Educational Psychology 771

Theme 1 Notes

Principle 1
Understanding a child’s development we must incorporate both nurture and nature factors.

Slide Set 1 - Educational Psychology

What is Educational Psychology?

Educational Psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of human
development & learning. The study of learning processes, from cognitive, behavioural and social
perspectives, allows researchers to understand individual differences in intelligence, cognitive
development, affect, motivation, self-regulation, and self-concept, as well as their role in learning. The
field of educational psychology attempts to enhance educational activities related to instructional
design, classroom management, and assessment, which serve to facilitate learning processes in various
educational settings across the lifespan. The discipline or science of educational psychology has a
significant role in education of translating psychological theory into suggestions for teachers.

Goals of Educational Psychology: to understand and to improve the teaching and learning processes in
everyday situations. On teacher education, the focus of educational psychology is mostly identifying and
preventing learning problems, motivation and support for learning and acquiring knowledge of human
development and theories of development and learning.

Notes from the Slides:

In Educational Psychology we draw from, amongst others, psychology, education and philosophy to
answer a number of critical educational questions, from basic questions of readiness – for example,
when is a child ready for school, through to more complex matters, such as how does a teacher
understand and promote good peer relationships in their classroom? The answers to these and other
questions are influenced by the interplay between a teachers’ craft expertise and their knowledge of
evidence and theory, for example developmental, social and educational psychology. Concerning the
role of Educational Psychology, we see a clear link between educational psychology and teaching.
Educational Psychology examines what happens when someone teaches something to someone else
in some setting.

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Development

A delicate process of growing, transforming, maturation and sophistication. Development is a continuous

process, characterised by different developmental stages and areas of development. Development
implies growth, change, maturation and sophistication – indeed a delicate process during which
potential is unlocked. Human development is complex as it involves a myriad of factors, influences and
events. It is dynamic meaning it is continually changing and growing. Growth. It is interdependent in the
sense that different contextual environments are at play.

Example: physical maturity = pre-programmed by genetics (‘hard wired’ into DNA) with critical periods
during which specific physical events take place (time). Development is dependent on the immediate
environmental opportunities (interaction with the environment does the ‘shaping’).

Notes from the Slide:

One of the major issues that has continued to rage on in child psychology and human development is
the nature-nurture issue: is development the result of biological determinants such as genetic,
neurological and hormonal factors or environmental factors such as the social (e.g. parenting styles)
and the physical environment (e.g. poverty).

-​ This debate centres on the question of whether the child’s development is the result of
biological and especially genetic factors (nature) or environmental influences (nurture).
-​ Although the debate has not been fully resolved, most researchers and academics agree that
the debate no longer centres on which of nature or nurture is the more important – but rather
on how each of these factors contributes to specific behaviours, situations and individuals.
-​ It is generally accepted that the interaction between heredity and environment is much more
important than the respective contribution of each. There is, therefore, no set formula to
determine the respective effect of nature or nurture on a particular person.
-​ However, a useful guideline in most cases is that heredity sets the limits, and the environment
determines to what extent a specific characteristic will develop between these limits.

Becoming: exploration, differentiation (clearly developed aspects)

Learning: sensing, perceiving, attending, thinking, memorizing

Becoming and learning Implies a reciprocal relationship between adult (teacher, parent) and child. The
potential to learn (to become) is a priori and the adult directs an invitation by unlocking life and
learning through teaching. In this module, we are interested in the process of learning and teaching
more than the content.

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 Slide Set 2 - Developmental Stages and Domains

Developmental Stages and Domain of Development

Development of child is a continuous process

It is useful to divide development into stages, using characteristics and skills which most individuals
develop during each specific stage. These stages provide a good indication of when children are ready
for formal school, when they should be allowed to make independent decisions on important matters or
whether a child’s development is below or above the norm for example. Note, some boundaries are
more clearly demarcated than others. Some are clear cut and others random. It is important that we take
individual and cultural differences into account.

“Child” - person under the age of 18 years; generic term child is used for children of all ages (the legal
definition - SA Constitution.

Developmental Stages

Developmental Stages Prenatal stage (subdivided into germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages)

Neonatal Stages First 2 to 4 weeks of life) and infancy (subsequent two years) (usually
grouped together)

Early Childhood First 2 to 4 weeks of life and infancy (subsequent two years) (usually
grouped together).

Middle Childhood +/- 6 years to beginning of puberty, about 12 years

Adolescence From puberty to adulthood

Developmental Domains

Physical Development Cognitive Development

Physical changes in the child’s body (e.g. weight, Reasoning ability (abstract and logical thought),
intelligence and creativity. Self-efficacy and
height, brain development, heredity, hormone,
self-regulation. Cognitive development Includes
nutrition and motor development (body
perception, learning, memory, thinking, decision
movement) like walking and crawling. making, imagination, creativity, language,
Neurobiological development. Puberty, body intelligence (problem-solving ability and
image and sexuality. environmental adjustment). How children come

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 to know and understand their world.

Social Development Personality Development

Social development and socialization. Includes Self (core characteristic), self concept (person’s
attachment, interpersonal relationships. Moral self evaluation). Identity (the way a person
development (right or wrong), religion and identifies themself in relation to others.
spirituality. Individuals' interaction and Regulating and expressing emotions.
relationships with other people (who play an
important role. Attachments and the influences of
others. Socialization.

Critical Period vs Sensitive Period

Critical Period Sensitive Period

Stage in development A period during which the child is very susceptible to environmental
when a specific type of influences, but in a less stringent way than in the case of a critical period.
learning can take place; The implication is that although certain external influences also have a
before or after the critical maximum effect during the sensitive period, they may still have an effect
period, the same learning before and after a sensitive period. For example, the period between 18
is difficult or even months and puberty is often viewed as the sensitive period for language
impossible. development.

