UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination

WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination
WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES
 UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination
WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

Chapter-1| Water resources

1. Sources of water
• Water can come from a variety of natural and artificial sources.
• A natural source of water is a water source that occurs naturally on Earth and cannot
be constructed by humans. In contrast, artificial sources of water are those that can be
constructed by humans.
Sources of water can further be analysed as:

1.1 Natural Sources

a. Surface Water: In these sources, water is available above the earth surface, like
• Rivers and Streams: Flowing bodies of freshwater that originate from precipitation,
melted snow, or springs.
• Lakes and Ponds: Large bodies of water that are typically freshwater, although some
lakes (like the Great Salt Lake) are saline.
• Reservoirs: Artificial lakes created by damming rivers, storing water for various
purposes such as drinking, irrigation, and hydropower generation.
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

• Wetlands: Areas where water saturates the soil, such as marshes, swamps, and bogs.
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

• Oceans: An ocean is a continuous body of salt water that is contained in an enormous

basin on Earth's surface, while it contributes to 96.5% of the water, the water is not
feasible to consume directly as it contains a large amount of salt and impurities.
b. Groundwater: In these sources water is available below the earth surface, like
• Aquifers: through wells and springs.
• Springs: Natural sources of groundwater that flow to the surface, often due to
pressure or geological formations.
• Wells: Human-made structures that tap into underground water sources for drinking,
irrigation, and industrial use.

Spring Well

c. Rainwater:

Direct Precipitation: Rainwater

collected directly from the
atmosphere. It can be captured in
rainwater harvesting systems for
domestic or agricultural use.
Rainwater
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

d. Ice and Snow:

• Glaciers and Ice Caps: Large,
frozen bodies of water that slowly
release water as they melt, feeding
rivers and streams.
• Snowmelt: Water that comes from
the melting of snow and ice,
especially in mountainous regions,
which feeds rivers and reservoirs. Iceberg

2. Artificial Sources
2.1 Water Recycling: also known as
water reuse, refers to the process of
treating used water so that it can be
used again for various purposes. This
method helps conserve water, reduce
the demand on freshwater sources,
and provide a sustainable solution to
water scarcity.

Recycling
It is of following types:
• Greywater Recycling: Greywater refers to wastewater from household activities such
as bathing, washing dishes, and laundry (excluding water from toilets, which is called
blackwater).
• Blackwater Recycling: Blackwater comes from toilets and other sewage sources,
containing organic matter, pathogens, and chemicals.
• Industrial Water Recycling: Industries often use large amounts of water in processes
like cooling, manufacturing, and cleaning.
• Agricultural Water Recycling: Water used in agriculture for irrigation can be recycled
and reused to optimize water use.
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

• Potable Water Recycling: This is the process of recycling wastewater/drainage to

make it safe for drinking. It involves extensive treatment to remove contaminants and
pathogens.

2.2 Water harvesting refers to the process of

collecting and storing rainwater or surface
water for future use. This method helps in
managing water resources, especially in areas
where water availability is scarce or seasonal.
This collected water can be used for various
purposes, such as irrigation, household use,
and groundwater recharge.
Harvesting
Here are the main types and methods of water harvesting:
• Rainwater Harvesting: The collection of rainwater from rooftops or other surfaces
and storing it in tanks, ponds, or underground reservoirs for later use.
• Stormwater Harvesting: This involves collecting and storing rainwater that falls
during storms, which is typically channelled from streets, roads, or other urban
surfaces.
• Groundwater Recharge: Involves the collection of rainwater or surface water and
directing it to underground aquifers to replenish groundwater supplies.
• Water Harvesting Pits and Dams: This involves the construction of small
reservoirs, ponds, or dams to capture and store surface water from rainfall or rivers.
• Wells and Cisterns: In some regions, traditional wells and cisterns are used for
harvesting and storing water.
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES
Desalinated Water: Water obtained through desalination processes, typically in coastal areas with
limited fresh water.

Desalination
2.3 Reservoirs: Artificially created lakes or large bodies of water, reservoir dams formed by
damming rivers or streams to store water for various uses. In India, one prominent example
of an artificial source of water is Sardar Sarovar Dam on the Narmada River, which has
created Sardar Sarovar Reservoir.

Reservoir
2.4 Artificial wetlands: These are man-made systems designed to simulate the functions and
benefits of natural wetlands.

