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 Eleventh Edition

Infants, Toddlers,
and Caregivers
A Curriculum of Respectful, Responsive, Relationship-
Based Care and Education

Janet Gonzalez-Mena
Napa Valley College

Dianne Widmeyer Eyer

Cañada College
INFANTS, TODDLERS, AND CAREGIVERS, ELEVENTH EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2018 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions
© 2015, 2012, and 2009. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
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including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for
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Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the
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This book is printed on acid-free paper.
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Gonzalez-Mena, Janet, author. | Eyer, Dianne Widmeyer, author.
Infants, toddlers, and caregivers : a curriculum of respectful,
responsive, relationship-based care and education/Janet Gonzalez-Mena,
Napa Valley College, Dianne Widmeyer Eyer, Canada College.
Eleventh edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, [2018]
LCCN 2016045841 | ISBN 9781259870460 (alk. paper)
LCSH: Child care—United States. | Child development—United
States. | Education, Preschool—Activity programs—United States.
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mheducation.com/highered
To Magda Gerber, Emmi Pikler, and Anna Tardos
This page intentionally left blank
About the Authors

Way back in the 1970s Janet Gonzalez-Mena and Dianne Widmeyer Eyer met when
they were both teaching early childhood education in a community college. The pro-
gram focused on preschool even though infants and toddlers were starting to come
into child care programs.
The two authors decided to do something about that problem. Janet became an
intern in a program called the Demonstration Infant Program, where Magda Gerber
taught her unique philosophy of respect and responsiveness for infant-toddler care
on which this book is based. Janet’s internship helped her earn a master’s degree in
human development. In the 1980s Gerber and others created a new program called
Resources for Infant Educarers (RIE), through which Janet was made a RIE Associ-
ate, the highest certification. Dianne completed a second master’s degree in special
education, and together the two worked to expand the field of early childhood educa-
tion to include infants and toddlers, special education, and family child care provid-
ers. Writing this book together was one of the things they did.
A few years later both authors became more involved with family child care. As
director of Child Care Services for the Family Service Agency of San Mateo County,
California, Janet supervised a network of family child care homes that served infants
and toddlers as well as preschoolers. Under her direction, the agency opened a new
infant center and also created a pilot program of therapeutic child care for abused
and neglected infants and toddlers. Dianne worked with the Child Care Coordinating
Council of San Mateo County to develop a training program for family child care
providers at Cañada College. This curriculum also models the Gerber philosophy of
respect and responsiveness for infant-toddler care.
Janet went on to teach at Napa Valley College, retiring in 1998. Today she con-
tinues to educate infant-toddler caregivers in different settings. She trains trainers in
WestEd’s Program for Infant/Toddler Care (PITC) and speaks at conferences in the
United States and abroad. As a longtime (43 years) member of the National Asso-
ciation for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), Janet served two terms on
the Consulting Editors Panel. She worked on a Head Start project to create a user’s
guide for their Multicultural Principles. Janet is becoming an internationally recog-
nized author as some of her books are translated into German, Chinese, Japanese,
and Hebrew. Janet belongs to the California Community College Early Childhood

v
vi About the Authors

Educators, BANDTEC, a diversity trainers’ network, and serves on the board of

Pikler/Lóczy Fund USA.
Dianne continued teaching at Cañada College, where she developed several cur-
riculum specializations in early childhood education and child development, includ-
ing children with special needs, family support, “Safe Start” violence intervention
and prevention in the early years, and home-based child care. She has been a member
of NAEYC since 1970. Dianne retired from Cañada College in 2005 after 36 years
of teaching and 27 years as the ECE/CD Department Chair. She coordinated, from
2000 to 2015, a grant she wrote for First 5 San Mateo County to provide academic
supports to early childhood educators and to enhance workforce development in the
ECE profession.
The current interests of both authors still relate to education. Dianne’s interests
involve supporting literacy skills for adult second language learners and providing
specific supports related to career development for the diverse population in the ECE
workforce. She is currently studying art education and art as therapy, and is involved
with docent training at a near-by museum. She also enjoys hiking, gardening, and
music. Janet’s personal interests lie in her grandchildren including her granddaugh-
ter Nika, “A RIE baby,” who is now 9, her 4 year old grandson, Cole, and his baby
brother, Paul. She also speaks around the country, and sometimes abroad, about
Pikler, Gerber, and RIE. Janet continues working with early educators and others
around diversity and issues of equity and social justice.
Brief Contents

Contents ix
Preface xix part 3
Resources for Caregivers xxix Focus on the Program 251
12 The Physical Environment 253
part 1 13 The Social Environment 283
Focus on the Caregiver 1 14 Adult Relations in Infant-Toddler Care
1 Principles, Practice, and Curriculum 3
and Education Programs 303

2 Infant-Toddler Education 23
appendix A
3 Caregiving as Curriculum 45
4 Play and Exploration as Curriculum 69
Quality in Infant-Toddler Programs:
A Checklist 324
appendix B
part 2
Environmental Chart 326
Focus on the Child 89 Notes 338
5 Attachment 91
Glossary 346
6 Perception 111
Index 352
7 Motor Skills 129
8 Cognition 155
9 Language 179
10 Emotions 205
11 Social Skills 231

vii
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

Preface xix

Resources for Caregivers xxix

part 1 Focus on the Caregiver 1

chapter 1

Principles, Practice, and Curriculum 3

What Do You See? 3
Relationships, Interactions, and the Three Rs 4
Caregiving Routines as Opportunities for Three-R Interactions 5
Ten Principles Based on a Philosophy of Respect 5
Principle 1: Involve Infants and Toddlers in Things
That Concern Them 6
© Jude Keith Rose Principle 2: Invest in Quality Time 7
Principle 3: Learn Each Child’s Unique Ways of Communicating
and Teach Yours 9
Video Observation 1: Baby Crying 10
Principle 4: Invest Time and Energy to Build a Total Person 11
Principle 5: Respect Infants and Toddlers as Worthy People 11
Principle 6: Be Honest about Your Feelings 13
Principle 7: Model the Behavior You Want to Teach 14
Principle 8: Recognize Problems as Learning Opportunities,
and Let Infants and Toddlers Try to Solve Their Own 15
Principle 9: Build Security by Teaching Trust 15
Principle 10: Be Concerned about the Quality of Development in
Each Stage 16

ix
x Contents

Curriculum and Developmentally Appropriate Practice 18

The Principles in Action Principle 5 18
Appropriate Practice 19
Summary 20
Key Terms 21
Thought/Activity Questions 21
For Further Reading 21

chapter 2

Infant-Toddler Education 23
What Do You See? 23
What Infant-Toddler Education Is Not 24
Infant Stimulation 24
Babysitting 24
Preschool 25
What Infant-Toddler Education Is: The Components 25
© Frank Gonzalez-Mena Curriculum as the Foundation of Infant-Toddler Education 26
Video Observation 2: Toddler Playing with a Tube and a Ball 27
Implementing the Curriculum 27
Assessing the Effectiveness of the Curriculum:
Observing and Recording 28
Education as Facilitating Problem Solving 30
The Principles in Action Principle 8 31
The Adult Role in Facilitating Problem Solving 31
Appropriate Practice 39
Infant-Toddler Education and School Readiness 41
Summary 42
Key Terms 43
Thought/Activity Questions 43
For Further Reading 43

chapter 3

Caregiving as Curriculum 45
What Do You See? 45
Thinking Again About Infant-Toddler Curriculum 46
Planning for Attachment 46
Policies That Support Curriculum as Caregiving 47
Assessment 48

© Frank Gonzalez-Mena
 Contents xi

Caregiving Routines 49
Feeding 50
Video Observation 3: Children Feeding Themselves 53
Diapering 55
Toilet Training and Toilet Learning 56
Washing, Bathing, and Grooming 57
  Differing Needs and Perspectives 58
Dressing 59
Napping 61
The Principles in Action Principle 1 61
Appropriate Practice 64
Summary 66
Key Terms 67
Thought/Activity Questions 67
For Further Reading 67

chapter 4

Play and Exploration as Curriculum 69

What Do You See? 69
Adult Roles in Play 73
Setting Up Environments for Play 73
Encouraging Interactions and Then Stepping Back 74
Video Observation 4: Toddlers Playing Outside 75
Supporting Problem Solving 76
© Lynne Doherty Lyle
Observing 77
Environmental Factors That
Influence Play 78
Group Size and Age Span 78
The Principles in Action Principle 2 79
Setting Up the Environment to Support Play 80
Happenings 81
Free Choice 82
The Problem of the Match 83
Appropriate Practice 85
Summary 86
Key Terms 87
Thought/Activity Questions 87
For Further Reading 88
xii Contents

part 2 Focus on the Child 89

chapter 5

Attachment 91
What Do You See? 91
Brain Research 92
Brain Building Blocks and Brain Circuitry 93
Quality Experiences and Stable Neural Pathways 93
Mirror Neurons: Actions and Observations 95
The Principles in Action Principle 9 96
© Frank Gonzalez-Mena Milestones of Attachment 97
Attachment Behaviors: Birth to Six Months 97
Attachment Behavior: Seven to Eighteen Months 98
Supporting Attachment in Quality Programs 98
Video Observation 5: T
 oddler “Checking in” While Playing
with Chairs 99
Developmental Pathways: Attachment 100
Measuring Attachment 100
Early Research and Contemporary Issues 101
Attachment Issues 102
Infants with Few Attachment Behaviors 102
Infants Who Experience Neglect or Indifference 102
Brain Growth and Attachment-Based Programs 103
Children with Special Needs: The Importance of Early Intervention 104
What Is Early Intervention? 104
Developmental Pathways: Attachment Behaviors 106
Summary 108
Key Terms 109
Thought/Activity Questions 109
For Further Reading 109

chapter 6

Perception 111
What Do You See? 111
Sensory Integration 112
Hearing 114
Video Observation 6: B
 oy Exploring Toy Car Using Touch
and Sound 115
© Lynne Doherty Lyle
 Contents xiii

Smell and Taste 116

Touch 117
The Principles in Action Principle 7 119
Sight 119
Multisensory Experiences and
the Outdoor Environment 121
Children with Special Needs: Educating Families about the
Individualized Family Service Plan 122
Developmental Pathways: Behaviors Showing Development
of Perception 124
Summary 126
Key Terms 127
Thought/Activity Questions 127
For Further Reading 127

chapter 7

Motor Skills 129

What Do You See? 129
Physical Growth and Motor Skills 130
Brain Growth and Motor Development 131
Importance of Free Movement, Observation, and Imitation 132
Reflexes 133
The Principles in Action Principle 10 134
© Frank Gonzalez-Mena
Large Motor Skills and Locomotion 134
Research from the Pikler Institute 135
Video Observation 7: Children Climbing Stairs 136
Small Motor Skills and Manipulation 140
Encouraging Self-Help Skills 142
Fostering Motor Development 143
Children with Special Needs: Finding Resources 146

Developmental Pathways: Behaviors Showing Development
of Motor Skills 150
Summary 151
Key Terms 152
Thought/Activity Questions 152
For Further Reading 153
xiv Contents

chapter 8

Cognition 155
What Do You See? 155
The Cognitive Experience 156
Sensorimotor Experience: Piaget 157
Sociocultural Influences:
Vygotsky and Piaget 159
© Lynne Doherty Lyle Self-Regulating Learners 160
Social Interaction and Cognition 161
Language and Cognition 163
Play and Cognition 165
The Principles in Action Principle 8 166
Supporting Cognitive Development 167
The Importance of Real-Life Experiences 167
Brain-Based Learning 168
Video Observation 8: Father Diapering Toddler 169
Children with Special Needs: Early Childhood Inclusion 171

Developmental Pathways: B
 ehaviors Showing Development
of Cognition 172
Summary 175
Key Terms 176
Thought/Activity Questions 176
For Further Reading 177

chapter 9

Language 179
What Do You See? 179
The Progression of Language Development 180
Receptive Language: The Importance of Responsiveness 182
Expressive Language: The Importance of Familiar Contexts 183
What Language Allows a Child to Do: The Cognitive Link 184
The Brain and Early Language Development 184
© Frank Gonzalez-Mena
Video Observation 9: Children Eating at Table with Caregiver 185
Brain Activity and Language Competency 186
Fostering Language Development 187
Early Literacy 189
The Principles in Action Principle 3 189
Early Literacy and School Readiness 191
 Contents xv

Cultural Differences, Bilingualism and Dual Language Learners 194

Goals of the “Language Relationship” 195
Children with Special Needs: Supporting Parents and Families 197

Developmental Pathways: Behaviors Showing Development of Language 199
Summary 200
Key Terms 202
Thought/Activity Questions 202
For Further Reading 202

chapter 10

Emotions 205
What Do You See? 205
The Development of Emotions and Feelings 206
Temperament and Resiliency 208
Resiliency and Healthy Emotional Development 211
Helping Infants and Toddlers Cope with Fears 212
Helping Infants and Toddlers Cope with Anger 215
© Frank Gonzalez-Mena
Video Observation 10: Child Trying to Get Her Turn in a Swing 216
The Principles in Action Principle 6 217
Self-Calming Techniques 218
Developing Self-Direction
and Self-Regulation 219
The Emotional Brain 221
Stress and Early Brain Development 222
The Impact of Neglect 223
Children with Special Needs: Challenges and Trends 223

Developmental Pathways: Behavior Showing Development of Emotions 226
Summary 227
Key Terms 229
Thought/Activity Questions 229
For Further Reading 229

chapter 11

Social Skills 231

What Do You See? 231
The Principles in Action Principle 4 233
© Lynne Doherty Lyle Early Social Behaviors 233
xvi Contents