Internal and External Dimensions

Internal Dimensions External Dimensions

●​ Internal = Person characteristics ●​ External = social context

●​ Dispositions (impulsiveness, distractibility, ●​ Families
aggression, violence, feelings of insecurity, ●​ Communities
unresponsiveness, curiosity) ●​ Policies & politics
●​ Genetic defects ●​ Social values
●​ Physical impairments ●​ Economics
●​ Damage to brain function ●​ Ideologies
●​ Abilities, knowledge, skills, experience ●​ Time

Nature or Nurture

Question: Is a child’s development the result of biological and genetic factors (nature) or environmental
influences (nurture)?

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A: Both arguments can be supported with much evidence, due to behaviour being multi-fascinate and so
many things causing behaviour. However, over time, the debate has changed to how these factors
contribute to behaviours. Therefore, the focus of debate no longer centres on which one is more
important, but rather on how each of these factors contribute to specific behaviours, situations, and
individuals.

●​ Nature: biological characteristics (genetic or hormonal factors)

●​ Nurture: environmental factors (social and physical environments)

Note on ‘Context’: Different ‘things’ influence development & learning. ‘Things’ are internal & external
circumstances and situations that interact with the individual’s thoughts, feelings, and actions to
shape development & learning. Context is the inner landscape of the individual as well as the external
social & physical environment.

Slide Set 3 - Bronfenbrenner

Urie Bronfenbrener
1917 - 2005
Developmental Psychologist
Bio-Ecosystemic Model of Human Development
Ecological Systems Theory

Urie Bronfenbrenner's research and his theory was key in changing

the perspective of developmental psychology by calling attention to
the large number of environmental and societal influences on child
development.

Ecological Systems Theory

●​ Ecological theory is based on the interdependence between different organisms and their
physical environment.
●​ Things that happen in one part of the system can affect other parts, and ultimately the
ecological system as a whole (reciprocity).
●​ Applicable to relationships between human beings and the interactions between groups of
people (systems) in their particular contexts.
●​ This perspective views different levels and groups of people as interactive systems where the
functioning of the whole is dependent on the interaction between all parts.
●​ To understand the whole system, we must examine the relationships between its different parts.

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 ●​ One of the important processes which characterise human systems, is patterns of functioning:
All parts of a system affect the system as a whole.
●​ Theory helps teachers to understand the complex influences, interactions & interrelationships
between learner and all other systems that has to do with learner – thus implicating change,
growth & development of a child. We have to do with the intricacy of various factors, situations,
child contexts as well as influences within and between these contexts. Entanglement of
environmental influences (also cultural events, exposure & social input, eg parenting, physical
environment (poverty)) and genetic (or biological: neurological and hormonal factors) factors as
well as biologically programmed critical and sensitive developmental periods

Multidimensional model of human development: thus all levels of development (eg physical, cognitive,
psycho-social) as well as interactive dimensions (ie person factors, process factors, context and time.
Whatever happens in one system will affect or be affected by the other systems (circular causality) – not
necessarily linear or cause-effect events (rather correlations or reciprocity)

Microsystem: Individuals & events closest to a person’s life (proximal interactions), immediate
environments

Mesosystem: System of microsystems which continuously interact with each other (proximal
interactions). Relationships between micro-systems, e.g. Teacher-parent trust/distrust)

Exosystem: Not directly involved environments (still influences proximal relationships). Link between
two settings: one is an immediate setting, and the other is one where the person doesn’t play an active
role (e.g. Parent’s workplace possible influence on child and household)

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Macrosystem: Societal / cultural attitudes, beliefs, values, ideologies / Larger cultural and social context

Chronosystem: Developmental time frames taking place in the interactions between the different
systems. The role of time: When events occur in a person’s life (giving birth at 16 or 40) as well as larger
socio-historical context (e.g. Changed views)

Four Interacting Dimensions which are Central to the Developmental Shaping Process

1.​ Process factors: patterns of functioning and interaction (think of processes like identity
formation, communication and influencing factors such as: goals and values of the system, roles
within the system and boundaries which are closed or flexible, etc.)
2.​ Person factors: e.g. behaviour tendencies, temperament
3.​ Contexts: e.g. schools, families, local communities
4.​ Time: changes in the child or environment, maturation

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 There are different forms of interaction between a learner and systems (environment). This operates
over time.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of child development has had a major influence on our
understanding of the contextual frameworks (ecosystems) in which children grow up. The environmental
and societal context is built up out of different levels (nested systems), implicating various influences
(four interacting dimensions) affecting the education process. Through the continuous, dynamic
interaction between multiple contextual influences we can understand why things are as they are at any
stage of development. The ecosystemic view also helps us to see how things might change, develop,
and be supported.

Principle 2
We Should Come to Understand the out Learners in Context to the Bronfenbrenner Model

Slide Set 4 - Neurodevelopment of an Adolescent

Introduction: New common known facts about adolescent development. Brain reaches approximately
90% of its adult size by age six Grey and white matter subcomponents of the brain continue to undergo
dynamic changes throughout adolescence Fine tuning and strengthening of connections between
prefrontal and subcortical regions during development and learning - correspond to greater cognitive
control.

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Brain Development and Adolescence
Image given on sunlearn.

