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 Methods for the
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CHDISMTHAPP
 Methods for the
Summation of Series

Tian-Xiao He
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks
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ISBN: 978-0-367-50797-8 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-19500-1 (pbk)
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DOI: 10.1201/9781003051305

Publisher’s note: This book has been prepared from camera-ready copy provided by the authors
Contents

Foreword xi

Testimonial xiii

Preface xv

Biography xix

Symbols xxi

1 Classical Methods from Infinitesimal Calculus 1

1.1 Use of Infinitesimal Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Convergence of series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Limits of sequences and series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Abel’s Summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.2.1 Abel’s theorem and Tauber theorem . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.2.2 Abel’s summation method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.3 Series Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.3.1 Use of the calculus of finite difference . . . . . . . . . 36
1.3.2 Application of Euler-Maclaurin formula and the
Bernoulli polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

2 Symbolic Methods 67
2.1 Symbolic Approach to Summation Formulas of Power Series 68
2.1.1 Wellknown symbolic expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.1.2 Summation formulas related to the operator
(1 − xE)−1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.1.3 Consequences and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.1.4 Remainders of summation formulas . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.1.5 Q-analog of symbolic operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.2 Series Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.2.1 An extension of Eulerian fractions . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2.2.2 Series-transformation formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.2.3 Illustrative examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2.3 Summation of Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

v
vi Contents

2.3.1 Summation formulas involving operators . . . . . . . . 112

2.3.2 Some special convolved polynomial sums . . . . . . . . 120
2.3.3 Convolution of polynomials and two types of
summations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2.3.4 Multifold Convolutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2.3.5 Some operator summation formulas from multifold
convolutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

3 Source Formulas for Symbolic Methods 137

3.1 An Application of Mullin-Rota’s Theory of Binomial
Enumeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3.1.1 A substitution rule and its scope of applications . . . 138
3.1.2 Various symbolic operational formulas . . . . . . . . . 141
3.1.3 Some theorems on Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.1.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3.2 On a Pair of Operator Series Expansions Implying a Variety of
Summation Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.2.1 A pair of (∞4 ) degree formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.2.2 Specializations and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.2.3 A further investigation of a source formula . . . . . . 168
3.2.4 Various consequences of the source formula . . . . . . 171
3.2.5 Lifting process and formula chains . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.3 (Σ∆D) General Source Formula and Its Applications . . . . 178
3.3.1 (Σ∆D) GSF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.3.2 GSF implies SF(2) and SF(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.3.3 Embedding techniques and remarks . . . . . . . . . . 183

4 Methods of Using Special Function Sequences, Number

Sequences, and Riordan Arrays 193
4.1 Use of Stirling Numbers, Generalized Stirling Numbers, and
Eulerian Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.1.1 Basic convergence theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.1.2 Summation formulas involving Stirling numbers,
Bernoulli numbers, and Fibonacci numbers . . . . . . 200
4.1.3 Summation formulas involving generalized Eulerian
functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.2 Summation of Series Involving Other Famous Number
Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4.2.1 Convergence theorem and examples . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.2.2 More summation formulas involving Fibonacci numbers
and generalized Stirling numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
4.2.3 Summation formulas of (ΣS) class . . . . . . . . . . . 225
4.3 Summation Formulas Related to Riordan Arrays . . . . . . . 235
Contents vii

4.3.1 Riordan arrays, the Riordan group, and their sequence

characterizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.3.2 Identities generated by using extended Riordan arrays
and Faà di Bruno’s formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
4.3.3 Various row sums of Riordan arrays . . . . . . . . . . 263
4.3.4 Identities generated by using improper or non-regular
Riordan arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
4.3.5 Identities related to recursive sequences of order 2 and
Girard-Waring identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
4.3.6 Summation formulas related to Fuss-Catalan numbers 285
4.3.7 One-pth Riordan arrays and Andrews’ identities . . . 295

5 Extension Methods 305

5.1 Identities and Inverse Relations Related to Generalized Riordan
Arrays and Sheffer Polynomial Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . 306
5.1.1 Generalized Riordan arrays and the recurrence relations
of their entries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
5.1.2 The Sheffer group and the Riordan group . . . . . . . 318
5.1.3 Higher dimensional extension of the Riordan group . . 329
5.1.4 Dual sequences and pseudo-Riordan involutions . . . . 342
5.2 On an Extension of Riordan Array and Its Application in the
Construction of Convolution-type and Abel-type Identities . 354
5.2.1 Generalized Riordan arrays with respect to basic
sequences of polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
5.2.2 A general class of convolution-type identities . . . . . 364
5.2.3 A general class of Abel identities . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
5.3 Various Methods for constructing Identities Related to
Bernoulli and Euler Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
5.3.1 Applications of dual sequences to Bernoulli and Euler
polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
5.3.2 Extended Zeilberger’s algorithm for constructing
identities related to Bernoulli and Euler polynomials . 399
5.3.2.1 Gosper’s algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
5.3.2.2 W-Z algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
5.3.2.3 Zeilberger’s creative telescoping algorithm . . 403
5.3.2.4 Extended Zeilberger’s algorithm . . . . . . . 405

Bibliography 417

Index 433
 To Yulan
To Calvin and Viola
Foreword

You are about to encounter a very special book. Summing series has been of
interest for centuries, and, in an age of powerful computers, the interest has
greatly intensified. Keopf’s Hypergeometric Summations, The Concrete Tetra-
hedron by Kauers and Paule, and A=B by Petkovsek, Wilf, and Zeilberger
are all impressive works devoted to this topic.
So why do we need, Methods for the Summation of Series, ostensibly de-
voted to the same subject? Let us begin by noting the background that the
author Tian-Xiao He (Earl and Marian A. Beling Professor of Natural Sci-
ences and Professor of Mathematics, Illinois Wesleyan University) brings to
this effort. He has done important work in numerical analysis, wavelet analy-
sis, approximation theory, and splines. These interests have led him naturally
into enumerative combinatorics and the emerging field of Riordan Arrays. This
diversity of interests is on full display in this book. It would be fair to say that
this volume combines the charm of an ancient book like I. J. Schwatt’s, An
Introduction to the Operations with Series (1924), with a keen awareness of
the many aspects of the most recent methods developed for the summation of
series. The advantage of this mixture is that insight and context are provided
for many applications.
The five chapters of this book provide a clear view of the depth of vision.
The first chapter is devoted to classical methods, which, while they date back
to the 19th century and before, are nonetheless effective and always timely.
Symbolic methods occupy the next two chapters. This, too, is a venerable
subject dating back to invariant theory; its modern combinatorial manifesta-
tions were pioneered by Gian-Carlo Rota. This is a compelling way to place
the classic theory of finite differences in a modern and substantially more
powerful setting.
Chapter 4 moves to the world of special functions. Of particular interest
is the extensive use of Riordan Arrays, a topic in which Professor He is one of
the world leaders. This is, indeed, one of the highlights of this book. The final
chapter continues to build on Riordan Arrays and concludes with an account
of some of the algorithms that have been so successful in doing summations
via computer algebra.

xi
xii Foreword

This is a well-written, lucid book with many surprising gems. I am happy

to recommend it to you as a valuable addition to your library.
George E. Andrews
Evan Pugh University Professor in Mathematics
Member, National Academy of Sciences (USA)
Past President, American Mathematical Society
Testimonial

In the past three months, I really enjoyed reading through the book. It is a
very good monograph and text and offering an overview of several valuable
techniques, and readers will find it to be a very fine reference book as well as
one from which to study. I certainly give it my highest recommendation. The
author presented very impressive publications and research activities.
Henry Wadsworth Gould
Professor Emeritus of Mathematics
West Virginia University, Morgantown
Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Honorary Fellow of the Institute of Combinatorics and its Applications
July 11, 2021

xiii
Preface

This book presents methods for the summation of infinite and finite series and
the related identities and inversion relations. The summation includes the col-
umn sums and row sums of lower triangular matrices. The convergence of the
summation of infinite series is considered. We focus on symbolic methods and
the Riordan array approach for the summation. Much of the materials in this
book have never appeared before in textbook form. This book can be used as
a suitable textbook for advanced courses for higher-level undergraduate and
lower level graduate students. It is also an introductory self-study book for
researchers interested in this field, while some materials of the book can be
used as a portal for further research. In addition, this book contains hundreds
of summation formulas and identities, which can be used as a handbook for
people working in computer science, applied mathematics, and computational
mathematics, particularly, combinatorics, computational discrete mathemat-
ics, and computational number theory. The exercises at the end of each chapter
help deepen understanding.
Since the methods discussed in this book are related to the classical sum-
mation methods, we present the main classical methods in Chapter 1 with the
example oriented way. This chapter provides useful supplementary materials
for the people who study advanced Calculus, and training materials for the
people who study applied and computational mathematics.
The infinitesimal calculus or differential and integral calculus is a field to
treat functions of continuous independent variables. The methods to find sum-
mation of series by using infinitesimal calculus shall be surveyed Chapter 1.
We will introduce one by one the following five simple and common methods:
(1) Substitution method; (2) Telescoping method; (3) Method of the sum-
mation of trigonometric series; (4) Differentiation and integration method for
uniformly convergent series; and (5) Abel’s summation.
As is well known, the closed form representation of series has been studied
extensively. It is also known that the symbolic calculus with operators ∆ (dif-
ference), E (shift or displacement), and D (derivative) plays an important role
in the Calculus of Finite Differences, which is often employed by statisticians
and numerical analysts. The object of Chapter 2 is to make use of the classical
operators ∆, E, and D to develop closed forms for the summation of power se-
ries that appear to have a certain wide scope of applications. Throughout this
chapter the theory of formal power series and of differential operators will be
utilized, while the convergence of the infinite series is discussed. In this chap-
ter, we focus on the summation and identities arising from the interrelations

xv
xvi Preface

of a number of operators in common use in combinatorics, number theory, and

discrete mathematics. Various well-known results can also be found in some
classical treatises in this chapter. Since all the symbolic expressions used and
operated in the calculus could be formally expressed as power series in ∆ (or
D or E) over the real or complex number field, it is clear that the theoretical
basis of the calculus may be found within the general theory of the formal
power series. Worth reading is a sketch of the theory of formal series that has
been given briefly in Chapter 2.
Chapter 3 presents a frame work with several source formulas, from which
numerous summation formulas and identities are constructed. This frame work
is due to a general substitution rule, called Mullin-Rota’s substitution rule.
Given a generating function or a formal power series expansion, then a cer-
tain operational formula may be obtained by using the substitution rule. Some
operator summation formulas from multifold convolutions are also obtained
similarly. With the aid of Mullin-Rota’s substitution rule, we shall show in this
chapter that the Sheffer-type differential operators together with the delta op-
erators ∆ and D could be used to construct a pair of expansion formulas that
imply a wide variety of summation formulas in the discrete analysis and com-
binatorics. A convergence theorem is established for fruitful source formulas.
Numerous new formulas are represented as illustrative examples. A kind of
lifting process is used to enlarge the number of new formulas. In addition, this
chapter presents further investigation on a general source formula (GSF) that
has been proved capable of deducing numerous classical and new formulas for
series expansions and summations besides those given in the previous parts of
the book.
In the first half of Chapter 4, we shall continue the symbolic process for
some special function sequences and number sequences such as the sequences
of Bernoulli polynomials and numbers, Stirling numbers, Fibonacci numbers,
etc. In the second half of this chapter, we construct identities and summation
formulas for the function sequences and number sequences related to Riordan
arrays. A Riordan array is an infinite lower triangular matrix, which columns
are multiplication of certain power series g and f . The theory of Riordan
arrays provides a modern method for classical umbra calculus, bringing new
insights into many areas of combinatorial importance. This chapter gives an
introduction to the basic and applicable materials on Riordan arrays and the
Riordan group for students and researchers, who seek novel ways of working in
fields such as combinatorial identities, triangles for enumerating combinatorial
numbers, special polynomial sequences, orthogonal polynomials, etc.
In Chapter 5, we shall present the methods extended from the previous
chapters for constructing various summation formulas, identities, and inver-
sion relations. The formulas constructed in this chapter include the identi-
ties of high dimensions, convolution-type, Abel-type, and those related to
Bernoulli polynomials and numbers, Euler polynomials and numbers, etc.
Some methods represented in this chapter are related to generalized Riordan
arrays and generalized Riordan groups with different bases and their Sheffer
Preface xvii

analogs, Sheffer-type polynomial sequences and the Sheffer group. Some iden-
tities and inversion relations are constructed by using dual sequences with the
Riordan array representation named pseudo-Riordan involutions. Finally, an
extension of W-Z algorithm and Zeilberger’s creative telescoping algorithm
is represented and used to construct and prove the identities for Bernoulli
polynomials and numbers.
I am grateful to Professor Leetsch C. Hsu (Xu Lizhi) for guiding me into
the field of enumeration combinatorics. This book is dedicated to the mem-
ory of him. The author would like to thank Professor George Andrews for
his foreword and Professor Henry Gould for his testimonial and both of them
for their comments and encouragements. I would like to thank all the col-
laborators who have published joint papers with me in the fields of symbolic
methods and/or Riordan arrays over the past decades, especially Leetsch C.
Hsu, Louis W. Shapiro, Renzo Sprugnoli, Henry W. Gould, and Peter J.-S.
Shiue for the pleasant cooperation with them and everything I have learned
from them. I would like to thank the Editors of the Discrete Mathematics and
Its Applications Series, CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, and KGL,
specially Miklos Bona, Robert Ross, Vaishali Singh, and Manisha Singh for
their help and patience in the process. The author is thankful for the support
given by the Earl and Marian A. Beling Professor’s Fund.
Tian-Xiao He
Illinois Wesleyan University
Bloomington, IL
Biography

Tian-Xiao He received Ph.D. degrees at the Dalian University of Technology,

Dalian, and Texas A&M University, College Station, respectively. Dr. He is a
Professor of Mathematics and Earl and Marian A. Beling Professor of Natural
Science at Illinois Wesleyan University. Dr. He has authored or co-authored
over 150 research articles and 7 volumes in mathematics and is presently an
editor/chief editor for several math journals.

