Bioresource Technology Reports 24 (2023) 101610

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Bioresource Technology Reports

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From garbage to treasure: A review on biorefinery of organic solid wastes

into valuable biobased products
Adegoke Isiaka Adetunji a, *, Paul Johan Oberholster a, b, Mariana Erasmus a
a
Centre for Mineral Biogeochemistry, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein 9301, South Africa
b
Centre for Environmental Management, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein 9301, South Africa

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The incessant dumping of solid waste has been an issue of global attention, causing significant risks to the
Solid waste environment and human health. The biodegradable organic components of the waste materials pose a greater
Bioconversion technologies opportunity in the production of beneficial products. Therefore, adequate management of organic solid waste is
Biorefinery
key to mitigate environmental pollution and promotes its reuse as a feedstock in the formation of valuable
Biobased products
Valorization
products. Methods such as pyrolysis, gasification, etc. are employed for valorization of organic solid waste.
Circular bioeconomy However, these techniques are inept for the treatment of the waste materials due to release of gaseous pollutants,
consumption of high energy, among others. Biorefinery is a green and sustainable technology for the breakdown
of organic solid waste into valuable biobased products such as biofertilizer, bioethanol, biohydrogen,
bioelectricity, biogas, bioplastics, organic acids, and bioenzymes. This review, therefore, provides un­
derstandings on the biological technologies for the valorization of organic solid waste into valuable and useful
biobased products.

1. Introduction organic solid wastes contain nutritive components, including lipids,

proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, etc., which are reusable as a feed­
Waste is referred to as useless materials or by-products that are stock in the production of biobased products (Campuzano and González-
discharged from a biodegradable process or, from plants or animals (Abu Martínez, 2016; Azam et al., 2020; Manu et al., 2021; Ren et al., 2021).
Yazid et al., 2017). They can be grouped into different forms such as The organic waste is biodegradable and are derived majorly from agri­
solid, liquid, organic, recyclable, or hazardous (Rajendran et al., 2021). cultural waste or food waste (Sharma et al., 2022). The make-up of these
However, solid waste poses significant problems to humanity, especially waste materials differs between municipalities, regions, and countries,
in urban populations (Siddiqua et al., 2022). It is a collection of various based on the living style, waste management guidelines, industrial
smaller to extremely larger substances. The constituents and quantity of structure, and financial status (Abdel-Shafy and Mansour, 2018).
solid waste are vital in determining suitable handling and management The global upsurge in population density, rapid industrialization,
strategies of the waste materials (Rasmeni and Madyira, 2019). It con­ urbanization, and increase in the living standard have significantly
sists of glass, metals, aluminium cans, wood waste, yard waste, food enhanced the quality, amount, and rate of solid waste generation,
waste, paper, rubber, plastics, textiles, leather; construction, and causing serious social-economic challenges with consequential envi­
demolishing materials, etc. However, the organic waste components of ronmental and health effects (Moya et al., 2017; Abdel-Shafy and
solid waste are higher owing to more consumption of household food Mansour, 2018; Prajapati et al., 2021). The amount of waste generated is
and commercial waste (The World Bank, 2012; Amin et al., 2023). relative to the financial development and income status of a particular
Organic solid waste is heterogenous in nature with varying physical and country (Yaashikaa et al., 2020). According to a report from the World
chemical characteristics. These include moisture content, waste particle Bank, the global production of waste in 2016 was 1.3 × 109 tons. This
size, density, chemical oxygen demand (COD), total solids (TS), bio­ raised to 3.40 × 109 tons per year and with a projection of 70% incre­
methane potential (BMP), total nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorus (TP) ment in 2050 (Kaza et al., 2018). Similar trend is noticeable in South
(Abdel-Shafy and Mansour, 2018; Siddiqua et al., 2022). In addition, Africa, where per capital generation of waste increases with improved

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A.I. Adetunji).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biteb.2023.101610
Received 9 August 2023; Received in revised form 26 August 2023; Accepted 28 August 2023
Available online 9 September 2023
2589-014X/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
A.I. Adetunji et al. Bioresource Technology Reports 24 (2023) 101610

living standards (Dlamini et al., 2019). Consequently, adequate man­ production of valuable products from the bioconversion processes while
agement of solid waste is imperative to alleviate pollution and promotes also elucidating possible recommendations for future studies.
its reuse as a feedstock for the production of valuable products. The
choice of appropriate technologies for solid waste management is 2. Types of solid waste
influenced by the composition and characteristics of the waste materials
(Abdel-Shafy and Mansour, 2018). Various methods including gasifica­ Solid waste is classified into different groups, depending on the
tion, pyrolysis, and incineration are employed for the valorization of source (origin) and property. Based on the origin, solid waste includes
solid waste (Prajapati et al., 2021). However, these techniques have household waste, institutional waste, agricultural waste, biomedical
proven to be unsatisfactory for the valorization of solid waste due to waste, municipal waste, and industrial waste (Abdel-Shafy and Man­
release of gaseous pollutants, high operational costs, high energy de­ sour, 2018; Rajendran et al., 2021). However, according to their prop­
mands, among others (Beyene et al., 2018; Amin et al., 2023). A erty, solid waste could be organic waste, inorganic waste, biodegradable
different approach to circumvent the abovementioned constraints is the waste, non-biodegradable waste, hazardous waste, and non-hazardous
use of living organisms for the transformation of solid waste into bio­ waste (Varjani et al., 2021). Other forms of solid waste include plastic
based products (Rehman et al., 2023). waste, radioactive waste, sewage waste, mining waste, and garbage
Bioconversion technology is a green, promising, and sustainable ashes waste (Prajapati et al., 2021). The major different types of solid
method that utilizes metabolic activities of living organisms such as waste are illustrated in Fig. 2 and described in detail below.
microorganisms, worms, and insects for the breakdown of organic solid
wastes into valuable bioproducts, including biogas, bioethanol, bio­ 2.1. Agricultural waste
hydrogen, biofertilizer, bioelectricity, biopolymers, bioplastics, bio­
chemicals, organic acids, bioenzymes, etc. (Yadegary et al., 2013; Bibra Agricultural wastes are waste materials that are generated from
et al., 2023; Melo et al., 2023) (Fig. 1). It is a simple, economical, agricultural field and majorly consist of 35–50 % cellulose, 25–30 %
effective, and eco-friendly method that requires less energy, mainte­ lignin, and 25–30 % hemicellulose (Behera and Ray, 2016; Abu Yazid
nance, and operational difficulties (Yuvaraj et al., 2021; Kee et al., 2023) et al., 2017). They exist as vegetable waste, fruit waste (e.g., fruit peels,
(Table 1). This technique is mostly preferred for waste containing high sugarcane bagasse), and crop residues (Cusenza et al., 2021; Yaashikaa
levels of biodegradable organic materials together with a significant et al., 2022). The fruit peels are obtained from banana, orange, mangoes,
level of water capacity, which support metabolic activities of the or­ pawpaw, pineapple, etc. Such fruit wastes as well as vegetable wastes
ganisms under anaerobic or aerobic conditions (Du et al., 2018). How­ are transformed into animal feed (Sahoo et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2022;
ever, the bioconversion technologies are liable to some limitations such Rojas et al., 2022). Sugarcane bagasse is a dry fibre obtained after
as high-time consuming, large land space requirement, proper growth extraction of juice from sugarcane. The crop residues are inexpensive
conditions for inoculants (e.g., worms, microorganisms, insects), and and readily available waste materials that are immediately obtained
narrow range of temperature control (Varjani et al., 2021) (Table 1). from farms. They include corn straw, rice straw, wheat straw, seed pods,
This review, therefore, provides insights into various technologies for leaves, etc. and form a promising and value-added biomass for the
bioconversion of diverse organic solid wastes into beneficial biobased production of biobased products (e.g., bioethanol) (Prasad et al., 2020;
products. In addition, it highlights the challenges confronting large-scale Tajmirriahi et al., 2021). In addition, livestock wastes, including chicken

Biofertilizers

Animal Biogas
feeds

Bioenzymes
Biohydrogen

Biobased products

Biodiesel
Bioethanol

Organic
Bioplastics
acids

Bioelectricity

Fig. 1. Schematic diagrams showing different biobased products produced from organic solid waste valorization.