Stages of Psychosocial Development 234

Trust 234
Autonomy 237
Initiative 238
Guidance and Discipline: Teaching Social Skills 238
Security and Control for Infants 239
Limits for Toddlers 239
Teaching Prosocial Skills 241
Promoting Healthy Brain Growth 243
Video Observation 11: Girls Playing Together 244
The Special Need of All Children: Self-Esteem 245
Experiences That Foster Self-Esteem 245
Developmental Pathways: Behaviors Showing Development of Social Skills 246
Summary 248
Key Terms 248
Thought/Activity Questions 249
For Further Reading 249

part 3 Focus on the Program 251

chapter 12

The Physical Environment 253

What Do You See? 253
A Safe Environment 254
Creating a Safe Physical Environment: A Checklist 254
A Healthful Environment 256
Creating a Healthful and Sanitary Environment:
A Checklist 256
© Lynne Doherty Lyle Nutrition 257
Feeding Infants 257
Feeding Toddlers 258
Video Observation 12: Feeding Routine 259
The Learning Environment 260
Layout 261
Eating 265
Sleeping 265
Diapering 265
Toileting 265
Developmental Appropriateness 266
Appropriate Environments for Infants 266
 Contents xvii

Appropriate Environments for Toddlers 266

Family Child Care and Mixed-Age Groups 267
The Principles in Action Principle 8 267
What Should Be in the Play Environment 270
Toys and Materials for Inside 271
Toys and Materials for Outside 272
Assessing the Quality of an Infant-Toddler Environment 273
Balancing Soft and Hard 273
Providing for Intrusion and Seclusion 273
Encouraging Mobility 274
The Open-Closed Dimension 274
The Simple-Complex Dimension 274
Scale 275
Aesthetics 275
Acoustics 276
Order 276
Appropriate Practice 278
Summary 280
Key Terms 281
Thought/Activity Questions 281
For Further Reading 281

chapter 13

The Social Environment 283

What Do You See? 283
Identity Formation 284
The Principles in Action Principle 1 284
Attachment 285
Self-Image 286

© Lynne Doherty Lyle

Cultural Identity 287
Gender Identity 291
Self-Concept and Discipline 293
Video Observation 13: C
 hild in Sandbox (Redirection) 294
Modeling Self-Esteem by
Taking Care of Yourself 297
Appropriate Practice 298
Summary 299
Key Terms 301
Thought/Activity Questions 301
For Further Reading 301
xviii Contents

chapter 14

Adult Relations in Infant-Toddler Care and

Education Programs 303
What Do You See? 303
Parent-Caregiver Relations 304
© Lynne Doherty Lyle Caregiver Stages of Relating to Parents 304
The Principles in Action Principle 3 305
Communication with Parents and/or Family Members 306
Service Plan: Focus on the Child 306
Service Plan: Focus on the Family 307
Communication Blocks 308
Opening Up Communication 309
Issues of Parents of Children with Special Needs 310
Parent Education 314
Parents of Children with Special Needs 314
Early Care and Education Professionals 314
Video Observation 14: G
 irl Crawling through Low Window
(Parent Ed Program) 315
Relating to the Parents of a Child Who Isn’t Doing Well 316
Caregiver Relations 317
The Family Child Care Provider 317
Center Staff 317
Respect as the Key to Adult Relationships 318
Appropriate Practice 320
Summary 322
Key Terms 322
Thought/Activity Questions 322
For Further Reading 323

appendix A
Quality in Infant-Toddler Programs: A Checklist 324
appendix B
Environmental Chart 326
Notes 338

Glossary 346

Index 352
Preface

The Philosophy of Infants, Toddlers,

and Caregivers
When this textbook was published in 1980 the idea of infants and toddlers in out-of-
home care was brand new, although child care for preschoolers was well established.
Both authors were teaching early childhood education classes in a California commu-
nity college. These classes focused on three and four year olds because programs for
infants and toddlers were unknown. Both authors quickly realized that there was a need
for teacher training in the area of infant-toddler care. Preschool classes did not help the
practicum students working in centers with children under three-years-of age. When
observing students working in preschool programs that also included limited numbers
of two-year-olds, it became obvious that the teachers were somewhat challenged by
two-year-olds and seemed to just want them to grow up. The preschool teachers had
many complaints and questions such as, “How do you get those younger children to
sit still for circle time?” The community college preschool curriculum classes did not
support students’ work with very young children; more specific curriculum was needed
related to the care of infants and toddlers. The idea for this textbook was born as a result
of these issues in the office of Dianne Eyer at Cañada College in Northern California.
At the time Gonzalez-Mena was studying with Magda Gerber, a Los Angeles
infant expert. Gerber was from Hungary where her friend and colleague, Dr. Emmi
Pikler, a theorist and researcher, had established group care for infants and toddlers
after World War II—a program which was still running at the time the two authors
met. The focus of Pikler’s nursery was to care for infants and toddlers whose families
could not, and to provide them with a strong start in life. This first nursery became a
model for other residential nurseries in Europe once it was learned that the children
who spent their first three years in this very particular kind of residential care grew
up to be stable, productive adults. Their ability to establish long-term relationships
was a great accomplishment for institutional care. Emmi Pikler died in 1984, but the
Pikler Institute, incorporating research and training, continues under the director-
ship of Pikler’s daughter, Anna Tardos, and though changed somewhat is still in
xix
xx Preface

operation. Today it focuses on child care for infants and toddlers, as well as parent
education, rather than on residential care.
Upon meeting Gerber, it became obvious to both authors that a new community
college class focusing on the care and education of infants and toddlers was greatly
needed. This 11th edition is an outgrowth of the first textbook the authors designed
to meet that need.
Magda Gerber wrote the Foreword to that original textbook which emphasized the
idea of respectful, responsive and, reciprocal adult-infant interactions, still a major
theme in the 11th edition. As with each edition, the cornerstone of the text has been
the same—the philosophy of Magda Gerber and the theory of Emmi Pikler.
Gonzalez-Mena besides being a student of Magda Gerber’s in the 1970s continued
to be a close friend of hers until Gerber’s death in 2007. Gonzalez-Mena has been able
to observe and study at the Pikler Institute a number of times, as well as assist in train-
ings in the United States conducted by Anna Tardos, present director of the Institute.
Gonzalez-Mena’s experience with these three amazing women confirmed for her how
much the Pikler research and the Gerber philosophy can assist infant-toddler centers in
the United States and around the world. Magda Gerber’s work has been known in the
United States for a number of years, and its reputation continues under the auspices of
the organization Gerber founded, Resources for Infant Educarers (RIE). Magda Gerber
was one of the first to publish some of Pikler’s research in English. A new edition
of what’s called the RIE Manual is now available and updated with further work in
English, some of which has been written by Gerber’s followers. The RIE Manual can
be found at www.rie.org. Pikler’s works in English can be accessed at www.Pikler.org
and at the European website for Pikler, which is www.aipl.org. The approach to infant-
toddler care created by these two women has made a “dent” in the early care and educa-
tion world. The authors of this text are proud and humble to support these approaches.

The Ten Principles: A Philosophy of Respect

A keystone of both Magda Gerber and Emmi Pikler’s work is respect. Until Gerber
introduced its use to the United States, the word respect was not part of the vocabulary
of most American infant-toddler caregivers. Respect is one of the major themes that runs
throughout Infants, Toddlers, and Caregivers, and respect is an important component of
the curriculum the book advocates. This curriculum is all-inclusive and centers on con-
nections and relationships. Briefly, the term curriculum is about educating, but in the
infant-toddler world, care and education are one and the same. In this book, curriculum
has to do with respecting and responding to each child’s needs in warm, respectful, and
sensitive ways that promote attachment and allow children to explore and play on their
own. Curriculum embraces everything that happens during the day—whether the child
is alone or with other children or having sensitive interactions with an adult. Those adult-
child interactions may be part of caregiving activities, both planned and unplanned, but
they go way beyond. Even the down times during the day, when caregivers just hang
out with the little ones, can include the kinds of interactions that make up curriculum.
Perhaps the most important feature of this book is the consistency with which it outlines
well-established practices designed to promote infants’ and toddlers’ total well-being.
 Preface xxi

The book also looks at the importance of sensitive care and good program planning, and
the impact they have on the identity formation of infants and toddlers.
The Ten Principles found on pages 10 –16 are the underlying framework for this
book. Respect is an attitude that shows up in behavior. Respectful behaviors on the
part of caregivers are the basis of the Ten Principles, which show how respect applies
to treating babies as people when caregiving, communicating with them, and facili-
tating their growth, development, and learning. The book refers to the Ten Principles
in every chapter. In addition, a Principles in Action feature in each chapter uses a
scenario to further explain the individual principles.

A Focus on Application and Practice

Knowing about is different from knowing how to. Knowing about means learning
theory. Knowing how to puts theory into action. We purposely organized this book to
emphasize action because we know that even people with considerable understand-
ing of infants and toddlers have trouble acting on that understanding unless they have
also learned to apply theory. Knowledge does not necessarily build skill. Caregivers
who have knowledge but lack confidence in their ability to use it may suffer from
“analysis paralysis,” which prevents them from making quick decisions, stating their
feelings clearly, and taking needed action. A common pattern when analysis paralysis
strikes is inaction, indecision, then overemotional or otherwise inappropriate reac-
tion, followed by more inaction. When adults have analysis paralysis and either can-
not react or react inconsistently, infants cannot learn to predict what will happen as a
result of their own actions. This learning to predict what effect they have on the world
is a primary accomplishment of infants in early life.

Terminology
In this book, the youngest children—those from newborn to walking—are called
infants. Children who are walking (from about a year old to two years) are called young
toddlers. Children from two to three are called older toddlers. Children from three to
five are called preschoolers. Please note that these labels and descriptions apply to
children who are typically developing. When development is atypical, the labels and
descriptions don’t fit as well. For example, a child who has reached the stage when
other children walk may have many other characteristics of that age group even though
she doesn’t walk; not all toddlers toddle, but that doesn’t mean they should be thought
of as infants. If you visit many infant-toddler programs, you will find that the adults
in the teacher/caregiver role go by different titles. Educarer, teacher, caregiver, and
infant care teacher are four different terms used. In this book we have mainly used the
word caregiver to emphasize the importance of “caring” in programs for the youngest
children. The caregiver role incorporates that of teacher and educator.

Organization of the Text

By starting with the interactive aspect of caregiving, we highlight this philosophy from
the beginning pages. Thus the book is organized in a unique way. Part 1 (Chapters 1– 4)
xxii Preface

is about caregiving. It focuses on the caregivers’ actions and relationships with the
children and how these actions and relationships make up the curriculum. Part 2
(Chapters 5–11) presents child development information, along with the curriculum
implications of that information. It also includes topics related to early childhood spe-
cial education. Part 3 (Chapters 12–14) takes a programmatic point of view (look-
ing at both center and family child care programs) and includes environments as well
as adult-adult relationships. Appendix A gives a checklist for determining quality
in infant-toddler programs. Appendix B includes a popular and well-used environ-
mental chart that combines the information from all three parts of the book into one
concise but comprehensive chart designed for practical use in program planning and
implementation. The glossary at the end of the book consists of the key terms from all
the chapters.

A Focus on Diversity and Inclusion

Honoring diversity and including children with special needs in infant-toddler programs
is a strong point of this text. Topics related to early childhood special education
appear throughout the text, and also have their own place at the end of each chapter in
Part 2. We have focused more on cultural differences and inclusion with each
edition. Though we present a cohesive philosophy, we urge readers to recognize
that there are multiple views on every aspect of infant-toddler care. Strive to honor
differences and work respectfully with families who represent them. It is important
to respect and respond to linguistic differences in positive ways, supporting the
child’s home language, whatever it might be. Our emphasis on self-reflection helps
caregivers who might feel uncomfortable in the face of differences. Only when
caregivers understand themselves can they understand infants, toddlers, and their
families. Sensitivity is an important qualification for anyone who works with very
young children. For that reason, the reader is asked to focus on personal experience
throughout this book.

New to the Eleventh Edition

I: Self-Regulation and Resiliency
Self-regulation and resiliency are key topics in the field of early care and education
today. Young children who can control their own feelings and regulate their behavior
start school ready to succeed in the classroom. And young children who learn to
manage their fear and overcome adversity in an adaptive manner, set the stage for
becoming competent individuals with life long coping skills.
This eleventh edition of infants, Toddlers and Caregivers reflects more of the
current research related to these important areas of development. The two traits are
considered “dynamic processes”; they start at birth and continue throughout life.
They involve the whole child—body, cognition, and feelings. They move from an
automatic response to a more considered one. Research is indicating that the most
important factor influencing these areas of development is the early interaction
 Preface xxiii

between infants and their caregivers. Responsive and nurturing interactions foster
healthy growth and early brain development.
Respectful interactions, and guides to support these two aspects of development,
appear in most of the chapters in this edition. Play is a particularly relevant topic
throughout this text and its development fosters and supports self-regulation and
resiliency. During play, aspects of self-regulation show up as a physical skill, as
emotional development, and also as intellectual achievement as infants and toddlers
figure out how to make things happen. Making choices and gaining self control also
help very young children to make connections to cope with new and challenging
(sometimes stressful) experiences. The early developmental opportunities for play,
and the sensitive interactions of caring adults, support young children’s self-reliance
and provide a protective buffer against stress.

II: Even Greater Focus on Play

Play has become a large interest and concern for early childhood professionals as
academics and school readiness issues creep into the nursery! In light of that devel-
opment, play as a key topic has been expanded throughout this eleventh edition. Eva
Kallo’s overview has been included and gives more structure to what Magda Gerber
and Emmi Pikler taught for many years. As infants and toddlers play, they experi-
ence challenges. Immobile infants struggle with how to get the toy just beyond reach,
and toddlers struggle with how to make something large fit into something smaller.
It is easy for adults to help out and make both children happy by showing them how
to fit pieces together and by putting the toy within reach. Both Gerber and Pikler
cautioned against the goals of just making children happy. They taught adults not to
rescue children who are working on solving a problem. Sticking to something and
not giving up, even when frustrated, fosters competence and long-range success in
life. Traits like persistence are the subject of researchers like Angela Duckworth, who
labels such qualities “grit.” Gerber would be surprised at the term “grit,” but that’s
just what she supported! It is clear from the work of Pikler that grit starts in infancy
and is influenced by nurturing adults who support and encourage problem solving.
This attitude obviously enhances self-regulation and resiliency, too.

