Energy & Buildings 337 (2025) 115663

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Energy & Buildings

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Selection and integration strategies of PCMs in traditional bricks for

thermal comfort and energy efficiency: A comprehensive review
N. Ruiz-Marín
Departamento de Máquinas y Motores térmicos, Escuela Superior de Ingeniería, Universidad de Cádiz, Puerto Real, E-11510 Cádiz, Spain

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Traditional bricks, while being cost-effective and durable construction materials, exhibit limited thermal per­
Bricks formance under extreme weather conditions, which can lead to uncomfortable indoor environments and
Buildings increased energy consumption for heating and cooling. To address this issue, the integration of phase change
Phase change material (PCM)
materials (PCMs) into bricks has emerged as an area of interest in sustainable construction. PCMs have the ability
Thermal comfort
Thermal performance
to store and release large amounts of latent heat during phase transitions, acting as a thermal buffer that reg­
ulates indoor temperature. However, a comprehensive review on how PCM integration impacts thermal per­
formance, energy savings, environmental effects, and costs—particularly in bricks—has not yet been published.
This review examines strategies for the selection and integration of PCMs in traditional bricks, analyzing the
different types of PCMs, their properties, and the most common integration techniques. The influence of brick
design on thermal performance is discussed, along with the importance of building orientation to maximize
system efficiency. Several studies demonstrate that the integration of PCMs into bricks significantly reduces
indoor temperature fluctuations, heat flow, and cooling demand, thereby improving thermal comfort and energy
efficiency in buildings. However, challenges remain, such as improving thermal conductivity, reducing costs, and
ensuring the safety of PCMs. Future research is needed to optimize integration techniques, develop PCMs with
enhanced properties, and establish safety guidelines, paving the way for the widespread adoption of this tech­
nology in the construction of more sustainable buildings.

1. Introduction address these challenges, EU regulators have published the Energy

Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) [7], along with its recast [8].
Buildings account for a significant percentage of global energy con­ This directive has set the goal that all new buildings must be “nearly-
sumption across all scenarios. It is projected to rise from the current 35 zero energy” (NZEB), driving the pursuit of innovative and sustainable
% to 40 % in the Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS), to 43 % in the solutions.
Announced Pledges Scenario (APS) and to 48 % in the Net Zero Emis­ Common bricks exhibit limited thermal performance especially
sions by 2050 Scenario (NZE) by 2030 [1]. Energy demand related to under extreme weather conditions, which can lead to uncomfortable
buildings accounted for approximately 27 % of global emissions in 2022 indoor environments [9]. The integration of PCMs into bricks, a
and could be responsible for 34 % of global energy consumption (Fig. 1) fundamental element of the building envelope, presents a viable alter­
[2]. A significant portion of this energy consumed is dedicated to native for enhancing the energy efficiency and thermal comfort of
ensuring a comfortable indoor climate through air conditioning, cooling buildings [10–12]. This approach aligns with current market trends,
and heating [3,4]. Significant energy savings can be achieved by which project steady growth in the brick sector, with a compound
improving the energy efficiency of building envelopes [5], which ac­ annual growth rate (CAGR) of over 3 % from 2024 to 2029 [13]. In this
count for 50 % of direct heating and cooling loads and contribute sub­ context, bricks containing PCMs can function as thermal buffers,
stantially to overall energy use [6]. Of this consumption, 21 % is absorbing excess heat during the day and releasing it at night, thereby
attributed to the residential sector, while 9 % pertains to the non- helping to regulate indoor temperatures and reducing the demand for
residential sector [6]. Given this context, there is substantial potential heating and cooling systems [14].
for cost-effective energy savings in the building sector, which would The effectiveness of PCMs in construction relies on their thermo­
generate important economic, social, and environmental benefits. To physical properties, such as the enthalpy of fusion [15–17], which

E-mail address: [email protected].

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2025.115663
Received 26 January 2025; Received in revised form 6 March 2025; Accepted 24 March 2025
Available online 26 March 2025
0378-7788/© 2025 The Author. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc/4.0/).
N. Ruiz-Marín Energy & Buildings 337 (2025) 115663

allows for latent heat storage, the melting temperature, which must classifying the type of PCM, its selection, and the properties that must be
align with the building’s temperature range [18–20], and thermal con­ met, such as high melting enthalpy, appropriate thermal conductivity,
ductivity, which influences the rate of heat transfer [21–24]. The suitable melting temperature, chemical stability, and low cost. Section 3
chemical properties require that the PCM be stable, non-corrosive, non- describes in detail the methods of integrating PCMs into bricks, evalu­
toxic, and non-flammable [20,25,26]. The initial cost must be balanced ating how each method affects heat storage and the structural integrity
with long-term energy savings and the return on investment period of the brick. Section 4 analyses the influence of brick design on thermal
[20,27,28]. performance, including types of bricks, cavity design, and the position of
There are different strategies for incorporating PCMs into bricks. the PCM. Section 5 focuses on the improvement of indoor thermal
Direct methods are wet mixing and immersion [29] as well as the filling comfort and energy efficiency of PCMs in various climatic zones. Section
of brick cavities with PCM [9]. Indirect methods involve macro- 6 evaluates the economic impact of PCMs in construction through the
encapsulation, micro-encapsulation, and form-stabilization [16,30]. analysis of the return on investment period and examines their envi­
The design of bricks, including type (hollow or solid) and cavity char­ ronmental sustainability. Section 7 addresses pending challenges and
acteristics (size, shape, number, and location), are also crucial for PCM key areas for future research. Finally, Section 8 presents the general
integration and heat transfer efficiency [31–34]. Hollow bricks are conclusions.
commonly studied due to their cavities, which offer space for PCMs
[11,35,36]. The number and arrangement of cavities influence thermal 2. Phase change materials for building applications
performance, with more cavities improving heat transfer, though
excessive cavities may reduce structural integrity [37]. The location of 2.1. Definition, operation principle and classification of PCMs
the PCM as central is often the most effective [38] although must
consider factors like climate, building orientation, and PCM type [39]. PCMs are substances that have the ability to store and release large
While PCMs tend to have a higher initial cost than conventional con­ amounts of thermal energy as they undergo a phase transition, primarily
struction materials, long-term energy savings can justify this initial in­ from solid to liquid and vice versa [52]. This process, known as phase
vestment [14,40,41]. change, occurs at a nearly constant temperature, making them an
Over the past decade, there has been a significant increase in effective option for thermal energy storage in various applications,
research on PCMs, particularly focusing on their applications in the including construction [53–55]. This suitability arises from their ability
construction sector. These reviews have covered a wide range of appli­ to store substantial amounts of latent heat at relatively low tempera­
cations, such as enhancing thermal comfort and energy efficiency in tures, making them ideal for applications such as indoor temperature
buildings through thermal energy storage systems for heating and regulation in buildings [56–58].
cooling [42,43], as well as passive cooling strategies by integrating The phase change cycle is divided into two main stages: the charging
PCMs into building envelopes (walls, roofs, floors) [44–47]. Also, the phase and the discharging phase [59]. Fig. 2 illustrates the charging
incorporation of PCMs into various construction materials, such as, process that takes place during the day and the discharging process that
concrete [48], mortar [49], and others [50,51] has been explored, occurs at night. During the charging phase (or melting), the PCM absorbs
providing new opportunities for improving thermal management in heat from the surroundings, causing its temperature to rise until it rea­
structures. However, despite the extensive research in these areas, there ches its melting point. At this point, the PCM undergoes a phase tran­
is still a lack of detailed reviews on how integrating PCMs affects ther­ sition from solid to liquid, storing a significant amount of latent heat
mal performance, energy savings, environmental impact, and costs, without an appreciable change in temperature. This latent heat repre­
especially in bricks. Accordingly, this review examines strategies for sents the energy required to break the molecular bonds during the phase
selecting and integrating PCMs into common bricks to improve energy change. Conversely, during the discharging phase (or solidification), the
efficiency and thermal comfort in buildings. Section 1 briefly introduces PCM releases the stored latent heat as it cools below its solidification
the potential of PCMs in architecture, establishing a knowledge base for point, returning to the solid state. This cycle can be repeated multiple
the review, highlighting that common bricks have limited thermal per­ times, making PCMs highly efficient for long-term thermal energy
formance, which leads to uncomfortable indoor environments and storage applications.
higher energy consumption. Section 2 provides a review method for Based on their phase change characteristics, PCMs can be classified