Wetlands
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

These systems are created for a variety of purposes, including water purification, wildlife
habitat restoration, flood control, and landscape enhancement. They are particularly
useful in urban, industrial, or agricultural settings where natural wetlands may be scarce or
absent.
These are of following types
• Constructed Wetlands (CW): These are designed and built to treat wastewater,
stormwater, or greywater by mimicking the filtration processes of natural wetlands.
• Stormwater Wetlands: These wetlands are designed specifically to treat and
manage stormwater runoff, which can carry pollutants like sediments, oils, and
chemicals from urban and rural areas.
• Reed Bed Systems: A specific type of constructed wetland, reed beds are used
primarily for treating wastewater. They consist of shallow, waterlogged areas planted
with reeds or other wetland plants.
• Floating Wetlands: Floating wetlands are man-made platforms that support aquatic
plants, which float on the surface of a water body.

3 Hydrologic cycle

• Water occurs on the earth in all three states, viz. liquid, solid and gaseous, and in
various degrees of motion. The various aspects of, water related to the earth can be
explained in terms of a cycle known as the Hydrologic cycle which includes.
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

• Evaporation: A convenient starting point to describe the cycle is in the oceans. Water
in the oceans evaporate due to the heat energy provided by solar radiation.
• Condensation: The Water vapour moves upwards and forms clouds.
• Precipitation: While much of the clouds condense and fall back to the oceans as rain,
a part of the clouds is driven to the land areas by Winds, there they condense and
precipitate onto the land mass as rain, snow, hail, sleet, etc.
• Water may evaporate back to the atmosphere even while falling.

• Interception: Another part may be intercepted by vegetation, structures and other such
surface modifications from which it may be either evaporated back to atmosphere or
move down to the ground surface.
• Infiltration: A portion of the water that reaches the ground enters the earth's surface
through infiltration, enhance the moisture content of the soil and reach the groundwater
body.
• Transpiration: Vegetation sends a portion of the water from under the ground surface
back to the atmosphere through the process of transpiration.
• Runoff: The precipitation reaching the ground surface after meeting the needs of
infiltration and evaporation moves down the natural slope over the surface and through
a network of gullies, streams and rivers to reach the ocean.
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

• Stream flow: Once it enters a stream channel, runoff becomes stream flow.
• Schematically the interdependency of the transportation components can be represented
as in figure.

Transportation Components of the Hydrologic Cycle

• The quantities of water going through various individual paths of the hydrological cycle
in a given system can be described by the continuity principle known as water budget
equation or hydrologic equation.
• It is important to note that the total water resources of the earth are constant and the
sun is the source of energy for the hydrological cycle.
• Each path of the hydrologic cycle Involves one or more of the following aspects:
(i) transportation of water
(ii) temporary storage and
(iii) change of state.
• For example. (a) the process of rainfall has the change of state and transportation and
(b) the groundwater path has storage and transportation aspects.
• The main components of the hydrologic cycle can be broadly classified as
transportation (flow) components and storage components as below:
Transportation components Storage components
Precipitation Storage on the land surface
Evaporation (Depression storage, Ponds, Lakes,
Transpiration Reservoirs, etc)
Infiltration Soil moisture storage
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

Run off Groundwater storage

Storage in atmosphere

4. World Water balance

• The world water balance refers to the distribution and movement of water across
the Earth, including its storage in different reservoirs (oceans, glaciers, lakes,
groundwater, etc.), its movement through the atmosphere, and the processes that
influence the availability and use of water.
• The balance ensures that water is continuously cycled through the hydrological cycle.
• Updated World Water Balance (2024)
The Earth's total water resources remain constant, but their distribution and availability
vary significantly across regions. Below is an updated breakdown of the global water
balance, which gives an overview of water storage and movement around the planet:
4.1 Total Water on Earth:
• Total Volume of Water: The total volume of water on Earth is approximately 1.386
billion cubic kilometers (km³)
• Saltwater: 97.5% (about 1.299 billion km³) of Earth's water is saline out of which
approximately 96.5% is contained in the oceans and around 1% is on land and is not
suitable for direct consumption.
• Freshwater: Only about 2.5% of the total water is freshwater, but most of it is not
easily accessible.
4.2 Freshwater Distribution:
Out of the 2.5% of freshwater, most is locked in glaciers, ice caps, or underground. Here's
how it is distributed:
• Glaciers and Ice Caps: Around 68.7% (about 1.7% of the Earth's total water) is
locked in glaciers and ice caps, primarily in Antarctica and Greenland.
• Groundwater: About 30.1% (around 0.75% of Earth's total water) is stored as
groundwater in aquifers. This is the largest readily available source of freshwater for
human consumption.
• Surface Water: Only 1.2% (around 0.03% of Earth's total water) is found in rivers,
lakes, and reservoirs that are accessible for direct human use.
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