Notes on the Slide: Neuronal development, especially the delicate network of connections between
neurons (brain cells), undergoes significant changes and adaptations from early childhood.
Interestingly, the brain of a one-year-old baby contains more neural connections than an adult.
Connections that are not regularly stimulated or used are pruned and eventually disposed of (thus
disappearing). Regularly used connections are strengthened. This pruning process is largely
genetically pre-programmed. It will happen no matter (regardless) of the environment the baby is in.

Different Parts of the Brain Mature at Different Rates

The parts of the brain involved in emotional responses are fully developed in adolescence, and even
more active than they are in adulthood. We are referring to the limbic system which regulates emotions,
motivation, and long-term memory. The limbic system, therefore, is the house of our affect (emotions,
feelings, mood). Thus, bio-chemical reactions play a substantial role in typical adolescent behaviour.
Hence, it is not that adolescents' brains aren’t fully developed but that their limbic system (the system
that controls emotions and affects) holds a great response. The reason – the prefrontal cortex (rational
thinker) in relation to the limbic system (emotional thinker) seems rather underdeveloped, but it is not.
The limbic system just rapidly grew farther than the prefrontal cortex. Hence, the limbic system is
mature before the prefrontal cortex – hence more emotional reactions than logical actions.

1.​ The prefrontal cortex controls rational thinking and relates to good judgment and awareness of
long-term consequences (self-regulation against impulsivity). The connections between the
emotional part of the brain and the decision-making centre keep on developing into one's 20’s.
The prefrontal cortex is the conductor of your orchestra - the brain's orchestra. It absorbs and
integrates information from other brain parts and decides on an appropriate response. Prefrontal
cortex (regulates planning, decision-making) is not as sophisticated yet as with adults. PC has
not yet reached maturity in relation to the LS. This is sometimes the reason for adolescents’
inappropriate behaviour.

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 2.​ Risky regarding decision-making and actions (behaviour).

3.​ Increased emotional reactivity: information is processed with the amygdala (structure within the
limbic system of the brain) = hypothalamus regulates stress.

4.​ Cravings for novelty, positive sensations often give rise to risky behaviour (immediate pleasure
above delayed gratification) - In an emotionally charged situation, the limbic system will prevail.

5.​ Increased susceptibility to reward

Myths: “Adolescent behaviour is due to protracted development of the prefrontal cortex.”

●​ Adolescents are able to reason and understand risks of behaviours in which they engage and do
not consider themselves invincible / capable of making rational decisions, but in emotionally
charged situations the more mature limbic system will win over the prefrontal control system
●​ When faced with an immediate personal decision / real-life situation, adolescents will rely less
on intellectual capabilities and more on feelings. When reasoning about a hypothetical dilemma
/ scenarios, the adolescent will rely more on logical information
●​ When a poor decision is made in the heat of the moment, the adolescent may know better, but
the salience of the emotional context biases his or her behaviour in the opposite direction of the
optimal action.
●​ This possibly contributes to making adolescents more vulnerable to risk behaviours and
psychological disorders. Adolescents react more intensely than adults to stressful and
pleasurable experiences but have not yet developed the ability to control their strong emotional
impulses.
●​ Implication: the environmental context and emotional significance of the decision greatly
influence the adolescent.

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 ●​ Adolescents show adult levels of intellectual capability earlier than they show evidence of adult
levels of impulse control.
●​ As such, adolescents may be capable of making informed choices about their future but do not
yet have full capacity to override impulses in emotionally charged situations that require
decisions in the heat of the moment.

Q: How can we help our adolescents?

2 – 13 years: children need to be guided in terms of what is appropriate / inappropriate, good / bad, /
acceptable / unacceptable
13-16 years: children learn to make independent decisions with the help of mentors (parents,
teachers, primary caregivers)
16 -18 years: more refined prefrontal development has taken place and therefore children can be
more independent.

What is important is that although teenagers do not necessarily understand the importance of
establishing good habits, strengthening of neural pathways takes place already until the prefrontal
cortex is mature enough. Child should learn to know his/her emotional landscape – stable and mature
adults should navigate this. And they can learn something by way of their emotions (because of their
increased emotional reactivity). Values, education, acceptance (of the self, not necessarily of
behaviour), navigation of identity – also aiding the strengthening of neural pathways.

Classroom Implications
How would knowledge about risk taking, reward processing, and emotional reactivity influence your
teaching?

When adolescents are in the presence of peers, the reward circuitry in the brain is more active – social
learning, peer feedback. When reasoning about a hypothetical dilemma, the adolescent will rely more
on logical information. Safe learning spaces where the focus is on learning and where it is acceptable or
rather preferred to also make mistakes, correct errors and improve work. Positive (constructive)
feedback, choice (independence) might lead to healthy risk-taking. Delayed gratification and
self-regulated learning (Skills to be developed)

1.​ The brain continues to develop through adolescence and at least into a person’s twenties.
Pruning of unused synapses and increasing myelination leads to stronger connections among
various parts of the brain. These changes improve the organisation of the brain and strengthen
cognitive skills such as reading and memory. A person’s capacity to learn is greater in
adolescence than any other period in the lifespan.
2.​ The parts of the brain involved in emotional responses (limbic system)are fully developed in
adolescence, and even more active than they are in adulthood.
3.​ The part of the brain involved in planning and decision-making (prefrontal cortex) has not yet
reached maturity in relation to the parts involved in emotion, attention and motivation (limbic

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 system). Adolescents react more intensely than adults to stressful and pleasurable experiences
but have not yet developed the full ability to override strong impulses in emotionally charged
situations.

Cannabis has lost its innocence

Addictive substances affect the brain by mimicking its own chemical messengers. Brain cells
themselves produce a whole range of opiates and cannabinoids.That is why your brain no longer
functions optimally when you stop taking a particular addictive substance: You feel terrible and get
frequent uncontrollable urges to take more of it. Thus, all such substances have a direct or indirect
effect on the brain’s dopamine reward system.