Fig. 1. Global energy consumption in 2021. The total energy consumption in buildings accounts for 34%. Of this percentage, 21% corresponds to the residential
sector, while 9% pertains to the non-residential sector [6].

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chemical, environmental, and economic factors [16,72]. Table 1 shows

the desired properties of PCMs for energy storage applications. The main
advantage of PCMs is their high thermal storage capacity, which, for the
same thickness, far surpasses that of conventional building materials
(Fig. 4) [73]. PCMs must posse a melting temperature aligned with the
building’s temperature range [18–20], a high enthalpy of fusion for
latent heat storage [15–17], and adequate thermal conductivity to
facilitate efficient heat transfer [21–24]. To enhance thermal conduc­
tivity, a common strategy is to incorporate materials with high thermal
conductivity, such as metal oxide nanoparticles [22], metals [23], and
graphite [21,24]. Additionally, they should be stable, non-corrosive,
non-toxic, and non-flammable [20,25,26]. Lastly, the initial cost of
PCMs must be weighed against long-term energy savings and a favour­
able return on investment [20,27,28].
For a deeper understanding, Tables 1-4A present detailed thermal
properties of a variety of organic, inorganic, eutectic, and commercial
PCMs that are suitable for building applications.

2.3. PCM selection strategy

No PCM possesses all the desirable properties [76], which makes the
selection process challenging. To optimize the integration of PCMs into
Fig. 2. Charging process (operation of PCM during the day) and discharging
bricks, it is essential to adopt a proper selection strategy that considers
process (operation of PCM at night).
factors such as the thermophysical properties of the PCM, costs, envi­
ronmental impact, and compatibility with the brick design. Several
into three categories: solid–solid [60,61], solid–liquid [52,62] and liq­
methods have been proposed for PCM selection, among which the Ashby
uid–gas [63,64] PCMs.
method [77] and Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) techniques
Among them, solid–liquid PCMs are the most widely used because
[78] stand out.
they can store a large amount of heat in a significantly smaller volume
The Ashby method, based on material property charts, allows for a
[65]. Fig. 3 shows the classification of solid–liquid PCMs. They are
quick visual comparison of different PCMs. This method focuses on
categorized into three groups: organic, inorganic and eutectic
identifying PCMs that meet the temperature requirements of the appli­
[28,37,66–69]. Organic PCMs are subdivided into paraffin and non-
cation, such as the comfort temperature range in a building. Key prop­
paraffin [70,71]. Non-paraffins include fatty acids, sugar alcohols, and
erties of the PCMs, such as melting enthalpy and thermal conductivity,
glycols [68,71]. Inorganic compounds comprises salt hydrates, molten
are compared to determine the most suitable materials. This method is
salts, and metals [18,70]. Eutectics are prepared by combining two or
useful for preliminary selection.
more PCMs, either organic, inorganic or a mixture of both [18,71].
MCDM methods offer a more holistic approach by considering mul­
tiple criteria simultaneously (Fig. 5). In this approach, relevant evalu­
2.2. Desired properties of PCMs ation criteria for the application, such as cost, environmental impact,
thermal performance, safety, and durability, are defined. Each criterion
The effectiveness of PCMs in building applications depends on the is assigned a weight based on its relative importance for the specific
type selected, so it is crucial to analyse their properties to ensure optimal project. Mathematical tools, such as the Analytic Hierarchy Process
performance and durability. These properties include thermophysical, (AHP) and the Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal
Solution (TOPSIS), are used to rank the PCMs and select the one that best
fits the needs.
By utilizing the Ashby and MCDM methods, the optimal PCM can be
selected to maximize energy efficiency, thermal comfort, and building
sustainability.

3. PCMs integration techniques in bricks

The integration of these PCMs into bricks, a fundamental construc­

tion element, presents a promising alternative for enhancing the energy
efficiency of buildings. However, leakage of liquid PCMs during phase
change can lead to a loss of heat storage capacity. Therefore, the method
of incorporating PCMs into the bricks is crucial.
Methods for incorporating PCM in buildings can be categorized into
direct and indirect incorporation techniques. Fig. 6 shows a diagram of
the integration techniques of PCM in bricks for building envelopes.
Direct methods include wet mixing and immersion [29] as well as the
filling of brick cavities with PCM [9]. Indirect methods involve micro-
encapsulation, macro-encapsulation and form-stabilization [16,30].
In the wet mixing technique, PCM is blended directly with con­
struction materials such as concrete, mortar, or cement at the production
site. The effectiveness of this technique relies on two key factors: the
PCM should not disrupt the hydration process, and it must remain inert
Fig. 3. Solid-liquid PCMs classification. with respect to any components in the mix [29]. However, the wet

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Table 1
Desired properties of PCMs for energy storage applications.
Property Description Importance Types of PCM Ref.

High enthalpy of Amount of thermal energy absorbed or Higher energy storage capacity in a given volume Organic: Paraffins (moderate), Non- [15–17]
fusion released during the phase change paraffins (higher than paraffins), Inorganic:
Salt hydrates (high)
High thermal Ability of materials to transfer heat Accelerates the processes of thermal energy charging General: Low in most PCMs, can be [21–24]
conductivity and discharging improved with additives
Organic: Low in paraffins
Inorganic: High compared to organic
Suitable melting Must match the specific application. For Ensure that the PCM changes phase in the desired Varies depending on the type of PCM and [18–20]
temperature thermal comfort in buildings by operating temperature range application.
ASHRAE, the ideal range is 20–24 ◦ C
Congruent PCM melts and solidifies at the same Guarantees a constant energy storage capacity over Eutectics: Designed to melt congruently. [71,74,75]
melting temperature, without phase segregation multiple cycles
Minimum Difference between the PCM High subcooling can delay solidification and reduce Organic: Paraffins undergo negligible [20]
subcooling solidification temperature and its energy storage efficiency subcooling, Inorganic: Prone to subcooling
equilibrium melting point
Chemical Resistance to chemical degradation Ensures long service life and consistent system Organic: Paraffins are chemically inert and [20]
stability during multiple phase change cycles performance stable, Inorganic: May undergo
decomposition
Low cost The cost of the material must be Makes thermal energy storage technology accesible Organic: Paraffins are cheap, Inorganic: [20,27,28]
economically viable for the intended Generally low cost compared to organic,
application Eutectics: can be more expensive than other
types
Non-toxic and The PCM must not pose any risk to Ensures the safety and durability of the thermal Organic: Generally non-corrosive and non- [20,25]
non-corrosive human health or the environment, nor energy storage system toxic Inorganic: can be corrosive
corrode the materials of the storage
system
Non-flammable When exposed to high temperatures, Maintains safety and prevent potential fire hazards, Organic: Paraffins are flammable and almost [26]
they should not be flammable. especially in building applications where thermal all nonparaffins Inorganic: are
stability is crucial for occupant protection and nonflammable
structural integrity.