4.3 Water Movement and Availability:

• Evaporation: Water continuously evaporates from oceans, lakes, rivers, and soil,
transferring moisture into the atmosphere.
• Evapotranspiration: This is the sum of evaporation and transpiration from plants.
It's a major part of the water cycle, returning water to the atmosphere. The global rate
of evaporation from oceans is about 424,000 km³ per year.
• Precipitation: Water vapor condenses in the atmosphere, leading to precipitation
(rain, snow, hail, etc.). Globally, approximately 505,000 km³ of water falls as
precipitation each year. Over the oceans, about 70% of precipitation falls, while
30% falls over land.
• Runoff: The water that falls as precipitation on land either infiltrates the ground,
contributes to surface water bodies (rivers, lakes), or is lost to evapotranspiration.
Runoff includes water moving across the surface toward rivers, lakes, and oceans.
Runoff from land is about 37,000 km³ per year globally.
• Groundwater Recharge: Groundwater is replenished by infiltration of water from
precipitation, particularly in areas with high rainfall or snowmelt. Groundwater is
also lost through discharge to the surface, such as through springs or wells.
Groundwater recharge varies by region but is a critical source of freshwater.
4.4 Water Use (By Humans):
• Global Water Withdrawal: Human consumption of freshwater is primarily for
agriculture, industry, and domestic use.
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• Approximately 4,000 km³ of water is withdrawn from freshwater sources globally

each year.
• Agriculture: The largest consumer of freshwater, using about 70-75% of total global
water withdrawals.
• Industry: Consumes around 20% of freshwater.
• Domestic Use: Accounts for about 10% of total water use.

Summary of the World Water Balance (in Cubic Kilometres):

Component Volume (km³) Percentage of Total Water

Total Water 1,386,000,000 100%
Saline Water 1,295,000,000 97.5%
Freshwater (Total) 33,000,000 2.5%
Glaciers and Ice Caps 22,600,000 68.7% of 2.5%
Groundwater 9,500,000 30.1% of 2.5%
Surface Water (Rivers & Lakes) 125,000 1.2% of 2.5%
Annual Precipitation (Global) 505,000 —
Evaporation from Oceans 424,000 —
Annual Runoff 37,000 —
Global Water Withdrawals 4,000

Water Resources and Sources in Uttar Pradesh, India

Water Sources in Uttar Pradesh
1. Rivers
o Ganga
o Yamuna
o Gomti
o Ghaghara
o Rapti
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

o Ramganga
o Betwa
o Ken
o Chambal
o Tons
o Saryu
2. Lakes and Wetlands
o Ramgarh Taal (Gorakhpur)
o Keetham Lake (Agra)
o Lakh Bahosi Bird Sanctuary (Kannauj)
o Sandi Bird Sanctuary (Hardoi)
o Surha Taal (Ballia)
3. Groundwater
o Major source for irrigation and drinking water
o Deep and shallow tube wells
4. Rainwater
o Monsoon-dependent, harvested for drinking and agriculture
5. Dams and Reservoirs
o Rihand Dam (Sonbhadra)
o Matatila Dam (Lalitpur)
o Rajghat Dam (Lalitpur)
o Obra Dam (Sonbhadra)

Major Water Projects in Uttar Pradesh

Irrigation and Multi-Purpose Projects
1. Saryu Canal Project
o Provides irrigation in eastern UP
o Utilizes water from Saryu, Ghaghara, and Rapti rivers
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

2. Ganga Barrage (Kanpur)

o Controls water flow and provides irrigation
o Helps in drinking water supply and navigation
3. Arjun Sahayak Irrigation Project
o Provides irrigation in Bundelkhand region
o Uses Ken River water
4. Madhya Ganga Canal Project
o Draws water from Upper Ganga Canal
o Supports irrigation in western UP
5. Lower Ganga Canal System
o One of the oldest irrigation systems
o Benefits districts like Aligarh, Etawah, and Mainpuri
6. Sharda Sahayak Canal System
o Based on Sharda River
o Covers central and eastern UP
7. Rohini Irrigation Project
o Supports irrigation in Gorakhpur region

Hydroelectric and Drinking Water Projects

1. Rihand Dam (Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar Reservoir)
o Largest dam in UP
o Provides hydroelectric power and irrigation
2. Matatila Dam
o Located on the Betwa River
o Supports irrigation and power generation
3. Obra Thermal and Hydroelectric Project
o Uses water from the Rihand Dam
4. Jal Jeevan Mission (UP)
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

o Aims to provide tap water to rural households

5. Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)
o Improves urban water supply and sanitation