III: “Screens” for Infants and Toddlers

The subject of “screens” for infants and toddlers continues to be an important issue
in this text. The American Academy of Pediatrics, and other research groups, has
focused a large amount of their attention on the effects of electronic devices with
screens in the first two to three years of a child’s life. What do very young children
learn from such devices? It ‘s difficult to determine. Does it hurt young children’s
development if they focus on digital images and do not spend time in the real world
with people and objects? Most likely. Does it matter if screens are interactive such
as Skype or smart phones? Maybe. The research continues with the American Acad-
emy of Pediatrics, and includes such topics as health and obesity in the early years.
Stay tuned.
xxiv Preface

IV: Language Development Research

The brain research continues to teach us more about language development in the
early years. Infants are born with the ability to hear and respond to the sounds of all
languages. Patricia Kuhl, a neuroscientist, has studied infant neural networks and
provides expanded knowledge on how very young children begin to select and attend
to the sounds of their mother tongue and move away from the sounds of other lan-
guages. An increase in brain activity, especially around 8 to 10 months, indicates the
development of this complex process. Research is also indicating that language acqui-
sition in the first two years is very much influenced by context. It may be more sig-
nificant than many realized, but young children need to hear familiar labels repeated
in familiar contexts by adults who are sensitive listeners and responsive caregivers.

V: Website Resources
The websites in this eleventh edition provide the reader with immediate access to ever
changing information. These in-depth resources are embedded in the chapters where
a specific topic is being discussed. They encourage critical thinking and exploration
across the curriculum in areas related to early care and education. Web sites in this
edition include resources on early childhood special education, early intervention
and inclusion, and early development and public policy.

Retained Features
A What Do You See? feature starts each chapter by showing a child or children in a
situation related to the material to follow and immediately engages the student in the
chapter’s subject matter. Students are encouraged to think back on these scenes later
in the chapter. In some of these scenes the age of the children is mentioned, but not
all. We left out age labels in the spirit of Magda Gerber, who used to say, “Why does
it matter how old the child is?” She was an advocate for appreciating what a child was
able to do, whether he was the “right age” or not.
The Video Observation is a popular feature in each chapter that introduces and
encourages students to think about the issues and concepts presented in online video
clips related to the chapter material. To view these clips, please access the Instructor
Resources through Connect.
The Principles in Action feature is a case study scenario followed by questions to
help students apply the content they have learned to a “real-life” situation. The Prin-
ciples in Action connects to the Appropriate Practice feature through boxes called
Appropriate Practice in Action. The Appropriate Practice feature summarizes points
of the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) guide-
lines for developmentally appropriate practice related to the chapter topics. Each
Appropriate Practice feature has four sections:
1. Overview of Development
2. Developmentally Appropriate Practice
 Preface xxv

3. Individually Appropriate Practice

4. Culturally Appropriate Practice
Sections 2 through 4 list points to keep in mind and practical suggestions for interact-
ing with infants and toddlers based on the NAEYC guidelines.
A Developmental Pathways feature is included in each of the chapters in Part 2. Each
feature begins with generalizations about stages of development by showing a chart of
behaviors related to the chapter topic (for example, attachment, perception, or motor
skills), and then uses examples of two different children to show diverse developmental
pathways. The details of each example are explored as to what you see, what you might
think, what you might not know, and what you might do.
The For Further Reading and References lists for each chapter have been expanded
and updated. In order to keep the book compact and affordable to students, Refer-
ences for this edition are provided on the Instructor Online Learning Center, avail-
able via Connect, McGraw-Hill Education’s integrated assignment and assessment
platform.

Pedagogy
Each chapter contains a pedagogical system designed to provide learning support for
students and to encourage students to reflect on and apply what they learn. Pedagogi-
cal features include:
•• Focus Questions that prepare students for the content to follow
•• Boldfaced in-text key terms that highlight key terminology and define it in
context of the paragraph in which it appears
•• The Principles in Action boxes that allow students to apply the principles to
scenarios
•• Appropriate Practice boxes that provide practical suggestions related to the
NAEYC guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice and refer to the
Principles in Action boxes, showing how appropriate practice can be applied
to the scenarios
•• Developmental Pathways boxes that list typical development and
variations
•• Chapter Summaries that contain key ideas of the chapters
•• Key Terms sections that list all key terms from the chapter, with page refer-
ences, and that are collated in an end-of-book glossary
•• Thought/Activity Questions that encourage students to review, reflect, and
apply what they are learning
•• For Further Reading lists that suggest additional readings
•• Video Observation features in each chapter with pedagogy to help readers
think about the video clips they view
•• NAEYC Program Standards listed in the margins next to related material
•• Reflection questions designed to help readers consider their own feelings and
experiences that relate to what they are reading
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student performance, which is immediately actionable.
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performance results together with a time metric that is
easily visible for aggregate or individual results, Connect
Insight gives the user the ability to take a just-in-time Students can view
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empowers students and helps instructors improve class
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adaptive technology provides precise, personalized
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guiding the student to master and remember key
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xxviii Preface

The eleventh edition of Infants, Toddlers, and Caregivers is now available online
with Connect, McGraw-Hill Education’s integrated assignment and assessment plat-
form. Connect also offers SmartBook for the new edition, which is the first adaptive
reading experience proven to improve grades and help students study more effec-
tively. All of the title’s website and ancillary content is also available through Con-
nect, including:
•• An English-Spanish glossary of Early Childhood terms taken from the text.
Ofelia Garcia of Cabrillo College developed this glossary to support Spanish-
speaking students and students who anticipate working in communities where
English is not the first language.
•• A full Test Bank of multiple choice questions that test students on central
concepts and ideas in each chapter.
•• An Instructor’s Manual for each chapter with full chapter outlines, sample test
questions, and discussion topics.
•• Lecture Slides for instructor use in class.

Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge and thank the reviewers who provided feedback that
helped us prepare this Eleventh Edition of Infants, Toddlers, and Caregivers. These
instructors include:

Cheryl Brecheisen, College of Southern Nevada

Michelle A. Calkins, Western Colorado Community College / Colorado Mesa
University
Edilma Cavazos, Los Angeles Mission College
Anjeanette Csepi, Cuyahoga Community College
Amanda Dixon, Lake WA Institute of Technology / Ashford University
Benita Flores-Munoz, Del Mar College
Cynthia P. Galloway, Horry Georgetown Technical College
Jill Harrison, Delta College
Sharon Hirschy, Collin College
Deborah Leotsakos, Mass Bay Community College
Kerri D. Mahlum, Casper College
Rita Rzezuski, Bunker Hill Community College
Stephen Schroth, Towson University
Lena Y. Shiao, Monroe Community College
Lakisha Simpson, Citrus College
Susan Howland Thompson, Shasta College
Vicki Wangberg, Northwest Technical College
Resources for Caregivers

Available separately is The Caregiver’s Companion: Readings and Professional

Resources. The Caregiver’s Companion includes twenty-one readings regarding the Ten
Principles; curriculum; keeping toddlers safe and healthy; culture, identity, and families;
and including infants and toddlers with special needs. Readings include:
“Caring for Infants with Respect: “Helping a Baby Adjust to Center
The RIE Approach” by Magda Care” by Enid Elliot
Gerber “Toddlers: What to Expect” by Janet
“Curriculum and Lesson Planning: Gonzalez-Mena
A Responsive Approach” by “Creating a Landscape for Learning”
J. Ronald Lally by Louis Torelli and Charles
“Respectful, Individual, and Durrett
Responsive Caregiving for “The Impact of Child Care Policies
Infants” by Beverly Kovach and and Practices on Infant/Toddler
Denise Da Ros Identity Formation” by J. Ronald
“Facilitating the Play of Children at Lally
Loczy” by Anna Tardos “Cross-Cultural Conferences” by Janet
“A Primary Caregiving System for Gonzalez-Mena
Infants and Toddlers” by Jennifer “Sudden Infant Death Syndrome” by
L. Bernhardt Susan S. Aronson
Excerpt from “Our Moving Bodies “Supporting the Development of
Tell Stories, Which Speak of Our Infants and Toddlers with Special
Experiences” by Suzi Tortora Health Needs” by Cynthia
“The Development of Movement” Huffman
by Emmi Pikler “Breastfeeding Promotion in Child
“How Infants and Toddlers Use Care” by Laura Dutil Aird
Symbols” by Karen Miller “Cultural Dimensions of Feeding
“Preparing for Literacy: Relationships” by Carol Brunson
Communication Comes First” by Phillips and Renatta Cooper
Ruth Anne Hammond

xxix
xxx Resources for Caregivers

“Cultural Differences in Sleeping “Strategies for Supporting Infants

Practices” by Janet Gonzalez-Mena and Toddlers with Disabilities in
and Navaz Peshotan Bhavnagri Inclusive Child Care” by Donna
“Talking with Parents When Sullivan and Janet Gonzalez-Mena
Concerns Arise” by Linda Brault
and Janet Gonzalez-Mena
The Caregiver’s Companion also provides eighteen forms for tracking and
relaying information:
Registration Form Individual Child’s Record of
Tell Us About Your Child Medications Given
Identification and Emergency Form Incident Log
Infant Feeding Plan Incident Report
Daily Information Sheet Documentation of Concern for a
Sign-In Sheet Child
Diapering Log How Are We Doing? Family Feedback
Feeding Log Form
Allergy Notice Developmental Health History
Sample Exposure Notice Physician’s Report Form—Day Care
Medication Schedule Centers
part one

Focus on the
Caregiver
chapter 1

Principles, Practice,
and Curriculum
chapter 2

Infant-Toddler Education

chapter 3

Caregiving as Curriculum

chapter 4

Play and Exploration

as Curriculum

1
© Jude Keith Rose
chapter 1

Principles, Practice,
and Curriculum
Focus Questions
After reading this chapter you should
be able to answer the following
questions: What Do You See?
1 What kinds of interactions grow into
A five-month-old is lying on the floor with several play materials
the relationships that are so
important in infant-toddler care and scattered within reach. She is contentedly surveying the five other
education? infants and toddlers who are in the room with her. Reaching now
2 What is an example of an adult and then, she caresses a toy first with her eyes, then with her
behavior that shows respect to an hands. As we look more closely, we can see that some moisture
infant or toddler?
has crept onto the infant’s outer clothes in the area of her bottom.
3 What are some key words or phrases
The infant hears a step, and her eyes travel in the direction of the
for at least 5 of the 10 principles of
infant-toddler care and education? sound. Then we see a pair of legs and feet traveling along in the
4 Can you define the word curriculum direction of the infant. A voice says, “Caitlin, I’m wondering how
as it applies to infant and toddler you are getting along.”
care and education? The legs move over close to the blanket, and Caitlin looks
5 What are the roles of adults in up at the knees. Her eyes brighten as the rest of the person
infant-toddler curriculum?
appears in her visual range. A kind face comes close. Caitlin
6 What are the three knowledge bases
smiles and makes a cooing noise. The caregiver responds, then
of developmentally appropriate
practice as defined by the National notices the dampness of the clothing. “Oh, Caitlin, you need
Association for the Education of a change,” the caregiver says. Caitlin responds by smiling
Young Children (NAEYC)? and cooing.
Reaching out her hands, the caregiver says, “I’m going to pick
you up now.” Caitlin responds to the gesture and the words with
an ever-so-slight body movement. She continues to smile and coo. The caregiver picks her up and walks
toward the diapering area.
4 part 1 Focus on the Caregiver

Did you notice that there was a lot more going on here than just a diaper change? This
scene illustrates several of the basic principles of this book. Think back on it as you
read. Do you know what it means to respect a baby as a person? We’ll answer that
question when we return to this scene later.
This book is based on a philosophy of infant-toddler care and education that is
summarized in a curriculum or framework of 10 principles for practice. The philoso-
phy comes from the work of two pioneers in infant-toddler care and education: Emmi
Pikler and Magda Gerber. Pikler was a Hungarian pediatrician and researcher who
got started in group care in 1946 after World War II by creating an orphanage for
children under age three. Called the Pikler Institute today, the program is still running
under the direction of Dr. Pikler’s daughter, Anna Tardos. Magda Gerber, friend and
colleague of Pikler, brought what she knew to the United States in 1956 and eventu-
ally started a program called Resources for Infant Educarers (RIE). Her followers
across the United States and elsewhere have been training caregivers and parents
since 1976. Although Pikler’s approach and Gerber’s philosophy are not identical,
they are in tune with each other.

Relationships, Interactions, and the Three Rs

Relationship is a key term in infant-toddler care and education. In the opening
scene you saw an example of how interactions like the one between Caitlin and the
adult caregiver can lead to a close relationship built on respect. Relationships
between caregivers1 and very young children don’t just happen. They grow from a
number of interactions. So interaction—the effect that one person has on
another—is another key term. But relationships don’t grow from just any kind of
interactions; they grow from those that are respectful, responsive, and reciprocal.
You can think of them as the three Rs of infant-toddler care and education, or
three-R interactions. The caregiver’s interaction with Caitlin was obviously
responsive—the caregiver responded to the child and the child to the caregiver.
The responses were linked in a reciprocal way, that is, a give-and-take kind of way,
Reflect forming a chain of interaction, with each response triggered by the previous one
When were you in- and leading into the next response by the other person. The difference between
volved in a respectful, responsive and reciprocal may be hard to understand. When a caregiver is respon-
responsive, and recipro- sive, it means he or she pays attention to what the infant initiates and replies to it.
cal interaction? De- Reciprocal is a whole chain of responses going back and forth between the care-
scribe what that was
giver and the baby. Each response is dependent on the one that came before it.
like. Then contrast that
description with an ex- What was respectful about them?
perience you’ve had Behaviors indicating respect may not be as obvious as those indicating respon-
with a disrespectful, un- siveness and reciprocation. Did you notice that the caregiver walked up to Caitlin
responsive, nonrecipro- in a way that enabled the child to see her coming? The caregiver consciously
cal interaction. What are
slowed her pace and made contact before checking to see if Caitlin needed a dia-
the implications of your
experiences for working per change. It’s not uncommon to observe caregivers rush over and swoop up a
with infants and baby unexpectedly and start feeling the diaper without a word of acknowledgment
toddlers? to the person inside the diaper. Imagine how you would feel if you were the baby.
 chapter 1 Principles, Practice, and Curriculum 5

That’s disrespectful. Instead, Caitlin’s caregiver initiated a conversation by talk-

ing to Caitlin. She kept it going by responding to Caitlin’s smiles and coos. She
also talked to Caitlin about what she was going to do before she did it. This scene
illustrates a responsive interaction chain that is the basis of effective caregiving.
A number of interactions such as this kind of diaper changing build a partnership.
This feeling of being part of a team instead of an object to be manipulated is vital
to wholesome development. Reciprocal interactions like these promote attach-
ment between caregiver and child. Another benefit from a series of such interac-
tions is that the baby develops a cooperative spirit. Newcomers who observe at
the Pikler Institute are surprised to see babies in their first weeks of life demon-
strate cooperation. And that spirit of cooperation doesn’t go away—it becomes a
lasting habit!