macro-encapsulation and micro-encapsulation [75,82]. Both micro-

encapsulated and macro-encapsulated PCMs are extensively utilized in
building applications. Macro-encapsulated PCMs necessitate the use of a
separate container or casing made from metal or plastic to prevent
leakage during the melting process. The diameters of the containers are
typically greater than 1 mm [17]. Containers can take various forms,
including cylinders, tubes, spheres, or plates, and their shape and size
can be tailored to the specific design of the brick and project re­
quirements. Certainly, macro-encapsulation allows for a high concen­
tration of PCM in the brick but may affect the mechanical strength of the
brick [75,76]. Micro-encapsulated PCMs consist of fine powders with
particle sizes from 1 μm to 1000 μm [83]. This method involves
encapsulating PCMs in small spheres to enable better distribution of the
PCMs within the brick. These capsules are then mixed with construction
materials such as cement, mortar, and concrete during the building
process [81,84]. However, the micro-encapsulation process can be
Fig. 4. Thermal storage capacity of materials with equal volume at ΔT = 15
complex and costly, limiting its commercial viability.
K [73].
The form-stabilized method, also known as shape stabilization, is a
technique for integrating PCMs into building materials without encap­
mixing method may negatively impact the mechanical strength of the sulation, creating a phase change composite. It involves incorporating
construction material [45]. the PCM into a porous matrix that prevents leakage during the liquid
In the immersion technique, the construction elements (brick blocks, phase, maintaining the shape of the material [85–87]. This process
wall boards, concrete) are submerged in a container filled with liquid typically mixes the liquid PCM with the supporting material at elevated
PCM absorbing the PCM through capillary action [29]. The efficiency temperatures, and as it cools, the PCM solidifies within the matrix,
and duration needed for complete saturation of the porous element are forming a stable structure [87]. Common materials used as supporting
influenced by the absorption capacity of the material, the temperature matrices include red bricks, cement, expanded graphite, silica, and clay.
and the type of PCM used [79]. The immersion technique encounters Red bricks provide mechanical strength and capillarity, preventing PCM
several challenges [45], including (a) the risk of PCM leakage, which leakage. Cement can also be used, but the amount of paraffin it can hold
may interfere with the hydration process, (b) possible PCM loss due to without leaking is limited [114]. Expanded graphite serves as a sup­
leakage after multiple thermal cycles, and (c) the extended duration porting matrix with paraffin and high-density polyethylene [88]. The
required for immersion, typically ranging from 4 to 8 h. temperature-assisted sol–gel method is used to create a SiO2 matrix that
Encapsulation involves enclosing the PCM in a dimensionally stable contains PCM [89]. Natural clay, combined with cellulose fibers and
container before integrating it into the brick [80,81]. This method graphite, has been used for bio-based PCMs [90]. Compared to encap­
mitigates the leakage of liquid PCM during phase changes, thereby sulation, this method is simpler and more cost-effective [91]. The porous
preserving the heat storage capacity of the brick. Depending on the size matrix can retain a significant amount of PCM and enables good inter­
of the container, encapsulation can be divided into two subcategories: action between the PCM and the supporting material, improving heat

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for greater flexibility in the design of cavities and the amount of PCM
used [83,96,97], compared to the form-stabilized method. It facilitates
heat transfer, especially when high thermal conductivity materials are
employed for the containers [98]. However, it may affect the mechanical
strength of the brick if the quantity and distribution of the PCM are not
optimized [9,37]. The costs may be higher due to the need to create the
cavities and containers for the PCM [99].
In summary, studies on integration methods generally favor macro-
encapsulation, micro-encapsulation, shape-stabilized PCMs, and PCM-
filled cavities over immersion or wet mixing methods for integrating
PCMs into bricks. These latter techniques receive less attention due to
the challenges and limitations inherent to them. The most commonly
used integration methods—macro-encapsulation, micro-encapsulation,
shape-stabilized PCMs, and PCM-filled cavities—are illustrated in
bricks in Fig. 7.

4. Influence of bricks design on thermal performance

Although bricks are common and economical building materials

[100], their ability to regulate indoor temperature in extreme climates
can be improved, often resulting in uncomfortable environments and
increased energy consumption [9].
The main types are hollow, perforated, and solid bricks. According to
Spanish standards [101], hollow bricks have 60 % to 70 % void volume,
perforated bricks contain 10 % to 33 % voids, and solid bricks have less
than 10 % voids. Most studies focus on hollow bricks due to their suit­
ability for PCM and thermal energy storage [32,83,86,102]. Common
materials include clay, concrete, and aluminium [5,12,69,103]. Clay
bricks are available in solid, perforated, and hollow forms, with varia­
tions like terracotta [69] and red bricks [87]. Concrete bricks are also
available in solid, perforated, and hollow forms, with over 10 billion
tonnes produced annually for construction [100].

4.1. The role of cavity design and PCM amount in enhancing the thermal
performance of bricks

The design of the brick, particularly the configuration of cavities, is a

critical factor that influences both the quantity of PCM that can be
incorporated and the efficiency of heat transfer within the material
[97,104]. The number, size, and location of these cavities, along with
the shape [105], are all key elements that must be carefully considered
in the cavity design process. In hollow and perforated bricks, cavities are
pre-defined during manufacturing process [31,102,106,107]. For solid
bricks, ’cavity design’ refers to creating internal spaces for macro­
capsules of PCMs [5,105]. In contrast, in bricks incorporating micro-
encapsulated PCMs, there is no need for large cavities, as the PCMs
are dispersed throughout the material in microscopic capsules [81]. The
location of PCM within these cavities is also critical, as its placement
Fig. 5. Schematic representation of the PCM selection method by Yang
et al. [78].
affects the rate and effectiveness of heat absorption and release [81,97].
Fig. 8 illustrates various brick designs used for thermal energy
storage, highlighting the relationship between cavity configuration and
transfer [92,93]. However, not all PCMs are compatible with every
PCM integration. These intentional cavities designs not only maximizes
supporting material [94], and incorporating the PCM may affect the
the amount of PCM that can be incorporated into the brick, but also
mechanical strength of the composite [95]. Additionally, the amount of
ensures the efficient storage and release of thermal energy, ultimately
PCM the supporting material can absorb is limited by its inherent
enhancing the building’s overall energy performance.
properties [94].
Table 5A summarizes the studies investigating the impact of brick
PCM-filled brick cavities offer a straightforward approach to inte­
design in building envelopes on the thermal performance. For example,
grating PCMs into bricks [10]. In this method, cavities or voids are
several studies have investigated how cavity design influences thermal
created within the bricks during the manufacturing process and then
performance. Al-Yasiri et al. [5] examined how the shape of paraffin wax
filled with PCM [10,40]. Cavities can take various shapes (cylindrical,
PCM capsules (circular, square, or rectangular cross-sections) influences
rectangular, etc.) and are strategically distributed within the brick to
thermal performance in concrete bricks in Al Amarah (Iraq). They found
optimize heat transfer. While the term “direct filling” might suggest a
that the heat transfer area of the capsule is a key factor, with excessive
straightforward process of simply introducing PCM into these cavities,
area negatively impacting performance. The brick-based square cross-
researchers highlight that encapsulation is a crucial step in this method
section PCM capsules showed the best thermal contribution compared
[74].Various materials have been used to encapsulate PCMs in bricks,
with the reference brick. Additionally, they observed that a higher
including aluminium, steel and polyethylene [10]. This approach allows
number of capsules with more PCM enhances heat storage capacity. In

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Fig. 6. Integration techniques of PCM in bricks for building envelopes.