xix
Symbols

Symbol Description

N Natural number set (g, f ) The Riordan array gener-

N0 The set of natural num- ated by g(t) ∈ F 0 , f (t) ∈
bers and zero F1
n
Z The ring of integers Unsigned Stirling num-
k
R The field of real numbers bers of the first kind
C The field of complex num- n
k Stirling numbers of the
bers second kind
F = K[[t]] The ring of formal power
series in variable t over a S(n, k) Generalized Stirling num-
field K. bers
Fr The set of formal power C(t) The generating function
series of order r of the Catalan numbers
∆ Difference Fm (t) The generating function
E Displacement of the Fuss-Catalan num-
D Derivative bers

xxi
1
Classical Methods from Infinitesimal
Calculus

CONTENTS
1.1 Use of Infinitesimal Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Convergence of series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Limits of sequences and series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Abel’s Summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.2.1 Abel’s theorem and Tauber theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.2.2 Abel’s summation method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.3 Series Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.3.1 Use of the calculus of finite difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.3.2 Application of Euler-Maclaurin formula and the
Bernoulli polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Since the methods discussed in this book are related to the classical summation
methods, we start this book from main classical methods for summation of
series described in an example-oriented way.
The infinitesimal calculus or differential and integral calculus is a field to
treat functions of continuous independent variables, i.e., the variables may take
every possible value in a given interval. The methods to find the summation
of series by using infinitesimal calculus shall be surveyed in this chapter in the
example-oriented way. P
The summation of a series n≥1 an is defined by

X n
X
an = lim sn ≡ lim ak ,
n→∞ n→∞
n≥1 k=1
Pn
where sn = k=1 ak is the partial sum of the series. On the summation of
infinite series, there are following five simple and common methods.
P
(1) Substitution method. To get the sum ofP n≥0 un , we may substitute
un = anP k n that brings the sum f (k) = n≥0 un if a known function
f (x) = n≥0 an xn can be determined.
P
(2) Telescoping method. In a given series n≥0 un , if we have Pun = vn −
vn+1 (n = 0, 1, . . .) and limn→∞ vn = v∞ < ∞, then n≥0 un =

DOI: 10.1201/9781003051305-1 1
2 Methods for the Summation of Series

v0 − v∞ . In particular, if
1
un = ,
an an+1 · · · an+m
where ak = c + kd (k = 1, 2, . . .), c, d ∈ R, d 6= 0, then
1 1
vn = .
md an an+1 · · · an+m−1
(3) Trigonometric series summation. In order to evaluate the sums of
X X
an cos(nx) and an sin(nx),
n≥0 n≥0

we consider them as the real part and the imaginary part of power
series X
an z n ,
n≥0
−ix
where z = e , which can be summarized. In many cases, summa-
tion X1 1
z n = log (|z| < 1)
n 1−z
n≥0

is useful to find the sum of the power series.

(4) Differentiation and integration method for uniformly convergent se-
ries. Namely, we may transfer a given uniform convergent series to
a new series by differentiation or a suitable integration that can be
summed, and the sum of original series will be found by taking an
inverse transformation, i.e., integration or differentiation.
(5) Abel’s summation. One may see Subsection 1.2.2 for details.
Some examples shown in this chapter are selected from or greatly influ-
enced by [1, 44, 51, 73, 79, 84, 102, 123, 135, 139, 141, 143, 164, 165, 177, 183,
191, 200].

1.1 Use of Infinitesimal Calculus

1.1.1 Convergence of series
Example 1.1.1 Here is an example of the first method. Since
X (−1)n−1
= ln 2, (1.1)
n
n≥1

we immediately have
X (−1)n−1 X   X (−1)n−1
n−1 1 1
= (−1) − =2 − 1 = 2 ln 2 − 1.
n(n + 1) n n+1 n
n≥1 n≥1 n≥1
Classical Methods from Infinitesimal Calculus 3

A few examples for the second method dealing with the so-called telescop-
ing series are shown below.
Example 1.1.2 Since
 
1 1 1 1
= − ,
n(n + 1)(n + 2) 2 n(n + 1) (n + 1)(n + 2)

we obtain X 1 1
= .
n(n + 1)(n + 2) 4
n≥1

For m ∈ N, we have
 
1 1 1 1
= − .
n(n + m) m n n+m

Thus,  
X 1 1 1 1
= 1 + + ...+ .
n(n + m) m 2 m
n≥1

Similarly,

X Xℓ  
2n + 1 1 1
= lim − = 1.
n2 (n + 1)2 ℓ→∞
n=1
n2 (n + 1)2
n≥1

Telescoping method can also be used for the following triangular function
series.  
X 1 π
tan−1 = .
n2 + n + 1 4
n≥1

In fact,

X   ℓ
X
−1 1
tan 2
= lim [tan−1 (n + 1) − tan−1 n]
n +n+1 ℓ→∞
n=1
n≥1
−1 −1 π
= lim [tan (ℓ + 1) − tan 1] = .
ℓ→∞ 4
Similarly,  
X 2n + 1 π
−1
tan = .
n (n + 1)2
2 4
n≥1

Some series can be transferred to telescoping series as shown below.

4 Methods for the Summation of Series

Example 1.1.3
X 1 X1 1
2
= −
n2 (n + 1)2 n n+1
n≥1 n≥1
X 1 2 1

= − +
n2 n(n + 1) (n + 1)2
n≥1

π2
= − 3,
3
P P
where we use n≥1 1/n2 = π 2 /6, and the telescoping series n≥1 1/n (n +
1) = 1.
Similarly,
X n
(n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)
n≥1
X 1 X 1
= −
(n + 2)(n + 3) (n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)
n≥1 n≥1
1 1 1
= − = .
3 12 4
Example 1.1.4 Using the method of differentiation term by term to the fol-
lowing series in their uniform convergence intervals, |x| < 1, we obtain
 ′′  ′
X X X
n2 xn−1 =  xn+1  −  xn 
n≥1 n≥1 n≥1
 ′′  ′
1 1 1+x
= −1−x − −1 = .
1−x 1−x (1 − x)3

Similarly,
X x(3 − x)
n(n + 2)xn = (|x| < 1) and
(1 − x)3
n≥1
X 2n + 1 2
x2n = (1 + 2x2 )ex ,
n!
n≥1

where the Taylor’s series of 1/(1 − x) and ex are applied.

Some techniques shown below are useful in applying differentiation

method. Consider the summation of the following series
X a(a + d) . . . [a + (n − 1)d]
y(x) := xn ,
d(2d) · · · (nd)
n≥1
Classical Methods from Infinitesimal Calculus 5

d > 0. It is easy to have the differential equation

a
(1 − x)y ′ (x) = y(x),
d
which yields a solution y(x) = (1 − x)−a/d .
Another example for differentiation method is

1 X ((n − 1)!)2
(2x)2n = (sin−1 x)2
2 (2n)!
n≥1

for all |x| < 1. Denote y ≡ y(x) = (sin−1 x)2 . it is easy to find y satisfies
differential equation (1 − x2 )y ′′ − xy ′ − 2 = 0 and one of its power series
solution is
1 X ((n − 1)!)2
y= (2x)2n .
2 (2n)!
n≥1

Readers can check the correction by evaluating the first few terms of Taylor’s
expansion of (sin−1 (x))2 and compare with the series shown above. Another
power series solution of the differential equation can be obtained using coeffi-
cient comparison method.
Making use of the complex function properties, one may obtain more
summation formulas. Denote by w = u + iv a complex number. Then
log w = log |w| + i(arg w + kπ), where arg w = tan−1 (v/u) is an argument
of w, and k is an arbitrary integer. Let Re(w) be the real part of w. Then
Re(log w) = log |w|. Denote z = eix . We have
 
X cos nx X zn
= Re   = −Re(log(1 − z))
n n
n≥1 n≥1

= −Re(log(1 − eix )) = − log |1 − eix |.

Using Euler formula, we obtain

  
ix ix/2 1 −ix/2 ix/2 x
1 − e = 2e e −e = −2eix/2 sin .
2 2

Thus, X cos nx x
= − log 2 sin (1.2)
n 2
n≥1

for 0 < x < 2π. More examples are given as follows.

Example 1.1.5
 
X sin nx X zn
= Im   = π − x , (0 < x < 2π)
n n 2
n≥1 n≥1
6 Methods for the Summation of Series
 
X cos nx X zn
= Re   = Re(ez ) = ecos x cos(sin x), (|x| < ∞)
n! n!
n≥1 n≥1
 
X sin nx X zn
= Im   = Im(ez ) = ecos x sin(sin x) (|x| < ∞).
n! n!
n≥1 n≥1

Using formula sin na sin nx = 12 [cos n(a − x) − cos n(a + x)] and summation
(1.2) yields
X sin na sin nx 1 sin 12 (x + a)
= log .
n≥1
n 2 sin 12 (x − a)
Similarly, formula
1
sin2 na sin nx = (sin n(2a − x) − sin n(2a + x) + 2 sin nx)
4
and the first summation in Example 1.1.5 yields
X sin2 na sin nx π
= (1.3)
n 4
n≥1

for all 0 < x < 2a < π. By taking limit a → π/2 on the both sides of (1.3),
we obtain
X sin(2n − 1)x π
= sgnx, (|x| ≤ π). (1.4)
2n − 1 4
n≥1

From (1.4) one can establish

X cos(2n − 1)x π2 π
2
= − |x|, (|x| ≤ π). (1.5)
(2n − 1) 8 4
n≥1
P
Indeed, for |x| = π, (1.5) is easy to be obtained from n≥1 1/n2 = π 2 /6. For
|x| < π, denoting the series on the left-hand side of (1.5) by F (x) and taking
its derivative term by term yields
d X sin(2n − 1)x π
F (x) = − = − sgnx,
dx 2n − 1 4
n≥1

where the last step is from (1.4). The antiderivative of the above equation
generates Z
π π
F (x) = − sgnxdx = C − |x|,
4 4
where the constant C is determined by
X 1 π2
C = F (0) = = ,
(2n − 1)2 8
n≥1

which implies (1.5).

Classical Methods from Infinitesimal Calculus 7
P
We now consider a positive divergent series n≥1 1/an . Then, for x > 0,
we have
     
a1 a1 a2 a1 a2
+ +
a2 + x a2 + x a3 + x a2 + x a3 + x
 
a3 a1
× + ··· = . (1.6)
a4 + x x

Indeed, it is easy to write

     
a1 a1 a2 + x a1 a1 a2
= = +
x a2 + x x a2 + x a2 + x x
a1
= + R1 ,
a2 + x
      
a1 a1 a1 a2 a1 a2 a3
= + +
x a2 + x a2 + x a3 + x a2 + x a3 + x x
  
a1 a1 a2
= + + R2 .
a2 + x a2 + x a3 + x

In general, we have the expression of the remainder Rn as

    
a1 a2 a3 an+1
Rn = ···
x a2 + x a3 + x an+1 + x
 
a1 n+1 x
= Π 1− .
x k=2 ak + x

Hence, to prove the convergence of series of (1.6), we only need to show the
infinite product tends to zero as n → ∞.
Since x > 0, we have
X x X 1
= ,
ak + x bk + 1
k≥2 k≥2
P
where bk = ak /x (k = 2, 3, . . .). The divergence of k≥1 1/ak implies the
P
divergence of k≥1 1/bk . If lim bk < ∞, then limk→∞ 1/(bk + 1) 6= 0, which
P k→∞
implies that k≥2 1/(bk + 1) diverges to infinite. If lim bk = ∞, then 1/(bk +
P k→∞
1) ∼ 1/bk as k → ∞. Hence, k≥1 1/(bk + 1) = ∞. We have shown in any
case,
n+1  
a1 Y x
Rn = 1− →0
x ak + x
k=2

as n → ∞. This completes the proof of formula (1.6).

Formula (1.6) has a lot of applications. Here are two examples.
8 Methods for the Summation of Series

Example 1.1.6
1! 2! 3!
+ + ···
x + 1 (x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
1
= , (x > 1)
x−1
x x2 x4
+ + + ···
1 − x2 1 − x4 1 − x8
(
x/(1 − x), if |x| < 1
=
1/(1 − x), if |x| > 1.

Here, the first formula is from (1.6) by substituting transform x → x − 1 and

an = n. And we leave them as exercises (cf. Exercise 1.4).

1.1.2 Limits of sequences and series

In this section, we discuss the limits of sequences and series, which will be ap-
plied in convergence of formal series and sequence approximation. The major
part of this section is Toeplitz theorem on sequence transformation and its
corollaries as well as the limits of sequences and series related to integrals.
First, we establish the following proposition.
Pn 1 Pn
Proposition
P 1.1.7 Denote sn = k=1 vk , tn = n k=1 sk , and τn =
1 n
n k=1 kv k . Then
(i) sn → ℓ implies tn → ℓ and τn → 0.
(ii) tn → ℓ and τn → τ imply τ = 0 and sn → ℓ.