Caregiving Routines as Opportunities

for Three-R Interactions
It is no coincidence that the first example in this book is of an interaction involving
diapering. There’s a message here. Relationships develop through all kinds of inter-
actions, but especially during ones that happen while adults are carrying out those
essential activities of daily living sometimes called caregiving routines. Think about
how diapering is a time when caregivers and children are in a one-on-one situation.
If you count all the diaperings in a child’s life, the total probably comes to some-
where between 4,000 and 5,000. Imagine the opportunities that will be lost if adults
focus only on the activity, regard it as a chore, and don’t bother to interact with the
child. And that happens a lot because a common diapering practice is to distract the
child somehow—often with a toy or something interesting to look at. Then the care-
giver focuses on the chore, manipulating the child’s body, and hurrying to get fin-
ished. This is the opposite of what we advocate.
It may seem that anyone who is warm and friendly can care for infants and that
anyone with patience and nurturing qualities can work with toddlers. Certainly those
are valuable characteristics in caregivers, but caring for children under three involves
more than just going by instinct or by what seems to work. Going back to that open-
ing scene, perhaps you can see that the caregiver was doing more than just what felt
right. She had training in a particular way of caregiving. In fact, what you saw was a
caregiver whose training was influenced by RIE, the program Magda Gerber created.
You saw a caregiver who could have been trained either at RIE, or at the Pikler Insti-
tute in Budapest.

Ten Principles Based on a Philosophy of Respect

Now let’s look at the 10 principles that underlie this book, principles that come from
the work of Magda Gerber who began formulating them in the 1970s:
1. Involve infants and toddlers in things that concern them. Don’t work around
them or distract them to get the job done faster.
6 part 1 Focus on the Caregiver

NAEYC Program
2. Invest in quality time, when you are totally available to individual infants and
Standards 1, 2, 3
toddlers. Don’t settle for supervising groups without focusing (more than just
Relationships,
briefly) on individual children.
Curriculum, Teaching
3. Learn each child’s unique ways of communicating (cries, words, movements,
gestures, facial expressions, body positions) and teach yours. Don’t underesti-
mate children’s ability to communicate even though their verbal language
skills may be nonexistent or minimal.
4. Invest time and energy to build a total person (concentrate on the “whole
child”). Don’t focus on cognitive development alone or look at it as separate
from total development.
5. Respect infants and toddlers as worthy people. Don’t treat them as objects or
cute little empty-headed people to be manipulated.
6. Be honest about your feelings around infants and toddlers. Don’t pretend to
feel something that you don’t or not to feel something that you do.
7. Model the behavior you want to teach. Don’t preach.
8. Recognize problems as learning opportunities, and let infants and toddlers try
to solve their own. Don’t rescue them, constantly make life easy for them, or
try to protect them from all problems.
9. Build security by teaching trust. Don’t teach distrust by being undependable
or often inconsistent.
10. Be concerned about the quality of development in each stage. Don’t rush in-
fants and toddlers to reach developmental milestones.
Let’s look further into each of the principles.

Principle 1: Involve Infants and Toddlers

in Things That Concern Them
Caitlin isn’t just the recipient of her caregiver’s actions; she’s a participant in what
happens to her. She and her caregiver do things together. If the caregiver had given
Caitlin a toy to play with to keep her occupied while she changed her diaper, the whole
tone of the scene would have been different. The partnership would have vanished, and
in its place would have been a distracted child and a caregiver dealing with a damp
bottom and a wet diaper instead of a whole child. Or if she had distracted Caitlin with
other sorts of entertainment, the caregiver still would have had Caitlin’s attention, but
the focus would have been on fun and games rather than on the task at hand.
The caregiver’s primary goal in this scene was to keep Caitlin involved in the
interaction as well as focused on her own body and on what was happening to it.
Diapering then became an “educational experience,” through which Caitlin increased
attention span, body awareness, and cooperation. A number of experiences like these
give Caitlin an education in human relations from which she can build her whole
outlook toward life and people.
There is a rumor that infants and toddlers have short attention spans. Some people
say they can’t pay attention to anything for very long. You can test that rumor for
yourself. Watch an infant or toddler who is actually involved in something that
 chapter 1 Principles, Practice, and Curriculum 7

concerns and interests him. Clock the amount of time spent on the task or event. You
may be surprised at what a long attention span infants and toddlers have when they
are interested, because they are involved.

Principle 2: Invest in Quality Time

The scene between Caitlin and her caregiver is a good example of one kind of quality
time. The caregiver was fully present. That is, she was attending to what was going on; Reflect
her thoughts were not somewhere else. Think about the benefits
of quality time for an in-
Two Types of Quality Time Magda Gerber called the kind of quality time illustrated fant. Can you remember
by the diapering scene wants-something quality time. The adult and child a time when someone
was fully available to
are involved in a task the caregiver has set up. Diapering, feeding, bathing, and you without being
dressing fit into this category of quality time. If the caregiver pays attention to the directive? What was that
child and asks in return that the child pay attention, the amount of wants-something like for you? Can you
quality time mounts up. In child care programs this can provide the one-to- understand from your
one interactions that may be difficult to attain in a group setting. Wants-something own experience how
that might benefit an
quality time is educational. Examples of this kind of quality time occur throughout infant?
the book.
Another kind of equally important quality time is what Magda Gerber called
wants-nothing quality time. This happens when caregivers make themselves avail-
able without directing the action—for instance, just sitting near babies, fully avail-
able and responsive but not in charge. Just being with toddlers while they play,
responding rather than initiating, describes this type of quality time.
Floor time is a variation of wants-nothing quality time that the Child-Family
Study Center at the University of California at Davis uses in their toddler program.
Floor time is a concept they credit to Stanley Greenspan’s work. When a toddler is
exhibiting difficult behavior, instead of putting her in time-out and trying to ignore
her, the caregivers do the opposite. They don’t withdraw attention; they give more.
The child is given a half hour of one-to-one time with an adult whose sole goal is to
be responsive to that child and that child alone. The adult sits on the floor, available
to the child. The environment is conducive to play, as there are interesting toys within
reach. The adult has no plan or expectation but just waits to see what the child will
do and then responds. This is the opposite of the common approach in programs
where teachers and caregivers become even more directive rather than less in the face
of difficult behavior.
The adults at the Child-Family Study Center are directive only when they remove
the child from the classroom. They explain where they are going, but use no shame
and no punishing overtones. Floor time may seem like being sent to the principal’s
office, but it’s more like play therapy. However, the staff members aren’t therapists,
and floor time isn’t therapy. It’s merely wants-nothing quality time. For a half hour
the child is given total attention.
Does the child become “spoiled” with such lavish attention? No. According to
reports, this approach works miracles. Its effectiveness seems to lie in the fact that it
meets the child’s needs.
8 part 1 Focus on the Caregiver

Many psychotherapists attest to the benefits of being fully present to another per-
son without being directive; yet most of us seldom get this kind of attention from the
people in our lives. Think for a moment of the delight of having someone’s whole
attention at your command for more than a moment or so.
This kind of quality time is easy to give, but often not understood or valued. Care-
givers just sitting on the floor where babies and toddlers are playing sometimes feel
as though they are not doing their job. They want to play the role of teachers, which
they interpret as “teaching something.” It is very hard for most adults to be around
small children and not be directive. Being receptive and responsive is a skill most
adults need to learn; it doesn’t seem to come naturally.
Another kind of quality time—perhaps the most commonly understood
kind—is shared activity. The initiating mode moves back and forth between adult
and child during playtimes as the two enjoy each other’s company. These times
are often rewarding for the caregiver in ways that the other two kinds of quality
time are not.

The Right Amount of Quality Time An interesting aspect of quality time is that a
little goes a long way. No one wants (or can stand) intense interaction all the time.
An important skill to develop is reading a baby’s cues that say, “I’ve had enough!
Please leave me alone.” Some younger babies say it by turning away—or even
going to sleep. Children (and adults) need to be private sometimes. Although pri-
vacy is not an issue with all families, for some it is a strong cultural value. In infant-
toddler programs and in family child care, time alone is hard to attain. Some children
manage to be alone only by sleeping. Others can focus inwardly and ignore what’s
going on around them. The adult can help young children gain private time by provid-
ing small spaces.
When people never have time alone, they get it by drifting off, by not paying atten-
tion, by being elsewhere mentally if not physically. This attitude becomes a habit, so
that when this person spends time with others, he or she is “only half there.” “Half-
there” time, even lots of it, never equals “all-there” time.
Being able to “turn off ” is an issue for both caregivers and infants and toddlers.
No adult can be expected to be completely present and responsive to others all day,
every day. Both adults’ and babies’ needs must be provided for in programs if the
adults are to be effective caregivers.
Of course, every person’s life is filled with time that is neither quality time nor
private time. Children have to learn to live in a busy world of people. They are bound
to be ignored or worked around sometimes. The point is that there is a difference
between quality time and other kinds of time and that all children deserve and need
some quality time in their lives.
Quality time is built into the daily routine when diapering, dressing, and feeding
become occasions for close one-to-one interactions. In group care, when a caregiver
is responsible for several babies or a small group of toddlers, paying attention to just
one child may be difficult unless caregivers free each other up by taking turns super-
vising the rest of the children. It is up to the director to ensure that each caregiver be
freed at times from responsibility for children other than the one she is changing
 chapter 1 Principles, Practice, and Curriculum 9

or feeding. That means that it must be permissible, and even encouraged, for a
caregiver to focus on just one child.
In family child care where there is no other adult, the caregiver has no one else to
turn to when she feeds or diapers a baby. But caregivers can still focus on just one
child by setting up a safe environment and encouraging the rest of the children to play
on their own. Of course, the caregiver must still keep a watchful eye on the group—a
skill that can be developed with practice. It’s amazing to watch an experienced care-
giver give full attention to one child but still manage to catch a dangerous or forbid-
den action going on in another part of the room.

Principle 3: Learn Each Child’s Unique Ways

of Communicating and Teach Yours
Notice how the communication between Caitlin and her caregiver worked. The Reflect
caregiver talked directly to Caitlin about what she was going to do, using body Think about someone
movements that matched her words. Caitlin used her body, facial expressions, and you know very well. Can
voice to communicate her responses. The caregiver responded to her responses by you picture some ways
interpreting, answering, and discussing. The caregiver did not carry on endless that person communi-
chatter. She said little, but what she said carried a lot of meaning, backed up by cates with you without
using words?
action. She is teaching Caitlin to listen, not tune out. She is teaching that talking
is communication, not distraction. She is teaching words and language in context,
by talking naturally, not repeating words over and over or using baby talk. She
also communicated with her body and with sounds other than words, and she
responded to Caitlin’s communication (sounds, facial expressions, and body
movements). The communication between Caitlin and her caregiver went way
beyond words.
No one knows a baby’s or toddler’s system as well as those people to whom he or
she is attached. For that reason (and others), programs for infants and toddlers should
encourage attachment between the children and the caregivers.
It’s also important to note here that each of us uses a system of body language that
is particular to our culture and, within the culture, that is specific to gender and per-
haps social class as well. Just one example is in the difference in how men and women
in white, European-derived North American culture cross their legs. Another exam-
ple is the contrasting walk between the African American man and the African
American woman. These are unconscious positions and movements, but members of
the culture know them well. Children learn the rudiments of culturally based nonver-
bal communication from adults in their lives, as well as creating their own specific
body language.
Eventually babies come to depend more on words to express themselves in addi-
tion to other means of communication. They learn to express needs, wants, ideas, and
feelings more and more clearly. They also learn to enjoy language for itself—to play
with words, phrases, and sounds. Adult reactions and encouragement to use language
facilitate their development. By late toddlerhood most children can express them-
selves in words, though, of course, they continue to use nonverbal communication
throughout their lives.
10 part 1 Focus on the Caregiver

Video Observation 1
Baby Crying

© Lynne Doherty Lyle

See Video Observation 1: Baby Crying for an illustration of some of the principles
in Chapter 1. You’ll see a baby on a blanket crying. This is not a unique way of
communicating, but it is communication. The caregiver comes around to pick the
baby up. Notice how she comes from the front rather than approaching from the side
or rear. That’s a sign of respect, so she won’t surprise the baby.

Questions

•• How does the baby communicate that she needs something?

•• How does the caregiver prepare the baby to be picked up?
•• Notice that the baby is lying on her back. Do you know why? If not, you’ll find out
as you read further in the book.

To view this clip, please access the Instructor Resources through Connect.

It is important to recognize that some cultures value and depend on verbal

exchanges more than others. European Americans tend to use direct communication.
Because babies can’t talk (in fact, the origin of the word infant can be traced back
through Middle English to Old French, where it is a combination of in [“not”] and
fans [“speaking”]), researchers at the University of California at Davis discovered
that they could introduce direct communication to babies by teaching a gesturing
system called baby signs.2 Caregivers from highly verbal cultures need to be extra
sensitive to children who use a good deal of nonverbal communication instead
of words.3
Young children should see adults using words that match their nonverbal
communication. If the face and body movements say one thing and the words say
something else, children are receiving double messages, which get in the way of
true communication. They not only have problems deciding which to believe, but also
 chapter 1 Principles, Practice, and Curriculum 11

they model after the adult and thus learn to give double messages themselves.
Clear communication is important.