Fig. 7. PCMs integration methods: (a) macro-encapsulation [5], (b) micro-encapsulation [25], (c) PCM filled cavities [97] and (d) form-stabilization [88].

Fig. 8. Traditional PCM-based brick featuring various capsule designs. For concrete solid bricks: (a) square cross-section, (b) cylindrical cross-section, (c) rectangular
cross-section. For perforated clay bricks: (d) circle, (e) polygon and (f) square [5,105].

another study by Izadi et al. [31] in Iran, bricks with cylindrical and mechanical strength. Saeed et al. [109] tested bricks with square cavities
rectangular cavities were tested using PCMs with different melting filled with two types of PCMs in Medina, Saudi Arabia, showing that
temperatures. They concluded that rectangular cavities provided better increasing the number of cavities filled with PCM significantly reduced
thermal performance, and the optimal configuration was to arrange heat flux, particularly during peak solar radiation hours. Mahdaoui et al.
PCMs with lower to higher melting temperatures from the cold to the hot [9] found that increasing PCM content improved thermal comfort in
wall. Allam et al. [105] tested bricks with circular, square, and polyg­ summer, with an optimal PCM content of 16 % by weight enhancing
onal cavities in Bechar, Algeria, and found that bricks with circular performance. Although not directly focused on varying PCM amounts,
cavities and paraffin-based PCM were most efficient at reducing heat studies by Aketouane et al. [104] and Elnajjar et al. [14] demonstrated
flow. Additionally, Lai and Chiang [108] demonstrated in Taiwan that the importance of PCM integration in improving thermal performance,
cylindrical cavities filled with paraffin PCM significantly reduced heat particularly in hotter climates. All these studies indicate that increasing
transfer during peak solar radiation. Finally, Gupta et al. [107] tested the PCM content enhances the brick’s latent heat storage capacity,
clay bricks in Lucknow (India) with tubular, square, and rectangular thereby improving its overall thermal performance.
cavities (Fig. 9) filled with PCM macrocapsules (octadecane and capric The optimal placement of PCM within a building envelope is crucial
acid), finding that the addition of graphite improved thermal perfor­ for its thermal performance under transient heat flow [110]. Mukram
mance, with square cavities providing the best thermal regulation. et al. [81] studied the impact of PCM position in concrete bricks, testing
Several studies have highlighted the relationship between PCM cavities at different distances from the exterior wall. They found that
content and thermal efficiency. Kant et al. [37] found that higher PCM placing PCM 75 mm from the exterior wall achieved the greatest
content in bricks with cylindrical cavities improved performance, reduction in heat gain (32 %), as shown in Fig. 10. Madad et al. [111]
although further optimization was necessary to preserve the brick’s tested PCM placement in bricks with square cavities and found that

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Fig. 9. (a) Perforated clay bricks with slots (b) tubular and square macrocapsules [107].

placing PCM in the exterior cavities resulted in the greatest reduction in positioned near the exterior wall to reduce temperature gain. These
thermal fluctuations, emphasizing the importance of both PCM quantity studies highlight the importance of PCM amount and positioning,
and position. Hichem et al. [97] investigated PCM placement in hollow particularly in hot climates.
bricks and discovered that central placement was most effective,
reducing heat flow by up to 82.1 % (Fig. 11) and lowering interior
temperatures by 3.8 ◦ C. Doubling the PCM by filling a second row of 4.2. Additional improvements: Insulation and building orientation
cavities with CaCl2⋅6H2O further reduced heat flux by 90.02 % (Fig. 12),
demonstrating the significant role of PCM placement in enhancing Incorporating additional thermal insulation into brick cavities can
thermal efficiency. improve thermal performance by reducing heat loss [114,115]. This
Other studies have investigated the combined impact of PCM quan­ extra barrier helps maintain a more stable indoor temperature and en­
tity and distribution on thermal performance. For example, a study in hances thermal comfort. Vicente et al. [114] compared the thermal
Jaipur, India, explored various PCM quantities and positions within inertia of PCM-integrated hollow brick walls with common masonry
hollow red clay bricks. It found that placing PCM closer to the exterior walls. Their study found that adding PCM macrocapsules significantly
surface allowed more PCM to melt during the charging phase, improving increased the heat storage capacity, reducing thermal amplitude by 50
heat dissipation and overall heat transfer. Similarly, Alawadhi et al. % and 80 % compared to a reference wall. In a similar study, Jia et al.
[112] studied PCM in cylindrical cavities in bricks for buildings in [115] conducted a numerical analysis to assess the impact of thermal
Kuwait, where air conditioning demand is high. They determined that insulation and PCM on the performance of hollow bricks. They found
placing PCM at the center of the cavities, with n-eicosane (melting point that insulation enhanced thermal resistance, while PCM increased
37 ◦ C), was most effective in reducing thermal load, with a 17.55 % thermal inertia. Both elements together substantially improved thermal
reduction in heat flow, as illustrated in Fig. 13. Babaharra et al. [113] performance and helped shift peak loads. However, the structural im­
examined bricks with square cavities in Morocco and found that filling plications of adding insulation, such as its effect on the strength and
the first two rows with PCM (R1R2 configuration) balanced temperature stability of the wall, must also be considered.
regulation and insulation. Finally, Hamidi et al. [35] tested various PCM The orientation of walls incorporating bricks with PCMs affects
placements in Morocco, with the best results found when PCM was system efficiency due to varying solar radiation. This impacts the PCM’s
ability to absorb and release heat, influencing overall performance.

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Fig. 10. (a) Brick models (mPCM30, mPCM40, mPCM50, mPCM75) utilized in CFD analysis to assess the impact of PCM position (b) heat gain and Maximum heat
gain reduction [81].

Fig. 11. Hourly fluctuations in thermal flux on the interior surface of a brick
containing CaCl2⋅6H2O positioned in three positions: near the outer, middle and
near the inner wall of brick [97].
Fig. 12. Decreases in the total heat flux entering through the brick with
Research by Elmarghany et al. [83] indicates that PCM integration is different positions and quantities of PCM [97].
most effective in horizontal orientations (such as roofs), as well as in east
and west-facing walls, where greater solar radiation enhances heat
transfer reduction. In contrast, north-facing walls, which receive less

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N. Ruiz-Marín Energy & Buildings 337 (2025) 115663

assessing thermal performance will be crucial for more consistent

comparisons between studies.