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A.I. Adetunji et al. Bioresource Technology Reports 24 (2023) 101610

Table 1 Table 1 (continued )

Advantages and disadvantages of different bioconversion technologies. Bioconversion Advantage Disadvantage Reference
Bioconversion Advantage Disadvantage Reference technology
technology
Fermentation Produces Requires substrate Hongzhang,
Landfilling Avoid Emission of Dlamini- technology enzymes, organic pretreatment 2011
indiscriminate greenhouse gases Sekhohola and acids, Needs optimum De la Cruz
disposal in the Causes air and soil Tekere (2020) biopesticides, process conditions Quiroz et al.,
environment pollution Siddiqua et al. bioethanol, etc. for maximum 2015
Economical (2022) Requires low yields Lόpez-Pérez and
Simple energy Capital-intensive Viniegra-
Composting Produces Time-consuming Awasthi et al. consumption on a large-scale González, 2016
biomethane, Requires more land (2020) Operational and Abu Yazid et al.
biofertilizers, and space Kulikowska and bioproduct (2017)
biopesticides Needs regular Bernat (2023) reclamation Adetunji and
Cost-effective monitoring Varjani et al. difficulties Olaniran (2018,
Chemical-free Liable to heavy (2021) 2019, 2020,
Improves soil metal Waqas et al. 2021a)
nutrient level contamination (2023) Chilakamarry
Prevent soil Contains et al. (2022)
erosion insufficient Adetunji et al.
Reduces waste nutrients (2023b)
weight and Generates
volume obnoxious odor
Enhances soil litter, animal skin, straw, carcasses, and slurry, cow dung, etc. have high
structure, water nitrogen content, which make them employable as a substrate for biogas
retention and tilth
and biofertilizer production (Campuzano and González-Martínez, 2016;
Anaerobic Generates biogas Slow Dang et al.
digestion used as a Low-processing (2017) Biruntha et al., 2020). The quantity and components of agricultural
renewable energy capacity Khan (2020) waste are influenced by the operation type, raw material characteristics,
source Requires substrate processing steps, as well as the nature and type of products formed
Releases by- pretreatment (Nayak and Bhushan, 2019).
products Operates at narrow
(digestate) used as range of
biofertilizer temperature 2.2. Industrial waste
Simple control
Less emission of Industrial wastes are waste materials generated before, during, or
gaseous pollutants
Inexpensive
after production processes, or as by-products from a variety of industries
Low operational such as poultry processing industry, edible oil industry, dairy industry,
difficulties pulp and paper industry, abattoirs, sugar industry, fish processing in­
Vermicomposting Adequate nutrient Requires additives Wani and Mamta dustry, fruit and vegetable processing plants, etc. (Abdel-Shafy and
supply such as animal (2013)
Mansour, 2018). The waste materials are produced during handling,
Reduces manure, microbes, Bhat et al.
composting etc. (2018) cutting, processing, thermal treatment, transportation, packaging, or
duration Needs adequate Ramnarain et al. due to discoloration, microbial invasion, and biochemical reactions
Inhibits cultivation (2019) (Sharma et al., 2020). Conventionally, the industrial waste is usually
pathogenic conditions for Li et al. (2020) dumped, incinerated, landfilled, composted, or anaerobically digested
organisms in the inoculants (e.g., Yuvaraj et al.
final compost worms and (2021)
into biofertilizers, thereby minimizing environmental pollution and
Eco-friendly microbes) boosts soil nutrition (Sharma et al., 2022). In addition, these wastes
Low-cost possess huge potential for utilization as a raw material for production of
Produces valuable products such as biofuel, organic acids, enzymes, etc. (Abu
biofertilizer for
Yazid et al., 2017). For instance, slaughterhouse waste such as hairs,
improved plant
growth skin, feathers, horns, and hooves have high amounts of organic matter,
Remediates heavy animal fat, and protein (Singh et al., 2014; Arya et al., 2022). Further­
metals from solid more, Daâssi et al. (2016) employed sawdust from wood industry as a
waste substrate for production of laccase by a fungus, Coriolopsis gallica. Due to
Insect-based Produces animal Low consumer Surendra et al.
biorefinery feeds, acceptance (2016)
its rich proteins and lipid composition, the fish-processing wastes are
biofertilizer, Allergenic, toxic, Peguero et al. recognized as a cheap inducer for microbial production of esterase
biodiesel, and zoonotic (2022) (Esakkiraj et al., 2012).
biopolymers, etc. potential of insects Kee et al. (2023)
Greater feed to handlers
conversion Requires suitable
2.3. Municipal waste
efficiency rearing conditions
Requires less land and proper diet Municipal wastes are waste materials that are obtained from
space, water, and formulation for households, institutions, and commercial activities. The waste compo­
feed insects
sition is influenced by the seasonal variation, economic status, and social
Renders less
greenhouse gases activity of the people (Rasmeni and Madyira, 2019). In addition, the
Economically composition of municipal waste is heterogenous, consisting of paper, oil,
feasible plastic, water, as well as spoiled and left-over food wastes from domestic
Eco-friendly kitchens, restaurants, and markets. The presence of moisture and salts in
High nutrients
supply
the municipal waste leads to the quick breakdown of its organic matter
contents, resulting in obnoxious odors, and further serves as a breeding
habitat for vectors (e.g., flies, bugs) of infectious diseases (Siddiqua
et al., 2022). In addition, municipal waste materials comprise of

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A.I. Adetunji et al. Bioresource Technology Reports 24 (2023) 101610

Household
waste

Industrial waste Agricultural waste

Types of solid waste

Institutional
waste Biomedical waste

Municipal waste

Fig. 2. Schematic diagrams illustrating various types of solid waste.

proteins, starch, lipids, cellulose, and other organic components, which disposal of solid wastes creates a breeding site for flies and rodents,
when biodegraded, can be used to produce valuable biobased products thereby causing infectious diseases, including cholera, malaria fever,
(Mantzouridou et al., 2015; Matsakas et al., 2015; Cerda et al., 2016). dengue fever, etc. Furthermore, the presence of toxic chemical sub­
For instance, the intricate composition of household food waste allows stances in landfill leachate causes adverse effects on aquatic organisms,
Bacillus thuringiensis to thrive for the production of biopesticide (Zhang if exposed to lakes or rivers (Zhang et al., 2016; Siddiqua et al., 2022).
et al., 2015). The calorific value of municipal waste is a vital index that
determines its employability for bioenergy production. A higher calorie 4. Technologies for bioconversion of organic solid waste
of the solid waste is favorable for bioenergy production (Amin et al.,
2023). Bioconversion technology is a green and sustainable approach that
exploits the metabolic potential of living organisms for the valorization
3. Environmental and health impacts of solid waste of organic solid waste into valuable products through digestion,
fermentation or solubilization process (Cho et al., 2020; Kiruba and
The indecorous management of solid waste is worrisome, especially Saeid, 2022). It is carried out in the presence of suitable microorganisms,
in developing countries, causing serious hazards to human health and worms, or insects, or their metabolites for the conversion of waste
ecosystems, flora, and fauna (Adetunji et al., 2023a). Most of the solid biomass into desired biobased products (Abu Yazid et al., 2017; Bhat
wastes are dumped into landfills or burnt, thereby impacting negatively et al., 2018; Kee et al., 2023). The various methods for bioconversion of
on the environment by contamination of surface and underground water organic solid waste are illustrated in Fig. 3 and discussed in detail below:
and generation of greenhouse gases (e.g., SO2, NO2) during decompo­
sition (Islam and Bhat, 2019; Zhou and Wang, 2020). Inhalation of such
gases, especially by people that live near the solid waste site could lead 4.1. Landfilling
to respiratory diseases (e.g., asthma) (Cucchiella et al., 2017). Inciner­
ation of solid waste causes emission of toxic pollutants (e.g., dioxins), This is a process of disposal of unwanted solid waste in an engineered
which not only detrimental to human health, but also damage soil pit (terrestrial burial site) for biodegradation of organic components of
quality (Abubakar et al., 2022). In addition, frequent exposure to solid the waste materials (Amin et al., 2023). The heterogenous nature of the
waste or hazardous leachate can cause skin infections, cancer, DNA waste materials allows the diverse population of microbes to co-exist
damage, cell death, congenital malformations, etc. (Siddiqua et al., and metabolize complex substrates present therein (Zainun and Simar­
2022). The easily and fast perishable nature of agro-industrial wastes ani, 2018; Sekhohola-Dlamini and Tekere, 2020). Biomass present in the
serve as a severe threat with high chance of contamination and envi­ landfill depends on the type of waste, location, and season (Przydatek
ronmental pollution. Furthermore, when solid waste is improperly and Kanownik, 2019). This technique is economical and age-long for
disposed, it causes obstruction of drainage, which results in unpleasant waste management and methane production. However, landfilling is
odor, flooding, and unappealing appearance on the receiving water challenging due to seepage of leachate and emission of greenhouse
body surface (Adetunji and Olaniran, 2021a). More so, indiscriminate gases. Landfills exist in different types, namely sanitary landfill, indus­
trial landfill, hazardous landfill, and green landfill (Siddiqua et al.,

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A.I. Adetunji et al. Bioresource Technology Reports 24 (2023) 101610

Fig. 3. Schematic diagrams depicting different technologies for bioconversion of organic solid waste into biobased products.

