for excavation could
be accurately determined using the monitoring system.
In this geological setting, ground freezing proved to be more effective than depressurisation
in minimising ground movement.
Based on the experience from the project, the following AGF recommendations are proposed:
1. Additional Temperature Sensor Pipes (TSPs) around the CP perimeter would improve
monitoring of freeze body development. Minimum four TSPs are recommended;
2. Thermocouples installed within the ground at the target tunnel after the frozen body is
established are recommended over sensors within the lining which proved unreliable;
3. Sprayed Concrete Mix prepared with warm water (30 to 35°C) improved adhesion to the
frozen ground; and
4. Study into the effects of freezing on sprayed concrete strength may optimise the primary lin-
ing’s sacrificial layer thickness and maintenance freezing time.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Authors would like to acknowledge and thank the Riverlinx Joint Venture for which the
development of the CP design was aided by contribution from a large multi-disciplinary team.
REFERENCES
Klein, J. 1978. Nichtlineares Kriechen von künstlich gefrorenem Emschermergel. Schriftenreihe des Insti-
tuts für Grundbau, Wasserwesen und Verkehrswesen, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Heft 2.
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