5.2. Energy efficiency of PCMs in various climatic zones

As the benefits of PCMs are explored from an energy perspective, it is

essential to also consider their feasibility under different climatic con­
ditions. In warm and dry climates, the integration of PCMs into bricks
has proven particularly effective in reducing cooling demand and
improving energy efficiency. For example, the study by Aketouane et al.
[104] examined PCM integration in hollow bricks for buildings in
Morocco, using COMSOL software for simulations across three typical
housing types in six different climatic zones. Results showed that PCMs
could reduce energy consumption by up to 40 %, particularly in oceanic
climates, where the heat retention and release properties of PCMs are
most beneficial. Similarly, Hamidi et al. [19] conducted studies in eight
cities across the Mediterranean region, finding that a PCM with a
Fig. 13. Total reduction of heat flux on the interior surface with varying
melting temperature of 26 ◦ C could reduce energy consumption by 56 %
numbers of PCM cylinders [112].
in the North-East Mediterranean climate, and by 50 % in the South-West
Mediterranean climate, both of which experience hot, dry summers and
solar exposure, show minimal effects as can be seen in Fig. 14. Park et al. milder winters. Other studies, such as those by Elmarghany et al. [83]
[116] further explored the optimal PCM characteristics for different investigated the use of n-eicosane as a PCM in bricks to enhance their
residential types based on their orientations, finding that flat-type energy efficiency. This study, conducted in Egypt, showed that incor­
apartments with southern-facing walls require PCMs with lower porating n-eicosane reduced the maximum brick temperature to
melting temperatures compared to those facing west, while tower-type 37.86 ◦ C, decreased maximum internal heat flow by 29 %, and shifted
apartments with eastern and southern orientations need higher the internal heat flow by 9.28 %. As a result, the overall energy savings
melting temperature PCMs than those in western and northern amounted to 22.52 % in winter, with an annual savings of 18.7 %. In
orientations. addition to the studies on traditional PCM applications, recent research
Additionally, Fateh et al. [117] conducted studies in Germany and has explored various types and configurations of PCMs to further
the USA, concluding that placing PCMs at the center of south-facing enhance thermal efficiency in buildings. Agarwal and Prabhakar [33]
walls significantly reduces energy consumption, whereas north and evaluated the effects of two types of PCMs, n-eicosane and OM35, with
west-facing walls yield minimal benefits. Lagou et al. [110] provided varying thicknesses and positions in bricks. Their numerical simulations
general guidelines for PCM application across Europe using numerical indicated a significant reduction in cooling load, with up to 31.1 %
simulations to illustrate temperature distributions in buildings, identi­ reduction in May, depending on the wall’s orientation and the type of
fying optimal PCM layer placements on inner wall surfaces in non- PCM (Fig. 15). The greatest reduction was observed in walls oriented
conditioned spaces. towards the southeast, emphasizing the importance of the wall’s posi­
tioning relative to the sun. In addition, Hamidi et al. [35] investigated
5. Thermal comfort and energy efficiency the integration of PCMs into hollow brick walls to reduce heat flux and
improve energy conservation. Their study found that placing PCMs in
Researchers show different approaches when prioritizing quantita­ strategic locations within the double-wall configuration significantly
tive indicators to evaluate the performance of PCMs. Some focus on reduced peak heat flux, with energy savings of up to 97 % in some
thermal comfort [107], while others analyse energy flow and the configurations. This suggests that positioning PCMs optimally is critical
reduction of cooling load, two key aspects that are directly related to the for maximizing their energy-saving potential and maintaining thermal
energy efficiency and sustainability of buildings [26,33,118,119]. comfort. On the other hand, M’hamdi et al. [122] utilized Energy Plus to
simulate the impact of PCMs on energy consumption across various
5.1. Enhancing the indoor thermal comfort scenarios. Their study, which included three climates from North Africa
and four types of building envelopes (brick, concrete block, reinforced
The evaluation of indoor environmental quality, as defined by the concrete and earth), reported an average energy saving of 251.82 kWh
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning En­ per year.
gineers (ASHRAE) Standard 55–2020 [120], includes the assessment of The incorporation of PCMs has also shown significant potential for
indoor surface temperature, thermal amplitude, time lag, and decrement energy savings in warm and humid climates. For instance, Kumar et al.
factor in relation to occupant comfort and energy performance. A lower [11] conducted an experiment in Chennai, India, where they integrated
maximum indoor temperature, reduced thermal amplitude, greater time PCMs into clay hollow bricks to enhance the thermal performance of
lag, and a lower decrement factor indicate improved thermal comfort buildings. In their study, two identical test rooms were built: one with
[39,81]. PCM-integrated bricks and the other without. The results showed a
Seven studies [5,12,39,81,99,107,121] have quantitatively assessed temperature reduction of up to 6 ◦ C in the room with PCMs (Fig. 16),
the impact of PCMs on thermal comfort parameters. Table 6A summa­ especially in January, indicating significant potential for energy savings.
rizes the results obtained for these investigations. The reviewed cases Although the study did not specifically quantify cooling demand re­
demonstrate the significant potential of PCMs to improve thermal ductions, the temperature reduction suggests a notable impact on
comfort in buildings. PCMs not only reduce indoor temperatures but also building energy efficiency. Similarly, the study by Lai and Chiang [108]
mitigate thermal fluctuations and delay peak temperature times, in Taiwan examined the thermal performance of PCM-treated bricks
contributing to a more stable and comfortable indoor environment and under solar radiation. The research compared octadecane paraffin-
reducing mechanical air-conditioning systems. Bricks that combine both treated bricks with untreated bricks, observing a 4.9 ◦ C lower surface
sensible and latent heat storage materials tend to perform best in terms temperature on the PCM-treated bricks when the maximum outdoor
of temperature reduction, thermal amplitude and decrement factor [12]. temperature reached 35.5 ◦ C. This demonstrated that the PCM-treated
Moving forward, the development of standardized methodologies for bricks exhibited better thermal insulation and could retain interior

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N. Ruiz-Marín Energy & Buildings 337 (2025) 115663

Fig. 14. (a) Fluctuation of incident radiation at various orientations throughout the day. Instantaneous variation of the indoor heat flux for (b) brick structure
without PCM and (c) brick structure with n-eicosane as PCM [83].

heat more effectively during the night. Zhou et al. [123] investigated the A more recent study [124] explored a double-layer PCM configuration to
performance of a hybrid space cooling system that combined thermal improve thermal comfort in buildings in Islamabad, Pakistan. The study
storage with shape-stabilized PCM and night ventilation, achieving utilized numerical simulations in Ansys Fluent to model a brick wall
substantial energy savings. This could be applied for warm and humid with an EPS layer between two PCM layers—one with a melting tem­
climates. perature of 29 ◦ C and the other with 13 ◦ C. Results showed that this
In regions characterized by significant temperature fluctuations, double-layer configuration outperformed single-layer systems, main­
such as Tehran, Dabiri et al. [96] utilized computational fluid dynamics taining a stable indoor temperature of ± 0.4 ◦ C during both summer and
(CFD) to analyze a brick containing PCM RT35 and air cavities. The winter. This configuration proved to be an effective solution for main­
study found that the incorporation of PCM reduced the amplitude of taining indoor comfort in climates with significant seasonal temperature
indoor temperature by 48.5 % in summer and 44 % in winter. The results variations, such as in Islamabad.
also demonstrated that latent heat accounted for 71 % of thermal storage
during the summer, while sensible heat contributed over 72 % in winter.

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N. Ruiz-Marín Energy & Buildings 337 (2025) 115663

Fig. 15. Comparison of monthly heating and cooling demands in various orientations for bare bricks and PCM-integrated bricks in a partially conditioned indoor
space [33].