Proof. (i) Write sn = ℓ + un . Thus for and ǫ > 0, there exists N ≡ N (ǫ) such
that n ≥ N implies |un | < ǫ/3. Thus, for n ≥ N , we have
N n N
1X 1 X 1X N
tn = sk + (ℓ + vk ) = sk + ℓ − ℓ + rn ,
n n n n
k=1 k=N +1 k=1

where
n
1 X n−N ǫ ǫ
|rn | ≡ uk ≤ · ≤ .
n n 3 3
k=N +1

For the fixed N chosen as above, there exits n0 ≥ N such that

N
1X ǫ Nℓ ǫ
sk < , < .
n 3 n 3
k=1

Therefore,
1 1 1
|tn − ℓ| < ǫ+ ǫ+ ǫ=ǫ
3 3 3
when n ≥ n0 , i.e., tn → ℓ as n → ∞.
Classical Methods from Infinitesimal Calculus 9

Since
1
τn = [−(s1 + s2 + · · · sn−1 ) + nsn ]
n
n−1
= − tn−1 + sn → −ℓ + ℓ = 0
n
when n → ∞.
(ii) We have shown that
1
tn + τn = (sn + nsn ),
n
or equivalently,
n
(tn + τn ).
sn =
n+1
Hence, from (i), τn → 0 and lim sn = lim tn = ℓ.
n→∞ n→∞

Proposition 1.1.8 If An → A and Bn → B as n → ∞, then

n
1X
Ak Bn+1−k → AB, (n → ∞).
n
k=1

Proof. For any ǫ > 0 (ǫ < 1), there exists N such that An = A + Rn and
Bn = B + Sn with |Rn |, |Sn | < ǫ whenever n ≥ N . Hence, for all p, q ≥ N , we
have
Ap Bq = AB + ASq + BRp + Rp Sq ,
|Ap Bq − AB| < ǫ(|A| + |B| + 1).
Let n ≥ 2N . Then
n
1X
Ak Bn−k+1
n
k=1
N
X −1 n−N +1 n
1 1 X 1 X
= Ak Bn−k+1 + Ak Bn−k+1 + Ak Bn−k+1 .
n n n
k=1 k=N k=n−N +2

Since Am , Bn are bounded, the first and the third sums on the right-hand
side of above equation tend to zero as n → ∞. In addition,
n−N +1
1 X 2(N − 1)
Ak Bn−k+1 = AB − AB + H,
n n
k=N

where |H| < ǫ(|A| + |B| + 1). Therefore, there exists n0 such that n ≥ n0 (ǫ)
implies
n
1X
Ak Bn−k+1 − AB < ǫ[1 + 1 + (|A| + |B| + 1) + 1],
n
k=1

which completes the proof of the proposition.

10 Methods for the Summation of Series

We now present the Toeplitz’s sequence transformation theorem. Consider

lower triangular matrix
p00
p10 p11
(1.7)
p20 p21 p22
··· ··· ··· ···
Pn
where pnk ≥ 0 and the sums of all rows are one (i.e., k=0 pnk = 1). For a
given sequence (sn ), we call sequence
n
X
tn = pnk sk , (1.8)
k=0

n = 0, 1, 2, . . ., a transformed sequence from (sn ) with respect to matrix

[pnk ]n≥k≥0 .
Theorem 1.1.9 (Toeplitz’s sequence transformation theorem) Assume (tn )
is transformed from (sn ) with respect to [pnk ]n≥k≥0 . Then
lim sn = s → lim tn = s
n→∞ n→∞

holds if and only if for every fixed m

lim pnm = 0.
n→∞

Proof. Necessity. If sn = 0 for n 6= m and sm = 1. Then tn = pnm (n ≥ m),

which yields
lim pnm = lim tn = lim sn = 0.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
Sufficiency. If the antecedent of theorem holds, then for any ǫ > 0 there
exists N ≡ N (ǫ) such that n > N implies |sn − s| < ǫ/2. In addition, there
exists N ′ > N so that
ǫ
pn0 , pn1 , . . . , pnN < ,
4(N + 1)M
are fulfilled for every n > N ′ , where M = M ax|sk | (note that if M = 0, then
the conclusion of the theorem is trivial). Therefore,
n
X
tn − s = pnk (sk − s)
k=0

satisfies
ǫ
|tn − s| < (N + 1)(2M )
4(N + 1)M
n
ǫ X
+ pnk < ǫ
2
k=N +1
′
whenever n > N . This implies tn → s as n → ∞ and completes the proof for
the sufficiency.
Classical Methods from Infinitesimal Calculus 11

Example 1.1.10 We now give some examples of applications to Theorem

1.1.9. The first one is
1
lim (p0 p1 p2 · · · pn ) n+1 = p, (1.9)
n→∞

where (pk )k≥0 is a positive sequence that approaches to p as n → ∞. Indeed,

the left-hand side of (1.9) can be written as
n
!
1 X
lim exp log pk .
n→∞ n+1
k=0
n Pn o
1
Sequence n+1 k=0 log pk can be considered as the transfered matrix
n≥0
from (pk ) with respect to the transformationP matrix [pnk = 1/(n + 1)]. Since
1 n
pn → p, from Theorem 1.1.9, we have n+1 k=0 log pk → log p as n → ∞.
Thus, (1.9) holds.
By setting
 1  2  n
2 3 n+1
p0 = 1, p1 = , p2 = , · · · , pn ,···
1 2 n
in (1.9), we obtain
  n+1
1  n
(n + 1)n+1 1
lim = lim 1+ = e, (1.10)
n→∞ (n + 1)! n→∞ n
  n1
nn
i.e., lim = e.
n→∞ n!
P
Corollary 1.1.11 Let (an ) and (bn ) be two sequences with bn > 0, n≥0 bn =
∞, and an /bn → s (n → ∞). Then
a0 + a1 + a2 + · · · + an
lim = s. (1.11)
n→∞ b0 + b1 + · · · + bn
Proof. (1.11) can be proved from Theorem 1.1.9 by setting sn = an /bn , pnk =
bk /(b0 + b1 + · · · + bn ), and tn = (a0 + a1 + · · · + an )/(b0 + b1 + · · · + bn ).

Example 1.1.12 In (1.11), if an = (n+1)α−1 (α > 0) and bn = (n+1)α −nα ,

then we have
 
1α−1 + 2α−1 + · · · + nα−1 nα−1 1
lim = lim = .
n→∞ nα n→∞ (n + 1)α − nα α
Similarly, if a positive sequence (pn )n≥0 satisfies
pn
lim = 0,
n→∞ p0 + p1 + · · · + pn
12 Methods for the Summation of Series

then from an assumption lim sn = s, we obtain

n→∞

s0 pn + s1 pn−1 + s2 pn−2 + · · · + sn p0
lim = s. (1.12)
n→∞ p0 + p1 + · · · + pn
P∞ Pn
Let pn > 0, k=1 pk = ∞, and let k=1 pk = Pn with pn /Pn → 0 as
n → ∞. Then
p1 P1−1 + p2 P2−1 + · · · + pn Pn−1
lim = 1. (1.13)
n→∞ log Pn
In fact, from (1.11) the left-hand limit of (1.13) can be written as

p1 P1−1 + p2 P2−1 + · · · + pn Pn−1

lim
n→∞ log P1 + (log P2 − log P1 ) + (log P3 − log P2 ) + · · ·
+(log Pn − log Pn−1 )
pn Pn−1 p P −1
= lim = lim n n  = 1.
n→∞ log Pn − log Pn−1 n→∞
log 1 + Pn Pn−1

If pn = 1 (n = 1, 2, . . .), then (1.13) implies

1 1 1
1+ + + · · · + ∼ log n
2 3 n
as n → ∞.
The final example is related to positive sequences (pn ) and (qn ) satisfying
p1 + p2 + · · · pn q1 + q2 + · · · qn
lim = a, lim = b,
n→∞ npn n→∞ nqn
where 0 < a, b < ∞. Then
p1 q1 + 2p2 q2 + 3p3 q3 + · · · + npn qn ab
lim = . (1.14)
n→∞ n2 pn qn a+b
P∞ P∞
To prove (1.14), we first observe that k=1 pk = ∞ and k=1 qk = ∞.
Otherwise npn → 0 and nqn → 0 as n → ∞, which imply a = b = ∞ that
contradict to the assumption. Denote

an = Pn Qn − Pn−1 Qn−1 , bn = npn qn ,

Pn Pn
where Pn = k=1 pk and Qn = k=1 qk . Thus
an Pn Qn 1
= + − →a+b (n → ∞).
bn npn nqn n
Therefore, from Corollary 1.1.11 we obtain
a1 + a2 + · · · + an Pn Qn
lim = lim Pn = a + b,
n→∞ b1 + b2 + · · · + bn n→∞
k=1 kpk qk
Classical Methods from Infinitesimal Calculus 13

which yields
Pn  Pn  
k=1 kpk qk k=1 kpk qk Pn Qn ab
= → ,
n2 pn qn Pn Qn n2 pn qn a+b
as n → ∞.

Corollary 1.1.13 Suppose two positive sequences (pn ) and (qn ) satisfy
pn qn
lim = 0, lim = 0.
n→∞ p0 + p1 + · · · + pn n→∞ q0 + q1 + · · · + qn
P
And denote rn = nk=0 pk qn−k (n = 0, 1, . . .). Then
rn
lim = 0. (1.15)
n→∞ r0 + r1 + · · · + rn
Proof. Denote
n
X n
X n
X
Pn = pk , Qn = qk , Rn = rk .
k=0 k=0 k=0

Then
rn p0 qn + p1 qn−1 + · · · + pn q0
=
Rn p0 Qn + p1 Qn−1 + · · · + pn Q0
     
q0 q1 qn
= pn0 + pn1 + · · · + pnn ,
Q0 Q1 Qn
where
pn−j Qj pn−j
pnj = ≤ →0
p0 Qn + p1 Qn−1 + · · · pn Q0 p0 + p1 + · · · + pn−j

as n → ∞, and pn0 + pn1 + · · · pnn = 1. Hence, (1.15) is simply a special case

of the conclusion of Theorem 1.1.9.

Example 1.1.14 Suppose that sequences (pn ) and (qn ) are defined as Corol-
lary 1.1.13. Let (sn ) be any sequence. Then the existence of limits
s0 pn + s1 pn−1 + · · · + sn p0
lim = p̄
n→∞ p0 + p1 + · · · pn
and
s0 qn + s1 qn−1 + · · · + sn q0
lim = q̄
n→∞ q0 + q1 + · · · qn
implies p̄ = q̄. Indeed, let (rn ) be the sequence defined in Corollary 1.1.13, and
let
s0 rn + s1 rn−1 + · · · + sn r0
τn := .
r0 + r1 + · · · rn
14 Methods for the Summation of Series

Denote
s0 pn + s1 pn−1 + · · · + sn p0 s0 qn + s1 qn−1 + · · · + sn q0
p̄n := , and q̄n := .
p0 + p1 + · · · pn q0 + q1 + · · · qn
From Corollary 1.1.13 we have
pn Q0 q̄0 + pn−1 Q1 q̄1 + · · · + p0 Qn q̄n
τn =
p0 Qn + p1 Qn−1 + · · · pn Q0
qn P0 p̄0 + qn−1 P1 p̄1 + · · · + q0 Pn p̄n
= .
q0 Pn + q1 Pn−1 + · · · qn P0

Thus, the same argument in the proof of Corollary 1.1.13 yields lim τn =
n→∞
lim p̄n = lim q̄n . Consequently, p̄ = q̄. It is interesting to see that this
n→∞ n→∞
conclusion holds even lim sn does not exist.
n→∞

Corollary 1.1.15 If σ > 0, then the convergence of Dirichlet series

a1 1−σ + a2 2−σ + · · · + an n−σ + · · ·

implies
(a1 + a2 + · · · + an )n−σ → 0
as n → ∞.

Proof. Denote

tn = (a1 + a2 + · · · + an )n−σ ,
sn = a1 1−σ + a2 2−σ + · · · + an n−σ .

Then

tn − n−σ (n + 1)σ (sn − s)

" n #
1 X σ
= (k − (k + 1)σ )(sk − s) + s .
nσ
k=1

Hence, from Theorem 1.1.9, we obtain the right-hand side of the above equa-
tion tends to zero as n → ∞, which implies tn → 0 (n → ∞).

Corollary 1.1.15 can be proved by using Abel’s summation by part method

(see 1.2.2).
Remark 1.1.16 We can reduce the request of the row sums of a transfor-
mation matrix to be uniformly bounded by a constant K > 0. This matrix
Classical Methods from Infinitesimal Calculus 15

is called the transformation matrix with respect to K. In this case, the conse-
quence of Theorem 1.1.9 is changed to be that lim tn = Ks when lim sn = s.
n→∞ n→∞
Furthermore, if a lower triangular matrix [pnk ]n≥k≥0 has entries satisfying
n
X
pnk = Pn → 1
k=0

as n → ∞ and pnk ≥ 0, then this lower triangular matrix can be used to con-
struct a sequence transformation. Theorem 1.1.9 still holds for those transfor-
mation matrices. We leave the proof of those claims as Exercise 1.8.
Definition 1.1.17 A sequence (sn ) is termed a null sequence if for any given
ǫ > 0, there exists an integer N ≡ N (ǫ) such that n > N implies |sn | < ǫ.
From Theorem 1.1.9 and Remark 1.1.16, we immediately have
Theorem 1.1.18 Let (sn ) be a null sequence, and let (tn ) the transformed
sequence of (sn ) using a transformation matrix with respect to constant K > 0.
Then (tn ) is also a null sequence if for every fixed m
lim pnm = 0.
n→∞

Proof. For any given ǫ > 0, there exists N ≡ N (ǫ) such that for every n > N ,
|sn | < ǫ/(2K). Then for that n,
N
X ǫ
|tn | < pnk sk + .
2
k=0

By lim pnm = 0 we may choose N0 > N so that for every n > N0 ,

n→∞

N
X ǫ
pnk sk < .
2
k=0

Therefore, we have shown that |tn | < ǫ for these n′ s, which completes the
proof of the theorem.

Theorem 1.1.9 can be extended to the following theorem.

Theorem
P∞ 1.1.19 Let positive infinite matrix P = [pnk ]0<n,k<∞ satisfies
k=0 p nk = 1. And the sequence
X
tn = pnk sk
k≥0

is called the transformation sequence of (sn ) with respect to the transformation

matrix P . Then lim sn = s implies lim tn = s if and only if lim pnk = 0
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
for all k = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
16 Methods for the Summation of Series

The proof of Theorem 1.1.19 is similar to the proof of Theorem 1.1.9. We

leave it as an exercise for the interested reader (see Exercise 1.10).
P
Example 1.1.20 (i) If sequence k≥1 kck converges, then the sequence (tn )
defined by X
tn = (k + 1)cn+k
k≥0

converges to 0. Actually, the limit P

can be proved by using Theorem 1.1.19 and
the sequence (sn ) defined by sn = k≥0 (n + k)cn+k → 0 (n → ∞). Hence,
   
1 2 1 3 2
tn = s n + − sn+1 + − sn+2 + · · · .
n n+1 n n+2 n+1
From Theorem 1.1.19 and notingP limn→∞ sn = 0, we have limn→∞ tn = 0.
(ii) Let power series f (x) = k≥0 ak xk converge at x = 1, and let 0 <
α < 1. Then the power series

f ′ (α) f ′′ (α) 2 f (n) (α) n

f (α) + h+ h + ··· + h + ··· (1.16)
1! 2! n!
converges to f (1) at h = 1 − α. To prove (1.16), we denote

f (n) (α)
a0 + a1 + · · · + an = sn , = bn ,
n!
b0 + b1 (1 − α) + b2 (1 − α) + · · · + bn (1 − α)n = tn .
2

Hence, for |y| < 1 − α,

b0 + b1 y + b2 y 2 + · · · + bn y n + · · ·
= a0 + a1 (α + y) + · · · + an (α + y)n + · · · .