Principle 4: Invest Time and Energy to Build a Total Person

Recent brain research supports the goal of building a total person instead of concen-
trating on cognitive development alone. Because of all the talk about school-
readiness, some parents realize that the early years are important ones in intellectual
growth. Whether or not they have heard about the brain research, they may expect to
see some evidence that caregivers are providing “cognitive activities.” Their concept
of cognitive activities may be based on what they know about preschool. They may
expect caregivers to teach such concepts as colors, shapes, and even numbers and
letters through an activity approach.
On the other side, caregivers, also concerned with intellectual development, may
think that the way to promote it is through specialized equipment, exercises, or activ-
ities. Books and programs are readily available to, as they say, “stimulate cognitive
development.” Catalogs and stores are full of toys, equipment, and gadgets adver-
tised as making babies smarter. Of course, providing a rich environment with inter-
esting things to do is desirable. And, yes, it can promote cognitive development. But
be careful about falling into the trap of thinking that you can stimulate cognitive
development without working on physical, social, and emotional development at the
same time. It isn’t the clever little toys that you provide or the so-called learning
activities you do with the children that make a difference. It’s the day-to-day living,
the relationships, the experiences, the diaperings, the feedings, the toilet training, and
the free play and exploration that contribute to intellectual development. And those
same experiences help the child grow physically, socially, and emotionally as well.
Think of how rich the experience of diapering will be for Caitlin. She will
be immersed in sensory input—visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory. How often are
caregivers and parents told to hang a mobile over the changing table so that the dia-
pering can be an “educational experience.” How limited an experience a mobile pro-
vides compared with what Caitlin will enjoy with her respectful, responsive,
reciprocal caregiver without something overhead to distract her.

Principle 5: Respect Infants and Toddlers as Worthy People

Respect was not a word usually used with very young children until Magda Gerber
introduced this concept. Usually worries about respect go the other way, as adults
demand (or wish for) children to respect them. There is no better way to gain respect
for yourself than to model it for children.
What does it mean to respect a child? The diapering scene provides an example.
Before the caregiver did anything to Caitlin, she explained what would happen. Just
as a respectful nurse warns you before putting a cold instrument on your skin, so
Caitlin’s caregiver prepared her for what was to come. Until you realize the differ-
ence, the natural tendency is to pick up a child without saying anything. Babies are
often carried around like objects, even when they are old enough to walk and talk.
12 part 1 Focus on the Caregiver

Adults often pick a child up and put him or her in a chair or stroller without a word.
That kind of action is not respectful.
To clarify the concept of respecting an infant, try imagining how a nurse would
move a fairly helpless patient from a bed to a wheelchair. Then just change the play-
ers and imagine one is a caregiver and one is an infant. Except for the size and weight
involved, if the adult is treating the infant with respect, the scene should look much
the same.
To better understand the concept of respecting a toddler, imagine you have just
seen a man fall off a ladder. Think how you would respond. Even if you are strong
enough, you would probably not rush over and set him back on his feet. You’d start
talking first, asking if he was hurt or needed help. You’d probably extend a hand if he
indicated he was all right and started getting up. You’d comfort him if that was called
for. Most people have no trouble responding respectfully to an adult.
Why then do adults rush over and pick up a fallen toddler without a moment’s
pause? Why not see first what it is the toddler needs? Maybe all that is required
is some reassurance—not physical help. Perhaps the child is angry or embar-
rassed and needs an adult who can accept those feelings and allow expression of
them. Perhaps the toddler needs nothing and without adult interference will get
up and go about his business on his own. More aspects of respect come out in the
next scene.

Twelve-month-old Brian is sitting at a low table with several other children eating a piece
of banana. He is obviously enjoying the experience in more ways than one. He has
squashed the banana in his hand and crammed it in his mouth, and it is now oozing out
between his teeth. He is relishing it. He reaches for his mouth with the very last piece
and, plop, it falls on the ground. He stretches out a hand for it, but the caregiver is
quicker. “I’m sorry, Brian, but the banana is dirty now. I can’t let you eat it.” Brian’s eyes
open wide, his mouth drops open, and a sorrowful wail comes forth. “That’s all the ba-
nana we have,” the caregiver adds as Brian reaches out to her for more. She sits back
down at the table after having disposed of the dropped piece. She offers him a cracker,
saying, “We’re out of bananas, but you can have a cracker instead.” Brian rejects the of-
fered cracker. Aware now that he will get no more, he begins to scream.
“I see how unhappy you are,” says the caregiver calmly but with genuine compassion.
“I wish I had more banana to give you,” she adds. Brian’s screams become more piercing,
and he begins to kick his feet. The caregiver remains silent, looking at him as if she really
cares about his feelings.
The other children at the table are having various reactions to this scene. The caregiver
turns to them and explains, “Brian lost his banana, and he didn’t like it.” She turns back to
Brian. He continues to cry. The caregiver waits. Sobbing, he gets off his chair, toddles
over to her, and buries his head in her lap. She touches him on the back, stroking him
soothingly. When he has quieted down, she says, “You need to wash your hands now.” He
doesn’t move. She waits. Then gently she repeats, “You need to wash your hands, Brian.
I’ll come with you,” she adds. Turning the table over to another caregiver, she gets up and
walks slowly across the floor with Brian. Brian is licking globs of banana from his fin-
gers. A last sob escapes from his lips as he reaches the sink.
 chapter 1 Principles, Practice, and Curriculum 13

The caregiver respected Brian’s right to have feelings and to express them.4 She
offered support without gushing sympathy. Because she did not distract him with
great amounts of warmth or entertainment, he was able to pay attention to what was
going on inside himself. He was learning that it was all right to respond honestly to
the situation.
Sometimes adult attention is so rewarding that children associate anger, frustra-
tion, or sorrow with attention. They use their feelings to manipulate. We would all be
better off to ask directly for what we need than to use emotional displays to get hugs
and touching. That’s why the caregiver remained available but let Brian indicate what
he needed. She did not pick him up but let him come to her. When he was ready for
comfort, she was there to give it to him, but it didn’t come so early that he was not
able to express himself.
Following are some examples of less respectful ways to respond to Brian.
“Stop that screaming—that’s nothing to get so upset about—you were almost finished
anyway.”
“Poor little Brian, let’s go play with the doggie that you like so much—look, Brian—
see him bark—bow-wow!”

Principle 6: Be Honest about Your Feelings

In the last scene the child was encouraged to recognize his feelings. He was angry,
and he was not asked to pretend to be something else. What about adults? Is it all
right for caregivers to express their anger to young children? Yes. Children in child
care need to be around real people, not warm, empty role-players. Part of being a real
person is getting angry, scared, upset, and nervous now and then. Here is a scene
showing a caregiver expressing anger:
A caregiver has just separated two children who were coming to blows over a toy. “I can’t
let you hurt Amber,” she says to Shawn, who is 18 months old. She has him firmly but
gently by the arm when he turns to her and spits in her face. Her expression changes from
calm to anger, and she takes his other arm as well. Looking him right in the eyes, she says
clearly, but with emotion in her voice, “I don’t like that, Shawn. I don’t want you to spit at
me.” She lets go, stands up, turns her back, and walks away. When she is a few steps
away, she gives a quick glance back to see what he is doing. He hasn’t moved, so she
walks to the sink and washes her face. She keeps an eye out to make sure he doesn’t re-
turn to hitting Amber. By the time she comes back, she is calm. Shawn is climbing up the
slide, and things have returned to normal.

This caregiver was saying honestly what effect Shawn’s action had on her. Notice
how she expressed her feelings. She didn’t put on such a show that it encouraged him
to do it again for his own entertainment—a problem that can occur when displays of
adult anger are dramatic and lengthy. She didn’t blame, accuse, judge, or belittle
Shawn. She merely verbalized her feelings and connected them clearly to the situa-
tion. She let Shawn know what made her angry and stopped him from continuing the
action. Having expressed herself, she left the scene. In short, she neither masked her
feelings nor blew up.
14 part 1 Focus on the Caregiver

Expressing her feelings seemed to have been enough to let Shawn know that this
behavior was unacceptable. She didn’t have to do anything further about it—this
time, at least. If it occurs again, she may have to do something more than just tell
Shawn how she feels.
Compare the reaction of this caregiver with the times you’ve seen people angry
with a child, yet smiling and talking in a honeyed voice. Imagine the difficulty a child
has in reconciling the two sets of messages at the same time.

Principle 7: Model the Behavior You Want to Teach

All the caregivers in the previous scenes have been modeling behavior that is accept-
able for children as well as adults. You’ve seen examples of cooperation, respect,
honest feelings, and communication. Take a look at how this principle works in a
more difficult situation—when aggression is involved.
Shawn and Amber are struggling over a rag doll again. A caregiver starts to move near
them. Before he reaches the pair, Shawn reaches out and gives Amber a slap on the arm.
She lets out a wail. The caregiver kneels on the floor before the two children. His face is
calm; his movements are slow and careful. He reaches out and touches Shawn, rubbing
his arm on the same spot where he hit Amber. “Gently, Shawn, gently.” At the same
time he strokes Amber. Shawn remains silent. Amber continues to wail. The caregiver
touches her again. “You got hit, didn’t you, Amber? It hurt!” Amber stops crying and
looks at him. All three are silent for a moment. The caregiver waits. Shawn clutches the
doll and starts to walk away with it. Amber grabs it. The caregiver remains silent until
Shawn raises his arm to hit again. “I can’t let you hurt Amber,” he says, catching the arm
midair. He touches him softly. “Gently, gently.” Amber suddenly jerks the doll and Shawn
lets go unexpectedly. Taking the doll in triumph, she starts across the room. Shawn looks
sad, but remains in the same spot. The caregiver stays near. “She has the doll,” he ob-
serves. Amber sees a ball at her feet, drops the doll, and picks up the ball. She throws it
and runs after it giggling. Shawn moves quickly over to the doll, picks it up, holds it
tenderly, and coos to it. The scene ends with both children playing contentedly, and the
caregiver is no longer needed.

Notice how this caregiver modeled gentleness—the behavior he wished to teach.

A more common approach when an adult arrives on the scene of a dispute is to treat
the children with even more aggression than they have been displaying themselves.
“I’ll teach you to play rough,” growls the adult, jerking the child by the arm and
squeezing it. This approach models the very behavior the adult is trying to eliminate.
Luckily he didn’t shake the child because he knew that was dangerous and could
cause harm.
The caregiver in the Shawn-versus-Amber scene knew that both children needed
assurance that control would be provided when needed. It is frightening to both
aggressor and victim when there is no protecting adult around to stop the violent
action. The aggressor needs to be dealt with gently and nonjudgmentally. The victim
needs to be dealt with empathetically but not sympathetically (that is, acknowledging
 chapter 1 Principles, Practice, and Curriculum 15

her distress without feeling sorry for her). Sympathy and a good deal of attention may
reward victims. In that way they learn that being victimized pays off in adult love and
attention. How sad that some children actually learn to become victims.

Principle 8: Recognize Problems as Learning Opportunities,

and Let Infants and Toddlers Try to Solve Their Own
The same scene also illustrates this principle: Let children, even babies, handle their Reflect
own problems to the extent that they can. The caregiver could have stepped in and
Have you ever been
taken care of this tugging situation by creating a solution for the conflict. He didn’t,
rescued from a problem
however. He let the toddlers make a decision themselves. ( Though he did, of course, in a way that frustrated
keep them from hurting each other further.) Very young children can solve more you? Have you ever
problems than many people give them credit for. The caregiver’s role is to give them seen an infant in the
time and freedom to work on the problems. That means not responding to every frus- same situation? How did
you feel? How do you
tration immediately. Sometimes a bit of facilitating will move a child forward when
think the infant felt?
he or she gets stuck on a problem, but the facilitating should be the least help neces-
sary, leaving the child free to work toward his own solution.
In a DVD called On Their Own with Our Help, Magda Gerber illustrated this
principle beautifully.5 A baby crawls under a low table, then tries to sit up. When he
discovers he can’t, he starts crying. He doesn’t know how to crawl out again, and he
looks very fearful. Instead of rescuing him (it would have been easy to just lift the
table up), Magda guides him out—reassuring and directing him with both her words
and her hands.
Magda is using an approach called scaffolding. This term comes from Jerome
Bruner and fits with the theory of Lev Vygotsky. To scaffold, adults keep a constant
eye out for a child who is in a situation in which there is a potential for learning. The
adult sensitively structures that situation so that problem solving is encouraged and
supported. Sometimes scaffolding requires a little assist; sometimes the adult pres-
ence is all the scaffold an infant or toddler needs.
Problems can be valuable learning opportunities. Another of Gerber’s DVDs, See
How They Move, illustrates this principle. The viewer is treated to scene after scene
of children doing gross motor problem solving all by themselves. The adults stay
back and let the children work without interference. The only scaffold provided is the
adult presence, which is enough to allow the children to freely experience their own
ways of moving and exploring.6

Principle 9: Build Security by Teaching Trust

For infants to learn to trust, they need dependable adults. They need to know that
they will get their needs met in a reasonable amount of time. If it’s food they need,
food arrives in a timely manner. If it’s comfort, a caregiver is there to provide it in the
way that works best for the particular child. If it’s rest, the caregiver is there to help
her settle down in a place that’s safe, peaceful, and quiet. If it’s movement that is
needed, the adult situates the baby so movement is possible. When infants discover
16 part 1 Focus on the Caregiver

that they can express a need and it will be satisfied, they develop trust in the adults
who care for them. In this environment they learn that the world is a secure place
for them.
The examples have shown dependable adults who met needs as well as offered
strength and support. They didn’t trick the children. One of the times adults are most
tempted to deceive children is during good-bye times. When everyone knows that a
child is going to suffer loudly with protests and wails when the parent leaves, some
are willing to trick the child to avoid a scene. However, it is much better when the
parent leaves a child by saying good-bye outright, and the caregiver accepts protests
and wails. While providing security, support, and empathy, he or she can express
acceptance of the baby’s right to be unhappy. The baby learns that he can predict
when his mother will go, rather than worrying constantly that she has sneaked away
when he was occupied. He knows that as long as she hasn’t said good-bye, she is still
around. He comes to depend on his knowledge that the adults around him don’t lie to
him or trick him. Learning to predict what will happen is an important part of build-
ing trust. Always being happy isn’t.