Questions
1. What percentage of the Earth's total water is freshwater?
a) 2.5%
b) 10%
c) 50%
d) 75%
Answer: a) 2.5%
3. What is the primary source of water for irrigation in India?
a) Rainwater harvesting
b) Surface water from rivers and lakes
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

c) Groundwater
d) Desalination plants
Answer: c) Groundwater
4. Which of the following regions in India is most affected by water scarcity?
a) Punjab
b) Kerala
c) Rajasthan
d) West Bengal
Answer: c) Rajasthan
5. The process of collecting and storing rainwater for future use is called:
a) Desalination
b) Water harvesting
c) Filtration
d) Evaporation
Answer: b) Water harvesting
6. Which of the following is a major problem caused by the over-extraction of
groundwater in India?
a) Waterlogging
b) Water table depletion
c) Increase in surface water
d) Flooding
Answer: b) Water table depletion
7. What is the main factor affecting the availability of freshwater resources?
a) Water pollution
b) Climate change
c) Overuse by industries
d) All of the above
Answer: d) All of the above
8. What percentage of the Earth's water is stored in oceans as saltwater?
a) 80%
b) 70%
c) 96.5%
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

d) 50%
Answer: c) 96.5%
9. The process by which water vapor turns into liquid water in the atmosphere is
called:
a) Condensation
b) Evaporation
c) Precipitation
d) Transpiration
Answer: a) Condensation
10. Which process in the water cycle involves water changing from a liquid to a gas?
a) Evaporation
b) Condensation
c) Precipitation
d) Infiltration
Answer: a) Evaporation
11. Which stage of the water cycle is responsible for water returning to Earth as rain,
snow, or hail?
a) Evaporation
b) Precipitation
c) Infiltration
d) Runoff
Answer: b) Precipitation
12. In the water cycle, what is the process by which water moves through plants and is
released as water vapor from leaves called?
a) Infiltration
b) Evaporation
c) Transpiration
d) Condensation
Answer: c) Transpiration
13. What is the process called when water from the land or surface bodies of water
moves into the soil?
a) Precipitation
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

Chapter-2| Water distribution, demand and uses

2. Water distribution
India accounts for 18% of world’s population but has only 4% of world water resources
with it. Water scarcity in India is a growing concern that affects various regions of the
country. It is caused by a combination of factors, including over-extraction of water, climate
change, population growth, and pollution. India, despite having a significant amount of water
resources, faces significant water-related challenges that impact agriculture, domestic use,
industry, and ecosystems.

2.1 Key Causes of Water Scarcity in India

a) Over-extraction of Groundwater: Irrigation is the largest consumer of water in

India, and much of the water for irrigation comes from groundwater. Over-reliance on
groundwater, especially in dry regions, has caused a decline in the water table. States
like Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh have witnessed over-
extraction, leading to water shortages and land degradation.
b) Uneven Distribution of Water Resources: Water resources in India are not evenly
distributed. The northern and northeaster parts of the country receive a lot of rainfall,
while the western and southern parts, such as Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu, experience
arid and semi-arid conditions. As a result, some areas have a high-water demand with
insufficient supply.
c) Climate Change: Climate change has altered rainfall patterns, leading to irregular
monsoons and droughts in some regions. Rising temperatures are increasing
evaporation, while unpredictable rainfall affects agricultural water supply. Droughts
in states like Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh have aggravated water
scarcity.
d) Pollution of Water Sources: Pollution from industrial effluents, untreated sewage,
and agricultural runoff is contaminating rivers, lakes, and groundwater. Cities like
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

Delhi, Mumbai, and Kolkata have severely polluted water bodies, making access to
clean water increasingly difficult.
e) Rapid Population Growth and Urbanization: India’s growing population, which
exceeds 1.4 billion, increases the demand for water in both domestic and industrial
sectors. Additionally, urbanization has led to a higher concentration of people in cities,
placing tremendous pressure on municipal water supplies.
f) Deforestation and Land Degradation: Deforestation reduces the water-holding
capacity of soil and disrupts the natural water cycle, leading to soil erosion and reduced
groundwater recharge. Land degradation in areas prone to drought and overgrazing
also contributes to the scarcity of water.
g) Inefficient Water Management: The mismanagement of water resources, including
inefficient irrigation techniques, the poor distribution of water, and the lack of modern
infrastructure in many areas, results in wastage and unequal access to water.
h) Water Wastage: In many areas, especially in agriculture, water is often wasted due to
flood irrigation or improper irrigation practices. Lack of awareness and technology
also contribute to water wastage.
i) Depletion of Natural Water Sources: Many of India’s rivers, lakes, and reservoirs are
being overused, leading to the depletion of natural water reserves. For instance, the
Ganga, Yamuna, and Godavari face reduced water flow due to over-extraction and
pollution.