2022). The design of a landfill is influenced by the characteristics of the mineralized majorly into organic acids and methane in a closed system
waste materials in terms of the structure, weight, water permeability, by anaerobic microbes (Sha et al., 2022). The effectiveness of the or­
condensability, and durability (Ozbay et al., 2021). The landfill consists ganisms is influenced by the availability of optimum pH, C:N ratio,
of a covering and bottom lining, which prevent escape of gaseous sub­ temperature, moisture content, and oxygen (aerobes) in the compost
stances and pollution of underground water (Siddiqua et al., 2022). It pile (Chen et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2020). These conditions favor the
comprises of five different stages, namely aerobic stage, transition stage, growth and metabolism of the microbes, resulting in the formation of a
acid phase, methane formation stage, and final maturation stage (Val­ solid (humus) and pathogen-free products for exploitation in the agri­
lero, 2018; Amin et al., 2023). The aerobic phase is characterized with culture sector (Waqas et al., 2023). The composition and quality of the
biodegradation of organic components of the solid waste in the presence compost is influenced by the type of solid waste, composting process,
of oxygen and is accompanied with heat generation and increase in process conditions, and addition of nutrients during composting (Chew
temperature (Sekhohola-Dlamini and Tekere, 2020). The transition et al., 2019).
phase is marked with a change in the physiology of the organisms from During composting, the organic solid waste undergoes four different
aerobes to anaerobes, followed by production of organic acid and CO2. phases, namely mesophilic, thermophilic, cooling, and compost matu­
Further degradation by anaerobic organisms leads to the production of ration (Belyaeva and Haynes, 2009). The initial mineralization of the
highly concentrated acids and hydrogen. In addition, volatile fatty acids organic matter is carried out by mesophiles. The mesophiles further
are converted into acetic acid, hydrogen, and CO2. The acetic acid and consume the nutrients (sugars and amino acids) in the solid waste,
hydrogen are later transformed into methane, CO2, and water. At the proliferate and generate heat, resulting in enhanced temperature (above
final maturation stage, complete breakdown of organic matter occurs. 60 ◦ C) in the composting system. The second stage is characterized with
The resultant leachate consists of fulvic and humic acids (Amin et al., prevalence of thermophilic organisms, which further increase the tem­
2023). perature, leading to the death of pathogens in the compost. The cooling
phase is marked with depletion of energy sources, which lowers the
temperature (<35 ◦ C), thereby promoting the activity of the mesophiles
4.2. Composting for the decomposition of the residual sugars and cellulose. The matu­
ration stage leads to the formation of a dark humic substance (Sánchez
This is a biological technique for the decomposition of organic et al., 2017).
matter components of solid waste into stable form (humus) in the The composting technique has gained attention as an effective solid
presence of microbes (actinomycetes, fungi, and bacteria) under waste management strategy owing to its eco-friendliness and ability to
controlled conditions (Amin et al., 2023; Waqas et al., 2023). Com­ produce beneficial bioproducts such as biofertilizer and biopesticides
posting is carried out under aerobic or anaerobic condition. The aerobic (Kulikowska and Bernat, 2023). In addition, composting is economical,
composting involves the breakdown of organic matter in the solid waste consumes less amounts of water, chemical-free, increases soil nutrient
into CO2, humus, water, and heat in the presence of oxygen-dependent level, and protects against erosion (Cyprowski et al., 2019; Varjani et al.,
organisms (Mehta and Sirari, 2018). On the other hands, in anaerobic 2021). Furthermore, composting reduces waste weight and volume;
composting, the biodegradable organic materials are piled and

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enhances soil structure, water retention capacity, and tilth (Waqas et al., 4.5. Anaerobic digestion
2023). However, this technique is time-consuming, requires more land
space and regular monitoring, and liable to contamination by heavy It involves the breakdown of complex organic solid waste materials
metals. More so, composting contains insufficient nutrients to support into CO2 and biogas under anaerobic conditions by consortium of mi­
plant growth, thereby making it unacceptable by users, and generate crobes (Yasin et al., 2019). The metabolism of the organisms is enhanced
unpleasant odor (Waqas et al., 2023). at optimum pH, retention time, volatile fatty acids, C:N ratio, temper­
ature, total solids, particle size, and loading rate (Pastor-Poquet et al.,
2019; Varjani et al., 2021). This technique can be carried out in a
4.3. Vermicomposting
continuous, semi-continuous, or discontinuous reactor in a single-stage
or two-stage anaerobic digestion system (Franca and Bassin, 2020).
It involves the conversion of organic waste into nutritious and sta­
The single-stage digestion system is divided into four phases namely,
bilized form in the presence of earthworms (Rorat and Vandenbulcke,
hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis (Ren et al.,
2019). It is carried out in a minor compartment (e.g., bin), consisting of
2018). Hydrolysis is the first step and involves the breakdown of com­
solid waste and earthworms under suitable environmental conditions.
plex organic matter into simple soluble form (i.e., monomers such as
Additives (e.g., cow manure, fly ash), microorganisms (potassium-
amino acids, sugars, and fatty acids) with the aid of some hydrolytic
fixing, nitrogen-fixing, and phosphorus-solubilizing bacteria) and water
enzymes (Kumar and Samadder, 2020). Further degradation or
are added to promote the growth of the earthworms for enhanced nu­
fermentation of the basic organic compounds into volatile fatty acids,
trients in the final compost, and to reduce the C:N ratio and composting
CO2, hydrogen, and other bio-products occurs during acidogenesis
duration (Busato et al., 2012; Das et al., 2016; Malińska et al., 2017;
(Dehkordi et al., 2020). This is followed by transformation of the volatile
Waqas et al., 2023). The microbes and earthworms secrete a variety of
fatty acids into acetic acid, hydrogen, and CO2 in the presence of ace­
digestive enzymes that enhance the degradation process (Medińa-Sauza
togenic bacteria, a phenomenon known as acetogenesis (Panigrahi and
et al., 2019). In addition, the earthworm-microbe nexus promotes
Dubey, 2019). The last step known as methanogenesis is characterized
frequent interaction with the substrate, improves biochemical reactions,
with the formation of methane and CO2 from acetic acid and hydrogen
thereby converting the essential nutritive elements in the waste mate­
(Zahedi et al., 2017).
rials into soluble forms that improve the vermicompost quality (Garg
Anaerobic digestion is employed for the valorization of household
and Gupta, 2009; Yuvaraj et al., 2021). The earthworms consume the
waste, livestock waste, food waste, industrial waste, etc., thus reducing
biomass in the solid waste, which is excreted in a digested form known
the waste materials, and recovering energy (biofuels) from biomass (Fan
as a vermicast, serving as a key contributor to micro flora development
et al., 2018). However, agricultural and livestock wastes contain high
and inhibition of pathogenic organisms (Rehman et al., 2023). Different
organic matter contents, suitable for biogas production (Moustakas
species of worms, including Lampito mauritii, Megascolex chinensis, Eise­
et al., 2020). The composition of the biogas is influenced by the biomass.
nia foetida, Perionyx sansibaricus, Eudrillus eugineae, etc. are employed for
For instance, in plant food waste used as biomass, biogas production was
vermicomposting of solid waste (Waqas et al., 2023). However, Eisenia
approximately 60 % methane balanced with CO2 (Slorach et al., 2019).
foetida and Eudrillus eugineae are prominent for vermicomposting (Bir­
The biogas serves as a renewable source of energy (electricity, fuel, heat
untha et al., 2020). The Eisenia foetida has the potential to decompose
generator). In addition, by-product (digestate) released from the
organic matter at high rate coupled with its higher reproductive rate and
anaerobic digestion of organic solid waste is rich in nutrients and can
short life cycle (Bhat et al., 2018). This technique is less-expensive, eco-
serve as a biofertilizer (Rajendran et al., 2021). This technique is simple,
friendly, and has been used successfully for the breakdown of food
cost-effective with less emission of gaseous pollutants. However, its slow
waste, agricultural residues, industrial waste, etc. into biofertilizers for
and low processing capacity, requirement for substrate pretreatment,
improved plant growth. In addition, it is capable of remediating heavy
and narrow range of temperature control are among crucial limitations
metals from solid waste contaminated sites (Alshehrei and Ameen,
that hamper its usability (Dang et al., 2017; Khan, 2020).
2021).