Consequently,
X X (1 − α)n+1 X
(1 − α)n−k y k bj y j = aj (α + y)j
1 − (α + y)
k≥0 j≥1 j≥0
X
= (1 − α)n+1 sj (α + y)j .
j≥0

n
Comparing the coefficients of y on the leftmost and rightmost sides of the
above equation yields
X n + k 
n+1
tn = (1 − α) αk sn+k .
k
k≥0

Noting that the sum of the coefficients of the series is 1, from Theorem 1.1.19,
we obtain
lim tn = lim sn = f (1).
n→∞ n→∞
Classical Methods from Infinitesimal Calculus 17

More convergence of the transformation series will be described in Sub-

section 1.3.1. At the end of this section, we discuss the limits of series they
are equivalent to the existence of integrals. We start from the limits of some
sequences and their evaluation using suitable integrals. For example, from the
definition of Riemann integrals, we have
n
X X n Z 1
1 1 1 1
lim = lim = dx = log 2.
n→∞ n + k n→∞ 1 + k/n n 0 1+x
k=1 k=1

Similarly,
n
X n π
lim = ,
n→∞ n2 + k 2 4
k=1
Xn
1 kπ 2
lim sin = ,
n→∞ n n π
k=1
Xn
1 kπ 4
lim sec2 = ,
n→∞ n 4n π
k=0
Xn
kα 1
lim = (α > −1).
n→∞ nα+1 α+1
k=1

Since !
n
1√n 1X k
n! = exp log ,
n n n
k=1

we immediately know limit

Z 
1√
n
1
1
lim n! = exp log xdx = .
n→∞ n 0 e

The following limit belongs to Pólya:

n   h n i
1X 2n
lim −2 = 2 log 2 − 1, (1.17)
n→∞ n k k
k=1

where [x] denotes the largest integer ≤ x. Obviously,

  hni  2   
2n 1
0≤ −2 = −2 ≤ 1.
k k k/n k/n

Thus,
n   h n i Z 1  2   
1X 2n 1
lim −2 = −2 dx. (1.18)
n→∞ n k k 0+ x x
k=1
18 Methods for the Summation of Series

Denote n = k [n/k] + nk , where 0 ≤ nk < k. Then

  (
2n hni 0 if nk < k/2,
−2 =
k k 1 if nk ≥ k/2.
1
Therefore, for < x ≤ k1 , we obtain
k+1
    (  
2 1 0 if x1 − x1 < 12 (i.e., k+1/2
1
< x ≤ k1 ),
−2 =  
x x 1 if x1 − x1 ≥ 12 (i.e., k+1
1 1
< x ≤ k+1/2 ).

Thus, the integral in (1.18) is equal to

Z 1    
2 1
−2 dx
0+ x x
X Z 1/k  2 
n−1  
1
= lim −2 dx
n→∞ x x
k=1 1/(k+1)
X
n−1
1 1

= lim −
n→∞ k + 1/2 k + 1
k=1
 
1 1 1 1
= 2 − + − + · · · = 2 log 2 − 1,
3 4 5 6
which completes the proof of (1.17). Similarly, we give
Example 1.1.21 Let nk = n − k[n/k] and 0 < α ≤ 1, and denote by γ the
Euler constant. Then
1  n1 n2 n3 nn 
lim + + + ···+ = 1 − γ.
n→∞ n 1 2 3 n
n1 + n2 + n3 + · · · + nn π2
lim = 1 − .
n→∞ n2 12
Z
1 X h n i h n i
n 1
1 − xα
lim − −α = dx (0 < α ≤ 1).
n→∞ n k k 0 1−x
k=1

The first limit can be obtained from the process

Z 1  
1 X  n  h n i
n
1 1
lim − = − dx
n→∞ n k k 0 x x
k=1
Z 1     
1 1 1 1 1
= lim − dx = 1 − lim 1 + + + · · · + − log n
n→∞ 1/n x x n→∞ 2 3 n
= 1 − γ.
Similarly, the second limit can be derived by
n  hni k  Z 1 
1X 1
lim 1− =1− xdx
n→∞ n k n 0 x
k=1
Classical Methods from Infinitesimal Calculus 19
Xn 1 1

π2
= 1− 2
− 2
=1− .
2 n (n + 1) 12
n≥1

The third limit belongs to Dirichlet and the proof is left as Exercise 1.5.
We now discuss the limit of series. First, we establish the following propo-
sition.
Proposition 1.1.22 Let f (x) beR a positive decreasing function defined on
∞
[0, ∞), and let improper integral 0 f (x)dx exist. Then
X Z ∞
lim+ h f (kh) = f (x)dx. (1.19)
h→0 0
k≥1

Proof. Since f (x) is decreasing and approaching 0 as x → ∞, we have

Z (n+1)h Z nh
f (x)dx ≤ h[f (h) + f (2h) + · · · + f (nh)] ≤ f (x)dx.
h 0

Thus, as n → ∞ we obtain
Z ∞ X Z ∞
f (x)dx ≤ h f (kh) ≤ f (x)dx.
h k≥1 0

Taking h → 0+ on all sides of the above inequalities yields (1.19).

Remark 1.1.23 The condition in Proposition 1.1.22 can be released to that

f (x) is defined and integrable on [0, ∞) and is decreasing when x ≥ a > 0.

Example 1.1.24 From Proposition 1.1.22, one can establish

√
√ 4 9 n2 π
lim− 1 − t(1 + t + t + t + · · · + t + · · · ) = . (1.20)
t→1 2
2
Indeed, let t = e−h . Then, t → 1− when h → 0+ and
√ 2
1 − t = (1 − e−h )1/2 = (h2 − h4 /2 + · · · )1/2 = h[1 + O(h2 )]
2
as h → 0+ . Thus, substituting t = e−h into the limit of (1.19) and applying
Proposition 1.1.22 to the resulting limit yields
X Z ∞ √
2 2 π
lim h[1 + O(h2 )] e−(nh) = e−x dx = .
h→0+ 0 2
n≥0

Similarly, one can find

 
√
a 1a 2a 3a na 1 1
lim 1 − t(1 + t +t +t + ···+ t + ···) = Γ (a > 0) (1.21)
t→1− a a
20 Methods for the Summation of Series
 
t t2 t3 tn
lim− (1 − t) + + + · · · + + · · · = log 2
t→1 1 + t 1 + t2 1 + t3 1 + tn
(1.22)
 2 3 n
 2
t 2t 3t nt π
lim− (1 − t)2 + + + · · · + + · · · = .
t→1 1 − t 1 − t2 1 − t3 1 − tn 6
(1.23)

1.2 Abel’s Summation

At the beginning of the chapter, five methods are enlisted for summation of
series using the infinitesimal calculus, and the first four methods are intro-
duced in 1.1.1. Representation of the last method, Abel’s method, on the list
will be a major part of this section.

1.2.1 Abel’s theorem and Tauber theorem

In this subsection, we shall present the classic (i.e., little o) Tauber theorem
and Littlewood’s big O Tauber type theorem. First, we establish a generalized
result of sequence transformation theorems 1.1.9 and 1.1.19.
Theorem 1.2.1 Let (φn (t)) be a non-negative function sequence with
P
n≥0 φn (t) ≡ 1, where t ∈ (0, 1). Then lim sn = s implies
n→∞
X
lim sk φk (t) = s
t→1−
k≥0

if and only if for every fixed n = 0, 1, . . .

lim φn (t) = 0.
t→1−

The proof of Theorem 1.2.1 is similar as those of Theorems 1.1.9 and 1.1.19
and is left for an exercise (cf. Exercise 1.11).
Corollary 1.2.2 Let (aPn ) and (bn ) be two sequences with bn > 0 and
k
lim an /bn = s, where k≥0 bk t converges for every |t| < 1 and diverges
n→∞ P
when t = 1. Then, (i) k≥0 ak tk converges as well for every |t| < 1, and (ii)
P
k≥0 a k tk
lim P k
= s. (1.24)
t→1− k≥0 bk t
Classical Methods from Infinitesimal Calculus 21

Proof. Denote sn = an /bn and

b n tn
φn (t) = .
b 0 + b 1 t + b 2 t2 + · · · + b n tn + · · ·
Then for every fixed j and for any ǫ > 0, there is a large enough n such that
1
b0 + b1 + b2 + · · · + bn > bj
ǫ
P
because of the divergence of series k≥0 bk . Hence, from

b j tj
φj (t) <
b 0 + b 1 t + b 2 t2 + · · · + b n tn
there holds lim φj (t) < ǫ; i.e., φj (t) → 0 as t → 1− . Limit (1.24) is thus
t→1−
proved as a corollary of Theorem 1.2.1.

As another corollary of Theorem 1.2.1, one may establish the following

Abel’s theorem.
P
Theorem 1.2.3 (Abel’s theorem) If series k≥0 ak = s, then
X
lim ak tk = s. (1.25)
t→1−
k≥0
P P
Proof. Obviously, by using Corollary 1.2.2 and noting ( n≥0 an )( n≥0 tn ) =
P n
n≥0 (a0 + a1 + · · · + an )t we obtain
P
X n≥0 (a0 + a1 + · · · an )t
n
n P
lim− an t = lim− n
t→1
n≥0
t→1 n≥0 t

a0 + a1 + · · · an
= lim = s.
n→∞ 1

Next theorem implies Abel’s theorem.

n
Pn 1 X
Theorem 1.2.4 Let sn = k=0 ak (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .). Then lim sk =
n→∞ n + 1
k=0
s implies X
lim ak tk = s. (1.26)
t→1−
k≥0
P P
Proof. Noting the absolute convergence of k≥0 sn tn and k≥0 tn over |t| < 1,
we use Corollary 1.2.2 may obtain
P
X n≥0 (a0 + a1 + · · · an )t
n
n P
lim an t = lim n
t→1−
n≥0
t→1− n≥0 t
22 Methods for the Summation of Series
P
n≥0 (s0 + s1 + · · · sn )tn s0 + s1 + · · · sn
= lim P n
= lim = s,
n≥0 (n + 1)t n+1
t→1− n→∞

completing the proof.

It is obvious that Theorem 1.2.4 implies Abel’s theorem 1.2.3 because

sn → s implies
1
(s0 + s1 + · · · + sn ) → s.
n+1
Theorem 1.2.5 Let two sequences
P (an )n=0,1,... and (bn > 0)n=0,1,... satisfy
an /bnP→ s (n → ∞), and let n≥0 bn tn be convergent for all t ∈ R. Prove
that n≥0 an tn converges for all t ∈ R. Furthermore,
P
n≥0 a n tn
lim P n
= s. (1.27)
n≥0 bn t
t→∞

Theorem 1.2.5 can be proved by using a similar argument of the proof of

Corollary 1.2.2, which is left as an exercise (cf. Exercise 1.13).
Corollary 1.2.6 If limn→∞ sn = s, then
 
t t2 tn
lim s0 + s1 + s2 + · · · + sn + · · · e−t = s. (1.28)
t→∞ 1! 2! n!
1
Proof. It is obvious a corollary of Theorem 1.2.5 for the case of an = n! sn and
1
bn = n! .

P tn
P
Example 1.2.7 Let g(t) = n≥0 an n! and assume n≥0 an = s. Then
R ∞ −t
0 e g(t)dt = s. Indeed, denote s n = a 0 + a 1 + · · · + a n and s−1 = 0 so
that
Z t X  sk − sk−1  Z t
−x
e g(x)dx = e−x xk dx
0 k! 0
k≥0
X Z t  xk xk+1
 X tk+1 −t
= sk − e−x dx = sk e ,
0 k! (k + 1)! (k + 1)!
k≥0 k≥0

which implies the desired result from the view of Corollary 1.2.6.
We now give the inverse theorem of Abel’s theorem, which is also called
the little o Tauber theorem.
P n
Theorem 1.2.8 (Little O Tauber theorem) Denote f (x) = n≥0 an x ,

P
where an = o n1 . Then limx→1− f (x) = s implies n≥0 an = s.
Classical Methods from Infinitesimal Calculus 23
h i
1
Proof. Denote N := 1−x (x < 1). Then N → ∞ as x → 1− . Hence to show
the theorem is true, we only need to prove
∞
X N
X
lim− an xn − an = 0,
x→1
n=0 n=0

i.e., !
N
X ∞
X
n n
lim an (x − 1) + an x = 0.
x→1−
n=0 n=N +1
P
We denote
P the first and the second summations in the above equation by 1
and 2 , respectively. Thus, we have estimates

X N
X
≤ an (1 − x)(1 + x + x2 + · · · + xn−1 )
1 n=0
N
X PN
nan
≤ (1 − x) nan ≤ hn=0 i → 0
1
n=0 1−x

−
has x i → 1 . Here the last step is from Proposition 1.1.8, P
where N =
1
1−x , Aν = νa ν , B ν = 1, A = 0. In addition, for summation 2 , we have

X ∞
X ∞
X xn
= an xn = (nan )
2
n
n=N +1 n=N +1
∞
X
ǫ ǫ
< xn ≤ < ǫ,
N +1 (N + 1)(1 − x)
n=N +1

where ǫ > 0 is arbitrarily fixed and |nan | < ǫ (n > N ), which completes the
proof.

