Microprocessors Based Systems Design
I- Microprocessors
The microprocessor is the heart of a microcomputer system. In fact, it forms the
central processing unit of any microcomputer and has been rightly referred to as
the computer on a chip. This chapter gives an introduction to microprocessor
fundamentals, followed by application-relevant information, such as salient
features, pin configuration, internal architecture, instruction set, etc., of popular
brands of eight-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit and 64-bit microprocessors from international
giants like INTEL, MOTOROLA and ZILOG.
I.1 Introduction to Microprocessors
A microprocessor is a programmable device that accepts binary data from an input
device, processes the data according to the instructions stored in the memory and
provides results as output. In other words, the microprocessor executes the
program stored in the memory and transfers data to and from the outside world
through I/O ports. Any microprocessor-based system essentially comprises three
parts, namely the microprocessor, the memory and peripheral I/O devices. The
microprocessor is generally referred to as the heart of the system as it performs all
the operations and also controls the rest of the system. The three parts are
interconnected by the data bus, the address bus and the control bus (Fig. 1.1).
The memory stores the binary instructions and data for the microprocessor. The
memory can be classified as the primary or main memory and secondary memory.
Read/write memory (R/WM) and read only memory (ROM) are examples of
primary memory and are used for executing and storing programs. Magnetic disks
and tapes are examples of secondary memory. They are used to store programs and
results after the completion of program execution. Microprocessors do not execute
programs stored in the secondary memory directly. Instead, they are first copied on
to the R/W primary memory.
Figure 1.1: Microprocessor based systems
Input/output devices are means through which the microprocessor interacts with
the outside world. The commonly used input devices include keyboards, A/D
converters, switches, cameras, scanners, microphones and so on. LEDs, seven-
segment displays, LCD displays, printers and monitors are some of the commonly
used output devices. A bus is basically a communication link between the
processing unit and the peripheral devices. It is a group of wires that carry
information in the form of bits. The address bus is unidirectional and is used by
the CPU to send out the address of the memory location to be accessed. It is also
used by the CPU to select a particular input or output port. It may consist of 8, 16,
20 or an even greater number of parallel lines. The number of bits in the address
bus determines the maximum number of data locations in the memory that can
be accessed. A 16-bit address bus, for instance, can access 216 data locations. It is
labelled as A0, …,An−1, where n is the width (in bits) of the address bus. The data
bus is bidirectional, that is, data flow occurs both to and from the microprocessor
and peripherals. Data bus size has a considerable influence on the computer
architecture, as parameters such as the word length and the quantum of data that
can be manipulated at a time are determined by the size of the data bus. There is
an internal data bus, which may not be of the same width as the external data bus
that connects the microprocessor to I/O and memory. The size of the internal
data bus determines the largest number that can be processed by the
microprocessor in a single operation. The largest number that can be processed,
for instance, by a microprocessor having a 16-bit internal data bus is 65535. The
data bus is labelled as D0, …,Dn−1, where n is the data bus width (in bits). The
control bus contains a number of individual lines carrying synchronizing signals.
The term ‘bus’ would normally imply a group of lines working in unison. The
control bus (if we call it a bus) sends out control signals to memory, I/O ports and
other peripheral devices to ensure proper operation. It carries control signals such
as memory read, memory write, read input port, write output port, hold, interrupt,
etc. For instance, if it is desired to read the contents of a particular memory
location, the CPU first sends out the address of that location on the address bus
and a ‘memory read’ control signal on the control bus. The memory responds by
outputting data stored in the addressed memory location onto the data bus.
‘Interrupt’ tells the CPU that an external device needs to be read or serviced.
‘Hold’ allows a device such as the direct memory access (DMA) controller to take
over the address and data buses. Figure 1.2 shows the bus interface between the
microprocessor and its peripheral devices. The microprocessor considered in the
diagram is an eight-bit microprocessor such as Intel’s 8085. Microprocessor-based
systems can be categorized as general-purpose reprogrammable systems and
embedded systems. Reprogrammable systems include microcomputers and
mainframe and miniframe computers where microprocessors are used for
computing and data processing. In embedded systems, they perform a specific task
and are not available for reprogramming to the end-user. Examples of these systems
include mobile phones, washing machines, microwave ovens, dish washers and so
on.
Figure 1.2 Bus interface between the microprocessor and its peripheral devices.
In most of these systems, the microprocessor, memory and I/O ports are combined
onto one chip, known as the microcontroller.
1.2 Evolution of Microprocessors
The first microprocessor was introduced in 1971 by the Intel Corporation. It was
a four-bit microprocessor, Intel 4004. Other four-bit microprocessors developed
were Intel 4040 by Intel, PPS-4 by Rockwell International, T3472 by Toshiba and
so on. The first eight-bit microprocessor, named Intel 8008, was also developed by
Intel in the year 1972. All these microprocessors were made using PMOS
technology. The first microprocessor using NMOS technology was Intel 8080,
developed by Intel in the year 1973. Intel 8080 was followed by Intel 8085 in the
year 1975, which became very popular. Other popular eight-bit microprocessors
were Zilog’s Z80 (1976) and Z800, Motorola’s MC6800 (1974) and MC6809
(1978), National Semiconductor’s NSC 800, RCA’s 1802 (1976) and so on. The
first multichip 16-bit microprocessor was National Semiconductor’s IMP-16,
introduced in 1973. The first 16-bit single-chip microprocessor was Texas
Instrument’s TMS 9900. Intel’s first 16-bit microprocessor was Intel 8086
introduced in the year 1978. Other 16-bit microprocessors developed by Intel were
Intel 80186 (1982), Intel 8088, Intel 80188 and Intel 80286 (1982). Other popular
16-bit microprocessors include Motorola’s 68000 (1979), 68010 and 68012, Zilog’s
Z8000, Texas Instruments TMS 9900 series and so on. 32-bit microprocessors came
into existence in the 1980s. The world’s first single-chip 32-bit microprocessor was
introduced by AT&T Bell Labs in the year 1980. It was named BELLMAC32A.
The first 32-bit processor introduced by Intel was iapx 432, introduced in 1981.
The more popular 32-bit microprocessor was Intel 80386, introduced by Intel in
1985. It was widely used for desktop computers. The 32-bit microprocessor family
of Intel includes Intel 486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III and
Pentium IV. AMD’s K5, K6 and K7, Motorola’s 68020 (1985), 68030 and 68040,
National Semiconductor’s 32032 and 32332 and Zilog’s Z80000 are other popular
32-bit microprocessors. All these microprocessors are based on CISC (Complex
Instruction Set Computers) architecture. The first commercial RISC (Reduced
Instruction Set Computers) design was released by MIPS Technologies, the 32-bit
R2000. Some of the popular RISC processors include Intel’s 80860 and 80960,
Motorola’s 88100 and Motorola’s, IBM and Apple’s PowerPC series of
microprocessors. While 64-bit microprocessor designs have been in use in several
markets since the early 1990s, the early 2000s have seen the introduction of 64-bit
microchips targeted at the PC market. Some of the popular 64-bit microprocessors
are AMD’s AMD64 (2003) and Intel’s x86-64 chips. Popular 64-bit RISC
processors include SUN’s ULTRASPARC, PowerPC 620, Intel’s Itanium, MIPS
R4000, R5000, R10000 and R12000 and so on.