4.6. Fermentation technology

4.4. Insect-based biorefinery
It involves the breakdown of complex organic materials into simple
This is an emerging technology that involves the use of insects for recoverable bioproducts in the presence of microbes (fungi, yeasts, and
digestion of solid waste with diverse organic waste composition for bio- bacteria) under controlled process conditions (Kiruba and Saeid, 2022).
products recovery and waste management (Kee et al., 2023). A variety of The microbes utilize the organic solid waste as an inducer substrate for
insects including houseflies, grasshopper, and black soldier flies has growth and metabolite production through a series of biochemical
been reported for efficient valorization of organic wastes into value- pathways (Sharma et al., 2022). The production of biobased products is
added source of fats and proteins through production of larvae (Rajen­ influenced by the selection of suitable fermentation technology, mi­
dran et al., 2018; Kee et al., 2023). However, agricultural and food crobial strain, substrate, and optimum physicochemical parameters
wastes are mostly used as a sustainable feedstock for valuable bio­ (including temperature, agitation speed, aeration, inoculum volume,
products (such as animal feeds, biofertilizer, and biodiesel) production and pH,) (Adetunji and Olaniran, 2020, 2021b). This technique occurs
due to their varied chemical components, using the insects as a as a submerged or solid-state fermentation in a batch, continuous, or fed-
bioconversion agent (Kee et al., 2023). The nutritional components of batch system. The submerged fermentation involves the growth of the
the organic waste substrate determine the growth and metabolic po­ microorganisms in a nutrient-rich broth for the secretion of desired
tential of the insects (Peguero et al., 2022). Remarkably, application of bioproduct. It allows enhanced uniformity of the culture broth and
black soldier fly larvae on fruit waste, restaurant waste, and dairy simpler product reclamation (Adetunji, 2017; Adetunji and Olaniran,
manure with subsequent bioconversion process led to the formation of 2021c). On the contrary, solid-state fermentation is carried out in the
useful biobased products (Li et al., 2011; Leong et al., 2016; Surendra presence of substrate with less or no water content. It requires simpler
et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2017). The harvesting larvae produce a by- downstream processing, gives high product yields, and less susceptible
product known as frass, which serves as an organic biofertilizer (Kee to microbial contamination (Chilakamarry et al., 2022).
et al., 2023). The insect-based bioconversion process has a shorter life Fermentation technology is considered as a suitable waste valoriza­
cycle and render less greenhouse gas emissions with greater feed con­ tion method for transformation of solid waste into valuable products,
version efficacy. In addition, this technique requires less land space and including organic acids, enzymes, biofuel, biopesticides, bioethanol,
water (Oonincx and De Boer, 2012; van Huis and Oonincx, 2017). biosurfactants, antibiotics, and bioplastics (Abu Yazid et al., 2017).

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A.I. Adetunji et al. Bioresource Technology Reports 24 (2023) 101610

Organic wastes from municipalities, agricultural residues, livestock, kg, C:N ratio 18.53, magnesium 4.05 g/kg, potassium 12.81 g/kg, and
households, and industries are the most appropriate substrates for calcium 7.76 g/kg (Lim et al., 2015). In addition, black soldier fly frass,
fermentation process for production of beneficial products owing to when fed on spent brewery grains, promotes plant growth (Beesiga­
their copiousness at low cost; nutritional, and chemical composition mukama et al., 2020). Addo et al. (2022) investigated the bioconversion
(Abu Yazid et al., 2017). For a maximum yield of biobased products, the of municipal organic solid waste into compost using black soldier fly
fermentation process can be carried out in bioreactors (Bibra et al., (Hermetia illucens) larvae. The obtained compost had enhanced nitrogen
2023). Fermentation technology requires low energy. However, this (80.99 mg/g), phosphorus (75.40 mg/g), and potassium (3.08 mg/g)
technique is prone to some limitations, including requirements for contents, making it suitable as biofertilizer.
substrate pretreatment and optimum process conditions for maximum By-products, also known as digestate produced from anaerobic
yields of bioproducts (Njokweni et al., 2021). In addition, it is capital- digestion of solid waste serve as a good biofertilizer (Du et al., 2018). For
intensive on a large-scale and liable to operational and bioproducts instance, Owamah et al. (2014) produced biofertilizer from anaerobic
reclamation difficulties (Hongzhang, 2011; De la Cruz Quiroz et al., digestion of food wastes (12 kg) and human excreta (3 kg) mixed with
2015; Lόpez-Pérez and Viniegra-González, 2016; Adetunji and Olaniran, water for 60 d at 22–31 ◦ C. The obtained digestate showed increase in
2018, 2019, 2020, 2021c; Adetunji et al., 2023b). nitrogen (12.1 %) and TS (12.4 %) coupled with a reduction in
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD, 50 %), COD (10.6 %), organic car­
5. Biobased products from organic solid waste valorization bon (74.3 %), and ash content (1.5 %). The feedstock and compost had
C:N ratios of 135:1 and 15.8:1, respectively. Microbiological analysis of
5.1. Biofertilizer the digestate indicates the prevalence of some organisms such as Pseu­
domonas, Bacillus, Penicillium, and Clostridium, which could be a vital
Biofertilizer is a biobased product produced from different biocon­ nitrogen-fixing and nutrient-solubilizing agent.
version technologies, including insect biorefinery, composting, vermi­
composting, and anaerobic digestion (Owamah et al., 2014; Surendra 5.2. Bioethanol
et al., 2016; Du et al., 2018; Chew et al., 2019) (Table 2). The production
of this bioproduct from organic solid waste ameliorates the hazardous Bioethanol is a liquid form and renewable biofuel produced by mi­
effects of synthetic fertilizers on the ecosystems and promotes waste crobial fermentation of sugars, starch, or lignocellulosic biomass from
management (ChandiniKumar et al., 2019; Kee et al., 2023). In addition, agricultural or food waste materials (Awogbemi and Kallon, 2022). It is
biofertilizer is economical, promotes soil health, plant growth, and crop the most common liquid biofuel consumed worldwide, with a global
yields. Compost has been employed as biofertilizers in many agricultural market size of 40.8 billion dollars in 2021, which is projected to rise to
applications. For instance, Altieri and Esposito (2010) valorized olive 124.5 billion dollars by 2030 (Precedence Research, 2023). It is used as
mill waste as an organic compost for enhancement of soil fertility and alternative fuel and as additive in a variety of products such as disin­
reduction of CO2 emissions. The resultant compost contains ample nu­ fectants, personal care products, pharmaceuticals, and chemicals
trients for plant growth. Similarly, inoculation of Azotobacter with a (Awogbemi and Kallon, 2022). The use of lignocellulosic biomass
mixture of chicken manure and compost enhanced biomass and plant including agricultural residue, wood, industrial and municipal wastes
growth (Steiner et al., 2007). Kuligowski et al. (2023) reported that for bioethanol production is economical, eco-friendly, and promotes
kitchen waste compost provides higher plant growth (30–100 %) and waste management (Rezania et al., 2020). However, bioethanol pro­
nitrogen uptake (> 170 kg N/ha). Empty fruit bunches combined with duction is majorly produced from crop residues and agricultural waste,
cow dung (2:1) in the presence of earthworm (Eudrilus eugeniae) at 25 ± including rice straw, sweet sorghum bagasse, barley straw, sugarcane
2 ◦ C, moisture content of 60–80 % for 12 weeks were biotransformed bagasse, sorghum straw, cassava peels, etc. (Yogalakshmi et al., 2022).
into vermicompost (organic fertilizer), consisting of phosphorus 3.63 g/ The synthesis of bioethanol from organic wastes involves three main

Table 2
Nutritional composition of biofertilizers (compost or digestate) from bioconversion of organic solid wastes.
Solid waste Bioconversion Process condition Yield Reference
technology

Biogas slurry, cow dung, Vermicomposting 25 ◦ C, moisture content 70 %, and pH 6.5 OC 1.19-fold(+), N 3.32-fold (+), P 1.61-fold (+), K 1.13- Tripathi and
wheat straw, leaflitter, saw (Eisenia fetida); 30 ◦ C, moisture content fold (+), C:N 2.79-fold (− ), C:P 1.35-fold (− ) (Eisenia Bhardwaj (2004)
dust, and kitchen waste 60 %, and pH 7.5 (Lampito mauritii); 150 fetida); OC 1.13-fold (+), N 3.32-fold (+), P 1.60-fold (+),
d K 1.50-fold (+), C:N 2.95-fold (− ), C:P 1.42-fold (− )
(Lampito mauritii)
Cow dung, poultry Vermicomposting 22 ± 3 ◦ C; moisture content 60–80 %; 13 pH 6.5; EC 3.65; TCa 8.3; TNa 4.14; TK 6.9; TAP 12.8; Yadav and Garg
droppings, and food weeks TKN 26.6; TOC 24 % (2011)
industry sludge
Empty fruit bunches and cow Vermicomposting 25 ± 2 ◦ C; moisture content 60–80 %; 12 P 3.63 g/kg; K 12.81 g/kg; Mg 4.05 g/kg; Ca 7.76 g/kg; C: Lim et al. (2015)
dung weeks N 18.58
Corn stalk and pig manure Aerobic composting 30–75 ◦ C; 37 d TN 2–2.8 %; NH4-N 0.5–3 g/kg; EC 10.8–16.2 Guo et al. (2012)
Olive oil husk and manure Aerobic composting ~65 ◦ C; 116 d TN 1.4–2.5 %; 0.67–0.71 %; EC 1.45–7.3 dS/m Montemurro
et al. (2009)
Wasted food and rice husk Aerobic composting 25–71 ◦ C; 32–130 d TN 1.6–2.6 %; NH4-N < 0.1 g/kg; C:N 14.9–29 Chikae et al.
(2006)
Municipal solid waste Insect-based NA N 80.99 mg/g; P 75.40 mg/g; K 3.08 mg/g Addo et al.
biorefinery (2022)
Food waste and human Anaerobic digestion 22–31 ◦ C; 60 d TS 12.39 % (+); OC 74.3 % (− ); N 12.12 % (+); ash 1.51 Owamah
excreta % (− ); pH 42.47 % (+); C:N 4.43-fold (− ) et al. (2014)
Municipal solid waste Anaerobic digestion 55 ◦ C; 21 d TN 1.5 %; TP 0.314 % Walker et al.
(2012)
Triticale and cow manure Anaerobic digestion 38–42 ◦ C; 80 d TN 2.9 %; TP 0.119 g/kg; NH4-N 8.43 g/kg Pivato et al.
(2016)

OC Organic carbon; Fold (+) Fold increase; Fold (− ) Fold decrease; EC Electrical conductivity; TCa Total calcium; TNa Total sodium; TK Total potassium; TAP Total
available phosphorus; TKN Total Kjeldhal nitrogen; TOC Total organic carbon; TS Total solids; TN Total nitrogen; TP Total phosphorus.