6. Economic impact and environmental sustainability encapsulation [126]. However, the payback period for PCM in­
vestments can vary significantly based on several factors, including
While the energy efficiency of PCMs in various climatic zones is climate, energy prices, the type of PCM used, installation costs, and
promising, the next step is to evaluate how these savings translate into material density [46,128]. Payback periods can vary significantly,
economic terms. In this regard, given that energy demand in the con­ ranging from 2-3 years in Madrid (Spain) [129] to as long as 35 years in
struction sector continues to rise, PCMs present themselves as an Sydney (Australia) [127] as shown in Fig. 17. In Jaipur, however, the
attractive solution, despite their higher initial costs compared to con­ payback period for PCM-integrated bricks in an office building was
ventional materials. Over the long term, the energy savings generated by found to be as long as 181 years, casting doubts on the economic
PCMs can offset these upfront investments, making them economically feasibility of this approach in certain climates [33].
viable in many cases. Beyond economic benefits, the environmental impact of PCMs is
To assess the economic viability of incorporating PCMs into building crucial for their adoption. Production effects varies depending on
systems, researchers often rely on the Static Payback Period (SPP) composition, with research focusing on bio-based and waste-derived
method [125,126]. This approach calculates the time required to recoup PCMs to improve sustainability [90]. A comprehensive life cycle
the initial investment through energy savings. Due to its simplicity, the assessment (LCA)—which evaluates the environmental consequences
SPP is commonly employed in technical economic analyses. In the from production to disposal—is crucial for a full understanding of PCM
context of PCM application, the SPP is defined by Eq. (1): sustainability [131,132]. Despite the initial investment, integrating
PCMs into building envelopes can lead to significant long-term energy
CPCM
SPP = (1) savings, which not only reduces operating costs but also helps lower CO2
S
emissions. For example, one study found that optimal use of PCMs could
where SPP represents the static payback period, symbolizes the addi­ reduce CO2 emissions by as much as 707 kg per year [122], highlighting
tional initial investment required for implementing PCM, and S corre­ their dual benefit in promoting energy efficiency and environmental
sponds to the income generated through energy savings. sustainability. This potential is further validated by numerous experi­
The cost of PCMs is estimated to be around €40 per square meter for mental studies demonstrating the effectiveness of PCM-integrated
each centimetre of thickness, with an additional 20 % for macro- building materials in reducing energy consumption and CO2

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N. Ruiz-Marín Energy & Buildings 337 (2025) 115663

Fig. 16. (a) Monthly fluctuations in the minimum and maximum experimental temperatures between the rooms with PCM and those without, (b) encapsulated PCM
in brick (PCM room) and (c) PCM building model [11].

configuration achieved a reasonable payback period of around 11 years,

making it an optimal solution for improving energy efficiency while
balancing economic and environmental considerations.
Supporting these findings, data [119] presented in Fig. 19 describe
the monthly CO2 emissions, energy consumption and electricity costs
per unit area in Southeast Mexico.
The warmest months (April, May and June) exhibit the lowest energy
consumption, ranging from 8.7 kWh/m2 to 7 kWh/m2 for the hollow
block (HB) system. When employing the PCM layer in the hollow block
system (HBP), this consumption is reduced by 28.1 % to 8.4 %. This
results in lower CO2 emissions and electricity costs, with values of 2.95
kgCO2/m2 and 0.35 USD/m2 for HB, and 2.53 kgCO2/m2 and 0.30 USD/
m2 for HBP. In January, the HB system shows an energy consumption of
11.2 kWh/m2, with similar emissions and costs, while October records
the highest emissions (4.63 kgCO2/m2) and electricity costs (0.54 USD/
Fig. 17. Payback periods for cities from Australia, China, Norway, U.S, India, m2) for HBP; nevertheless, it still reduces these variables by up to 11.8 %
France, Spain and Sweden, with different climates [41,46,126–130]. compared to HB. This suggests that the incorporation of PCMs in the
HBP system enhances energy efficiency and reduces emissions, under­
emissions. A noteworthy study by [68] evaluated the use of burnt clay scoring the importance of seasonal management of consumption and
bricks integrated with PCMs for energy-efficient buildings. The research electricity costs, as well as the need to optimize the use of PCMs ac­
assessed five types of PCMs, including OM29, an organic material with a cording to climatic conditions to maximize their benefits. Research by
melting point of 29 ◦ C, across six different configurations (PIB-1 to PIB- Al-Yasiri et al. [133] also highlights the effectiveness of PCMs in
6). These configurations were tested in two Indian cities: Jaipur (hot and reducing CO2 emissions in hot climates. Their study showed that
dry) and New Delhi (composite climate). As shown in Fig. 18, the PIB-1 incorporating PCM into brick walls and roofs of buildings in southern
configuration, with OM29 in the outer layer of the brick, offered and the Iraq led to a daily reduction in CO2 emissions of approximately 1.3 kg
greatest CO2 emission reductions (87.80 ton-CO2/year in Jaipur and per day, demonstrating the environmental benefits of PCM integration.
88.42 ton-CO2/year in New Delhi). Also, the highest energy cost savings
($2079 in Jaipur and $2095 in New Delhi). On the other hand, this

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N. Ruiz-Marín Energy & Buildings 337 (2025) 115663

time. Future research should investigate degradation mechanisms

and develop degradation-resistant PCMs using chemical modifica­
tions and encapsulation methods.
5. Standardizing assessment methodologies is necessary to facilitate
comparison across studies. Research should focus on creating widely
accepted testing protocols for assessing thermal performance in
bricks with PCMs, including parameters like interior surface tem­
perature and thermal lag, and validate numerical models with
experimental data.
6. Promoting interdisciplinary research is vital for tackling the chal­
lenges of PCM integration in bricks. Collaboration among materials
scientists, civil engineers, architects, and sustainability experts will
help develop innovative materials, optimize building designs for
energy efficiency and thermal comfort, and assess the environmental
and economic impacts of bricks with PCMs.

Addressing these research priorities will make the integration of

PCMs in bricks a viable and widely adopted solution for enhancing en­
ergy efficiency, thermal comfort, and sustainability in buildings.