Principle 10: Be Concerned about the Quality

of Development in Each Stage
We live in the period of the hurried child (a term coined by David Elkind in his book
by the same title). The pressure starts at birth, as many parents anxiously await the
time their child reaches each milestone, comparing his or her progress with that of
other children or with developmental charts. The message is everywhere—“Fast is
better.” Books advertise “Teach your baby to read.” Institutes promise miracles.
When adults have this hurry-up attitude, babies are propped up before they can sit on
their own, walked around by the hand before they can even stand by themselves,
taught to ride a tricycle when they can barely walk.
Caregivers feel the pressure from every side—from parents, sometimes even from
directors, as they are urged to speed up development. Yet development cannot be
hurried. Each child has a built-in timetable that dictates just when he or she will
crawl, sit up, and start to walk. The way caregivers can help development is to encour-
age each baby to do thoroughly whatever it is that he or she is doing. The important
learnings come when the baby is ready, not when the adults decide it’s time.
Take crawling as an example. Instead of standing the child up and continually
encouraging him or her to walk, it is better to celebrate the crawling. The only time
in his life that he’ll ever be so conveniently close to things on the floor is the same
time in his life when he is so very curious about everything that is within reach and
just beyond it. Caregivers can provide experiences and opportunities for him to
develop not only his crawling but also his curiosity.
If you are to help counteract the pushy approach, you need to sell parents on the
idea that perfecting skills children are working on now is more important than push-
ing children to develop new ones. The new ones will come when the child has thor-
oughly practiced the old ones. The age at which a child first walks in no way correlates
with whether or not he or she will become an Olympic runner.
 chapter 1 Principles, Practice, and Curriculum 17

The 10 principles for respectful adult-infant interactions carry with them regard
for the individual. That means that differences are honored. Children are not all alike,
and we want to emphasize that. Certainly the research done on ages and stages result-
ing in charts of milestones might lead us to believe the goal is for all children to be
“normal.” However, in this book we are anxious to set aside those ideas and regard
each child as being on a unique path of development. Every child has strengths and
challenges; we want to focus more on strengths than weaknesses and to support the
child in meeting the challenges. We also want to point out that the young child comes
embedded in a cultural and family context. We can’t ignore that there are different
ideas about what children need and how they grow. If a particular practice advocated
in this book doesn’t fit what a family believes is good for their children, their value
system, or their goals, you can’t ignore the difference. You and the family need to
talk. One of our goals for caregivers is to honor diversity even when it doesn’t fit
what the caregiver believes or is in conflict with the program policies. Another of our
goals is to help those who work with or will work with infants and toddlers to see the
importance of partnering with parents.

Curriculum and Developmentally Appropriate Practice A word that is being used

NAEYC Program
now more frequently in connection with infant-toddler care is curriculum. The term
Standard 2
literally means “course”—as in a course of study. You can think of infant-toddler
Curriculum
curriculum as the word course applies to a river. Like a course of study, it is a path
from one point to another. But with a river there’s a meandering flow. Using the
principles on which this book is based means that the child not only gives input but
also is actually in charge of his or her own curriculum—in partnership with caregiv-
ers (who are partners with the family). So moving from point A to point B is not
something that adults control except by the way they set up and adapt the environ-
ment according to each child’s interests and changing needs. Besides being environ-
NAEYC Program
mental planners, caregivers acting as curriculum designers also have roles as
Standard 4
facilitators of learning, supporters of development, and assessors of both.
Assessment
Developmentally appropriate practice has three knowledge bases from which to
determine appropriate practice. The guidelines for making decisions about develop-
mentally appropriate practice tell early childhood professionals to consider the
following:
1. Practice based on research and child development principles that relate
to typical development. Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) is
both a general term and a specific term relating to this particular knowl-
edge base.
2. Practice that fits what is known about individual differences. We’re calling
this knowledge base individually appropriate practice (IAP), and it relates to
all kinds of differences, including variation from the norms guiding DAP and
differences that may or may not be specifically related to disabilities or other
kinds of mental, physical, or emotional challenges.
3. Culturally appropriate practice. Culturally appropriate practice (CAP)
includes practices that come from differences in perceptions, values, beliefs,
priorities, and traditions outside the mainstream American culture.
18 part 1 Focus on the Caregiver

It’s important to realize that a practice may fit research and child development
principles but may not fit some children and their families. In that case we can’t call
that practice appropriate in the larger sense. That’s why we can’t just go by research
and child development principles. A practice can’t be considered appropriate if it is
culturally inappropriate. Bridging cultures is a concept that is carried throughout
this book, and caregivers are continually challenged to look for ways to create cultur-
ally consistent environments and practices for infants, toddlers, and their families
without giving up what they believe are best practices. Instead of educating parents
out of their culture, the goal is to create bridges across gaps that may lie between
culturally diverse families and the culture of the program or the early childhood
culture in general.

Curriculum and Developmentally

Appropriate Practice
The 10 principles of respectful care correspond to the NAEYC document called
Developmentally Appropriate Practice. In each chapter we will show you how the
two sets of ideas parallel each other. We will also show you some dilemmas like the
following one.

The Principles in Action

Principle 5 Respect infants and toddlers as worthy people. Don’t treat them as
objects or cute little empty-headed people to be manipulated.

The caregiver understands how important it is to respect even the youngest infant. She
always talks to the babies to prepare them for what will happen; in fact, she never does
anything to them without telling them first. She always thinks of them as people.
That’s why she talks to them all the time. In her culture, words are considered the ulti-
mate way to communicate. A parent in the caregiver’s class who is of a different cul-
ture never tells her baby what she’s doing or why. In addition, she “wears” her baby in
the baby carrier of her culture and never puts the child down until she has to change her
or when she leaves. The caregiver has explained principle 5 to the mother. The mother
explained to the caregiver that in her culture, they think babies should have very close
contact at all times. It makes them feel secure, she says. In her culture, adults don’t talk
to babies. Why should they? With all the body contact, communication is going on all
the time. The ultimate is to communicate without words. That means you’re very close
to someone when you can do that. She admits that the caregiver has a different idea
about what babies need. The caregiver wants to be culturally responsive, but she thinks
she needs to understand more about what the term respect means to this mother.

1. Should the caregiver try to educate the parent about this child development princi-
ple? Why or why not?
 chapter 1 Principles, Practice, and Curriculum 19

2. Does one perspective make more sense to you than the other? If yes, which one
and why?
3. Do you feel yourself taking sides in this situation?
4. What are the issues in this situation as you see them?
5. What does the idea of respecting babies mean to you?

Appropriate Practice

Overview of Development understand what the child is saying when she uses
Quality care is about relationships. Relationships are beginning speech or a home language that the care-
part of every aspect of early development. Babies giver does not understand.
learn trust through daily interactions with dependable •• Adults respond quickly to toddlers’ cries or other
adults. They build a sense of security when they find signs of distress, recognizing that toddlers have
they can communicate their needs and are rewarded limited language with which to communicate their
with a sensitive response. They grow confident when needs.
they discover they can manage the challenges they •• Adults recognize that routine tasks of living such
meet. All this depends on relationships that grow as eating, toileting, and dressing are important op-
through continuity of care and are developmentally, portunities to help children learn about their world,
individually, and culturally appropriate. acquire skills, and regulate their own behavior.
Meals and snacks include finger food or utensils
Developmentally Appropriate Practice that are easier for toddlers to use, such as bowls,
The following are samples of developmentally spoons, and graduated versions of drinking con-
appropriate practices: tainers from bottles to cups. Adults support and
positively encourage children’s attempts to dress
•• Adults are especially attentive to infants during
themselves and put on shoes.
caregiving routines, such as diaper changing, feed-
ing, and changing clothes. The caregiver explains
Source: Adapted from Carol Copple and Sue Bredekamp,
what will happen, what is happening, and what will eds., Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early
happen next, asking and waiting for the infant’s Childhood Programs, 3rd ed. (Washington, DC: National
cooperation and participation. Association for the Education of Young Children, 2009).
•• Adults ensure that every infant receives nurturing,
responsive care. Individually Appropriate Practice
•• Diaper changing, feeding, and other routines are The field of infant-toddler care is moving toward
viewed as vital learning experiences for both including more children of differing abilities and chal-
babies and caregivers. lenges in child care programs that have traditionally
•• Adults express healthy, accepting attitudes about served only typically developing children. The need,
children’s bodies and their functions. then, is for caregivers to create inclusive environments,
•• Caregivers ask parents what sounds and words making sure that spatial organization, materials, and
their toddler uses so that the caregiver will activities enable all children to participate actively.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Fortunately for him, at the moment when, half willingly, half
perforce, he was preparing, on the general request, to recommence
his romance, there was a movement in the crowd; it parted to the
right and left, and left a passage for a tall and pretty girl, who, with
a well-turned leg confined in silk stockings with gold clocks, her
rebozo coquettishly drawn over her head, and her hair buried
beneath a profusion of jasmine flowers, placed herself resolutely
before the singer, and said with a graceful smile, which allowed her
double row of pearly teeth to be seen,—
"Are you not, caballero, a noble hidalgo of Spain, of the name of
Don Cornelio?"
We must do Don Cornelio the justice to allow that he was so dazzled
by this delicious apparition that he remained for some seconds with
gaping mouth, unable to find a word.
The girl stamped her foot impatiently.
"Have you been suddenly turned into stone?" she asked, with a
slightly mocking accent.
"Heaven forbid, señorita!" he at length stammered.
"Then be good enough to answer the question I asked you."
"Nothing easier, señorita. I am indeed Don Cornelio Mendoza de
Arrizabal, and have the honour to be a Spanish gentleman."
"That is what I call plain speaking," she said, with a slight pout. "If it
be so, caballero, I must ask you to follow me."
"To the end of the world," the young man exclaimed impetuously. "I
should never travel in pleasanter company."
"I thank you for the compliment, caballero, but I do not intend to
take you so far. I only wish to conduct you to my mistress, who
desires to see you and speak with you for an instant."
"Rayo del cielo! If the mistress be only as pretty as the maid, I shall
not regret the trip if it last a week."
The girl smiled again.
"My mistress is staying in this inn, only a few steps off."
"All the worse, all the worse! I should have preferred a journey of
several leagues before meeting her."
"A truce to gallantry. Are you willing to follow me?"
"At once, señorita."
And throwing his jarana on his back, and bowing for the last time to
the audience, who opened a passage for him respectfully,—
"I am at your orders," he said.
"Come, then."
The girl turned away and hurried off rapidly, the Spaniard following
close at her heels.
Don Cornelio, like all the adventurers whom a hazardous life in
Europe had cast on the American shores, nourished in his heart a
secret hope of re-establishing, by a rich marriage, his fortunes,
which were more than compromised. Several instances, though rare,
we allow, of marriages contracted in this romantic fashion, had
imbedded this idea deeply in the Spaniard's somewhat windy brain.
He was young, noble, handsome—at least he thought so; hence he
possessed all needed for success. It is true that, until this moment,
fortune had never deigned to smile on him; no young girl seemed to
care for his assassinating glances, or respond to his interested
advances. But this ill success had in no way rebuffed him, and what
happened at this moment seemed to justify his schemes, by offering
him, at the moment he least expected it, that occasion he had so
long awaited.
Only one thing saddened his brow, and clouded the internal joy he
experienced, and that was the seedy condition of his attire, sadly ill-
treated by the brambles, and torn by the sharp points of the rocks,
during his long journey in Sonora. But with that characteristic fatuity
innate in the Spaniards, he consoled himself by the reflection that
his personal advantages would amply compensate for the seedy
condition of his dress, and that the lady who had sent for him, if she
felt any tender interest in him, would attach but slight value to a
new cloak or a faded cloak. It was with these conquering feelings
that Don Cornelio arrived behind the camarista at the door of a
cuarto, before which she stopped.
"It is here," she said, turning round to him.
"Very good," he said, drawing himself up. "We will enter whenever
you please."
She smiled cunningly with a twinkle of her black eyes, and turned
the key in the lock. The door opened.
"Señorita," the waiting-maid said, "I have brought you the
gentleman."
"Let him come in, Violanta," a sweet voice answered.
The girl stepped aside to make room for Don Cornelio, who walked
in, twisting his moustache with a conquering air.
The room in which he found himself was small, and rather better
furnished than the other cuartos in the hostelry, probably owing to
the indispensable articles the temporary occupier of the room had
the precaution to bring with her. Several pink candles burned in
silver chandeliers, and on a sofa lay a lovely young girl of sixteen to
seventeen years of age, buried in muslin, like a hummingbird in a
nest of roses, who bent on the Spanish gentleman two large black
eyes sparkling with humour, maliciousness, and curiosity.
In spite of the immense dose of self-love with which he was
cuirassed, and the intimate conviction he had of his own merits, Don
Cornelio stopped in considerable embarrassment on the threshold,
and bowed profoundly, without daring to advance into the interior of
this cuarto, which appeared to him a sanctuary.
By a charming sign the young woman invited him to draw nearer,
and pointed out a butaca, about two paces from the sofa on which
she was reclining. The young man hesitated; but the camarista,
laughing like a madcap, pushed him by the shoulders and compelled
him to sit down.
Still the position of our two actors, opposite each other, was rather
singular. Don Cornelio, a prey to the most powerful embarrassment
he ever experienced, twisted the brim of his beaver in his hands, as
he cast investigating glances cautiously around; while the girl, no
less confused, timidly looked down, and seemed at present almost to
regret the inconsiderate step she had let herself be led to take.
Still, as in all difficult circumstances of life, women possess a will of
initiative greater than that of men, because they make a strength of
their weakness, and know at once how to approach the most
awkward questions, it was the lady who first regained her coolness
and commenced the conversation.
"Do you recognise me, Don Cornelio?" she asked him in a deliberate
tone, which made the Spaniard quiver.
"Alas, señorita!" he replied, trying to gain time, "where could I have
had the happiness of ever seeing you? I have only lived up to the
present in an inferno."
"Let us speak seriously," she said with an almost imperceptible
frown. "Look me well in the face, caballero, and answer me frankly:
do you recognise me—yes or no?"
Don Cornelio timidly raised his eyes, obeyed the order he had
received in so peremptory a fashion, and after a few seconds,—
"No, señorita," he said with a suppressed sigh, "I do not recognise
you; I do not believe that I ever had the happiness of meeting you
before today."
"You are mistaken," she replied.
"I! O no! It is impossible."
"Do not swear, Don Cornelio; I will prove to you the truth of what I
assert."
The young man shook his head incredulously.
"When a man has had once the happiness of seeing you—" he
murmured.
She interrupted him sharply.
"You do not know what you say, and your gallantry is misplaced.
Before contradicting me you would do better by listening to what I
have to say to you."
Don Cornelio protested.
"I repeat," she said distinctly, "that you are mad. For two days you
travelled in the company of my father and myself."
"I!"
"Yes, you."
"Oh!"
"It is just three years ago. At that period I was only a child, scarce
fourteen: there is, consequently, nothing extraordinary in your
having forgotten me. At that period you sang your inevitable
romance of Don Rodrigo, of which I will say no harm, however," she
added, with an enchanting smile, "because I recognised you by that
song. My father, now governor and political chief of Sonora, was at
that time only a colonel."
The Spaniard struck his forehead.
"I remember," he exclaimed. "You were going from Guadalajara to
Tepic, when I had the pleasure of meeting you in the middle of the
night."
"Yes."
"That is it. Let me see, your father's name is Don Sebastian
Guerrero, and yours—"
"Well, and mine?" she said, with a pretty challenging pout.
"Yours, señorita," he said gallantly, "is Doña Angela. What other
name could you bear?"
"Come," she said, clapping her dainty hands together with a ringing
laugh, "I am glad to see that you have a better memory than I
believed."
"Oh!" he muttered reproachfully.
"We had a rather disagreeable adventure, if I remember right, with
certain bandits?" she continued.
"Extremely disagreeable, for I was half killed."
"That is true; I remember something of the sort. Were you not
rescued by a hunter, a wood ranger? I can hardly remember."
"A noble gentleman, señorita," Don Cornelio replied with fire, "to
whom I owe my life."
"Ah!" she said carelessly, "that is possible. The man helped you,
nursed you, and then you parted?"
"Not exactly."
"What!" she said, with some agitation, "you continued to live
together?"
"Yes."
"Always?"
"Yes."
"But now?" she said, with a certain hesitation in her voice.
"I repeat to you, señorita, that we have not separated."
"Indeed! Is he here?"
"Yes."
"In this hostelry?"
"On the other side of the yard."
"Ah!" she murmured, letting her head fall on her breast.
"What's the matter now?" the Spaniard asked himself.
And not interrupting the sudden reverie into which the young lady
had fallen, he waited respectfully until it pleased her to renew the
conversation.
 [1] Oh, if I had been born blind, or if you had been born ugly!
Accursed be the day and hour—
[2] By the feeble light of some clear star, which, in the midst of
the gloomy silence, mournfully twinkles.