2.2 Regions Affected by Water Scarcity in India

Water scarcity is not a uniform problem across India. It varies by region:

a) North and West India:

i. States like Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra are the most severely
affected by water scarcity due to low rainfall, high evaporation rates, and
over-extraction of groundwater.
ii. Rajasthan faces water shortages due to the Thar Desert and lack of perennial
rivers. Many regions rely on rainwater harvesting and groundwater, both of
which are limited.
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iii. Gujarat and Maharashtra experience seasonal droughts and fluctuating water
supply for agriculture, industries, and drinking water.
b) Central India:
i. Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh face periodic water shortages, especially
in rural areas. These regions depend on river systems that are impacted by
changing rainfall patterns.
c) Southern India:
i. States like Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana have
been severely impacted by droughts and reduced monsoon rains. Over-
dependence on groundwater and inconsistent river flows exacerbate the
situation.
ii. Chennai and Bengaluru face growing water shortages due to rapid
urbanization, making water management in cities a major challenge
d) Eastern India:
i. West Bengal and Odisha have better rainfall, but issues like flooding during
monsoons and pollution in rivers affect the quality and availability of water.

2.3 Falkenmark Indicator/Water Stress Indicator

• It is one of the most commonly used methods to measure water scarcity.

• It defined water scarcity in terms of the total water resources available to the population
of an area, Water scarcity is a measure of the amount of fresh water available to each
person each year.

Annual per capita availability of water in cubic meter

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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

• If the amount of renewable fresh water per capita in a country is less than 1700 cubic
meters per year, it means the country is facing a situation of water stress.
• If the amount of renewable fresh water per capita per year in a country is below 1,000
cubic meters, it means the country is facing a water scarcity situation
• If the amount of renewable fresh water per capita per year in a country is below 500
cubic meters, it means the country is facing Absolute water scarcity situation.

Demand and supply of water in India in km3(2008-2030)

2.4 Composite Water Management Index

The CWMI is a tool that ranks states based on their water management practices. The index
covers a range of topics, including:

Table: Composite water management index

Indicators Weightage
Source augmentation and restoration of waterbodies 5
Source augmentation (Ground) 15
Major and medium irrigation 15
Watershed development 10
Participatory irrigation practices 10
Sustainable on-farm water use practices 10
Rural drinking water 10
Urban water supply and sanitation 10
Policy and governance 15
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

Figure: CWMI for different states in India

 UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination
WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

2.5 Water Demand and Use

In India, water demand and use are categorized into several types based on the sector and
purpose of consumption. The demand for water is influenced by factors like population growth,
economic development, climate, and regional disparities in water availability. The primary
types of water demand and use in India are:

a) Agricultural Water Demand: Agriculture is the largest consumer of water in India,

utilizing approximately 70-80% of the total water resources. The main uses of water in
agriculture include:

It accounts for most of the surface (89%) and ground water (92%) utilisation.

• Irrigation: The primary use of water in agriculture is for irrigation of crops,

especially in areas where rainfall is insufficient or irregular. Crops like rice, wheat,
sugarcane, and cotton are highly water-intensive.
• Livestock and Animal Husbandry: Water is also used for drinking and raising
livestock like cattle, poultry, and dairy animals.
• Fisheries and Aquaculture: Water is needed for fish farming, aquaculture, and
maintaining fish ponds, which contribute to food production in rural areas.

b) Industrial Water Demand: Industries account for about 5-8% of the total water usage
in India. Industrial water demand is mainly for:

It consumes 2% of surface water utilisation and 5% of the ground water.

• Cooling and Processing: Industries such as thermal power plants, textile mills,
steel plants, and chemical industries use large amounts of water for cooling
purposes, processing raw materials, and washing.
• Manufacturing and Production: Water is also used in the production of goods
such as paper, cement, food processing, and pharmaceuticals.
• Wastewater Treatment: Industrial units require water for cleaning, sanitation, and
wastewater treatment to maintain environmental standards.
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

c) Domestic and Municipal Water Demand

Domestic water demand accounts for about 5-10% of India's total water use. This
includes water used by households, urban settlements, and municipalities for various
purposes:

The share of domestic water is higher in surface water utilisation than ground
water.