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phases, namely pretreatment stage; enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose, 5.3. Biohydrogen

starch, and hemicellulose into fermentable sugars; and microbiological
fermentation of sugars into ethanol in the presence of certain microbes It is referred to as a clean and pollutant-free renewable energy source
such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Aspergillus niger, Zymomonas mobilis, with a plethora of applications in food, chemical, and pharmaceutical
Trichoderma reesei, Wickerhamomyces anomalus, etc. (Zabed et al., 2017; industries as well as in oil refineries, transportation, and electricity
Rezania et al., 2020; Elsagan et al., 2023) (Table 3; Fig. 4). However, generation (Santiago et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2022). In comparison to
Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Zymomonas mobilis are the most prominent fossil fuel, the utilization of biohydrogen as engine fuel does not release
starter cultures for bioethanol production owing to their high produc­ carbon dioxide and other gaseous pollutants (Awogbemi and Kallon,
tivity, high sugar and ethanol tolerance, and ability to grow under 2022). Biohydrogen is obtained by microbial fermentation of organic
aerobic and anaerobic conditions (Bibra et al., 2023). Narisetty et al. materials, bio-photolysis of water by microalgae, or microbial electrol­
(2022) fermented hydrolyzed and enzymatically pretreated bread ysis (Chavan et al., 2022). In general, biohydrogen production by bio­
wastes by Saccharomyces cerevisiae KL17 to produce 106.9 g/L and logical techniques could be light-dependent or light-independent. The
114.9 g/L of ethanol, respectively. Similarly, Nunui et al. (2022) use of biowaste as a feedstock is economical, eco-friendly, and sustain­
investigated fermentation of pretreated rubberwood waste by Saccha­ able for biohydrogen production (Xu et al., 2022). Organic solid wastes
romyces cerevisiae. A yield 0.14 g/g of substrate ethanol was recorded. such as aquaculture waste, food waste, agro-industrial residues, sewage
Pretreated (acid and enzymatic hydrolysis) lignocellulosic saw dust was sludge, and pulp and paper industry waste are employed for bio­
used as a substrate to achieve 85.6 % (55.2 g/L) bioethanol production hydrogen production (Shanmugam et al., 2020). However, the use of
by Saccharomyces cerevisiae under optimum conditions of agitation agro-industrial waste as a feedstock offers great potential with ease of
speed (330 rpm), pretreated saw dust (45.14 mL/L), incubation time conversion and high yields for biohydrogen production (Dong et al.,
(102h), and temperature (36.5 ◦ C) (Saravanakumar and Kathiresan, 2018; Zhang et al., 2020a,Zhang et al., 2020b). For instance, Pawar et al.
2014). In addition, Ma et al. (2008, 2016) utilized Zymomonas mobilis to (2013) investigated the production of biohydrogen from wheat straw
ferment food waste hydrolysate and pretreated kitchen waste, yielding hydrolysate in the presence of Caldicellulosiruptor saccharolyticus.
99.8 g/L and 53.30 g/L of ethanol, respectively. Maximum yield of 5.2 L hydrogen/L/day was recorded. In addition,
The use of mixed cultures for bioethanol production promotes syn­ optimum biohydrogen production (22.08 mmol/L) was reported by
ergistic interaction of the organisms for improved metabolic activities, Dong et al. (2018) following bioconversion of pretreated rice straw by
including enzyme secretion, waste hydrolysis and saccharification Thermoanaerobacterium thermosaccharolyticum M18.
(Bibra et al., 2023). For instance, consortium of Saccharomyces cerevisiae The selection of suitable organic solid waste for biohydrogen pro­
and Fusarium oxysporum F3 was used to ferment acid pretreated and duction is dependent on biodegradability, cost, availability, volatile
enzymatically hydrolyzed food waste (Prasoulas et al., 2020). A 20.6 g/L solids (VS), BOD, COD, presence of inhibitors, and nutrient contents
of bioethanol was recorded. Similarly, fermentation of potato waste by (Chavan et al., 2022). Various factors such as pretreatment technique,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Aspergillus niger resulted in bioethanol yield pH, temperature, pressure, substrate concentration, bioconversion
of 38 g/L (Izmirlioglu and Demirci, 2017). technology, and microbial strain influence biohydrogen production
Studies on the employability of thermophilic microbes for bioethanol (Sivagurunathan and Lin, 2020).
production have been reported by several coworkers due to their ca­
pacity to utilize a variety of carbon sources and secrete thermostable 5.4. Biogas
hydrolase as well as their efficiency at higher kinetic rates (Bibra et al.,
2018; Wang et al., 2018; Rai et al., 2019). Remarkably, Bibra et al. It is a renewable gaseous biofuel produced at the last phase of
(2020) recorded 18.4 g/L of bioethanol from fermentation of food waste anaerobic digestion of organic solid waste, during which, acetates, CO2,
in the presence of Geobacillus sp. and Thermoanaerobacter sp. at 60 ◦ C. and hydrogen are converted into biogas and CO2 by acetotrophic
Raita et al. (2016) investigated fermentation of palm kernel cake hy­ methanogens whereas, hydrogenotrophic methanogens convert CO2 and
drolysate by recombinant Geobacillus thermoglucosidasius. A bioethanol hydrogen to methane. This process is known as methanogenesis
yield of 9.9 g/L was reported. (Rajendran et al., 2021) (Fig. 5). Crude biogas is a mixture of methane
(50–70 %), CO2 (30–40 %) coupled with trace amounts of water,
hydrogen sulphide, nitrogen gas, ammonia, and siloxane whereas, bio­
methane is a refined form of biogas, consisting of 95–97 % methane and

Table 3
Yields of bioethanol from bioconversion of organic solid wastes.
Solid waste Microbe Fermentation conditions Yield Reference
(g/L)

Pretreated Saccharomyces cerevisiae Agitation speed 330 rpm; pretreated saw dust 45.14 mL/L; 55.2 Saravanakumar and
lignocellulosic Incubation time 102 h; and temperature 36.5 ◦ C Kathiresan, (2014)
sawdust
Palm kernel cake Recombinant Geobacillus Inoculum volume 10 % (v/w); pH 7.0; agitation speed 250 rpm; 9.9 Raita et al. (2016)
hydrolysate thermoglucosidasius temperature 30 ◦ C
Dairy waste Recombinant Lactococcus lactis Temperature 30 ◦ C 30.6 Liu et al. (2016)
subspecies cremoris MG1363
Rice milling by-products Recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae Temperature 30 ◦ C; pH 5.5 51.88 Favaro et al. (2017)
M2
Organic municipal solid Mucor indicus CCUG 22424 Inoculum volume 0.02 % (w/v); temperature 37 ◦ C; agitation 27.4 Mahmoodi et al. (2018)
waste speed 150 rpm; pH 5.5
Potato peel waste Wickerhamia sp. SD1 Inoculum volume 2 % (v/v); temperature 30 ◦ C; pH 7.0; 21.7 Hossain et al. (2018)
agitation speed 300 rpm
Household food waste Saccharomyces cerevisiae Temperature 30 ◦ C 6 Matsakas et al. (2015)
Bread waste Saccharomyces cerevisiae KL17 Inoculum volume 2 % (v/v); pH 6.0; agitation speed 200 rpm; 106.9 Narisetty et al. (2022)
temperature 30 ◦ C
Organic municipal solid Zymomonas mobilis and Candida shehatae pH 5.0; agitation speed 180 rpm; inoculum volume 15 % (v/v); 78.8 Buttowski et al. (2014)
waste temperature 35 ◦ C

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Waste biomass

Feedstock processing (e.g.,

milling)

Pretreatment

Hydrolysis or
saccharification

Microbial
fermentation

Downstream processing
(e.g., distillation, etc.)