Something on overdose: There are no receptors in the brain stem areas that regulates blood pressure
and breathing. That is why it is impossible to take an overdose of cannabis, as opposed to opiates. But
there are receptors in other brain parts, such as cerebellum (unsteadiness), cerebral cortex (problems
with association, fragmented thoughts) and in the hippocampus (memory).

Adults who smoke marijuana daily for a period of years have been found not only to have a smaller
hippocampus (important for memory), a smaller amygdala (affecting anxiety, aggression, and sexual
behavior), and damage to the fiber tracts of the corpus callosum (left-right connections) but also to be
more likely to develop a psychosis. Sometimes these characteristics may have been present before
using cannabis and are therefore exacerbated.

Also: people sometimes appear to smoke “pure” cannabis, unmixed with tobacco, causing a greater
risk of adverse effects. Cannabis are also sometimes sprayed with chemical agents or adulterated with
for example toxic weed killer.

Evolutionary Perspective: Acquiring independence skills (increase success of separating from the
protective influence of the family. Independence-seeking behaviours (increased peer-directed social
interactions & novelty seeking and risk-taking behaviours) = adaptive function

Note on Adolescence and Sleep: Changes in the neurological system during adolescence affect sleep.
It may contribute to adolescents’ tendency to go to sleep much later at night, and to wake later in the
mornings. Adolescents need about 9 hours of sleep per night, almost as much as needed by younger
children. Inadequate sleep in adolescence has been associated with depression, behavioural problems,
and poorer achievement in school. Also, adolescents with sleep problems are more likely to smoke,
drink alcohol, and use drugs. Optimal sleep ensures physical, emotional, and cognitive functioning in
adolescence.The body clock of teens shifts so they become more “night owlish“, which makes it hard
for them to fall asleep at a reasonable hour. Second, their physiology demands that they sleep more
to cope with their huge growth phase. It is suggested that high schools start later to allow teenagers
more time to sleep.

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 Principle 3
Adolescents are often seen as Troubled and Disruptive. They are Perceived as Being Irresponsible.

Slide Set 5 - Cognitive Development

Adolescent Development Domains

Executive functions, including planning (making plans),

memory, multi-tasking, inhibiting inappropriate behaviour,
and social understanding, including perspective taking
and self-awareness

(Limbic system: involved in emotion, attention and

motivation)

Notes on Slides: The prefrontal cortex changes dramatically during adolescence and beyond. This
brain region plays a critical role in a host of high-level cognitive abilities such as executive functions,
including planning (making plans, metacognition), memory, multi-tasking, inhibiting inappropriate
behaviour, and social understanding, including perspective taking and self-awareness. These abilities
undergo refinement during adolescence.

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 If early childhood is seen as a major opportunity for teaching, so perhaps should teenage years.
During both periods, particularly traumatic brain reorganisation is taking place. Research on brain
development suggests that the brain is still developing during adolescence and beyond, the brain is
adaptable, and needs to be moulded and shaped. Perhaps the aims of education for adolescents
should include abilities that are controlled by the parts of the brain that undergo most change during
adolescence. These abilities include internal control (self-regulation), multi-tasking, planning, and
social cognitive skills (self-awareness, self-efficacy and understanding other people).

Research on neural plasticity suggests that the brain is well set up for life-long learning and
adaptation to the environment, and that educational rehabilitation in adulthood is possible and well
worth investment. On the other hand, the research also suggests that there is no biological necessity
to rush and start formal teaching earlier and earlier. Rather, late starts might be reconsidered as
perfectly in time with natural brain and cognitive development.

The Cognitive Development of the Adolescent

Theories of cognitive development:

-​ Jean Piaget’s developmental approach

-​ Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
-​ Robert Sternberg’s approach focusing on intelligence as analytical, creative and practical
-​ Reuven Feuerstein’s approach focusing on the mediated learning process
-​ Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences

Cognitive Neuroscience

During adolescence, important changes occur in the brain. While there are certainly individual
differences among teenagers, at least four specific structural changes in the brain contribute to some of
the characteristic adolescent behaviour.

-​ Decrease in grey matter.

-​ Increase in white matter
-​ Changes in activity involving neurotransmitters
-​ Increased strength of connections between the prefrontal cortex and limbic system

Immature Thought Patterns

Adolescents’ cognitive development are characterised by the ability to think abstractly, reason with
greater articulacy as well as memorise with greater strength. They are therefore able to think in terms of
possibilities, deal flexibly with problems, and test hypotheses. During this stage, young people can
integrate what they have learned in the past with the challenges of the present and make plans.

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Immature thought patterns can result from adolescents’ inexperience with formal thinking. Their
immature thinking manifests in six characteristic ways and include:

1.​ Self-consciousness
2.​ Argumentativeness
3.​ Indecisiveness
4.​ Specialness
5.​ Apparent hypocrisy
6.​ Idealism and criticalness

The Difference Between Intellect and Cognition

Creativity as a Cognitive Mental Outcome

Creativity includes the ability to deduce original ideas from the known, as well as the unknown, and to
create new things (referring to what is new and useful – innovation). Researchers agree that everybody
has the potential to be creative to some extent; all can deduce original ideas from the known and the
unknown, and to create new things (identifying a problem, seeking solutions and formulating
hypotheses about possible solutions, which are then put into practice). One of the main charges brought
against teachers and schools are that children’s creativity is neglected, and in some instances even
repressed. Learners find it difficult to take chances, look for alternative right answers and explore new
avenues of thought. Most learners learn to remain within bounds of their teacher’s expectations.