• Drinking and Cooking: Clean and potable water for drinking, cooking, and food
preparation.
• Sanitation and Hygiene: Water for bathing, washing clothes, cleaning, and
maintaining sanitation facilities.

d) Energy and Power Generation Water Demand

Water used for energy production accounts for around 5% of total water demand in
India, mainly in the following areas:

• Thermal Power Plants: Cooling water is essential for steam-based power plants to
condense steam and maintain system efficiency. These plants use large volumes of
water.
• Hydroelectric Power Generation: Water stored in reservoirs is used for
hydropower generation, where the gravitational potential energy of water is
converted into electricity. Hydropower plants contribute to India’s renewable energy
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES
mix.

e) Environmental and Ecosystem Water Demand: Environmental water demand refers

to the water required for the sustenance of ecosystems and biodiversity. Though it is
not typically quantified as part of human consumption, it is crucial for maintaining the
health of ecosystems. This includes:

• River Flows: Maintaining ecological balance in rivers and wetlands, ensuring fish
migration, and maintaining wetland biodiversity.
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

• Wetlands and Forests: Water is needed to sustain wetlands, marshes, and forests,
which play a crucial role in water filtration, flood control, and carbon sequestration.

f) Water Demand for Commercial and Recreational Uses: Water is also demanded for
commercial and recreational purposes, such as:

• Tourism: Tourist destinations, resorts, and recreational parks require water for
accommodation facilities, swimming pools, and landscaping.
• Sports and Leisure: Water is used for maintaining golf courses, sports grounds, and
public parks.

g) Regional Variations in Water Demand in India

India has significant regional variation in water demand due to differences in climate,
geography, and economic activities.

• Northern and Eastern India (e.g., Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal) generally have
more abundant water resources due to high rainfall and river systems, leading to
higher agricultural water demand.
• Western and Southern India (e.g., Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu) face more
water scarcity due to arid or semi-arid climates and depend more on groundwater for
irrigation, leading to higher water stress.
• Urban Areas (e.g., Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru) have growing domestic and industrial
water demands, putting pressure on municipal water supplies.

Table: Water Utilization in India by Sector

Sector Water Percentage of Key Details
Utilization Total Water
Use
Agriculture ~80% 70-80% - The largest user of water in India,
primarily for irrigation.
- Irrigation for crops such as rice, wheat,
and sugarcane consume significant water
resources.
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Industry ~5% 4-7% - Industries such as textiles, chemicals,

steel, and paper consume large amounts of
water for production processes.
- Cooling, processing, and washing are
major uses of water in industries.
Domestic Use ~6% 5-7% - Water is used for drinking, cooking,
cleaning, and sanitation.
- Urbanization has led to increasing
demand in cities.
Energy ~3% 3-5% - Water is used in thermal and
Production hydropower plants for cooling purposes.
- It is also used in hydropower generation
in reservoirs.
Livestock & ~2-3% 2-3% - Water is used for animal husbandry and
Fisheries fisheries (such as in ponds, aquaculture).
Environmental ~2-3% ~2% - Water used for maintaining ecosystems
Uses like wetlands, rivers, and lakes.
Other Uses ~1% 1% - Includes uses like municipal wastewater
and recreational activities.

Questions

Q 1. What is the largest sector that consumes water in India?

a) Domestic use
b) Industry
c) Agriculture
d) Energy production
Answer: c) Agriculture
Q 2. What percentage of India's total water usage is consumed by agriculture?
a) 30-40%
b) 50-60%
c) 70-80%
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d) 10-20%
Answer: c) 70-80%
Q 3. Which type of irrigation method is most commonly used in India and consumes
significant water resources?
a) Drip irrigation
b) Sprinkler irrigation
c) Flood irrigation
d) Subsurface irrigation
Answer: c) Flood irrigation
Q 4. In India, which region is most affected by water scarcity due to its arid climate?
a) Punjab
b) Uttar Pradesh
c) Rajasthan
d) Kerala
Answer: c) Rajasthan
Q 5. The primary source of water for irrigation in India is:
a) Rainwater harvesting
b) Groundwater
c) Surface water from rivers
d) Desalination
Answer: b) Groundwater
Q 6. Which of the following is NOT a major source of water used in domestic consumption
in India?
a) River water
b) Groundwater
c) Recycled wastewater
d) Seawater desalination
Answer: d) Seawater desalination
Q 7. In India, the industrial sector's water use is primarily for:
a) Drinking
b) Cooling and processing
c) Irrigation
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d) Domestic needs
Answer: b) Cooling and processing
Q 8. What is the main reason for increasing water demand in urban areas of India?
a) Decreased agricultural use
b) Population growth and industrialization
c) Improved irrigation methods
d) Increased water conservation efforts
Answer: b) Population growth and industrialization
Q 9. Which state in India is known for implementing successful water conservation
methods like rainwater harvesting?
a) Punjab
b) Gujarat
c) Tamil Nadu
d) Uttar Pradesh
Answer: c) Tamil Nadu
Q 10. Which of the following is the primary cause of water scarcity in India?
a) Excessive rainfall
b) Over-extraction of groundwater
c) Flooding of rivers
d) High water quality
Answer: b) Over-extraction of groundwater
Q 11. Which region in India is most affected by water scarcity due to its arid climate?
a) Kerala
b) Punjab
c) Rajasthan
d) West Bengal
Answer: c) Rajasthan
Q 12. What is one of the major consequences of water scarcity in India’s agricultural
sector?
a) Decreased urbanization
b) Loss of crops and reduced agricultural productivity
c) Improved irrigation techniques
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d) Increased water supply to industries