Bioethanol recovery

Fig. 4. Schematic diagrams showing procedures for recovery of bioethanol from organic solid waste.

nearly 1–3 % CO2 (Awogbemi and Kallon, 2022; Chavan et al., 2022). 5.5. Bioelectricity
Biogas is used as vehicle fuel and for the production of heat and elec­
tricity as well as for operation of power plants. It is cost-effective, sus­ It is a form of bioenergy obtained from renewable feedstock by
tainable, energy independence, and eradicates carbon emissions. conversion of agricultural and forest residues, food waste, municipal
However, biomethane generates obnoxious odor due to hydrogen sul­ waste into biomass via different techniques such as direct combustion,
phide formation, poses a high risk of explosion, and contributes to global thermochemical conversion, gasification, or microbial fuel cell (MFC),
warming (Awogbemi and Kallon, 2022). etc. (Lee et al., 2019). However, MFC is a promising and efficient elec­
The use of organic solid waste including municipal solid waste, food trochemical technology for conversion of organic components present in
waste, and agricultural waste as a feedstock for biogas production is the solid waste into electricity in the presence of electrogenic microor­
economical, eco-friendly, and sustainable (Murphy and McKeogh, 2004; ganisms under anaerobic conditions (Chatzikonstantinou et al., 2018). It
Matsakas et al., 2017) (Table 4). Biodigestibility of the waste materials is is a clean and safe approach for direct electricity generation while also
influenced by the COD, BOD, VS, C:N ratio, moisture content, temper­ eliminating pollution by removal of organic components in the solid
ature, etc. (Pastor-Poquet et al., 2019; Franca and Bassin, 2020). waste. The MFC consists of anode and cathode chambers parted by a
Remarkably, Zhang et al. (2007) recorded a methane yield of about 435 proton exchange membrane. The microbes oxidize the organic solid
mL methane/g VS from food wastes. Anaerobic digestion of three waste to produce protons and electrons, which are eventually trans­
different wastes (food waste, lignocellulosic waste, and municipal solid ferred through proton exchange membrane and external circuit,
waste) was investigated by Llano et al. (2021) for biogas production. respectively (Sindhu et al., 2019). For instance, canteen-based com­
Municipal solid waste gave optimum yield (0.359 m3/kg of dry waste) of posite food waste was utilized as a substrate for bioelectricity generation
biogas. In addition, organic fraction of municipal solid waste rich in in the presence of anaerobic consortia at organic loading rates of 1.74 kg
paper (62 %) yielded 37 mL methane/g VS (Macias-Corral et al., 2008). COD/m3-day, yielding peak power supply of 295 mV and 390 mA/m2
Further co-digestion with cow manure enhanced the yield to 172 mL (Goud et al., 2011). In addition, Miran et al. (2016) converted orange
methane/g VS. Similarly, co-digestion of municipal solid waste with peel waste into bioelectricity in the presence of Pseudomonas, Entero­
domestic sewage at varying feeding rates resulted in methane yield of coccus, and Paludibacter, using mediator-less MFC. Optimum power
360 mL methane/g VS at optimum rate of 2.9 g VS/mL/d (Elango et al., density and current density of 358.8 mW/m2 and 847 mA/m2, respec­
2007). tively were recorded.
Pretreatment (physical, chemical, and/or biological) of the feedstock The current and power density generated from MFC are influenced
improves its digestion and conversion efficacy (Dahunsi, 2019) by pH, temperature, hydraulic retention time, loading rate, microbial
(Table 4). For instance, thermophilic anaerobic co-digestion of cattle activity, static magnetic field, and substrate concentration (Akman et al.,
dung and corn stover resulted in biomethane recovery of 518.58 mL/g 2013). More so, other parameters, including cost, configuration, mem­
VS, following initial thermal pretreatment (Joseph et al., 2019). Ma brane characteristics, and choice of electrode materials determine
et al. (2011) assessed the influence of pretreatment strategies: acid, electricity generation by MFC (Chiu et al., 2016).
thermal, acid-thermal, pressure-depressure, and freeze-thaw on biogas
production from industrial kitchen wastes. Pressure-depressure method 5.6. Organic acids
gave peak biogas yield of 520 mL/g COD. Organic fraction of municipal
solid waste from households pretreated by bacterial hydrolysis coupled Organic acids are among the largest bioactive molecules and are
with thermal and alkaline treatments resulted in 400 mL methane/g VS produced by microbial fermentation process or chemical synthesis (Abu
(Del Borghi et al., 1999). Yazid et al., 2017). They possess potential biotechnological applications
in pharmaceutical, animal feed, food, beverages, cosmetic, soap in­
dustries, etc. (Yadegary et al., 2013). They include oxalic acid, lactic
acid, citric acid, gluconic acid, succinic acid, fumaric acid, among

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others. The synthesis of these acids is influenced using suitable sub­

strate, fermentation technology, microbial strains, and physico-
Hydrolysis of organic components of chemical parameters at optimum conditions (Prado et al., 2005; Alam
solid waste et al., 2011). Many studies have been reported on the employability of
organic solid wastes, including pineapple and orange peels, coffee husk,
rice bran, sugarcane bagasse, apple pomace, and wheat bran as a sub­
strate for organic acid production (Pandey et al., 2000; Mussatto et al.,
2012; Panda et al., 2016). Some of the organic acids are described in
detail below.

Synthesis of monomers such as fatty 5.6.1. Citric acid

acids, sugars, and amino acids Citric acid is a well-known organic acid employed in pharmaceutical,
beverages, and food industries as an acidifier, antifoam; softening,
plasticizing, and flavor-enhancing agent (Chilakamarry et al., 2022).
The upsurge in the market demands of citric acid has necessitated the
search for alternative and cheap substrate for citric acid production
(Sindhu et al., 2019). Citric acid production from agro-industrial wastes,
including cassava bagasse, sugarcane bagasse, oil palm empty fruit
Fermentation of basic organic bunches, etc. has been reported by several authors (Prado et al., 2005;
compounds into volatile fatty acids Alam et al., 2011; Yadegary et al., 2013; Schneider et al., 2014). How­
ever, fruit wastes are mostly utilized as a cost-effective and nutritious
waste materials for citric acid production (Kumar et al., 2003). In
addition, citric acid is secreted mostly by moulds, Candida sp., Yarrowia
lipolytica, etc. However, citric acid secretion by Aspergillus niger is
prominent for large-scale production (Abu Yazid et al., 2017). Its pro­
duction is dependent on optimum pH, incubation temperature, nitrogen
Transformation of volatile fatty source, and salts. The addition of ethanol, methanol, isopropanol or
acids into acetic acid, H2, and CO2 methyl acetate improves citric acid production (Krishna, 2005). For
by acetogenic bacteria instance, Kumar et al. (2003) recorded peak citric acid production by
Aspergillus niger DS1 at methanol concentration (4 %) and moisture
content (70 %). Dhillon et al. (2011) recorded nearly 90 % citric acid
secretion by Aspergillus niger following supplementation of 3 % (v/w)
ethanol and 4 % (v/w) methanol in the production medium.

Formation of methane by 5.6.2. Lactic acid

acetotrophic methanogens or It is a vital organic acid with a great potential in cosmetic, chemical,
food, pharmaceutical, and beverage industries (Rejeb et al., 2022).
hydrogenotrophic methanogens Lactic acid is used as a flavor enhancer, preservative, acidulant, and in
the manufacture of coatings and biodegradable polymers (Chilakamarry
et al., 2022). It is produced via chemical synthetic reactions or microbial
Fig. 5. Schematic diagrams illustrating formation of biomethane by anaerobic fermentation of starch, sugar, or lignocellulosic biomass (Rejeb et al.,
digestion of organic solid waste. 2022). Unlike chemical method, microbial secretion of lactic acid is
economical, demands less energy, and safe with robust optical purity
(Pleissner et al., 2017). Microbes such as Rhizopus sp. and Lactobacillus
sp. are the most common strains for lactic acid production (Jin et al.,

Table 4
Yields of biomethane from bioconversion of organic solid wastes.
Solid waste Pretreatment Microbe Process conditions Yield Reference

Municipal solid waste Mechanical Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Substrate: inoculum ratio 51 g/L and 26 g/L Moreno et al.
pretreatment microbial consortium in sludge (0.5:0.5); temperature 35 ◦ C (2021)
Sugar beet leaves Enzymatic Neurospora intermedia, Aspergillus Ambient temperature; inoculum: 516 mL/g VS Undiandeye
hydrolysis tubingensis, and Aspergillus niger substrate ratio (0.9:1) et al. (2022)
Food waste Thermal Microbial consortium in Temperature 37 ± 0.5 ◦ C; time 20 883.08 mL/g VS Fadzil et al.
pretreatment anaerobically digested sludge d; substrate and inoculum ratio 2 (2020)
%
Wood waste Enzymatic Methanothermobacter crinale Temperature 50 ◦ C; hydraulic 224 L/kg of cedar Navarro et al.
hydrolysis retention time 30 d; incubation (2020)
time 160 d
Organic fraction of Thawing Methanoculleus bourgensis Organic loading rate 3.4 g VS/L/d; 21 % Yan et al. (2020)
municipal solid time 135 d; 37 ◦ C
waste
Household food Drying and Microbial consortium in anaerobic 42 d (batch); 20 d (fed-batch); 322.67 mL methane/g-342.81 mL Lytras et al.
waste shredding sludge temperature 35 d methane/g (40 %, batch); 43.5 % (2020)
(fed-batch)
Organic fraction of Micro-aeration Microbial consortium in cattle and Substrate and inoculum ratio 400.2 ± 57 L/kgVS Canul Bacab
municipal solid pig manure (98.7 ± 0.06 % and 62.5 %) et al. (2020)
waste