It is worth be mentioned that the condition an = o(1/n) in the little

o Tauber theorem, Theorem 1.2.8, can be reduced to an = O(1/n), which
elegant result established by Littlewood will be represented with the aid of
the following two lemmas.

Lemma 1.2.9 Suppose an ≥ 0 (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .) and

X 1
f (x) = an xn ∼
1−x
n≥0
P
when x → 1− . Then sn = ν≥0 aν ∼ n as n → ∞.
24 Methods for the Summation of Series

Proof. Let g(x) be a continuous function defined on [0, 1], and let ǫ > 0 be
arbitrarily given. From the Weierstrass polynomial approximation theorem,
there exist polynomial lower approximation p(x) and upper approximation
P (x) such that p(x) ≥ g(x) ≥ P (x) and
Z 1 Z 1
(g(x) − p(x))dx < ǫ, (P (x) − g(x))dx < ǫ.
0 0

In fact, even g(x) is discontinuous at finite points and the left-hand limits and
right-hand limits at those points exist (but different), the above conclusion still
holds. Without loose of generality, we may assume that g(x) is only discon-
tinuous at point c with g(c− ) < g(c+ ). We now define φ(x) = g(x) + 21 ǫ when
x < c − δ and x > c for a sufficient small δ, and φ(x) = M ax{ℓ(x), g(x) + 14 ǫ}
when c − δ ≤ x ≤ c for the same δ, where ℓ(x) is a linear function with values
at end points as
1 1
ℓ(c − δ) = g(c − δ) + ǫ, ℓ(c) = g(c+ ) + ǫ.
2 2
Therefore, φ(x) is continuous and φ(x) > g(x). We can use Weierstrass theo-
rem to obtain the function P (x) that approximates function φ(x) sufficiently,
which also gives an upper approximation to g(x). Similarly, we can construct
lower approximation p(x) to g(x).
To prove the lemma, we first show
X Z 1
lim− (1 − x) an xn P (xn ) = P (t)dt.
x→1 0
n≥0

It is sufficient to prove the above equation for P (x) = xk . Indeed, the left-hand
side of the above equation can be written as
 
X 1 − x X
(1 − x) an xn+kn = (1 − xk+1 ) an (xk+1 )n 
1 − xk+1
n≥0 n≥0
Z 1
1
→ = xk dx
k+1 0

as x → 1− . Hence, considering P (x) as the upper approximation of g(x), we

can prove Z 1
X
lim− (1 − x) an xn g(xn ) = g(t)dt.
x→1 0
n≥0
Classical Methods from Infinitesimal Calculus 25

Actually, since an > 0, we have

X X
limx→1− (1 − x) an xn g(xn ) ≤ limx→1− (1 − x) an xn P (xn )
n≥0 n≥0
Z 1 Z 1
= P (t)dt < g(t)dt + ǫ.
0 0

Therefore, ǫ → 0 yields
X Z 1
limx→1− (1 − x) an xn g(xn ) ≤ g(t)dt.
n≥0 0

Similarly, for the lower approximation p(x) of g(x), we obtain

X Z 1
n n
limx→1− (1 − x) an x g(x ) ≥ g(t)dt,
n≥0 0

which implies the desired result.

Finally, we define

0 0 ≤ t < e−1 ,
g(t) = 1
t e−1 ≤ t ≤ 1.

Then Z Z
1 1
dt
g(t)dt = = 1.
0 1/e t
−1/N
Let x = e with a positive integer N . Then

X X N
X
an xn g(xn ) = an xn g(xn ) = an = sN .
n≥0 e−1 ≤xn ≤1 n=0

It is easy to see that sN ∼ 1/(1 − x) = (1 − e−1/N )−1 ∼ N , which completes

the proof.

Lemma 1.2.10 Assume f (x)  has second

 derivative on [0, 1) and satisfies
1
f (x) = o(1) and f (x) = O (1−x)2 when x → 1− . Then we have f (x) =
′′
 
1
o 1−x as x → 1− .

Proof. Denote x′ = x + δ(1 − x), 0 < δ < 21 . Then

1
f (x′ ) = f (x) + δ(1 − x)f ′ (x) + δ 2 (1 − x)2 f ′′ (ξ),
2
26 Methods for the Summation of Series

where x < ξ < x′ . Thus,

f (x′ ) − f (x) 1
(1 − x)f ′ (x) = + δ(1 − x)2 f ′′ (ξ)
δ 2
f (x′ ) − f (x)
= + O(δ).
δ
The rightmost term can be as small as we wish provided δ is small enough.
Let x′ and x be close enough to 1. Then, we have (1 − x)f ′ (x) = o(1).

Theorem 1.2.11 (Big O Tauber theorem)
P P Let an = O n1 , f (x) =
n −
n≥0 an x → s as x → 1 . Then series n≥0 an converges to s.

Proof. Without loss the generality we assume s = 0. Hence,

X
f (x) = an xn = o(1)
n≥0

1


when x → 1− . Since an = O n ,
 
X X
f ′′ (x) = n(n − 1)an xn−2 = O  (n − 1)xn−2 
n≥2 n≥2
 
1
= O .
(1 − x)2

From Lemma 1.2.10 we obtain

X  
1
f ′ (x) = nan xn−1 = o .
1−x
n≥1

Since an = O(1/n) implies |nan | ≤ c for some positive constant c, we have

X nan  n−1 1 f ′ (x) 1
1− x = − ∼
c 1−x c 1−x
n≥1

when x → 1− . Therefore, we may apply Lemma 1.2.9 to have

n 
X 
kak
1− ∼ n.
c
k=1

Thus,
n
X
wn := kak = o(n), w0 := 0.
k=1
Classical Methods from Infinitesimal Calculus 27

Furthermore,
X  wn − wn−1  X 
xn xn+1

f (x) − a0 = xn = wn −
n n n+1
n≥1 n≥1
X  n n+1 n

x −x x
= wn +
n+1 n(n + 1)
n≥1
X wn X wn
= (1 − x) xn + xn
n+1 n(n + 1)
n≥1 n≥1
X wn
= o(1) + xn ,
n(n + 1)
n≥1

where we use wn = o(n) in the last step. Noting the condition f (x) → 0 as
x → 1− , we have X wn
= −a0 .
n(n + 1)
n≥1

Using wn /n(n + 1) = o(1/n) and litle o Tauber theorem yields

X wn
= −a0 .
n(n + 1)
n≥1

And the left-hand side of the above equation can be written as

N
X XN  
wn 1 1
lim = lim wn −
N →∞
n=1
n(n + 1) N →∞ n=1 n n+1
N
! N
X wn − wn−1 wN X
= lim − = lim an .
N →∞
n=1
n N +1 N →∞
n=1
P P
Therefore, n≥1 an = −a0 , or equivalently, n≥0 an = 0, which proves the
theorem.

1.2.2 Abel’s summation method

Abel’s summation method starts from the following identity called the sum-
mation by part formula, which can be considered as the discrete analog of the
integration by parts. From the summation by parts, we shall describe Abel’s
lemma that can give an alternative proof of Abel’s Ptheorem (Theorem 1.2.3).
Since Abel’s theorem shows that function f (x) = n≥0 an xn is left-handP con-
tinuous at point 1, it can be used to find the sum of convergent series n≥0 an .
This method is named Abel’s summation method.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
flows. The river here used to be crowded with shipping; so much so
that the passage of the vessels often became slow and dangerous.
Here were ships from every commercial nation on the globe, each
laden with the produce of their country, and each intent on returning
with a cargo of English goods.”
“What a gloomy looking building this must have been, if we may
judge from what remains of it!” remarked Zabra.
“That used to be a fortress and state prison,” said the Professor.
“There were once confined persons accused of treason, and there
they remained previous to their execution. Some of the noblest and
best spirits of the time have been incarcerated in those old walls.
The noble Raleigh, the patriot Russell, the lovely Anna Boleyn, and
numberless others whose names have become a part of history.
There also were kept the regalia and—.”
“And there also were kept the wild beasts,” observed the doctor,
good humouredly, “and there is every reason for believing that the
latter managed to get at the regalia; for an ancient poem I have met
with says—
“The lion and the unicorn
Were fighting for the crown,
And the lion beat the unicorn
All about the town”—

no doubt to the great astonishment of the citizens.”

“I am going to anchor now, sir,” here exclaimed the captain, “as
the navigation o’ the river beyond this arn’t practicable for a vessel
o’ such tonnage as the Albatross.”
“Let it be done then,” replied the young merchant; “and let an
armed party be got ready to accompany me on land, as I am
desirous of examining the antiquities of the place.”
“Yes, sir,” responded Hearty; and preparations were immediately
made to go ashore.
“You see before you the remains of a bridge,” observed Fortyfolios,
pointing to several broken arches that appeared above the water; “it
was considered one of the finest examples of that kind of structure
that had ever been erected, and an old chronicler I lately perused
gives an elaborate account of the ceremonies that took place when it
was first opened to the public. On that occasion the king and queen
went in state, accompanied by their court, and all the great men
were there, and the great merchants, and thousands upon
thousands of citizens. Now you can behold nothing but the
crumbling stone-work, green with age, and instead of the music and
shouts which accompanied the procession, we can only hear the
hoarse cry of the bittern from the neighbouring marshes, and the
fierce howl of the jackal from some ruined building.”
“The boat’s ready, sir!” said the captain; and shortly afterwards
the whole party proceeded in a boat to the shore.
 CHAP. IV.

THE LAST OF THE ENGLISHMEN.

A large tent had been pitched in an open space among the ruins of
the ancient city. Before it stood Oriel Porphyry leaning on a gun, with
Zabra at his side, resting on his harp. At the distance of a few feet
Fortyfolios and Tourniquet were seated on a fallen pillar, disputing
about the character of a building, the remains of which lay before
them. The captain and the midshipman were conversing together by
the side of the tent, and grouped about were twenty or thirty sailors
well armed—some reclining on the ground, others leaning against a
column, and the rest congregated into little parties, engaged in
talking over the adventures of the day, or in passing their opinions
upon the neighbouring ruins.
On one side of the tent stood a great portion of a very elegant
structure, of considerable dimensions, and of a classical style of
architecture; on the other side stood the ruins of a building of about
the same size, with a handsome portico supported by several
beautiful pillars, upon which might be observed a female draperied
figure much mutilated. A short distance from between them there
arose a tall column with a bronze statue of a warrior, broken and
disfigured, lying at its base. Beyond the column was a flight of
broken steps that led to an open space overgrown with wild shrubs
and weeds; and beyond these, and around in every direction,
nothing met the eye but confused heaps of stone and brickwork,
overgrown with rank herbage; and pillars, and walls, and glassless
windows.
“I am tired of this continual ruin,” exclaimed Oriel Porphyry. “We
have travelled all the day and met nothing but broken pedestals, and
prostrate capitals; porches without pillars, and pillars without
porches; trembling porticoes, tottering walls, and roofless dwellings.
I never witnessed such a perfect desolation. The only living thing I
have seen was a wolf, who stared at me as if quite unused to a
human countenance, and never attempted to move till I sent the
contents of my gun at his head. Then, immediately I had fired, there
flew around me such flights of bats, ravens, vultures, and owls, and
they created such a din of screaming and hooting, that I was
absolutely startled.”
“See how the ivy clings to the wall, Oriel!” said Zabra to his
patron, as he pointed to a ruin beside them; “how it twines round
the fluted pillar, and hides the ornaments of the richly decorated
capital. There is poetry astir in those leaves—there is a music
breathing in the breeze that shakes them. There! see you the bird
moving out its head from their friendly shelter to notice our
movements? She has her nest there, Oriel: in that little circle are all
her pleasures concentrated. She has made her happiness in the very
desolation of which you complain. It is impossible to look around
and say all is barren. There is not a weed that grows but what is full
of enjoyment for myriads of creatures of which we take no note. Is
there nothing in these stones which does not awaken in you
associations that ought to people them with the countless multitudes
that once found pleasure in this wilderness? I see not the ruin. I
notice not the silence. Memory looks through the vista of departed
time, and lo! all is splendour and beauty—and the deserted porticoes
echo with the voice of gladness. Let me sing to you, Oriel; this is a
glorious place for sweet sounds and antique memories, and I will
see to what use I can apply them.”
The young musician, after a short, touching prelude, then sung,
with the deep expression that characterised all his attempts at
minstrelsy, the following words:—
“To the home of the brave ones, the true and the kind,
With a heart filled with hope I have been;
And I thought of the gladness and peace I should find,
And the smiles of delight I had seen.
“But the dwelling was homeless, and roofless, and bare,
’Twas a ruin that threatened to fall;
 And my sorrowing heart seemed to cling to despair,
Like the ivy that clung to the wall.
“Oh! where are the roses that clustered and spread
Round the porch where my wishes were told?
Alas! from the porch all the roses have fled,
And the hands that once plucked them are cold.
“Oh! where are the friends, the young, thoughtless, and gay,
Who gave life to the garden and hall?
All, all have departed—all, all passed away,
Save the ivy that clings to the wall.
“Be glad, my fond heart—there is hope for you yet,
For these leaves have a comfort convey’d;
There are moments and pleasures I ne’er can forget,
Though both roses and friends have decayed.
“Though this breast be a ruin where sorrow hath cast
Desolations she cannot recal;
Still mem’ry shall cling to the joys that are past,
Like the ivy that clings to the wall.”
“I tell you, Dr. Tourniquet, you’re completely in error,” exclaimed
Fortyfolios. “The meaning of the word United Service is evident, and
admits of no dispute. In old authors we frequently read of people
‘going to service,’ and as often of a union of offices in the same
person, such as butler and steward, valet and footman, gardener
and groom; and there cannot be a doubt that this is what was called
united service, and that this building was dedicated to the purpose
of finding situations for such people.”
“Dedicated to a fiddle-stick. Don’t you see?” replied the doctor. “I
tell you it was a club that met there to play at cards, and that was
the reason that they had a king of clubs, and a queen of clubs, and
a knave of clubs, and ever so many other clubs; and as a
qualification, all the members were obliged to be club-footed, and
they were governed by what they called club law.”
“’T was no such thing, Dr. Tourniquet, depend upon it,” said the
professor. “I’m sure ’t was the united service, because I have a book
in my library that mentions it as the United Service.”
 “And I’m sure it was a club, because I’ve got a book in my library
that mentions it as a club,” responded the other.
“Then the building opposite was devoted to very different
purposes,” continued Fortyfolios. “It was called the Athenæum, the
derivation of which word I have never been able to discover. Perhaps
it had its origin in the Modern Athens, a place of some importance in
the neighbourhood of Blackwood’s Magazine—once a famous depôt
for combustibles, that blew up occasionally with great damage.
However, it was erected for the purpose of bringing together all the
intelligence of the country.
‘Together let us range the fields,
Impearled with the morning dew,’