8. Conclusions

This study has carefully reviewed strategies for the selection and
integration of PCMs into bricks, highlighting their potential to enhance
energy efficiency and thermal comfort in buildings. Various types of
PCMs were explored, including organic, inorganic, and eutectic mate­
rials, assessing their advantages, limitations, and key properties such as
fusion enthalpy and thermal conductivity. The proper selection of a PCM
is critical, as no ideal material exists. Organic PCMs, such as paraffins,
Fig. 18. (a) Cross-sectional views of six configurations of burnt clay bricks with are cost-effective but flammable; inorganic PCMs, like hydrated salts,
PCM integrated: PCM layer on the outer side (PIB-1), PCM layer on the middle offer high fusion enthalpy but may be corrosive; and eutectic PCMs
layer (PIB-2), PCM layer on the inner side (PIB-3), PCM layers on the outer side provide customizable thermal properties, although they are more
and middle (PIB-4), PCM layers on the middle and inner side (PIB-5) and PCM expensive. The selection strategy should consider the Ashby Method for
layers on the outer side and inner side (PIB-6). For Jaipur and New Delhi cities visual comparison and MCDM methods for a holistic approach. Prop­
(b) carbon emission mitigation of buildings with PCM bricks [68].
erties to consider include thermophysical (high fusion enthalpy, high
thermal conductivity, and appropriate melting temperature), chemical
7. Future recommendations (stability, non-corrosivity, non-toxicity, and flammability) economic
(low initial cost and favorable return) aspects and sustainability. Inte­
Despite advancements in PCM research for construction applica­ gration techniques of PCMs in building applications (such as direct and
tions, certain challenges remain that must be addressed in future studies indirect methods) significantly influence thermal performance. Each
to fully optimize their application in bricks. method have advantages and limitations for the PCM integration in
bricks. The design of cavities (size, shape, and distribution) and building
1. Enhancing thermal conductivity is essential, as the low thermal orientation are crucial. South, east, and west orientations are more
conductivity of most PCMs limits their performance in thermal en­ effective due to greater solar exposure. PCMs improve thermal comfort
ergy storage. Research should focus on strategies to improve con­ by reducing interior surface temperature, thermal amplitude, and
ductivity, such as incorporating high-conductivity materials like decrement factor, while increasing thermal lag and decreasing energy
metal oxides, metals, and graphite into the PCM matrix and opti­ demand. Despite their potential, challenges remain, such as improving
mizing structural designs to maximize contact surfaces for better thermal conductivity, reducing costs, and ensuring safety. Future
heat transfer. research should focus on developing PCMs with enhanced properties,
2. Cost reduction remains a challenge, as the high cost of some PCMs standardizing methodologies, and establishing safety guidelines with a
limits their adoption compared to traditional building materials. positive impact on reducing CO2 emissions. Overall, this review is sig­
Future research should aim to develop low-cost PCMs by exploring nificant as it compiles existing knowledge on the integration of PCMs
alternative materials, manufacturing processes, and optimizing into bricks—an area that has not been previously reviewed—while
integration techniques to reduce production costs. analyzing methods, materials, and designs aimed at improving energy
3. Addressing safety concerns is critical, as some PCMs, such as paraf­ efficiency in buildings. The findings are valuable for engineers, archi­
fins, are flammable. Research should focus on developing non- tects, building materials researchers, and professionals in sustainable
flammable PCMs or enhancing the fire-retardant properties of construction, as well as for those seeking to reduce energy consumption
existing ones through coatings and additives, along with establishing in buildings.
safety guidelines for their handling, storage, and integration in
buildings. CRediT authorship contribution statement
4. Improving durability and aging is important to ensure the long-term
stability of PCMs in bricks, maintaining thermal performance over N. Ruiz-Marín: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft,

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N. Ruiz-Marín Energy & Buildings 337 (2025) 115663

Fig. 19. Total monthly heat flux (a), electricity consumption costs (b) and CO2 emissions (c) [119].

Supervision, Resources, Methodology, Conceptualization. interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

Appendix A

Table 1A
Thermal properties of organic PCMs.
PCMs Melting temperature (◦ C) Heat fusion (kJ/kg) Thermal conductivity (W/m K) Ref.

Paraffin C16-C18 –22 152 ​ [134]

Paraffin C13-C24 22–24 189 0.21 [135]
Paraffin C18 28 244 0.15 [135]
Butyl stearate 19 140 _ [136]
Capric acid 32 152.7 0.153 (l) [70,137]
Caprylic acid 16 148.5 0.149 (l) [137]
1-Dodecanol 26 200 _ [136]
n-Octadecane 28 200 _ [18]
Vinyl stearate 27–29 122 _ [70,138]
34 % Mistiric acid + 66 % Capric acid 24 147.7 0.164 (l) [137]
Dimethyl sabacate 21 120–135 _ [70,138]
Polyglycol E600 22 127.2 0.1897 (l) [70,138]
45 % capric + 55 % lauric acid 21 143 _ [70]
Propyl palmitate 19 186 _ [70,138]
​ 21 143 _ [138]

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Table 2A
Thermal properties of inorganic PCMs.
PCMs Melting temperature (◦ C) Heat fusion (kJ/kg) Thermal conductivity (W/m K) Ref.

KF⋅4H2O 18.5 231 _ [70,75]

Mn(NO3)⋅6H2O 25.8 125.9 _ [70,75]
CaCl2⋅6H2O 29.7 171 _ [53,138]
LiNO3 –3H2O 30 189 _ [17,75]

Table 3A
Thermal properties of eutectics PCMs.
PCMs Melting temperature (◦ C) Heat fusion (kJ/kg) Thermal conductivity(W/m K) Ref.

% Capric acid + 25 % myristic acid 22.17 153.19 _ [75,139]

CaCl2⋅6H2O + Nuclear + MgCl2⋅6H2O (2:1) 25 127 _ [70,75]
Na2CO3⋅10H2O to Na2HPO4⋅12H2O (40:60) 27.3 220.2 _ [75,140]
48 % CaCl2 + 4.3 % NaCl + 0.4 % KCl + 47.3 % H2O 26.8 188 _ [70,75]

Table 4A
Thermal properties of commercial PCMs [70,141,142].
PCMs Melting temperature (◦ C) Heat fusion (kJ/kg) Thermal conductivity (W/m K)

​ 22 172 _
RT 24 21–25 160 0.2
RT25 25 147 1.02 (s)
RT 26 25–26 180 0.2
RT 27 26–28 179 0.2
RT 31 27–33 165 0.2
STL 27 27 213 _
Climsel C23 23 148 _
Climsel C24 24 216 _
S 27 27 190 0.79 (s)
TH 29 29 188 _
SP 22 A 17 22 150 0.6
SP 25 A 8 25 180 0.6
SP 29 29 157 0.6
RT 18 HC 17–19 260 0.2
RT 21 HC 20–23 190 0.2
RT 22 HC 21–24 190 0.2
RT 25 HC 22–26 210 0.2

Table 5A
Traditional PCMs based-bricks with different cavities design to improve the thermal efficiency.
Ref. PCM type Brick design Integration Cavity/ Cavity/ Number of PCM placement City Key results
(melting PCM macrocapsule macrocapsule cavities/ (Country)
temperature) technique shape size (cm) macrocapsules

[5] Paraffin wax Macro- Circular, Ø1.5 x 18 6 (for circular) Inside aluminium Al Amarah A greater number of
(44 ◦ C) encapsulation square, (circular) 1, 2, 5 (for macrocapsules (Iraq) capsules, and thus a
rectangular 4 x 4 x 10.25 square)3, 4, 6 larger volume of
(square) (for PCM, enhances the
4x4x5 rectangular) heat storage
(square) capacity.
4 x 4x 2
(square)
4x2x7
(square)
4 x 2 x 5.125
(rectangular)
4 x 2 x 3.5
(rectangular)
[104] Paraffins and PCM-filled Rectangular 2 x 2.5 8 Inside Agadir, Reduction of heat
fatty acids cavities rectangular Ifrane, Fez flow up to 40 %
(24 ◦ C to 37 ◦ C) cavities and Tangier during the summer
(Morocco) months.

(continued on next page)

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Table 5A (continued )
Ref. PCM type Brick design Integration Cavity/ Cavity/ Number of PCM placement City Key results
(melting PCM macrocapsule macrocapsule cavities/ (Country)
temperature) technique shape size (cm) macrocapsules

[81] ME29P (28.8 ◦ C) Micro- Circular Ø1 18 Holes are located Mangalore The brick model
encapsulation at 30 mm, 40 mm, (India) with the PCM
50 mm, and 75 located 75 mm from
mm respectively the exterior wall,
from the outer achieved the
wall greatest reduction in
heat gain (32 %).