CHAPTER VI.

DELILAH.
The position of our two characters toward each other was somewhat
singular. Both appeared to be watching each other, and trying to
discover the flaw in the armour; but in this struggle of a man against
a woman, the latter must inevitably prove the conqueror.
Don Cornelio had possibly a rather exaggerated opinion of himself.
This was what ruined him, and delivered him bound hand and foot
over to his dangerous adversary.
Doña Angela, resting coquettishly on her elbow, with her chin on the
palm of her dainty hand, fixed on him two eyes sparkling with
maliciousness, so that the Spaniard, as it were, fascinated by the
brilliancy of this irresistible glance, had not even the will to turn his
head, and liberate himself from the deceptive charm that fascinated
him.
"Violanta," the girl said, in a voice soft and pure as the song of the
centzontle, the American nightingale, "have you no refreshments to
offer this caballero?"
"Oh, certainly," said the crafty camarista, with a look sufficient to
tempt St. Anthony; and she rose quickly to obey her mistress's
directions.
Don Cornelio, flattered in his heart by this politeness, which he was
far from expecting, thought it necessary to break out in excuses; but
Doña Angela cut him short by herself saying,—
"You will forgive me, caballero, for receiving you so poorly, but I did
not expect to have the honour of your visit in this wretched pueblo."
Naturally enough, Don Cornelio, infatuated with the advantages he
fancied he possessed, regarded this remark as a compliment.
Angela maliciously bit her rosy lips, and continued, with a bow,—
"But now that I have been so fortunate as to meet again with an old
friend, for I hope you will permit me to give you that appellation
——"
"Oh, señorita!" the young man said with a movement of joy.
"I flatter myself that I shall have the pleasure of enjoying your
company more frequently."
"Señorita, believe me that I shall be too happy."
"I know your gallantry, Don Cornelio," she interrupted him with a
smile. "I am aware that you will seize every opportunity to offer me
your homage."
"Heaven is my witness, señorita. Unfortunately, adverse fate will
possibly ordain differently."
"Why so?"
"You are only passing through this wretched town."
"Yes. My father is proceeding to Tepic, where his new position as
governor of the province demands his residence."
"That is true. You see, then, madam, that it is almost impossible for
us ever to meet again."
"Do you think so?" she asked.
"Alas! I am atrociously afraid of it."
"Why so?" she said, bending her body forward in curiosity.
"Because, according to every probability, tomorrow, at sunrise, we
shall take diametrically opposite routes, señorita."
"Oh, that is not possible!"
"Unfortunately it is too true."
"Explain this enigma to me."
"I would it were one; but a child can read it."
"I do not at all understand you?"
"I will explain myself more clearly."
"Go on."
"When you and your father, madam, start tomorrow for Tepic, my
friends and myself will set out for San Francisco."
"San Francisco!"
"Alas! Yes."
"What need have you to go there?"
"I! None."
"Well, then?"
Don Cornelio behaved like most men when in a state of
embarrassment; that is to say, he scratched his head. At length he
said,—
"I cannot leave my friends."
"What friends?"
"Those in whose company I am."
"Then they want to go to San Francisco?"
"Yes."
"What to do?"
"Ah! That is it," the Spaniard replied, more and more embarrassed
by the obligation of confessing the trade in which he was engaged,
and which he fancied must lower him to an extraordinary degree in
the eyes of the young lady whose heart he fancied he had touched.
"I am waiting," she said with a slight frown of her arched brows.
Don Cornelio, driven into his last retrenchments, determined to
make a clean breast of it.
"You must know," he said in a honeyed voice, "that my friends are
hunters."
"Ah!" she remarked.
"Yes."
"Well, what then?"
"Why, then, why, they hunt, I suppose," he continued,
discountenanced by the lady's singular tone.
"That is probable," she said, with a little silvery laugh. "And what do
they hunt?"
"Well, pretty nearly all sorts of animals."
"Specify."
"Wild bulls, for instance."
"Very good; we will say, then, that they hunt wild bulls?"
"Yes."
"Why those animals more than others?"
"I will tell you."
"I shall feel delighted."
Don Cornelio bowed.
"You must know that at San Francisco—"
"San Francisco again?"
"Alas! Yes."
"Very good: proceed."
"Oxen, bullocks, and generally all animals that serve for food, are
extremely dear."
"Ah!"
"O dear, yes! You understand that people in that country pay great
attention to finding gold, and very little to seeking food."
"Quite correct."
"So my friend reasoned thus."
"Which friend?"
"The hunter, Don Louis."
"Don Louis?"
"Yes, the man who three years back, when the bandits attacked you,
arrived so opportunely, and whom I have never quitted since."
Doña Angela experienced such a startling emotion that her face
suddenly turned pale. Don Cornelio, busied with his story, did not
perceive the effect the accidental mention of that name produced,
but continued,—
"'Very good, then,' he said to himself. 'Bulls obtain fabulous prices in
California; in Mexico they may be had for almost nothing. Let us go
and buy or lasso them in Mexico.'"
"So then?"
"Well, we set out."
"You were in California at that time?"
"At San Francisco, with Don Louis."
"And now?"
"We have a magnificent herd of novillos, which we have driven a
long distance, and which we hope to dispose of at a large profit at
San Francisco."
"I hope so."
"Thank you, madam; the more so as we had an enormous difficulty
in procuring them."
"But all that does not teach me why you cannot separate from your
friends."
"At any rate not until we have sold the bullocks. You understand,
señorita, that acting otherwise would be ungentlemanly."
"That is true; but why insist on selling your bulls nowhere save at
San Francisco?"
"We do not at all insist on that."
"Then, supposing you found a good price here, you would dispose of
them?"
"I see nothing to prevent it."
Doña Angela gave a start of joy, which Don Cornelio naturally
interpreted to his own advantage.
"That might be arranged," she said.
"You think so?"
"Yes, if you are not too craving."
"You need not apprehend that, señorita."
"My father possesses a hacienda a few leagues from this town. I
know that he intends to re-form his ganado, and he stopped here
today in order to have an interview with his mayordomo."
"Oh! That is a providential chance."
"Is it not?"
"It is really. Has the mayordomo arrived?"
"Not yet: we do not expect him till tomorrow. I fancy that a day's
delay will do you no injury."
"Not the slightest."
"Well, then, if you consent, we will settle this affair while we are
together; that is to say," she added, "you will tell me the prices, that
I may inform my father."
"Ah!" he said, with a certain hesitation, "I can, unfortunately, say
nothing on that head."
"Why so? Are you not the owner of the herd?"
"Pardon me."
"Well, what then?" she interrupted, looking at him with fixed
attention.
"That is to say, I am not sole owner."
"You have partners?"
"Yes, I have one."
"And that partner——?"
"Stay, madam, I prefer being frank with you, and telling you clearly
how matters stand."
"I am listening, caballero."
"I am owner without being so."
"I do not understand you at all."
"It is very simple, however, as you will see."
"I am all anxiety."
"Just imagine that Don Louis, after curing me of my wounds, felt
that loyal and open friendship for me which has no counterpart in
town life. Not only would he not consent to my leaving him, but
aware that, owing to reverses too long to repeat to you, I was
almost penniless, he insisted on my becoming a sharer in all the
enterprises he thought proper to undertake; so that, without the
outlay of a penny, I hold one half the property. Hence, as you will
see, I can do nothing until I have first taken his instructions."
"That is only just, it seems to me."
"And to me too, madam; and that is the reason why, in spite of the
lively desire I entertain to settle the business with you at once, I find
it impossible to do so."
Doña Angela seemed to reflect for a moment, then went on with a
palpitation of the heart and a tremor in her voice, which she could
not conceal, in spite of all her efforts:—
"After all, the matter is perfectly simple, and may be arranged very
easily."
"I ask nothing better; still I confess, to my shame, that I do not see
what means I should employ."
"It is a trifle, tomorrow, before the mayordomo's arrival, I will speak
with my father: he will, I doubt not, be delighted to render a service
to the man who saved our lives. You will tell your friend, he will
come to an arrangement with my father, and all will be settled."
"Indeed, madam, I did not think of that. All can be arranged in that
way."
"Unless your friend—Don Louis, I think you called him——?"
"Yes, madam, Don Louis. He is a gentleman belonging to one of the
noblest and oldest families in France."
"Ah! All the better. Unless, I say, he should not consent to deal with
my father."
"And why should he not, señorita?"
"Oh! I do not know; but on our first meeting, after saving my
father's life and mine, that caballero behaved so singularly toward us
that I fear——"
"You are wrong, madam, to suppose that Don Louis could refuse an
offer so advantageous as that you make him; besides, I will talk with
him, and am certain to bring him over to my views."
"O dear me!" she said negligently, "I have but a very slight interest
in all this. I should not like the proposal to cause you the slightest
annoyance with your partner. I am only looking after your interests
in the affair, Don Cornelio."
"I am convinced of it, madam, and thank you humbly," he replied,
with a low bow.
"I only know you. Your partner, though he rendered me a great
service, is but a stranger to me, especially after the peremptory
manner in which he declined my father's advances and offers of
service."
"You are perfectly right, señorita. Believe me that I attach full value
to the delicacy of your conduct."
"Still," she continued, in an insinuating and slightly malicious voice,
"I confess to you that I should not be sorry to find myself once more
face to face with that strange man, were it only to convince myself
that the opinion I formed of him was wrong."
"Don Louis, madam," the Spaniard answered complacently, "is a true
caballero, kind, noble, and generous, ever ready to help with purse
or sword those who claim his assistance. Since I have had the
honour of living in his society I have had many opportunities of
appreciating the greatness of his character."
"I am happy to hear what you tell me, señor, for I confess that this
caballero left a very bad impression on me, doubtlessly through the
rough manner in which he parted from us."
"That bad impression was unjust, madam. As for the roughness with
which you reproach him alas! It is only melancholy."
"What!" she exclaimed quickly, while a rosy tinge suddenly invaded
her forehead, "melancholy, do you say? Is the gentleman unhappy?"
"Who is not so?" Don Cornelio asked with a sigh.
"Perhaps, though, you are mistaken."
"Alas! No, madam. Don Louis has been the victim of frightful
disasters: judge for yourself. He had a wife he adored, who had
presented him with several charming children. One night the Indians
surprised his hacienda, fired it, massacred his wife, his children, his
whole family, in a word, and himself only escaped by a miracle."
"Oh, that is horrible!" she exclaimed, as she buried her face in her
hands. "Poor man! Now I heartily pardon what appeared singularity
in his manners. Alas! The society of his fellow men must weigh upon
him."
"Yes, madam, it doubtlessly does so; for the grief he endures is of
that nature which cannot be consoled. And yet, when he knows of a
misfortune to alleviate, or any good deed to do, he forgets himself
only to think of those he wishes to aid."
"Yes, you are right, caballero; that man has a noble heart."
"Alas, madam! I should ever remain below the truth in what I might
tell you of him. You must live his life, be constantly by his side, in
order to understand and appreciate him at his full value."
There were a few moments of silence. The night was drawing on;
the candles were beginning to dim; the camarista, who had but a
very slight interest in this conversation, had laid her head against
the back of her butaca; her eyes were closed, and she was enjoying
that catlike sleep peculiar to women and the feline race, and which
does not prevent them being constantly on the watch.
"Tell me, Don Cornelio," Doña Angela continued with a smile, "have
you never spoken with Don Louis about our meeting during the long
period that has since elapsed?"
"Never, madam."
"Ah!"
"Once, and only once, I remember that I tried to bring the
conversation round to that subject by some rather direct allusions."
"Well?"
"Don Louis, who, till then, had seemed to listen kindly to my
observations, suddenly requested me, in very distinct language,
never to return to that subject, remarking that he had only acted in
accordance with his duty; that he would do the same again; and
that it was not worth while talking about, the less so as chance
would, in all probability, never again bring him into contact with the
persons to whom he had been so fortunate as to render this slight
service."
The young lady frowned.
"I thank you," she said in a slightly affected voice, "I thank you, Don
Cornelio, for the kindness with which you have treated the whims of
a woman you did not know."
"Oh, madam!" he exclaimed in protest; "for a long time I have been
your most humble slave."
"I know your gallantry, but will not abuse it longer. Be assured that I
shall keep our long conversation in pleasant memory. Be kind
enough not to forget the proposals I wish to make to Don Louis."
"Tomorrow, madam, at the hour you think most suitable, my friend
and myself will have the honour to present ourselves to the
general."
"Do not derange yourselves, caballero; a criado will warn you when
my father is ready to receive you. Farewell!"
"Farewell!" he replied, bowing respectfully to the young lady, who
dismissed him with a gracious smile.
The Spaniard went out with joy in his heart.
"Oh!" Doña Angela murmured, so soon as she was alone, "I love
him!"
Whom was she speaking of?