Divergent thinking: That is the kind of thinking Convergent thinking: That is the kind of thinking
linked to creativity. This is coming up with a measured by IQ tests. There is only one single
variety of ideas or solutions to a problem when correct answer.
there is not only one single correct answer.

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How can teachers stimulate and promote creativity?

1.​ Create situations that present incompleteness and openness.

2.​ Allow and encourage many questions. The quality of your questions determines the quality of
the learner’s responses, and perhaps the most important factor is the quality of the relationship
between the teachers and the learner.
3.​ Help learners to produce something and then do something with it.
4.​ All creative people are particularly open (responsive) to sensory experiences. They have a fine
filtering mechanism and the ability to combine and recombine stimuli in unconventional ways.
5.​ Stimulate creative thinking with brainstorming, Bohm dialogue: a freely flowing group
conversation in which learners attempt to reach a common understanding, experiencing
everyone's point of view fully, equally and nonjudgmentally. This can lead to new and deeper
understanding.
6.​ Use humour to release creative thinking. The balance between the serious and the playful
reduces tension and thus helps to develop an atmosphere of relaxation. Learners are able to
make unusual and bizarre connections more easily; they can play with ideas and venture into the
unknown within a non-threatening atmosphere.
7.​ Guide learners to seek more than one right answer and to realise that failure is an opportunity to
correct and refine a response – to grow – learning and development is uncomfortable after all.

Metacognition

Metacognition refers to the individual’s awareness of his/her own learning. Being able to transfer
learning from one source to another is a metacognitive skill, which makes learning more efficient.
Learners with highly developed metacognitive skills will be able to take control over their learning. This
means they will be able to direct their own learning, monitor their progress when learning a task and be
able to ascertain whether they are on the right track. Eventually they will be able to assess their own
work.

Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to a learner's belief in their ability to successfully complete a given activity.

Self-efficacy is based on four factors:

1.​ Adolescent’s previous experiences

2.​ Transferable / vicarious experiences (see someone else doing something)
3.​ Verbal persuasion (encouragement)
4.​ Physiological arousal, for example anxiety levels, tension, adrenaline

Motivation can also play a role.

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Executive Function (Capacity) of Self-Regulation

-​ Self-regulation (in order to set new targets, to be internally motivated)

-​ Cognitive control mechanisms (attention, focus)
-​ Based on internal resources (level of motivation, willpower, ambition, driving force, creativity)

Three Internalised Processes

1.​ Self-observation (of process / product)

2.​ Judgement (judging the outcome against criteria / norms) (on basis of comparisons)
3.​ Self-reaction (emotional component linked with activity: pride, content, embarrassed,
disappointment, satisfaction)

Teaching Self-Regulation Strategies

Self-regulation is a critical competency that underlies mindful, intentional, and thoughtful learning. The
term self-regulation refers to the capacity to control one’s impulses, both to stop doing something, if
needed (even if one wants to continue doing it) and to start doing something, if needed (even if one
doesn’t want to do it).

●​ Guide learner’ self-beliefs and goal setting

●​ Promote reflective dialogue
●​ Provide corrective feedback
●​ Help learners make connections
●​ Self-monitoring
●​ Self-reinforcement

Self-Regulation
Extra notes from Dr. Conradie:

Self-regulation is a critical competency that underlies mindful, intentional, and thoughtful behaviors of
younger and older children alike. The term self-regulation refers to the capacity to control one’s
impulses, both to stop doing something, if needed (even if one wants to continue doing it) and to start
doing something, if needed (even if one does not want to do it). Self-regulation is not to be confused
with obedience or compliance; when children are truly self-regulated, they behave the same way
whether or not an adult is watching. Self-regulated children can delay gratification and suppress their
impulses long enough to think ahead to the possible consequences of their actions or to consider
alternative actions that would be more appropriate. Self-regulation is not limited to the
social-emotional domain; it can also apply to cognitive behaviors, such as remembering or paying
attention. In fact, research indicates that these two facets of self-regulation are related: children who

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cannot control their emotions are unlikely to be able to follow the teachers’ directions and will
possibly not become reflective learners in middle and high school.

Why is Self-Regulation Important?

There is growing evidence that many children begin school lacking self-regulation and this lack of
self-regulation may have a great impact on how well they do in school and later life. Self-regulation
affects a children’s abilities to successfully function in school settings in two ways: first,
social-emotional self-regulation makes it possible for children to conform to classroom rules and to
benefit from learning in various social contexts, from one-on-one interactions to large groups; and
second, cognitive self-regulation allows children to use and further develop the cognitive processes
necessary for academic learning and problem solving.

Teaching Self-regulation Strategies

A teacher's role in helping students gain self-regulation will be challenging and initial attempts to
teach self-regulation strategies are seldom successful. Why? First, it takes time and practice to gain
effective habits. Preliminary efforts must be refined based on learner's feedback, performance, and
their own reflection. Adopting principles of a learning community model can make teaching
self-regulated learning less difficult. This model encourages teachers to shift responsibility for
learning to learners, giving them more choice and control over their learning tasks. Teachers should
also model the use of effective self-regulatory techniques. Self-regulation is the process by which
students take charge of their own learning, monitoring their behavior and progress and making
adjustments along the way to get from idea to execution. It is the transformation of thought into
purposeful action. By becoming a better self-regulator, learners will understand how their behavior
influences their results. Moreover, they will understand that their learning is a purposeful, active
process in which they play the leading role. Here are several strategies teachers can introduce for use
in the classroom and at home:

Teaching Strategies: Self-Regulated Learning

Guide learners' self-beliefs and goal setting

●​ Help learners frame new information or feedback in a positive rather than a negative manner
(e.g., "keeping track of your homework assignments will help you manage this course
successfully," rather than "if you don't keep track you will fail.")
●​ Goal setting is an important part of self-regulation; the process of goal setting gives students
an opportunity to observe their own behavior and pinpoint areas for improvement. It helps
learners identify what they need to do, let them see how they are progressing, and motivates

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 them to act productively. Learners should set goals for themselves that are specific and
challenging, but not too hard.