[112] n-eicosane (Tm PCM-filled Cylindrical Ø3 1, 2, 3 Center, near the Kuwait City The optimal
37 ◦ C) n- cavities interior surface, (Kuwait) placement of PCM at
octadecane, (Tm near the exterior the center of the
27 ◦ C), and P116 surface brick, with n-
(Tm 47 ◦ C) eicosane proving
most effective,
reduced indoor heat
flux by 17.55 % and
lowered the cooling
energy load.
[105] RT24, RT42, n- Macro- Square, − 3 Inside plastic Bechar The combination of
eicosane, and encapculation Circular, macrocapsules (Algeria) cavity shape and
capric acid Polygonal PCM type
significantly affects
heat flow reduction,
with circular
cavities offering the
best thermal
efficiency when
used with paraffin-
based PCMs.

[113] Paraffin (28 ◦ C) PCM-filled Square 2.5 × 2.5 12 First two rows of Agadir, Filling the first two
cavities cavities Tangier, Fez, rows of cavities with
Ifrane, PCM significantly
Marrakech improved thermal
and regulation. The PCM
Errachidia integration
(Morocco) stabilizes internal
brick surface
temperatures,
enhancing thermal
comfort,
particularly in hot
climates.
[14] n-octadecane PCM-filled Square − 2 Central cavity Al Ain city The integration of
(27 ◦ C), n- cavities (UAE) PCM significantly
eicosane (37 ◦ C), reduced heat
P116 (47 ◦ C) transfer, improving
the thermal
performance of the
brick.

[107] Octadecane Macro- Tubular, − 2,4 2 macrocapsules Lucknow The combination of

(30.42 ◦ C), encapsulation Square, (tubular), 4 (India) PCM and graphite
capric acid Rectangular macrocapsules enhanced the
(37.42 ◦ C), (square), 2 thermal
graphite macrocapsules performance, with
(rectangular) square cavities
providing the best
thermal regulation.

(continued on next page)

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Table 5A (continued )
Ref. PCM type Brick design Integration Cavity/ Cavity/ Number of PCM placement City Key results
(melting PCM macrocapsule macrocapsule cavities/ (Country)
temperature) technique shape size (cm) macrocapsules

[35] Paraffin RT26 PCM-filled Rectangular 2 × 2.5 8 Near the exterior Er-rachidia Placing PCMs near
(26 ◦ C) cavities wall, near the (Morocco) the exterior wall
interior wall, was most effective
center, middle in reducing
temperature gain.
PCMs in positions 2,
3, and 4 reduced
peak heat flux, with
positions 3 and 4
achieving a 97 %
decrease in energy
needed to maintain
a 26 ◦ C indoor
temperature for
thermal comfort.
[97] 5 types of PCMs PCM-filled Rectangular 4 × 3.667 12 Center, near the Algeria Central placement
(29.9 ◦ C to cavities exterior wall, of PCM achieved the
52 ◦ C) near the interior highest reduction in
wall heat flow (82.1 %)
and a 3.8 ◦ C
decrease in interior
wall temperature.
Doubling the PCM
amount in both the
center and near the
outer wall reduced
total heat flux by
90.02 % over 24 h.
[31] RT15, RT18 and Macro- Rectangular, − 8, 12 Near the exterior Tabriz (Iran) To place the PCM
RT22 (15 ◦ C, encapsulation circular wall, near the layer near the
18 ◦ C, 22 ◦ C) interior wall interior wall
maximizes
efficiency in cold
climates.

[108] Octadecane Macro- Cylindrical Ø4.5 3 Inside cylindrical Taiwan Placement of PCM in
(28 ◦ C) encapsulation macrocapsules the cavities
effectively reduced
heat transfer during
peak solar radiation
periods.

[111] Paraffin RT27 PCM-filled Square 4×4 12 Internal, central − Placement in the
(28 ◦ C), cavities and external external cavities
heptadecane cavities provided the best
(22 ◦ C), calcium thermal
chloride performance, with
(CaCl2⋅6H2O) PCM located near
(29.9 ◦ C) the outer surface
achieving the
greatest reduction in
temperature
fluctuations.
[109] n-eicosane PCM-filled Square 3×3 1–4 The hole is placed Medina The use of PCM n-
(29 ◦ C) and cavities on the inner side (Saudi eicosane
P116 (47 ◦ C) of the wall Arabia) significantly reduces
heat flux through
the wall. Adding
extra holes,
especially when the
bricks are filled with
n-eicosane, further
decreases heat flux.
(continued on next page)

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Table 5A (continued )
Ref. PCM type Brick design Integration Cavity/ Cavity/ Number of PCM placement City Key results
(melting PCM macrocapsule macrocapsule cavities/ (Country)
temperature) technique shape size (cm) macrocapsules

[9] n-nonadecane Macro- Rectangular 4 x 3.667 12 Within the solid Fez, The integration of
(32 ◦ C) encapsulation matrix of the Marrakech PCM in bricks
brick, and Er- enhances thermal
surrounding the rachidia performance,
12 air cavities (Morocco) reduces the
amplitude of indoor
temperature, and
increases the time
lag.

[37] Paraffin PCM-filled Cylindrical Ø3 3 Inside cylindrical Rae Bareli Reduction of heat
(28.2 ◦ C), capric cavities cavities within (India) flow through the
acid (32 ◦ C) and the bricks brick. Capric acid is
RT-25 (26.6 ◦ C) the most effective
PCM. The greater
the amount of PCM,
the greater the
reduction in heat
flow.

[33] n-eicosane and Macro- Rectangular 16.5 x 8.5 1 From near the Jaipur A greater quantity of
OM35(36–38 ◦C encapsulation exterior wall to (India) PCM leads to a
and 33–37 ◦C) near the interior higher latent heat
wall. storage capacity and
allowing for a
higher heat transfer.

Table 6A
Values of average peak temperature reduction, thermal amplitude reduction, time lag and decrement factor.
Test Brick design Brick Used Integration Climate Maximum Thermal amplitude reduction Time lag Decrement factor
methodology material PCM PCM temperature (◦ C) (%) (min)
technique reduction (◦ C)

Experimental Bricks with concrete Organic Macro- Al Amarah, 1.88 _ _ 42.5 0.901 (square) [5]
different encapsulation Iraq (square)
capsule
designs
(circular,
square and
rectangular
cross-
sections)
Numerical and Hollow clay Organic Macro- Mediterranean 2.5 _ _ 180 _ [39]
experimental bricks encapsulation
Experimental Rectangular clay Eutectic Macro- Lucknow, 1.67 (hybrid) _ 13.74 (hybrid) 180 0.862 (hybrid) [12]
slotted mixture encapsulation India (sensible)
Numerical and Brick with concrete − Micro- − 8.6 (for mPCM75) 7.663 (for _ 11 31.36 (for [81]
experimental PCM holes encapsulation mPCM75) mPCM75)
shifted
Numerical and Hollow ​ − Macro- Diwaniya, Iraq 4.7 _ 23.84 120 0.7 [99]
experimental bricks encapsulation
Experimental Slotted bricks clay Organic Macro- Lucknow, 4.20 _ 27.02–33.33–32.20 120 0.332–0.356–0.372 [107]
with different encapsulation India (tubular) (tubular) (tubular)
capsule
designs
(tubular
shape, square
shape, and
rectangular)
Experimental Hollow clay Organic Macro- Islamabad, 4–5.5 _ 32 150 0.91 [152]
bricks (11 eutectic encapsulation Pakistan
holes) with
tubular
capsules

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