says an ancient poet, and there is no doubt that the lines were
addressed by one member of the Athenæum to another.”
“And what good did they ever do by being brought together?”
inquired Tourniquet.
“That has never been ascertained,” replied the other.
“For what purpose was this column erected?” asked the young
merchant.
“It was erected to commemorate the victories of a certain Duke of
York,” said the professor. “He distinguished himself greatly during the
wars of the rival houses of York and Lancaster. Besides being a great
general, his piety was so great that he became a bishop, and there
are a series of moral discourses extant, that took place between the
Bishop and the Bishop’s Clarke, a person who was also very
celebrated. It may be said that this Duke of York enjoyed more
credit in his day than any of his predecessors; indeed he was in such
general requisition that the constant inquiries after him, gave rise to
the saying, ‘York, you’re wanted;’ and it was to him that the people,
after a disturbance which he had pacified, said,—
‘Now is the winter of our discontent
Made glorious summer by the son of York.’”
 “I certainly feel the charm of association as much as any one,”
observed Oriel to his companion; “but the gratification I find in
treading shores so celebrated by historic recollections is changed to
a painful feeling at beholding the wreck to which has been reduced
the greatness I have honoured. I should suppose, from what I have
seen, that the whole land is in a similar state as that portion of it
which has come under my observation. I can imagine nothing so
deplorable. There appear to be no living things in the island but wild
animals. I can only account for their being here, from my knowledge
that, in former times, the natives kept several large collections of
them for show, and that these having escaped, they spread
themselves over the country.”
At this moment Oriel’s quick ear caught the sound of a low sharp
growl at no great distance from him, and turning round, beheld a
large lion crouching behind a heap of stones near the two
philosophers, who were disputing so vehemently that they had not
the slightest idea of their danger. The young merchant had just time
to get his gun in readiness and give the alarm to the sailors, when,
with a fierce roar that came like a peal of thunder upon the terrified
disputants, the lion sprung upon them, and knocked them both
down. He stood majestically with one paw upon the prostrate
philosophers, looking defiance on Oriel and his companions, as they
cautiously approached him from all sides with their muskets in their
hands.
“Now, my friends,” exclaimed the young merchant, “don’t fire till
you come within good aiming distance—don’t more than half fire at
a time—let the others reserve their fire, in case he makes a spring—
be steady, and aim at his head.”
“Ay, ay, sir,” was murmured by the captain; and every man held his
breath, cocked his gun, picked his way carefully over the stones, and
prepared himself for a struggle with his dangerous enemy. The lion
saw them advancing—shook his mane, lashed his tail, and, bending
his head to the ground, uttered a long and deafening roar.
“Now then, mind your aim,” said the young merchant. About a
dozen discharged their pieces; and, with a piercing howl, the lion
dashed among his foes, knocking down some half-a-dozen of them,
and scattering the rest in all directions. Luckily, he had been too
severely wounded to do any more serious mischief. His roar was
terrible; but the men having again approached him, poured in a
more deadly fire, and with a vain attempt to reach them, he gave a
savage growl, and fell covered with wounds. Scarcely had this been
done, before a distant roar was heard by the victors.
“Make haste and reload, for, if I mistake not, we shall have the
lioness upon us in a few seconds,” said Oriel Porphyry earnestly; and
all quickened their preparations, to be in readiness for another
contest. “Take up a position behind that ruin, for the lioness will first
make to the dead lion, and then she will attempt to turn her rage
upon us. We shall have her within gun range as soon as she comes
to the lion, and shall be in some sort of shelter when she begins her
attack.”
Scarcely had the position been taken and the arrangements made,
when the roar became more distinct; and, soon afterwards, the
lioness was seen rapidly approaching, with a series of prodigious
leaps that quickly brought her into the immediate neighbourhood of
the party in ambush. She instantly proceeded to the lion. At first,
she patted him with her paw. Finding he took no notice of that, she
fawned upon him, and licked him with her tongue, playfully bit his
ear, and played with his mane. Observing that he was still inattentive
to her movements, she gently turned him over; and then, noticing
the wounds in his head and body, and his incapability of replying to
her caresses, she uttered a roar so loud and piercing, that it made
the old walls about her echo again. This was replied to by a peal of
musketry from the neighbouring ruin. In a moment, with another
deafening howl, she rushed towards the place whence came the
reports, and with one desperate bound, leaped to the window
behind which Oriel and his companions lay concealed upon a heap of
stones and rubbish. She had got her fore paws and head upon the
ledge of the window, when another shower of balls sent her reeling
back. Howling with rage she made the leap again; when a blow on
the head from the butt end of a gun, held by a stout seaman, made
her loosen her hold, and, with a savage growl, she fell to the
ground. From there she next crawled to the body of the lion, licking
the upper part of his body, and uttering the most wild and
melancholy howls. She was evidently much wounded; but she
managed to crawl round him several times, drawing her long tongue
over his mane, and moving a paw, or his head, in hopes of noticing
some sign of recognition. At last, finding all her efforts ineffectual,
she emitted a roar that rivalled the loudest thunder, lashed her body
furiously with her tail, began tearing up the stones and soil around
her, and then, as if putting forth her strength for a last effort, she
made two or three prodigious leaps towards the adjoining building.
The bullets that met her in her way did not stop her progress, for
with one enormous bound she cleared the window, and came down
in the midst of the voyagers, dashing them about with a violence
that gave several of the men very severe contusions, and grasping
one by the neck so furiously that he would have inevitably been
killed, had not Loop stabbed her to the heart with a short sword he
carried, while Hearty gave her a desperate blow on the head with an
immense fragment of stone. Letting go the man she had got so
firmly in her grasp, she turned upon her assailants a look of the
most savage ferocity, and then, with a short howl of agony, fell back
dead at their feet.
They had dragged the lioness out of the building, and several of
the men were busily engaged taking off the skins of the two
animals, and the rest were talking over the dangers they had
escaped, when Zabra pointed out to his patron the figures of an old
man and a young female, who were advancing up the broken steps
that led to the base of the column. The sight of human beings was
so novel, that every one paid particular attention to the individuals
they now beheld. The man appeared to have reached extreme old
age, for his hair was white and long, and hung down upon his neck
and shoulders. His complexion was ruddy, but although the face was
covered with wrinkles and deeply marked furrows, there was an
animation in his eyes that showed that the fire of life was still
brilliantly burning. He was tall, and walked firmly, supporting himself
by a long staff. The skin of a lion hung from his neck over his manly
shoulders. The rest of his dress was composed of skins fastened by
thongs round his body and legs. A long sword was suspended at his
side, which, with a knife or dagger at his waist, seemed all the
weapons he possessed.
He was accompanied by a young girl, whose complexion had
evidently been browned by exposure to the sun, the effect of which
gave a warmer character to the quiet beauty of her features. Her
eyes were of a soft, deep, blue, beaming with tenderness and
benevolence; and her hair, which was silken in its texture, and very
light in colour, fell in clustering curls from her forehead to her neck.
A sort of cape, made of feathers, covered her shoulders; beneath
which was a long garment reaching below the knees, made of
different skins neatly sewed together, and bound round the waist
with a belt of the same. Her arms and legs were bare, and they
were of the most exquisite symmetry, delicately and beautifully
formed. In one hand she carried a light spear, and the other she
rested upon the shoulder of her companion.
As soon as the young girl observed the voyagers, she started back
with an exclamation of fear, and clung to the arm of her elder
companion, who, noticing the cause of her alarm, immediately let
fall his staff and drew his sword. There was something remarkably
imposing in the attitude of the old man. He drew up his stately form
to its full height; and as he stood upon the defensive with his
weapon firmly grasped in his right hand, while with his left arm he
clasped the young girl by the waist and drew her behind him, there
seemed a vigour in his silvery hairs, and a fire in his sunken eyes,
that neither youth or manhood could have rivalled.
Oriel Porphyry, who looked upon them with peculiar interest, laid
down his arms and advanced towards them, accompanied only by
Zabra, who was also unarmed. Their approaches were closely
regarded by the man, and watched with curiosity by the female.
“Fear us not, old man, we will do you no harm,” said the young
merchant.
“Fear!” exclaimed the old man proudly, “I know it not.”
 “We are voyagers from a distant land, who have been induced to
visit your shores, from a desire to do honour to a country once so
famous.”
The old man, without making any reply, hastily returned his sword
to its scabbard, and then, with a countenance in which fearlessness
and kindness were blended, held out his right hand. The hand of
Oriel Porphyry was soon in its cordial and friendly grasp, and a
compact of sociality seemed immediately agreed to between both
parties. “And you, fair maid, need not be alarmed,” said Zabra,
approaching the maiden with a look that might have inspired a
savage with confidence. “You will meet amongst us none but friends
anxious to do you honour and service.” She shrunk back from his
advances with a strong feeling of timidity expressed in her features;
yet continued to gaze on the handsome face and graceful person of
the speaker, as if they had for her an attraction impossible to be
resisted.
“The child is unused to strangers,” observed her companion, as he
noticed the shy and wondering manner with which she regarded
Zabra. “It is long since she has seen a human being except myself.
Be not afraid, Lilya,” he exclaimed, as he drew her towards him.
“These are not enemies. They are wanderers, like ourselves; but
they have a home and kindred—we have neither.”
The cheerful countenance of the old man now became clouded
with melancholy, and he sighed as if there was a heaviness upon his
heart that could not be removed; but the timid Lilya still gazed upon
the features of the young musician, as if she found it impossible to
remove her eyes from their beauty. There was an extraordinary
contrast between her and her companion. She seemed just in the
dawn of womanhood, with delicate limbs, and looks all bashfulness
and pleased surprise; while he appeared on the extreme verge of old
age—all bone and sinews, hard and rough with exposure to the
severities of time and climate. She was evidently too young to be his
daughter; but that there was some relationship between them was
evident, for even in the gentle loveliness that distinguished her
youthful face might be discerned faint traces of resemblance to the
ancient but noble example of manhood that stood by her side.
“Your appearance has much interested me,” said the young
merchant, gazing on the stranger’s venerable appearance with
affectionate respect; “and I hope it will not be deemed intrusive or
impertinent if I inquire who it is I behold.”
“You see before you the last of the Englishmen,” said the old man,
looking proudly upon the inquirer.
“Is it possible?” exclaimed Oriel, regarding him with increased
admiration and a voluntary feeling of homage.
“The last of that powerful and illustrious race is now before you,”
he added, “and this is the child of my child’s child. We are all that
remain of the great people who filled this island with their multitudes
and the world with their fame. Kindred and countrymen—all are
gone; their homes are the habitations of the wild cat and the
vulture, and even their very graves have been made desolate by the
jackal and the hyena.”
“You appear to have attained a great age,” remarked Zabra.
“Alas! I have outlived my country,” replied the Englishman. “A
hundred and twenty years have passed since my existence
commenced. Time has forgotten me. I have been where the sword
was ploughing deep furrows around me far and near.—I have seen
Death busy at his work amid the youthful, the old, the innocent and
the guilty.—I have noticed the young trees grow up, put forth their
bravery, and die.—I have beheld mighty buildings crumble into dust.
—I have known all things perish before my eyes: yet I have
remained untouched in the midst of the desolation.—Three
generations have passed away, and have left me to gather
consolation from their tombs.”
“If the relation of what you have known and endured be not too
painful, I should much like to hear it,” said the young merchant.
“If you have the patience to listen, all shall be told to you,” replied
the old man. Then taking up his staff, he walked on to some
fragments of building that lay at a short distance, on which he sat
with Lilya at his feet. Oriel Porphyry, Zabra, Loop, the captain,
Fortyfolios, and the doctor sat or reclined in a circle round him, and
beyond the circle, the sailors stood leaning on their guns.
 CHAP. V.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE DECLINE AND FALL OF OLD ENGLAND.