Promote reflective dialogue

●​ Teacher modelling of reflective practices (for example think aloud while rehearsing your own
steps in dealing with a challenge, etc)
●​ Learner practice with reflective dialogue
●​ Group discussions to think through problems/cases (collaborative learning)
●​ Keeping a portfolio of learning (so that a learner can track his/her own learning development);
keeping records and monitoring (note taking, listing errors made, recording grades, keeping all
drafts of assignments, maintaining a portfolio)

Provide corrective feedback

●​ Performance standards must be clear and perceived as attainable

●​ Phrase feedback (positive or negative) as a statement about the task of learning, not about the
learner

Help learners make connections between abstract concepts

●​ Use case-based instructions or examples that learners come up with themselves

●​ Use hands-on learning activities
●​ Help learners learn to separate relevant from irrelevant information (i.e., help them to
understand where and how to focus their attention): for example, providing a module or
subject guide / create table of content pages for your subjects

Help learners link new experiences to prior learning

●​ Use experiential learning activities

●​ Focus on application of knowledge in broader contexts
●​ Integrate real-life examples with classroom information

Self-Monitoring

●​ Learners self-monitor by asking themselves whether they have engaged in a specific, desired
behavior. Learners may find it helpful to self-monitor for behaviors like paying attention,
staying on task, following strategy steps, and meeting performance expectations such as
completing all homework problems.

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Self-Reinforcement

●​ Self-reinforcement occurs when a learner chooses a motivating reward and then awards it to
himself when he achieves a milestone. Self-reinforcement can be used over shorter and
longer timeframes and can tie into goals. The learner who has identified time-management as
an issue, for example, might decide I can go to the movies on Sunday because I finished all my
homework before dinner time every night this week.
●​ Self-reinforcement can also work well in the classroom. Teachers and learners can select
rewards together and teachers can let learners know how to earn them. Once a learner has
met the criteria for a reward, she can award it to herself.
●​ By becoming better self-regulated learners will understand how their behavior influences
their results. And they will understand that their learning is a purposeful, active process in
which they play the leading role.

When fear urges us to achieve (achievement anxiety)

There is a difference between having normal ambitions, aspirations, goals, and achievement anxiety.
Whereas working hard and systematically to realize ambitions is part of a personal and professional
identity (the backbone of further development), striving to be successful through a single point of
focus is the doorway to achievement anxiety. Achievement anxiety refers to the fear of failure to such
an extent that this overly self-consciousness of performance distracts your attention from the task of
pleasurable learning.

Perfectionist behaviour and micro-management regarding marks sometimes constitute desperate

attempts to retain absolute control over everything. The focus becomes avoidance of failure rather
than purposefully correcting mistakes and improving work, thus learning. Although effective in the
short term, this type of behaviour cannot last forever and seriously inhibit performance.
As humans, and especially students who function within an evaluative and sometimes competitive
environment, we do have to deal and confront ourselves regarding these issues. So, what should you
as a professional teacher do? We must be cognisant of the prevalence of possible achievement
anxiety in our classrooms. Expectations of others and the previous experiences of failures do play a
role in how someone perceives him/herself as academically competent. This again links to academic
self-confidence.

As teachers we need to create a climate where the focus is on learning, where it is acceptable or
rather preferred to also make mistakes, correct errors and improve work. This serves as a healthy
foundation for entering a competitive environment from time to time. If this is the way you teach and
orient yourself towards success, the focus becomes finding pleasure in the learning task – and not
avoiding failure at all costs. Doing this rather distracts your attention from the task at hand.
Once you accept failures and errors as part of the learning process, you will also take responsibility for
your own mistakes, thus learning. For instance, when you did not receive the mark you desperately

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 wanted to achieve, it does not necessarily mean the problem lies with you not being competent, or the
teacher being unfair or other circumstances that could possibly be blamed. It is rather an opportunity
to analysing and correcting mistakes and improve your work or your effort.

Slide Set 6 - Social Development

Basic Emotions
Psychological activation and expressive behaviour

●​ Sadness
●​ Joy
●​ Fear or terror
●​ Anticipation or excitement
●​ Anger or rage
●​ Surprise
●​ Disgust
●​ Trust

Emotional Development

Emotion Mood Affect

An instant feeling. Stimulated Relatively short term. Intensity General feeling. Positive or
by a trigger. It is intense but reduces over time. negative valence. State of mind.
short.

Emotions vs Feelings

Emotion Feeling

Emotions are physical states that arise as a Feelings are mental associations and reactions to
response to external stimuli. emotions.

Aroused before feelings. Caused by emotions.

Physical states. Mental associations and reactions.

Can be observed through the physical reaction. Can be hidden.

Babies are not born with a spectrum of emotions - they must develop their emotional repertoire.

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Emotional development cannot therefore be taken for granted. If neglected, it often leads to adults
struggling to build loving long-term relationships.

Early research done by John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth has shown that lack of personal attention in
the form of love and acceptance in early childhood causes disturbances in social development and
inadequate interactions with other people.