Answer: b) Loss of crops and reduced agricultural productivity
Q 13. Which of the following is a solution to combat water scarcity in urban areas of
India?
a) Increasing groundwater extraction
b) Improving water infrastructure and reducing wastage
c) Decreasing population growth
d) Promoting industrial water use
Answer: b) Improving water infrastructure and reducing wastage
Q 14. How does climate change contribute to water scarcity in India?
a) By increasing the amount of available freshwater
b) By causing erratic rainfall patterns and prolonged droughts
c) By improving water quality
d) By decreasing the population's water demand
Answer: b) By causing erratic rainfall patterns and prolonged droughts
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

Chapter-3| Water quality issues

3.1 Water pollution
• Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies such as rivers, lakes, oceans, and
groundwater, which makes the water harmful to living organisms and unsuitable for
human use.
• It is one of the most significant environmental challenges today, affecting ecosystems,
human health, and economic activities.
• Water pollution can occur due to both natural processes and human activities, but it is
primarily caused by human-induced factors.
• It can be classified as: Point Source Pollution and Non-Point Source Pollution are
two broad categories of water pollution that differ mainly in how pollutants enter water
bodies.

3.1.1 Point Source Pollution

Definition: Point source pollution refers to water pollution that originates from a single,
identifiable source or point. These sources can be traced directly to a specific location
where contaminants are discharged into water bodies.
• Sources: Point sources typically include factories, sewage treatment plants,
wastewater treatment facilities, oil refineries, and power plants.
• These are places where wastewater or other harmful substances are directly released
into rivers, lakes, or oceans through pipes, ditches, or other discrete conveyances.
• Characteristics:
i. Easily traceable: The pollution can be traced to a specific point of discharge.

ii. Regulated: Point source pollution is often subject to regulation and monitoring
under environmental laws.
iii. Consistent discharge: The discharge from point sources tends to be more
predictable and continuous over time, making it easier to monitor.
• Examples:
i. Industrial Discharges: A factory releasing chemical waste into a nearby river.
ii. Sewage Treatment Plants: Discharge of treated or untreated sewage into a water
body.
iii. Oil Spills: A pipeline leak that releases oil directly into an ocean or river.
Impact: Point source pollution can lead to localized contamination, harming aquatic
ecosystems and making water unsafe for human consumption, agriculture, or recreation.
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3.1.2 Non-Point Source Pollution

Definition: Non-point source pollution refers to water pollution that comes from
multiple, diffuse sources rather than a single, identifiable point. The pollutants are
carried into water bodies over a wide area, often through runoff or precipitation.
• Sources: Non-point source pollution comes from a variety of sources, such as
agricultural runoff, urban runoff, atmospheric deposition, and construction
sites. It occurs when rainwater or melted snow picks up pollutants from the land and
carries them into rivers, lakes, or oceans.
• Characteristics:
i. Diffuse and scattered: The pollutants are not concentrated at a single location
and are spread across a wide area.
ii. Difficult to trace: It is harder to identify the specific sources of non-point
pollution because it comes from many different locations.
iii. Variable discharge: The intensity of non-point source pollution often depends
on factors like rainfall, land use, and seasonal changes.
• Examples:
i. Agricultural Runoff: Fertilizers, pesticides, and animal waste that wash off
farmland into nearby rivers during rain.
ii. Urban Runoff: Pollutants like oil, heavy metals, and debris from streets that flow
into water bodies during storms.
iii. Deforestation and Construction: Erosion from construction sites and
deforested areas that leads to sediment pollution in rivers.
iv.
Impact: Non-point source pollution can lead to widespread water quality problems,
including nutrient pollution (eutrophication), sedimentation, and contamination of
drinking water sources. It is harder to control due to the scattered nature of the pollution
sources.