“It must be at least a century since the necessities of the kingdom

obliged me, for the first time, to attempt the trade of war,” said the
Englishman. “There had been some dispute between the
government and the people, which was originally of little
consequence, but the zeal of furious partizans on each side gave it
an importance which would not otherwise have belonged to it. One
said the safety of the people depended on their success—another
declared that the security of the crown was involved in the question.
One party were frantic for liberty—another party, not so numerous,
but far more influential, were enthusiastic for loyalty. But words were
soon given up for more effective weapons. The Court, proud in their
strength, prepared themselves for a sanguinary conflict; and their
antagonists, having equal confidence in their numbers, followed their
example with the same alacrity. The whole country was astir with
contention: families were divided, and friends turned into foes. He
who opposed the King was denounced as a rebel; and he who
differed with the people was declared a traitor.
“Many disturbances had broken out before the parties took the
field in military array; but now the quarrel assumed a more serious
aspect. Every one armed himself, and hastened to join that cause
which seemed to him the best; and the most influential men on each
side led these masses to the battle. Though they were children of
the same soil, and many had relatives in the opposite ranks, nothing
could equal the animosity with which they engaged and the fury
with which they fought. Never had they against a foreign foe
exhibited such fierceness. The battle raged nearly the whole of the
day with great slaughter on both sides. The men of loyalty were less
in number, but they were more experienced in soldiership. The men
of liberty had the most powerful army, but they were deficient in
military discipline and in martial appearance. They fought with the
most determined courage, resisting and making attacks, attacking
and defending positions, till, after a protracted struggle, the latter
succeeded in driving their opponents off the field.
“This was merely the commencement of hostilities. The crown
party, though defeated, were very soon in a condition to renew the
contest; and though this victory to the popular cause brought a
great increase of strength, it did not save its partizans from being
defeated with immense slaughter in the next battle that was fought.
For several years a destructive civil war raged with unexampled
ferocity in every part of the kingdom; sometimes one party being the
strongest, sometimes the other. Every individual capable of bearing
arms was obliged to join either the cause of the king or that of the
people; and, as a great diversity of opinion existed, brothers were
set against brothers, and fathers against sons, and thousands and
tens of thousands of the bravest of her citizens daily were cast into
pits to feed the worms of the soil of England. At last the popular
cause triumphed, and the King became a fugitive. Loud were the
congratulations of the victors when no doubt seemed to remain of
their success; but they had little cause for their joy—they had only
changed a bad ruler for a worse.
“The triumphant party now sought out such of their fellow-citizens
who had most distinguished themselves by their hostility to their
progress during the late warfare; and they who did not succeed in
escaping were persecuted and exterminated in every way that
vengeance could devise. Blood continued to flow, and hatred and
strife still existed. The leading men among them had scarcely settled
themselves in their authority, before they began to differ concerning
their notions of government. Some were for one form and some for
another, and each had his own theory to support or his own
ambition to gratify. The difference soon increased to open hostility;
and as each was supported by a numerous band of partizans, each
strove for the mastery with all the cunning and boldness he
possessed. Battles were again fought—victims were again sacrificed.
Party succeeded party; and as one overpowered the other, the
vanquished were sure to be massacred if they remained within the
power of their conquerors.
“But the cause of the king was considered the cause of all kings;
and while the different leaders of the people seemed intent only
upon exterminating each other, a powerful armament was being
fitted out in a neighbouring kingdom for the purpose of restoring the
deposed monarch to his possessions. The first intimation that the
ruling government had of this expedition was derived from its
landing upon the coast; and the necessity of an immediate union
between all parties against the common enemy became so evident,
that they lost no time in settling their differences, joining their
disposable forces, and making preparations to resist the approaches
of their expelled sovereign. Numbers, who had suffered from the
oppressions of the many, now hastened to the king’s standard. The
loyal came from their hiding places, and those who had fled to the
neighbouring continent hurried back again to share in the struggle.
The battle-cry of one was, ‘God and the King’—that of the other,
‘God and the People;’ and, with increased animosity, the contending
armies rushed to the conflict, till the whole country seemed flowing
with blood.
“At first the king was successful in almost every encounter with his
rebellious subjects. Battle after battle was fought, and still he kept
advancing and triumphing on his way. But the leaders of the people
did not despair. They carried on the contest with the same spirit
notwithstanding their defeats. The whole population rose in arms.
No sooner was one army dispersed than another was ready for
action. Three times the court party took possession of the capital,
and were again driven out. The contest was prolonged by the
military genius of one man, whose mind seemed exhaustless in
resources. He had risen from obscurity, and had gradually exalted
himself from one command to another during the civil war, till the
whole forces on the side of the people were at his disposal. Success
appeared to attend all his efforts. As he in his own person exhibited
the most determined bravery, his followers were stimulated to copy
his example. The most daring attacks were planned and executed,
and the royalists began to lose all the advantages they had
previously gained. It was the intention of the popular general to
terminate the contest at a blow; and with this object in view he
concentrated all his forces, and unexpectedly brought them upon the
enemy’s camp. The royalists were taken quite unprepared, and few
escaped to announce their defeat. The king, the nobles, the foreign
troops, and a great portion of their native allies perished in one
indiscriminate slaughter; and thus the hopes of the loyal were utterly
annihilated for the time.
“As every man was obliged to join one or the other party, I had
my share in these struggles for mastery. I had inherited a small
patrimony in one of the inland counties, and I had recently married a
young and beautiful relative, to whom I had been attached from my
youth, when I was first called upon to contribute my assistance
towards bringing the contest to a termination. I was an ardent lover
of liberty. I was a great advocate for republics, and I had long
looked upon kings as expensive and useless machines, which the
people could easily spare. It may easily be imagined, from my
acknowledgement of these sentiments, that I eagerly embraced the
popular cause. I mixed myself up as little as possible with the
squabbles of partizans; but there were few more sincere adherents
to the principles I professed than myself. I was present at nearly all
the great engagements, received several wounds, and gradually
acquired rank and experience in the republican army. My superior
officers respected me, and the men under my command were
attentive and obedient.
“After the destruction of the royalists, the people were so frantic in
praise of their leader that he thought he might be allowed to assume
the sovereign power. He did so, amid the acclamations of the
multitude; and in six months after was assassinated. No sooner was
his decease known than there rose the same intrigues for supremacy
that his master mind had quelled. Party succeeded party, and
government followed government, in rapid succession; and the
gibbet and the axe were in constant requisition by whatever party
happened to be in power. As if it was determined that this unhappy
nation should enjoy no respite from its troubles, the son of the late
king, assuming the royal dignity, had succeeded in inducing a foreign
power to grant such assistance as might be required to reinstate him
in the throne of his fathers. He landed on the English coast with a
large army of foreigners, and advanced in a very imposing manner
towards the ancient metropolis. The government had no force
sufficient to dispute his progress, and fancying itself unable to
struggle successfully against the army brought against it, it took the
dangerous resolution of inviting to its assistance the monarch of a
neighbouring and powerful kingdom. While this was being done the
young king marched forward, meeting with very little opposition till
he came within a few miles of the metropolitan city. There the
leaders of the people had taken up a strong position, and although
they were inferior to the royalists in number and soldiership, and
had not yet received the expected succours from the foreign power,
they determined to dispute the passage with the royalists. The battle
was long and sanguinary. The people, favoured by their position,
quietly awaited the attack of their opponents, and as they advanced,
poured into their ranks a heavy and destructive fire; but although
they fought in the most steady and heroic manner, the superiority of
the enemy in numbers and discipline was too great to be
counteracted by the most steady courage. The republicans were
driven from their position, and defeated with great slaughter; after
which the young monarch marched into the ancient city, of which he
took possession. It was at first resolved to renew the fight in the
streets of the metropolis; but dissension and ill-will arose in their
councils, and nothing being resolved on, the popular army retreated
from the city, leaving it open to the advance of the royalists.
“The young king, fancying that all opposition had ceased, or that
the defeated party could not now offer him any molestation, passed
his time in getting up the idle ceremonies of a coronation; but the
leaders of the people were preparing to recommence the struggle. A
powerful army from the monarch who had promised them
assistance, had landed, and such good use did they make of their
time, that the young king was obliged to leave the metropolis in the
very midst of his coronation. Then again the horrors of civil war
broke out with fresh fury. As each party was assisted by foreign
allies, the war was never left to languish. Reinforcements were
continually being poured into the kingdom, and the ranks of the
opposing armies, thus strengthened, were led against each other,
and fiercer and more relentless became the strife. Blood flowed like
water, and flesh was cut down like grass. Villages were deserted—
towns burnt—cities depopulated. Whether by design or accident is
not known, but it was found out that in all engagements the
inhabitants suffered infinitely more than their foreign auxiliaries. At
every battle the fields were strewn with their dead, while the loss of
their allies was but trifling.
“After the war had been protracted till there scarcely seemed
materials left in the kingdom to continue it, the king’s party were
completely annihilated, and the foreign troops that had assisted
them were glad to make their escape out of the country. The allies
which the leaders of the people had called to their assistance, had
been gradually augmented until they had become an exceedingly
numerous and powerful body, and when the war was over, it was the
anxious desire of the people to get rid of them as soon as possible.
But their friends were not so easily to be disposed of. On different
pretexts they protracted their stay till they had obtained possession
of nearly all the strong places in the empire, and then they not only
refused to depart, but commenced a war of extermination on the
people they came to protect. For this treachery the inhabitants were
but ill prepared. The greater portion of the English army had been
disbanded, and the rest were insignificant in comparison with the
new enemy against which they were called to act. The consequence
was, that for a considerable time the foreign army passed from one
part of the island to the other, burning and destroying whatever they
met with, without meeting any resistance.
“A force was hastily organised for the purpose of driving these
treacherous friends out of the country. The old and young of all
parties and opinions rushed to the national standard with the hope
of freeing their native land from foreign rule. A battle ensued.
Nothing could exceed the desperate bravery of my countrymen; but
the discipline of their enemy was not to be resisted. The people
were slaughtered in multitudes, and I, who commanded one of the
wings of the army on that occasion, was the only general officer who
retreated from the field with anything like a respectable body of
men. We were attacked as we retreated by a force greatly our
superior; but I continued to show a resolute front, beat off the
assailants, and maintained a successful fight. I succeeded in placing
my men within the shelter of impregnable walls.
“The people had by this time become sick of war. Thirty years of
continued bloodshed had done destructive work all over the country.
The population had been greatly reduced; agriculture had been
neglected; commerce was rapidly decaying; manufactures had been
destroyed; all the resources of industry had been annihilated;
poverty, misery, and ruin existed throughout the land. The people
sued for peace. The enemy sent back a message:—it was, ‘England
must be destroyed;’ and still they continued their relentless work of
pillage, burning, and slaughter. But the spirit of the nation was not
utterly broken. They still waged a defensive and offensive war
whenever there was an opportunity of doing so with advantage.
Every small party of the enemy were cut off, stragglers killed
wherever met with, and their army harassed in every way that
hatred and ingenuity could devise. Bands of well-armed Englishmen,
from fifty to a thousand in number, under separate and independent
leaders, surprised positions, destroyed convoys, and cut off supplies.
A new plan of warfare was now attempted, which, although
destructive to the country, was found a most effective means of
expelling the invaders. This was, wherever the enemy approached,
to burn the dwellings, and to move or destroy every kind of
provision.
“About this period, there appeared amongst the crowd of
wretched beings who congregated the cities, a new and malignant
epidemic. How it first originated was a mystery. It came, and none
knew from what cause. Its fatal character was soon proved. At first,
the people died in tens and twenties, then they perished by
hundreds, and then thousands fell victims to its malignity. The rich
fled from their town houses into the country, carrying with them the
very infection from which they were flying, and in a short time it
penetrated into the most remote corner of the kingdom. Where the
population had not been extensive, there were not left enough to
bury the dead. In some rural districts they died, and none knew of
their decease. It attacked all constitutions with the same violence:
the old, the young, the strong and the weak, were its continual
victims. The rich were as much subject to its ravages as the poor.
There was no condition or class of society in which the disease did
not enter and carry off the majority of its members.
“The system which had been pursued, chiefly under my direction,
against the enemy, gave them considerable annoyance; but still the
inhabitants generally would have done anything to have purchased
the blessings of peace. Again was the boon sued for, and the reply
was, ‘You haughty islanders have continued too long to lord it over
the world. We have been your victims many a time; but now you
shall be ours—England must be destroyed.’ They might have
triumphed over our hostility; they might, by keeping up a
communication with their ships, continue to have supplies of
provision and forage independent of the country; but they saw that
they could not escape the plague: and, after effecting all the
mischief they could produce, they hastened to their vessels, and
sailed from the pestilential shores they had come to conquer.
“I had not mingled in the sufferings of my country without having
to endure my own share. I had found my home burnt to the ground,
and my wife sacrificed in the flames. Three of my sons had died
fighting by my side. But worse suffering was now in store for me:
the plague was amongst us. I had used every precaution to prevent
the infection spreading among my relatives. I had retired to a
dwelling up a steep mountain in the west, and there I resided with
my children and their families. There were four of my sons, strong,
robust men, well inured to all the dangers of war; and there were
their wives, all of healthy constitutions, and their children, of
different ages, every one full of health and spirits. With these were
my two daughters, with their husbands and families, none of whom
were touched by the slightest illness. One morning I was
congratulating them upon the beneficial effect of my regulations to
prevent the spread of the infection, and the mothers looked at their
children and the husbands on their wives, and I gazed on all, with a
delight we found to be unspeakable. In less than a week I had
buried them all but one.”
Here the old man’s voice sunk, and he appeared to be powerfully
agitated. No one attempted an observation; and after making a
strong effort to recover his self-possession, he continued.
“The survivor was a boy of ten years of age; he was one of the
few whom the plague had touched and spared. Me it had passed by
harmless. But the destruction caused by the pestilence exceeded all
calculation. As in my case, whole families were carried off, and
districts entirely depopulated. The pits that were dug to throw in the
dead were quickly filled, and none were strong enough to dig others.
The dead cart stood in the street with its load piled up; for both the
driver and the horse had been destroyed by the pestilence.
Physicians and surgeons appeared to have been the earliest of its
victims. They came to visit their patients, and they died by the
bedside. All remedies were tried without avail; all precautions were
used, but they were equally useless. There were different opinions
existing as to its origin. The royalists said that it was a punishment
for the sins of the republicans; and the republicans retorted by
proclaiming that it was a judgment on the profligacy of the royalists.
Religious fanatics went running about the deserted streets, with
streaming hair and blood-shot eyes, shouting out, in piercing tones,
‘Wo! wo! the day of judgment is at hand!’”
This lasted for the better portion of a year; and, after putting the
boy in a place of safety, when the pestilence was over, as I
journeyed through the country to notice the effects it had produced,
where I had once known crowded thoroughfares, I passed along
without meeting a single inhabitant. The country appeared to have
been completely unpeopled; and in the city, the few persons I met
with only made the immense mortality which had existed appear
more great. I inquired for the government, and found that not a
trace of it was in existence. I asked for the army, and I was shown
about a couple of hundred men. I called a meeting of the citizens in
the metropolis, and they all came; and they filled a moderate sized
room. I explained to them the deplorable state into which the plague
had reduced the country, and I asked their counsel and assistance to
form some sort of government to manage its affairs. There was a
melancholy silence for some minutes. None attempted to speak.
Their hearts seemed too full for utterance. At last one of the citizens
ventured to wish that I would do what I thought best for the
community; and I did do what I thought best. I travelled through
every part of this once populous island to notice with my own eyes
the exact state of the remaining population. Some cities I found
deserted; in others two-thirds of their buildings were untenanted;
the rank grass was growing in the public streets, and the gardens of
the rich were filled with nettles.
“But the measure of afflictions for this unhappy country had not
yet been filled up. No sooner had the pestilence abated, than
another enemy, scarcely less dreadful, made its appearance. The
continued ravages of war had prevented the tilling of the fields. No
one would attempt to sow, knowing how insecure would be his
ownership of the crop he might produce. There had been no grain,
and no fruits, and no vegetables; and the cattle had died of the
plague, or had been destroyed by the enemy. It was in vain
attempting to get a supply from foreign countries. Our commerce
had been destroyed, for no nation would hold communication with a
people among whom raged so destructive a pestilence. They
avoided the shores of England as if death was on its soil; and any
vessel attempting to communicate with them, or to enter one of
their ports, was fired at and sunk. The consequence was, our ships
lay rotting in the docks, and their crews were either dead, or had
dispersed over the island, and were not to be found. The terrific
visitation of famine was now upon us. Every thing was eaten that
the human stomach could be brought to swallow. Things the most
loathsome to the taste, and offensive to the eyes, were readily and
ravenously devoured. Then the cheek sunk; the eye-ball fell; the
flesh dwindled away; and all crawled with half lifeless limbs in search
of any substance that might lessen the cravings of their appetites.
But at last every thing that was digestible disappeared, and the
skeleton forms of the sufferers were stretched stiffly on the place
where they fell—some in madness, some in despair, and all in agony
and dread.
“There was no opportunity allowed me for legislating with any
advantage. I thought of every plan that afforded the slightest
assistance towards lessening the dreadful effects of the calamity
which the whole country was enduring; but I met with no one to
second my exertions. The few who retained the use of their faculties
were feeble and emaciated. Famine was in their gaunt limbs, and
despair upon their aching hearts. No one appeared inclined to pay
the slightest attention to any thing but his own sufferings. There was
no authority but that of the strong, and they who retained their
physical power the longest, robbed the dying of such slight
nourishment as they had acquired. The rich would bring out their
treasures and offer them for a meal, and when some avaricious
wretch was found to make the exchange, one more strong than
either would come by, and wrest the food from the impoverished,
and the wealth from the miser; and both died within the hour. The
breast of the mother became dry, and the infant was abandoned to
starve when it became an incumbrance to the famished parent. Cats,
dogs, rats, mice, and every kind of animal, no matter how disgusting
in its habits, had been greedily devoured; birds, fish, and insects,
that had previously been considered loathsome, were sought after
as delicacies; and weeds, roots, the leaves of trees, offal, and even
many things still more objectionable, became the daily food of many
who had been accustomed to the most luxurious fare.
“Finding that I could do no good among the scanty band of
skeletons that clung to a lingering existence, I determined on
endeavouring to make my way to the northern part of the island,
where an industrious and hardy race had managed to retain their
independence and prosperity during the wars, the pestilence, and
the famine, that ravaged its southern portion. My grandson was too
young to walk great distances; so, when he was tired, I placed him
upon my shoulder, and thus we journeyed on our way. Our food was
acorns, berries, roots, and leaves. Sometimes I was enabled to catch
a fish, or a bird, or a small animal; but these were luxuries seldom to
be enjoyed. We passed several parties apparently intent upon the
same object as ourselves; but many were there of the groups who
laid themselves down on the road-side weary and famishing, and
there perished. Continually I came upon some individual made
desperate by his hunger, scratching up the earth with his hands in
search of the worms it contained, which, if found, were eaten with
as much enjoyment as the most delicious meats, and if the search
was fruitless, the dry soil was crammed into the mouth as a
substitute. Very few of the travellers could have reached the end of
their journey, for we continued to pass the dying and the dead as far
as we proceeded. Sometimes a solitary wretch would be found
prostrate at the foot of a tree, the bark of which he had evidently
been gnawing; further on a family of children were discovered, with
their little bodies shrunk to the bone, and the parents at a short
distance, with their faces turned from them, as if they could not look
upon their sufferings; and in another place, a lover and his mistress
lay clasped in each other’s fleshless arms.
“We were crossing an extensive and barren moor, when we came
before a group of dead bodies, among which, to my exceeding
astonishment, I beheld a child—a delicate girl of five or six years of
age—busily occupied in chasing a butterfly. The scene was so
extraordinary that I stood gazing on it for a considerable period
before I could determine what to do. The insect’s gaudy wings kept
fluttering over the lifeless forms that were cold and stiff on the
ground, sometimes alighting on a hand, sometimes on a face; and
the child, in an ecstasy of delight, screaming, and laughing, and
stretching out its little arms, pursued it from place to place. What a
time was this for reflection! Here was life in the midst of death—the
pursuit of pleasure among the most fatal and least endurable
examples of pain. It was a wonderful sight! The girl seemed to know
neither want nor sorrow; and continued her sport, indifferent to the
spectral shapes that lay extended at her feet. Their ghastly stare,
and gaunt visages, had no terrors for her. The hunt of the butterfly
occupied all her thoughts, and the hope of attaining possession of its
beautiful colours seemed the only desire entertained. After watching
her movements with indescribable interest for several minutes, I
advanced towards the child, and invited her to go with me. I had
considerable difficulty to get her to leave the butterfly; and when I
led her away from the spot, she chatted with infantile volubility, as if
there was nothing else but the butterfly in the world.
“I found the people of the northern provinces hospitable, and with
them I lived for nearly half a century. They escaped the ravages of
the pestilence by not allowing any infected persons from the
neighbouring counties, who crowded towards the borders, to enter
into their territory. None had presented themselves during the
prevalence of the famine but myself; and their own frugality saved
them from the horrors which had desolated England. They looked
upon the southern portion of the island as a doomed country, for
although several parties from the north had gone there for the
purpose of forming settlements, they either returned after a short
stay, stating that neither cattle nor crops would nourish on the land,
or were never more heard of, and were supposed to have fallen
victims to the pirates who occasionally visited the coast. I passed my
time in educating the two children of whom I had taken charge, and
both made great progress under my instructions. The boy became a
fine, active, intelligent man, the girl an admirable example of
womankind; and as I found that their hearts were for each other, in
due time I had them made man and wife. I have outlived them and
all their progeny, with the exception of Lilya, whom, after the
decease of her family, I took with me to England, having at the time
an ardent desire to revisit its desolated shores.
“What I found England I need scarcely describe; you see it before
you. It was a complete ruin. A sad and miserable remnant of her
people did strive to till the land; but the soil refused to give
sustenance to the seed, and the cultivator could gather nothing but
a harvest of weeds. The earth was abandoned for the waters, and
the farmers became fishermen; but the sea and the river gave an
inadequate supply. One by one the inhabitants dropped off, till at
last the only human creatures within the country were myself and
Lilya. We managed to subsist by hunting and fishing. Our fare was
not at all times very delicate, and was seldom very plentiful; but we
provided for ourselves tolerably well. We were obliged to rely upon
our own resources; for the savage appearance of the island, and the
belief that it was doomed to destruction, prevented our being visited
by any vessels from the continent; and even the pirates from the
neighbouring islands, having found that the country contained
nothing to tempt them to a visit, turned their attention to more
opulent regions. Lilya and I, therefore, had the whole land to
ourselves, and over it we held absolute sovereignty. Even the savage
monsters of the forest appeared to acknowledge our supremacy, for
none offered to molest us. We took our way through deserted piles
and fallen monuments; and if we disturbed the lion in his lair, or the
eagle in his eyrie, they made way for our approach, and returned to
their haunts when we were gone.
“Thus passed the time. Lilya grew up as you see—a child of the
forest, skilful in snaring game, and in preserving skins; affectionate
in her manner, gentle in her temper, and shy as a dove in her nest.
As for me, I was a wanderer over the lands of my forefathers. The
stream, the vale, the mountain, and the plain, were accustomed to
my visits. I became a denizen of the forest and the plain—a resident
in the deserted cities. I found a dwelling in the palace and the hut;
and all places were my home. I experienced a melancholy pleasure
in beholding the scenes in which the greatness of my country had
once been exhibited. I walked among the crumbling ruins of her
once gorgeous halls. The sunken roofs of her stately cathedrals for
me were full of religious awe and veneration; the dilapidated
battlements of her ancient castles seemed still to show the dauntless
valour of the spirits by whom they had been defended; and the
moss and lichens that disfigured her public monuments gave only a
fresher interest to the worth they represented. From these I
gathered the memories of a better time, and the glories of the past
warmed my old heart with the vigour of a second youth. I lived over
again the departed age—I recalled to life the buried generations—I
contemplated the happiness which the grave had long since hid in
her bosom—and the discoloured stones around me seemed to echo
the busy goings on of an industrious population. Free hearts were
throbbing proudly around me, and the stillness of the desert along
which I stalked was made alive with the pleasures of the young, the
noble, and the brave.
“Gone is your glory, oh my country!” exclaimed the old man, in a
more feeble voice; “your greatness among the nations is put down;
your magnificence has dwindled to a heap of stones; your power has
nothing by which it may be known. If the stranger come in a few
years, and inquire for the city which was the wonder of the world,
none shall tell him, for both city and citizens will have crumbled into
dust. If he ask for the people whose name was a glory in every clime
that exists, he shall find no better reply than the echo of his own
voice. He may wander over the brave old island in search of places
that history has made immortal, without being able to discover a
trace of their existence. The thistle and the nettle will hide the
graves of its illustrious; ravenous beasts will prowl in its cities; and
all that is noble and grand in its localities will be crushed, swallowed,
and lost in one devouring ruin; and I, that am here as an ancient
tree with gnarled trunk and brittle boughs, that stands up as if
unnoticed by the destroyer, when the rest of the forest have
mouldered into the soil, will then have perished and passed away,
and not even a remembrance of my name will be left upon the land.”
“Noble old man!” exclaimed Oriel Porphyry with fervour, “there is
no one here who does not sympathise with your situation. I would
endeavour to console you, but I am afraid that your case is one
beyond all consolation. What can I do to render you assistance? Let
me prevail on you to leave this land, which has been so completely
devoted to destruction, and I will find you a more attractive home,
and friends as kind as those you have lost.”
 “Leave this land!” loudly cried the Englishman, apparently
astonished at the suggestion. “For a hundred and twenty years this
island has been the attraction of all my thoughts; my love for it
arose from admiration of its magnificence, and my heart still clings
to it in its utter annihilation. Do you think it would be possible for
me, after having made myself so familiar with its ruins, to find
pleasure in the prosperity of a far off country? No! to me the world
hath nothing like it. What are smiling landscapes? What are stately
edifices? What are fields busy with life, and cities astir with industry,
if on a foreign shore? Its homes are not my home—its graves are
not the graves of my people. But these tottering walls and
depopulated lands are mine; I hold them in undisputed possession; I
have a claim on them which has been long acknowledged; and they
have a claim on me which I feel I must speedily prepare to liquidate.
No: leave me to the desolation in which I dwell. It has become
habitual—it has become necessary. I have long, perhaps too long,
been its inhabitant; but the hour comes when another ruin must be
added to those which now encumber the soil.”
“And then what is to become of the gentle Lilya?” inquired the
young merchant.
“Ah! ’tis of that I am ever anxious,” replied the old man, with a
look of affectionate solicitude towards his youthful relative. “The
child is full of amiable ways—she is artless and untutored: I cannot
part with her; and yet to leave her unprotected in this wilderness is
a source of constant disquietude to me.”
“If you entrust her to me,” added Oriel, “by the honour of
manhood I promise to behave to her as a brother; and I will place
her under the protection of a lady from whom she will receive every
attention her youth and unfriended situation requires.”
“In her name I can promise all that she stands most in need of,”
said Zabra.
“What say you, my Lilya?” inquired the Englishman. “Will you go
with the strangers? Will you leave this wretched country, and seek
one where happiness awaits you?”
 “I will have no other country but yours, oh my protector!”
exclaimed the girl, as she flung herself into the old man’s arms.
“These strangers are good; but they can never be so good as you
have been: and these old walls too—where shall I meet with such
verdant moss, or such beautiful ivy, as they possess? While you live,
with you must my existence be passed: and when you have ceased
to lead me in my wanderings through the silent forest or the
deserted city, I care not where I go; for I shall never again find the
parent, the friend and guardian I shall have lost.”
The Englishman pressed her more closely to his breast.
 CHAP. VI.