Attachment: Infants’ expressed desire for proximity is dependent on caregivers’ responses to them in
the past. Children’s behavior reflects their relationship history and strategies for coping with stress and
relatedness. Attachment security is dependent on caregivers’ responses characterised by sensitivity and
responsiveness. Close emotional relationships beyond child-parent attachment (e.g. teacher-child
relationship): teachers can be regarded as “ad hoc attachment figures” (not long enduring, exclusive
affectional bond). Child-teacher relationships may provide for exploration from a secure base and a safe
haven under stress. The sensitive teacher has more patience, empathy (authentic and serious) and
emotionally available = attuned / responsive to needs, proximity, care, warmth (that is how trust is
developed = secure base), and is aware of him-herself as role model.

Emotional Intelligence (EI)

●​ Ability to respond in emotionally inducing situations, to be able to manage oneself and adapt to
such situations in an appropriate manner
●​ The ability to perceive emotions, integrate emotion to facilitate thought, understand emotions,
and to regulate emotions
●​ Understanding the ‘triggers’ of emotional responses and adapting to the situation in such a way
that responses may be reconsidered before acting.

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Affect & Learning
Strong correlation between emotions and memory and learning. Amygdala (part of the limbic system)
controls physiological and behavioural components of emotional responses

Q: How can we create a learning environment which stimulates positive feelings about learning (so that
learners are less alert on physiological level: creating unhealthy stress)?
A: Connect the learning content to the learner's emotions (but keep the reactive limbic system in mind:
always reflect on emotional responses in a logical manner:

-​ What am I experiencing?
-​ What has possibly contributed to this feeling?
-​ What is it doing (How is it affecting my behaviour?)
-​ What alternatives are there?
-​ Correlation between self-concept and emotions and feelings: positive or negative experiences
moderates the self-concept over time and alters the self-esteem (an affective reaction involving
a person’s evaluation of who he or she is = self-worth / self-image)

Heightened Emotionality and Emotional Lability

Lability = undergoing change

●​ Heightened emotionality diminishes gradually until a degree of emotional maturity is reached

●​ Adolescents are reliant on educational intervention for their healthy emotional development
●​ Teacher should be knowledgeable of adolescent’s heightened emotionality, as well as their
experience and expression thereof
●​ Helping adolescents to understand their feeling landscapes by assisting them in verbalising
their emotions
●​ Build healthy relationships which hinge on empathy, understanding and unconditional
acceptance
●​ Help them to restrain impulsive expression of feelings through provision of new learning
experiences. This will lead to emotional maturity due to increased rationality and a wider frame
of reference

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Personality: refers to the characteristic organization (structure, combination) of behavioural patterns,
thinking and emotions that make each person unique and help him to adapt to his unique daily living
conditions. It also refers to the dynamic nature of humankind as well as its propensity to react with a
degree of consistency or predictability over time in a variety of situations. Personality is simultaneously
stable and unstable – within larger changes and growth there are also mostly consistencies
(characteristics that do not change much and remain the same.)

Personality Development
Personality traits: concrete/abstract thinking, submissive/dominant, shy/bold, trusting/suspicious,
practical/imaginative, conservative/experimenting, relaxed/tense, out-going/reserved, etc.

Outcomes of Temperament and Personality in Adolescence (CANOE)

Five Big Dimensions Outcomes in Childhood and Adolescence

Conscientiousness Self-regulation trait predicts low level of externalising behaviour and high
levels of academic achievements.

Agreeableness Low agreeableness (heartless, uncaring and unfeeling) is associated with a

severe form of externalising behaviour
Associated with low academic performances.

Neuroticism Irritability predicts high levels of externalising behaviour

Fearfulness predicts low levels of externalising behaviour
Together they predict high levels of internalising problems.

Openness There is mixed evidence that openness predicts high levels of academic
achievement.

Extraversion Associated with high levels of externalising behaviour.

Mixed evidence for predictions of low academic achievement.
Also associated with a reduced risk of depression

Acquired Personality

Personality is acquired and formed from infancy

and childhood. It is the result of the interactions
between innate qualities (calm, melancholy,
irritability, cheerfulness, stolidity - dullness) /
characteristics and relationships within different
environments.

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Identity Development
Erikson’s Theory: Identity vs Identity/Role Confusion

●​ He provided the most comprehensive description of identity development during adolescence.

●​ Identity: refers to the individual’s awareness of themselves as an independent, unique person
with a special place in society.
●​ He is the first theorist to identify the NB of the formation of a personal identity, which is an
important step to a happy and productive adult.

The Development of an Identity:

●​ In order to form an identity, all the psychosocial crises of the previous stages need to be
resolved.
●​ This means that teenagers should have acquired basic trust, autonomy, initiative and industry to
successfully accomplish the task required for identity development.
●​ Identity development implies that adolescents need to define who they are, what is important to
them and what direction they want to take in life.

●​ Identity crisis is a temporary period of confusion, during which adolescents explore, question
existing values and experiment with alternative roles in order to develop an own set of values
and goals.
●​ Not negative, rather a way the individual forms a personal and social identity
●​ Psychosocial moratorium is a period of time, allowed by adults, where adolescents can find
themselves and their roles as adults.

In order to develop an identity, adolescents have to master the following tasks:

Ego-synthesis: they have to form a continuous, integrated, unified image of the self. Means that
regardless of the course of time and accompanying changes, the person should still feel the same about
themselves.

Socio-cultural identity: which means that the adolescent’s identity must include the value-orientations of
their culture.

Gender-role identity:must be firmly established. (role of female or male)

A career identity: must be formed. They need to be realistic on their abilities and achievements to make a
realistic career choice.

An own value system: must be developed. They must rethink certain values to the extent that they may
form their own basic philosophy.