CHAPTER VII.
 A RETROSPECT.
Before carrying our story further we must give the reader certain
details about the family and antecedents of Don Sebastian Guerrero,
who is destined to play a great part in our narrative.
The family of Don Sebastian was rich; he descended in a straight
line from one of the early kings of Mexico, and pure Aztec blood
flowed in his veins. Like several other great Mexican families, his
ancestors had not been dispossessed by the conquerors, to whom
they rendered important services; but they were obliged to add a
Spanish name to the Mexican one, which sounded harshly in
Castilian ears.
Still the Guerrero family boasted loudly of its Aztec origin, and if it
seemed ostensibly devoted to Spain, it secretly maintained the hope
of seeing Mexico one day regain her liberty.
Thus, when the heroic Hidalgo, the humble curate of the little village
of Dolores, suddenly raised the standard of revolt against the
oppressors of his country, Don Eustaquio Guerrero, though married
but a short time previously to a woman he adored, and father of a
son hardly six years of age, was one of the first to respond to the
appeal of the insurgents, and join Hidalgo at the head of four
hundred resolute men raised on his own enormous estates.
The Mexican revolution was a singular one; for nearly all the
promoters and heroes were priests—the only country in the world
where the clergy have openly taken the initiative in progress, and
thus displayed profound sympathy for the liberty of the people.
Don Eustaquio Guerrero was in turn companion of those modest
heroes whom disdainful history has almost forgotten, and whose
names were, Hidalgo, Morelos, Hermenegildo Galeana, Allende,
Abasolo, Aldama, Valerio Trujano, Torres, Rayon, Sotomayor, Manuel
Mier-y-Teran, and many others whose names have escaped me; and
who, after fighting gloriously for the liberty of their country, now
repose in their bloody tombs, protected by that glorious nimbus
which Heaven places round the brow of martyrs, whatever be the
cause they have defended, so long as that cause is just.
More fortunate than the majority of his brave comrades in arms,
who were destined to fall one after the other, some as victims to
Spanish barbarity, others conquered by treachery, Don Eustaquio
escaped as if by a miracle from the innumerable dangers of this war,
which lasted ten years, and at length witnessed the complete
expulsion of the Spaniards and the proclamation of independence.
The brave soldier, prematurely aged, covered with wounds, and
disgusted by the ingratitude of his fellow countrymen, who, scarce
free, began attacking each other, and inaugurated that fatal era of
pronunciamientos, the list of which is already so long, and will only
be closed by the ruin of the country, and the loss of its nationality,
retired, gloomy and sad, to his Hacienda del Palmar, situated in the
province of Valladolid, and sought, in the company of his wife and
son, to recover some sparks of that happiness he had formerly
enjoyed when he was but an obscure citizen.
But this supreme consolation was denied him; his wife died in his
arms scarce two years after their reunion, attacked by an unknown
disease, which dragged her to the grave in a few weeks.
After the death of the woman he loved with all the strength of his
soul, Don Eustaquio, crushed by sorrow, only dragged on a wretched
existence, which terminated exactly one year after his wife's death.
Her name was the last word that wandered on his pallid lips as he
drew his parting breath.
Don Sebastian, who was scarce twenty years of age, was left an
orphan. Alone, without relatives or friends, the young man shut
himself up in his hacienda, where he silently bewailed the two
beings he had lost, and on whom he had concentrated all his
affections.
Don Sebastian would probably have remained for many years in
retirement, without seeing the world, or caring how it went on—
leading the careless, idle, and brutalising life of those great land-
holders whom no idea of progress or amelioration impels to trouble
themselves about their estates, timid and fearful, like all men who
live alone, spending his days in hunting and sleeping—had not
chance, or rather his lucky star, brought to Palmar an old partisan
chief who had long fought by the side of Don Eustaquio, and who,
happening to pass a few leagues from the place, felt old
reminiscences aroused in him, and determined to press the hand of
his old comrade, whose death he was not aware of.
The name of this man was Don Isidro Vargas. He was of lofty
stature, his shoulders were wide, his limbs athletic, and his features
imprinted with an uncommon energy; in a word, he presented in his
person the type of that powerful and devoted race which is daily
dying out in Mexico, and of which, ere long, not a specimen will be
left.
The unexpected arrival of this guest, whose heavy spurs and long
steel-scabbarded sabre re-echoed noisily on the tiled floors of the
hacienda, brought life into the mansion which had been so long
devoted to silence and the gloomy tranquillity of the cloister.
Like all old soldiers, Captain Don Isidro had a rough voice and sharp
way of speaking; his manners were brusque, but his character was
gay, and gifted with a rare equanimity of temper.
When he entered the house Don Sebastian was out hunting, and the
hacienda seemed uninhabited. The captain at first found enormous
difficulty in meeting with anyone to address. At length, by careful
search, he detected a peon half asleep under a verandah, who gave
some sort of answer to the questions asked him. By great patience
and questions made with that craft peculiar to the Mexicans, the
captain succeeded in obtaining some valuable information.
The death of Don Eustaquio only astonished the worthy soldado
slightly; he expected it, indeed, from the moment he learnt the
death of the señora, for whom he knew his old comrade professed
so deep a love; but on learning the idle life Don Sebastian had led
since his father's death, the captain burst out in a furious passion,
and swore by all the saints in the Spanish calendar (and they are
tolerably numerous), that this state of things should not last much
longer.
The captain had known the young man when he was but a child.
Many times he had dandled him on his knee, and thus, with his
ideas of honour and generosity, he thought himself obliged, as an
old friend of his father, to remove the son from the slothful existence
he led.
Consequently the old soldier installed himself authoritatively in the
hacienda, and firmly awaited the return of the man he had been
accustomed to regard for a long time almost in the light of a son.
The day passed peacefully. The Indian peons, long accustomed to
profess the greatest respect for embroidered hats and jingling
sabres, left him free to act as he pleased—a liberty the old soldier
did not at all abuse, for he contented himself with ordering an
immense vase full of an infusion of tamarinds, which he placed on a
table, up to which he drew a butaca, and amused himself with
smoking an enormous quantity of husk cigarettes, which he made as
he wanted them, with that dexterity alone possessed by the Spanish
race.
At about oración time, or six in the evening, the captain, who had
fallen quietly asleep, was aroused by a great noise, mingled with
shouts, barking, and the neighing of horses, which he heard outside.
"Ah, ah!" he said, turning up his moustache, "I fancy the muchacho
has at last arrived."
It was, indeed, Don Sebastian returning from the chase.
The old partisan, who was sitting opposite a window, was enabled to
examine his friend's son at his ease, without being perceived in his
turn. He could not repress a smile of satisfaction at the sight of the
vigorous young man, with his haughty features bearing the imprint
of boldness, wildness, and timidity, and his well-built limbs.
"What a pity," he muttered to himself, "if such a fine fellow were to
be expended here without profit to himself or to others! It will not
be my fault if I do not succeed in rousing the boy from the state of
lethargy into which he is plunged. I owe that to the memory of his
poor father."
While making these reflections, as he heard the clanking of spurs in
the room before that in which he was, he fell back on his butaca,
and put on again his usual look of indifference. Don Sebastian
entered. He had not seen the captain for several years. The greeting
he gave him, though slightly awkward and embarrassed, was,
however, affectionate. After the first compliments they sat down face
to face.
"Well, muchacho," the captain said, suddenly plunging in medias res,
"you did not expect a visit from me, I fancy?"
"I confess, captain, that I was far from supposing that you would
come. To what fortunate accident do I owe your presence in my
house?"
"I will tell you presently, muchacho. For the present we will talk
about other matters, if you have no objection."
"At your ease, captain; I do not wish to displease you in any way."
"We will see that presently, cuerpo de Dios! And in the first place, to
speak frankly, I will tell you that I did not come to see you, but your
worthy father, my brave general. Voto a brios! The news of his death
quite upset me, and I am not myself again yet."
"I am very grateful, captain, for the kindly memory in which you
hold my father."
"Capa de Cristo!" the captain said, who, among other habits more or
less excellent, possessed to an eminent degree that of seasoning
each of his phrases with an oath, at times somewhat unorthodox,
"of course I hold in kind memory the man by whose side I fought for
ten years, and to whom I owe it that I am what I am. Yes, I do
remember him, and I hope soon, canarios! To prove it to his son."
"I thank you, captain, though I do not perceive in what way you can
give me this proof."
"Good, good!" he said, gnawing his moustache. "I know how to do
it, and that is enough. Everything will come at its right season."
"As you please, my old friend. At any rate, you will be kind enough
to remember that you are at home here, and that the longer you
stay the greater pleasure you will afford me."
"Good, muchacho! I expected that from you. I will avail myself of
the hospitality so gracefully offered, but will not abuse it."
"An old comrade in arms of my father's cannot do that in his house,
captain, and you less than anyone else. But," he added, seeing a
peon enter, "here is a servant come to announce that the dinner is
served. I confess to you that, as I have been hunting all day, I am
now dying of hunger: if you will follow me we will sit down to the
table and renew our acquaintance glass in hand."
"I ask nothing better, rayo de Dios!" the captain said as he rose.
"Though I have not been hunting, I think I shall do honour to the
repast."
And without further talking they passed into a dining room, where a
sumptuously and abundantly-served table awaited them.
According to a patriarchal custom, which, unfortunately, like all good
things, is beginning to die out, at Palmar the master and servants
took their meals together. This custom, which had existed in the
family since the conquest, Don Sebastian kept up—in the first place,
through respect for his father's memory, and secondly, because the
servants at the hacienda were devoted to their master, and to some
extent supplied the place of a family.
The evening passed away, without any incident worthy of remark, in
chatting about war and the chase. Captain Don Isidro Vargas was an
old soldier, as cunning as a monk. Too clever to assail the young
man's ideas straightforwardly, he resolved to study him for some
time, in order to discover the weak points of his character, and see
how he must attack him in order to drag him out of that slothful and
purposeless life he led in this forgotten province. Thus several days
were passed in hunting and other amusements, and the captain
never once alluded to the subject he had at heart. At times he might
make a covert allusion to the active life of the capital, the
opportunities of securing a fine position which a man of Don
Sebastian's age could not fail to find at Mexico, if he would take the
trouble to go there, and many other insinuations of the same nature;
but the young man let them pass without making the slightest
observation, or even appearing to understand them.
"Patience!" the captain muttered. "I shall eventually find the flaw in
his cuirass; and if I do not succeed, I must be preciously clumsy."
And he recommenced his covert attacks, not allowing the young
man's impassive indifference to rebuff him.
Don Sebastian performed his duties as master of the house with
thoroughly Mexican grace, amenity, and sumptuousness; that is, he
invented every sort of amusement which he thought would be most
suited to the worthy captain's tastes. The latter let him do so with
the utmost coolness, and conscientiously enjoyed the pleasures the
young man procured him, charmed in his heart by the activity he
displayed in pleasing him, and more and more persuaded that, if he
succeeded in arousing in him the feelings which he supposed were
slumbering in his mind, it would be easy to convert him to his own
ideas, and make him abandon the absorbing life of a campesino.
More than once, during the few days they spent in hunting in the
magnificent plains that surrounded the hacienda, accident enabled
the captain to admire the skill with which the young man managed
his steed, and his superiority in all those exercises which demand
strength, activity, and, above all, skill.
On one occasion especially, at the moment the hunters galloped in
pursuit of a magnificent stag they had put up, they found
themselves suddenly face to face with a cougouar, which threatened
to dispute their progress. The cougouar is the American lion. It has
no mane. Like all the other carnivora of the New World it cares little
about attacking a man, and it is only when reduced to the last
extremity that it turns upon him; but then it fights with a courage
and energy that frequently render its approach extremely
dangerous.
On the occasion to which we allude the cougouar seemed resolved
to await its enemies boldly. The captain, but little accustomed to find
himself face to face with such enemies, experienced that internal
tremor which assails the bravest man when he finds himself exposed
to a serious danger. Still, as the old soldier was notoriously brave, he
soon recovered from this involuntary emotion, and cocked his gun,
while watching the crouching animal, which fixed its glaring eyes on
him.
"Do not fire, captain," Don Sebastian said with a perfectly calm
voice; "you are not used to this chase, and, without wishing it, might
injure the skin, which you see is magnificent, and that would be a
pity."
Don Sebastian thereupon let his gun fall, took a pistol from his
holster, and spurring his horse at the same time that he checked it,
made it rear. The animal rose, and stood almost on its hind legs; the
cougouar suddenly bounded forward with a terrible roar; the young
man dug his knees into his horse, which bounded on one side, while
Don Sebastian pulled the trigger. The monster rolled on the ground
in convulsive agony.
"Cuerpo de Cristo!" the captain shouted; "why, you've killed it on the
spot! No matter, muchacho; you played for a heavy stake."
"Bah!" the other said as he dismounted; "it is not so difficult as you
fancy; it only requires practice."
"Hum! It must require practice to shoot such an animal on the wing.
The ball has entered its eye."
"Yes, we generally shoot them there, so as not to spoil the skin."
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