THE DEATH OF THE LAST OF THE ENGLISHMEN.

“My life is drawing rapidly to its close,” faltered the old man; “my
weary pilgrimage is nearly over. Farewell, ye solitary halls and
voiceless palaces! Farewell, ye grassy streets and ivied porticoes!
The eyes that have gazed upon ye in your splendour, and watched
ye gradually passing into ruin, will soon be darkened and closed. The
heart that hath drawn so many pleasures from your unfading
braveries is fast sinking into that state of nothingness to which you
all hasten. City of the silent! he who worshipped your prosperity, and
loved your decay, must now pass from amidst your ruined dwellings.
Like your time-honoured walls, I totter and tremble, and am ready to
fall upon the earth that supports me—the ivy seems twining up my
unsteady limbs, and the moss is spreading over my ancient heart.
Farewell, ye untasted pastures, ye uncultivated fields, ye gardens of
weeds and orchards of brambles—the wildness of your looks shall
welcome me no more. Farewell, ye hoary mountains and savage
rocks, ye untrodden forests and unhonored streams—the same iron
hand that hath visited ye so heavily, as heavily must fall on me. I
pass from among ye, oh land of my fathers! Your earth shall receive
me to her breast!”
The old man lay on a green bank overgrown with wild flowers,
while Oriel and Zabra supported his head. Lilya was reclining at his
side, with one of his hands at her lips, and her face hid on his
breast, and she spoke only in convulsive sobs. Tourniquet stood near
him feeling his pulse, and the professor was close beside
endeavouring to administer consolation. At a short distance stood
the captain and midshipman, with part of the crew of the Albatross,
apparently taking a deep interest in the scene. They were
congregated together near a shelving hillock in the neighbourhood
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