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Identity Confusion:
Erikson described confusions as:

1.​ Identity foreclosure, identity crisis is resolved by making a series of premature decisions about
one’s identity, based on other’s expectations of what one should be.
2.​ Negative identity, this means that an adolescence form an identity contrary to the cultural values
and expectation (drug abusers)

Evaluation of Erikson’s Viewpoint:

●​ Contributes to a better understanding of adolescents.
●​ And stimulates research on identity.
●​ Erikson’s assumption that they feel confused during this period is not accurate as there are some
who feel content and happy.
●​ Identity development is much more complex, as it is a continuous cycle of life.
●​ Many experience the crises only later in adolescents.
●​ Career, gender and religious values continue to develop and change after this period or stage.

Forming a Group Identity

●​ Feeling of belonging (to a group) based on a shared existence (values, norms, preferences,
experiences, etc.)
●​ Identification through certain categories (ethnicity, language, religion, career related, age,
gender)
●​ Multicultural identity: cultural diversity
●​ Context specific: refer to students own personal contexts
●​ Personal identity indicates what one has in common with others and leads to a group identity.
●​ Group identity is a feeling of sameness and belonging to a group.
●​ Group of individuals that share common values, beliefs and experiences tend to group together.
●​ Could be looked at in a cultural or religious context.
●​ But it is difficult since SA has a diverse culture.
●​ Multi-cultural identity forms when exploring and adapting some other culture’s values.

This may have benefits like: Learning of other cultures and ethics may lead to an atmosphere of respect,
foster identity achievement in many social and emotional development, ethnic tolerance. Identity
exploration is being supported.

The Self Concept: Self-concept is the ability to distinguish between the actual self and possible self.
Both these selves need abstract thinking The actual self, possible self, ideal, feared and false self:

Actual self: the person the adolescent really is.

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Possible self can be distinguished between the ideal self and feared self.
Ideal self: the person the adolescent liked to be
Feared self: is the person the adolescent imagines they can become, but dreads it.
False self: is what the person exhibits to people but knows that it is not their true feelings and thinking.

Self-Esteem
Refers to the way a person views and evaluates themselves. High or low self-esteem.

●​ Children start to evaluate themselves from a young age and this leads to children making
assumptions of themselves
●​ During adolescence this development and evaluation goes further, as physical changes occur,
sexuality, social changes and romantic relationships start to develop.
●​ During middle childhood, when children start to compare themselves with others, their
self-esteem declines and becomes more realistic as they evaluate physical, cognitive and social
abilities
●​ Adolescents also experience a decline in self-esteem as they go through puberty and changes.
●​ Different aspects of the self-esteem has been identified:

Baseline self-esteem: is the stable, enduring stage of worth and well-being of a person.
High baseline self-esteem people: evaluate themselves positively
Low baseline self-esteem: has a poor opinion of themselves.

Barometric self-esteem: is the fluctuating sense of worth and well-being people have as they respond
to different thoughts. It is intense – feelings of misery, excitement, joy, disappointment and sadness.
Adults also experience this.

●​ Across different socio-economic groups and cultures, adolescents with favourable self-esteem
tend to be more adjustable, social and conscientious.
●​ Low self-esteem tend to have adjustment difficulties
●​ Poor academic self-esteem tend to be anxious and unfocused
●​ If dissatisfied with parent relationships they can become aggressive and antisocial
●​ Negative peer relationships can lead to depressive nature
●​ Those who are dependent on social acceptance and approval tend to have self-esteem shifts.

Culture and The Self

●​ Culture that promotes an independent, individual self also promotes and encourages reflection
on the self.
●​ Collective cultures are characterised by narrow socialisation and interdependent conception
about the self.
●​ In these cultures family, friends and community comes first

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 ●​ Hence the self can be independent and also in relationship with others.
●​ Optimism refers to the attitude that things happen for the best and that people's wishes or aims
will be fulfilled.
●​ SA uses the ecosystemic model (to study different adolescents ethical backgrounds and their
relationship with the self), which shows that SA has positive self-image, are outgoing social
beings and have strong religious values.
●​ But problems can change this like HIV/AIDS, poverty and crime.
●​ This influences the optimism of the teenagers for their future and careers.

Moral Development

●​ According to Lawrence Kohlberg, moral reasoning is based on a developing sense of justice and
growing cognitive abilities. Kohlberg proposed that moral development progresses from
external control to internalised societal standards to personal, principled moral codes.
●​ Conscience is a uniquely human, inherent ability to distinguish between right and wrong, good
and evil, and proper and improper. Conscience is influenced by teaching, habits and education
and by moral values such as honesty, loyalty, responsibility, appreciation, respect and a sense of
duty.
●​ Nel Noddings and Carol Gilligan included an ethic of care as part of moral development, rather
than focussing only on the dimension of justice. An ethic of care starts from the premise that as
humans we are inherently relational, responsive beings and the human condition is one of
connectedness or interdependence / we experience ourselves in relation to others. The emphasis
is therefore on the human responsibility to show care and avoid harm.

Receptive Attention and Empathy

●​ Receptive attention not the same as critical evaluation (cognitive skill)

●​ Rather attentive, open and vulnerable
●​ The feeling of empathy results from this kind of attention: involves both understanding and
feeling (as opposed to listening for your own purposes) – when you truly listen, you feel
something
●​ Encourage learners to think about others and to try to understand what they are feeling
●​ If we want children to develop the capacity to care, we must involve them in caregiving activities
(to take a relational view – what is the other going through?).
●​ In teaching young people to think critically, we should help them to differentiate between
listening to understand and feel with the other and listening only for our own purposes.

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