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2005; Pleissner et al., 2017). During fermentation process, lactic acid devices, and other industrial applications owing to their biocompati­
production is influenced by temperature, pH, nutrient composition, bility, non-cytotoxicity, elasticity, wear resistant, and biodegradability
microbial strain, aeration, biomass, and fermentation type (Komesu (Castro et al., 2022).
et al., 2017). Various agro-industrial wastes such as rice straw, wheat The need for exploitation of renewable resources is imperative as a
bran, tea waste, cassava bagasse, and sugar bagasse have been employed cost-effective approach for a large-scale production of biopolymers
as a cheap substrate for microbial production of lactic acid (Rojan et al., (Verdini et al., 2022). These include agro-industrial residues such as
2005; Altaf et al., 2006; John et al., 2006; Qi and Yao, 2007; Gowdha­ food waste, dairy waste, grain waste, etc. that are fortified with nutrients
man et al., 2012). D- and L-lactic acid production from waste Curcuma and used as feedstocks for commercial biopolymer production (Ramadas
longa biomass in the presence of Lactobacillus coryneformis and Lacto­ et al., 2009). The solid waste is pretreated (physical, chemical, and/or
bacillus paracasei by simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation biological) for conversion of its complex organic molecule components
resulted in yields of 97.13 g/L and 91.61 g/L, respectively (Nguyen (e.g., lignin, cellulose, starch) into sugars, which are later subjected to
et al., 2013). Maximum yield of 58 g/L lactic acid by Streptococcus sp. microbial fermentation for biopolymer production (Melo et al., 2023).
was recorded from 20 % restaurant food waste (Pleissner et al., 2017). In Maximum medium chain length PHA of 21.3 g/L was produced from
addition, a cocktail of banana peels and kitchen food waste (1:3) gave sugar content obtained from Solaris grape waste by Pseudomonas resin­
lactic acid yield of 28.8 g/L by Enterococcus durans BP130 (Hassan et al., ovorans (Follonier et al., 2014). Tripathi and Narayanan (2019) recorded
2019). 70.89 % (0.312 g/L/h) PHB from sugarcane molasses by Alcaligenes sp.
Jackfruit seed powder was used as a cheap feedstock for the secretion of
5.6.3. Succinic acid 19 % PHB by Bacillus sphaericus NCIM 5149 (Ramadas et al., 2009). In
Succinic acid is a C4-bicarboxylic acid synthesized as a vital inter­ addition, sugars obtained from corn straw were fermented by mixed
mediate of tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle (Zhu and Tang, 2017). It is microbial cultures from dairy waste to produce 41.4 % poly(hydrox­
employed as a precursor for the synthesis of chemicals and polymers, as ybutyrate-co-hydroxyvaleate) after 72 h. A scale-up using stirred-tank
well as additives in food and pharmaceutical industries (Liu et al., 2022). bioreactor gave 76.3 % after 96 h (Verdini et al., 2022).
Generally, succinic acid is produced by hydrogenation of petrochemical-
based maleic anhydride in the presence of certain catalysts (Granados 5.8. Bioenzymes
et al., 2020). However, this technique has proven to be costly with great
environmental hazards (Zhang et al., 2020a,Zhang et al., 2020b). As a Enzymes are biological molecules that comprise of an array of amino
result, microbial fermentation of renewable resources is economical, acid building blocks linked together by amide bonds (Adetunji et al.,
sustainable, and eco-friendly for succinic acid production (Zhang et al., 2023b). They are biocatalysts that speed-up the rate of specific reactions
2020a,Zhang et al., 2020b; Liu et al., 2022). The conversion of food by lowering the activation energy without undergoing any structural
waste into succinic acid has been reported by several coworkers (Sindhu modification (Gurung et al., 2013; Adetunji and Olaniran, 2023). En­
et al., 2019; Rejeb et al., 2022). For instance, bread waste hydrolysate zymes are produced by living organisms such as plants, animals, and
was used as a feedstock to produce 47.3 g/L of succinic acid by Acti­ microbes. However, microorganisms (such as bacteria, yeasts, and
nobacillus succinogenes (Leung et al., 2012). Similarly, cake and pastry fungi) are recognized as a better candidate for enzyme production owing
waste hydrolysates have also been used to synthesize 24.8 g/L and 31.7 to their ease of genetic engineering, fast growth, diverse biochemical
g/L of succinic acid, respectively in the presence of Actinobacillus suc­ properties, and less space and short time for cultivation in huge amounts
cinogenes (Zhang et al., 2013). Citrus peel waste was pretreated by dilute for mass enzyme secretion (Razzaq et al., 2019). In addition, microbial
acid and enzymatic saccharification to produce sugars, which were later enzymes have long life span and can be kept for a longer time with no
fermented, yielding 0.7 g/g of succinic acid when Actinobacillus succi­ significant deterioration (Adetunji and Olaniran, 2023). The production
nogenes was inoculated in the fermentation broth (Patsalou et al., 2017). of these biocatalysts takes place by solid-state or submerged fermenta­
In addition, pretreated oil palm empty fruit bunch, following enzymatic tion in a batch, continuous, or fed-batch system (Melani et al., 2019).
saccharification and fermentation, yielded 33.4 g/L of succinic acid by The utilization of agro-industrial wastes as a cheap and eco-friendly
Actinobacillus succinogenes (Akhtar and Idris, 2017). Other microorgan­ substrate for high enzyme production has been reported by several co­
isms that are employed for succinic acid production include Mannheimia workers (Bhange et al., 2016; Mahmoodi et al., 2019; Sharma et al.,
succiniciproducens, Anaerobiospirillum succiniciproducens, and recombi­ 2022) (Table 5). The agro-industrial wastes serve as a carbon and energy
nant Escherichia coli (Song and Lee, 2006). In addition, several fungi source for cultivation of the organisms for enzyme production, thus
such as Penicillium viniferum, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus fumigatus, promoting waste management and reuse. In addition, enzymes play a
Byssochlamys nivea, Paecilomyces varioti, and Lentinus degener, and yeasts key role in a variety of biotechnological applications in food, leather,
(e.g., Saccharomyces cerevisiae) have been reported for succinic acid pulp and paper, detergent, pharmaceutical, textile, and cosmetic in­
production (Cao et al., 2013; Dai et al., 2019). dustries (Adetunji and Olaniran, 2021c; Adetunji et al., 2023b). Some of
these enzymes are discussed in detail below:
5.7. Bioplastics
5.8.1. Proteases
Bioplastics are biobased polymers that are produced from renewable Proteases are enzymes that catalyze the cleavage of peptide bonds
resources including carbohydrates, vegetable oils, etc. in the presence of that are found between amino acids residues of a polypeptide chain
microorganisms (Sharma et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2023). They are alter­ (Adetunji and Olaniran, 2020). They are among the most important
native plastic source with similar physical properties to synthetic plas­ commercial enzymes with a broad spectrum of biotechnological appli­
tics. However, bioplastics are degradable by microbes (such as fungi, cations in detergent, food, leather, and pharmaceutical industries,
bacteria, and yeasts), leading to the production of CO2, water, and among others (Adetunji et al., 2023b). They occupy a key position, ac­
biomass under aerobic or anaerobic condition (Ru et al., 2020). They counting for above 65 % of the overall industrial enzyme market
exist as polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), (Ibrahim et al., 2015). Protease production by microorganisms in the
polyglycolic acid (PGA), and polylactic acid (PLA) (Castro et al., 2022; presence of agro-industrial waste has been reported by many authors
Nanda et al., 2022). Due to their robust physicochemical and biological (Marín et al., 2018; Sindhu et al., 2019; Chavan et al., 2022). For
properties, these biopolymers are employed in the manufacture of instance, enhanced growth and protease production (564 U/mL) by
paints, disposable packaging materials, and for engineered application Bacillus alcalophilus LW8 was recorded when the fermentation medium
of chemicals and fertilizers in agricultural systems (Liu et al., 2020). In was supplemented with sugarcane molasses (Rathod and Pathak, 2014).
addition, they are used in the release of drug carriers, dental and medical Maximum protease production (102.9 U/mL) by Mucor subtilissimus UCP

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Table 5
Yields of some enzymes from bioconversion of agro-industrial wastes.
Agro-industrial waste Microorganism Enzyme Yield Reference

Citrus peel Aspergillus niger Pectinase 117.1 μm/mL Ahmed et al. (2016)
Groundnut oil cake Aspergillus oryzae α-amylase 10,994.74 U/gds Balakrishnan et al. (2021)
Rice husk Aspergillus niger Xylanase 8 U/mL Razali et al. (2019)
Wheat bran Aspergillus niger Xylanase 2919 U/g Khanahmadi et al. (2018)
Groundnut oil cake Candida tropicalis Phytase 38.25 U/g Das and Ghosh (2016)
Peach palm Trichoderma stromaticum AM7 Cellulase 120 U/g Bezerra et al. (2021)
Cocoa shell waste Penicillium roqueforti Lipase 48 U/g Sales de Menezes et al. (2021)
Bread waste Aspergillus awamori Protease 83.2 U/g Melikoglu et al. (2013)
Hazelnut shell hydrolysate Bacillus subtilis Pectinase 5.6 U/mL Uzuner and Cekmecelioglu (2015)
Banana peel Trichoderma viride GIM 3.0010 Cellulase 10.31 U/gds Sun et al. (2011)
Bagasse, cornstalk, and rice husk Trametes versicolor Laccase 6.885 U/mL Perdani et al. (2020)
Coconut oil cake Penicillium rugulosum MTCC-3487 Inulinase 239 U/gds Dilipkumar et al. (2014)
Orange peel waste Trichoderma viride MBL β-glucanase 412 U/mL Irshad et al. (2012)
Apple pomace and cottonseed powder Aspergillus niger SN-09 Mannanase 561.3 U/g Yin et al. (2013)

1262 was reported by Nascimento et al. (2020) in the presence of wheat by disposal of solid waste and promotes reuse of the waste materials for
bran as a substrate. Talhi et al. (2022) achieved peak protease yield of the production of valuable products. However, these techniques are
1187.03 U/mL by Mycothermus thermophilus when wheat bran was used liable to some challenges, which make their commercialization
as a substrate. impracticable. These constraints include the following:
(i) The complexity and slow biodegradability of some feedstocks
5.8.2. Amylases pose significant challenge on bioconversion of organic solid waste into
Amylases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of biobased products. This challenge can be ameliorated using a variety of
starch, oligosaccharide, and polysaccharides into sugars such as glucose, pretreatment technologies, including thermal, biological, mechanical,
fructose, and maltose (Chilakamarry et al., 2022). They consist of alpha- chemical, and electrical techniques for enhanced bioconversion
amylase, beta-amylase, and glucoamylase with a variety of biotechno­ efficiency.
logical applications in food, pharmaceutical, detergent, paper in­ (ii) Proper waste management is affected by poor waste collection,
dustries, etc. (Naik et al., 2023). Fruits and vegetable wastes, including separation and transportation systems coupled with inadequate knowl­
potato peel, apple pomace, date waste, and banana waste have been edge of some of the bioconversion technologies, financial constraints,
used as substrates for microbial amylase production (Nigam and Singh, and less-stringent government policies. This can be circumvented by
1994; Unakal et al., 2012; Said et al., 2014; Mushtaq et al., 2017). In effective waste collection, segregation, and mobility approaches coupled
addition, wheat bran (Bacillus sp.), rice bran (Bacillus tequilensis), corn with enhanced public awareness on bioconversion technologies and
cob (Aspergillus niger), soyabean husk (Aspergillus oryzae), and bread their associated bioproducts as well as huge capital investment on
waste (Rhizopus oryzae) have been reported as substrates for microbial recycling projects. In addition, strict penalties on improper and indis­
amylase production (El-Shishtawy et al., 2014; Aliyah et al., 2017; criminate solid waste disposal should be implemented by government.
Ahmed et al., 2020; Melnichuk et al., 2020; Paul et al., 2020). (iii) By-products accumulation, process instability, and lack of a
suitable design for bioreactors hinder biobased products (e.g., organic
5.8.3. Lipases acids, biogas) production from organic solid waste. This can be solved by
Lipases (also known as triacylglycerol acylhydrolases EC 3.1.1.3) are continuous vacuum fermentation with liquid bleed; effective design and
a group of enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of lipids into fatty acids construction of appropriate bioreactors at optimum conditions (e.g., pH,
and glycerol at organic-aqueous milieu (Patel et al., 2019). They are the substrate concentration) for a particular bioproduct. Furthermore, long-
most commercialized enzymes after proteases and carbohydrases, term microbial stability is essential for avoidance of unwanted fluctua­
constituting one-fifth of the global enzyme market (Borrelli and Trono, tion during bioconversion processes.
2015). However, microbial lipases are mostly preferred enzymes due to (iv) The long duration of composting of organic solid waste, which
their cost-effectiveness, high productivity, etc. (Adetunji and Olaniran, usually takes <100 days for the production of biobased products (e.g.,
2021c). In addition, microbial lipases possess vital applications in food, biofertilizer) is a great challenge. This can be combated by using vessels
detergent, pulp and paper, leather, and cosmetics industries (Adetunji or bed under suitable controlled conditions for improved metabolic
and Olaniran, 2021c). The development of a low-cost strategy for lipase activity of the organisms.
production is essential to meet-up with increasing demands of the (v) Effective downstream processing at low-cost from the fermenta­
enzyme. Several agro-industrial residues including fruits and vegetable tion broth coupled with high costs of equipment are crucial challenges
wastes have been reported for high lipase production (Okino-Delgado affecting commercial-scale production of some biobased products (e.g.,
et al., 2018; Ali et al., 2023). For instance, Carvalho et al. (2023) organic acids, bioethanol, enzymes, etc.). As a result, the development of
recorded maximum lipase production of 4.36 U/g and 13.48 U/g by efficient and economical downstream processing strategies is imperative
Yarrowia lipolytica when soybean meal and andiroba oil cake, respec­ for a sustainable bioconversion process.
tively were used as substrates. Similarly, groundnut cake gave maximum
lipase production of 74.117 U/mL by Stenotrophomonas maltophilia 7. Conclusions and Recommendations for future perspectives
(Neethu et al., 2015). Baloch et al. (2019) recorded 373 U/L of cell-
bound lipase from Dipodascus capitatus A4C when 2 % molasses was The improper disposal of solid waste has increased tremendously
used as a substrate. over decades, causing serious environmental and health threats. Proper
management of the waste material is essential to eliminate pollution and
6. Limitations hindering bioconversion of organic solid waste promotes its reuse. The utilization of organic solid wastes as a feedstock
into biobased products or substrate offers a great potential in the production of valuable
products such as biofertilizers, bioethanol, biohydrogen, bioelectricity,
The biorefinery of organic solid waste is an efficient, eco-friendly, biogas, organic acids, bioenzymes, and bioplastics. Exploitation of
and sustainable technology that lessens environmental hazards caused bioconversion technologies is a green and sustainable approach for the

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recovery of biobased products from organic solid waste. The recom­ Adetunji, A.I., 2017. Treatment of lipid-rich wastewater using free and immobilized
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mendations for the future direction for enhancing the bioconversion
Thesis. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa.
technologies of organic solid waste for effective and high yields of bio­ Adetunji, A.I., Olaniran, A.O., 2018. Optimization of culture conditions for enhanced
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methodology approach. Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol. 24, 101528.
catalysts, biomass mix, and industrial-scale plants for efficient process­ Adetunji, A.I., Olaniran, A.O., 2021a. Treatment of industrial oily wastewater using
ing and commercial recovery of biobased products from organic solid advanced technologies. Appl Water Sci 11, 98.
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Aliyah, A., Alamsyah, G., Ramadhani, R., Hermansyah, H., 2017. Production of
Conceptualization and writing – original draft preparation, A.I.A.; α-amylase and β-glucosidase from Aspergillus niger by solid state fermentation
Writing – review and editing, P.J.O.; Funding acquisition, review and method on biomass waste substrates from rice husk, bagasse and corn cob. Energy
editing, M.E. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Proc. 136, 418–423.
Alshehrei, F., Ameen, F., 2021. Vermicomposting: a management tool to mitigate solid
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the work reported in this paper. Amin, N., Aslam, M., Khan, Z., Yasin, M., Hossain, S., Shahid, M.K., Inayat, A., Samir, A.,
Ahmad, R., Murshed, M.N., Khurram, M.S., El Sayed, M.E., Ghauri, M., 2023.
Data availability Municipal solid waste treatment for bioenergy and resource production: potential
technologies, techno-economic-environmental aspects and implications of
membrane-based recovery. Chemosphere 323, 138196.
No data was used for the research described in the article. Arya, P.S., Yagnik, S.M., Rajput, K.N., Panchal, R.R., Raval, V.H., 2022. Valorization of
Agro-food wastes: ease of concomitant-enzymes production with application in food
and biofuel industries. Bioresour. Technol. 361, 127738.
Acknowledgements Awasthi, M.K., Sarsaiya, S., Patel, A., Juneja, A., Singh, R.P., Yan, B., Awasthi, S.K.,
Jain, A., Liu, T., Duan, Y., 2020. Refining biomass residues for sustainable energy
The financial support of the Directorate of Research and Develop­ and bio-products: an assessment of technology, its importance, and strategic
applications in circular bio-economy. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 127, 109876.
ment (DRD) and Centre for Mineral Biogeochemistry of the University of Awogbemi, O., Kallon, D.V.V., 2022. Valorization of agricultural waste for biofuel
the Free State (UFS), as well as the Biogeochemistry Research Infra­ applications. Heliyon 8, e11117.
structure Platform (BIOGRIP) of the Department of Science and Inno­ Azam, M., Jahromy, S.S., Raza, W., Raza, N., Lee, S.S., Kim, K.H., Winter, F., 2020.
Status, characterization, and potential utilization of municipal solid waste as
vation of South Africa towards this research is hereby acknowledged.
renewable energy source: Lahore case study in Pakistan. Environ. Int. 134, 105291.
Balakrishnan, M., Jeevarathinam, G., Kumar, S.K.S., Muniraj, I., Uthandi, S., 2021.
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