Table: Key Differences Between Point Source and Non-Point Source Pollution
Aspect Point Source Pollution Non-Point Source Pollution

Source Single, identifiable source (e.g., factory Diffuse, multiple sources (e.g., runoff
discharge) from farms)
Ease of Easily traceable to a specific point Difficult to trace to specific locations
Identification
Regulation Usually regulated (e.g., through permits and Harder to regulate and manage
monitoring)
Examples Sewage plants, industrial effluents, oil spills Agricultural runoff, urban runoff,
deforestation
Impact Localized, concentrated pollution Widespread, less predictable pollution
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Water pollution can occur in various forms, depending on the pollutants involved. Here
are different types of water pollution:

a) Surface Water Pollution

This type of pollution affects water bodies that are easily accessible, such as rivers, lakes,
ponds, and reservoirs. It occurs when contaminants from land or air enter these water
sources.
• Sources: Industrial waste, sewage, agricultural runoff, and untreated wastewater.
• Impact: It can degrade water quality, harm aquatic life, and make the water unsafe
for consumption, agriculture, and recreational activities.

b) Groundwater Pollution
Groundwater pollution occurs when contaminants seep into underground water sources,
including aquifers, wells, and springs. This often happens slowly over time.
• Sources: Leaking landfills, improper waste disposal, chemicals, fertilizers, and
pesticides.
• Impact: It affects drinking water sources, often going undetected until the water
becomes unsafe for use.

c) Chemical Pollution
Chemical pollutants in water can come from various industrial and agricultural processes.
These pollutants are harmful to both aquatic ecosystems and human health.
• Sources: Pesticides, heavy metals (like mercury, lead, arsenic), solvents, and toxic
industrial discharges.
• Impact: These chemicals can be lethal to aquatic organisms and accumulate in the food
chain, ultimately affecting humans.

d) Nutrient Pollution (Eutrophication)

Nutrient pollution occurs when an excess of nutrients, particularly nitrogen and
phosphorus, enters water bodies. This leads to an overgrowth of algae, often called an
algae bloom.
• Sources: Fertilizer runoff from agriculture, untreated sewage, and industrial waste.
• Impact: Algae blooms deplete oxygen in the water, leading to hypoxia (low oxygen
levels), which can kill fish and other aquatic life. It also contaminates water for
drinking and recreational purposes.

e) Plastic and Solid Waste Pollution

This type of pollution involves the accumulation of plastic and other solid materials in
water bodies. These pollutants are often non-biodegradable.
• Sources: Improper disposal of plastic products, littering, and waste from industries
and households.
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• Impact: Plastics can harm marine life by entangling animals or being ingested,
leading to injury or death. They also break into microplastics that persist in water and
accumulate in the food chain.

f) Thermal Pollution
Thermal pollution occurs when the temperature of a water body increases due to the
release of heated water from industrial activities, power plants, or wastewater treatment
plants.
• Sources: Power plants, refineries, and industrial cooling processes.
• Impact: The elevated temperature reduces oxygen levels in the water, stressing
aquatic organisms and disrupting ecosystems. It can also reduce biodiversity in the
affected water body.

g) Radioactive Pollution
This type of pollution occurs when radioactive substances enter water bodies. These
substances can be harmful to both human health and aquatic life.
• Sources: Nuclear power plants, mining activities, and improper disposal of
radioactive waste.
• Impact: Radioactive pollutants can cause cancer, mutations, and death in living
organisms. They can remain in water bodies for long periods, leading to long-term
environmental damage.

h) Oil Pollution
Oil pollution happens when petroleum products spill into water bodies. This type of
pollution is especially harmful to marine environments.
• Sources: Oil spills from ships, offshore oil drilling, and leakage from pipelines or
storage facilities.
• Impact: Oil coats the surface of water, blocking oxygen from reaching aquatic life,
and can be toxic to marine organisms. It also harms bird feathers and aquatic plants.

i) Pathogen Pollution (Biological Pollution)

This type of pollution occurs when harmful microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses,
and parasites enter water sources, making the water unsafe for consumption.
• Sources: Untreated sewage, animal waste, and improper disposal of human waste.
• Impact: Pathogens cause waterborne diseases like cholera, dysentery, and typhoid,
posing significant health risks to humans and animals.

j) Sediment Pollution
Sediment pollution occurs when excess soil, sand, and silt enter water bodies, typically
due to erosion and poor land management practices.
• Sources: Construction sites, deforestation, agriculture, and mining activities.
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• Impact: Sediment clouds the water, reducing light penetration and harming aquatic
plants. It also clogs water treatment facilities and disrupts habitats for fish and other
aquatic life.

h) Heavy Metal Pollution

This type of pollution occurs when heavy metals like lead, mercury, arsenic, and
cadmium contaminate water sources. These metals are toxic and persist in the
environment for a long time.
• Sources: Industrial waste, mining, agriculture (through pesticides and fertilizers), and
untreated wastewater.
• Impact: Heavy metals accumulate in the food chain, affecting both aquatic life and
humans. Long-term exposure can cause serious health problems, including
neurological disorders, cancer, and organ damage.

3.2 Effects of Water Pollution

3.2.1 Health Risks: Polluted water can cause a wide range of diseases, including
gastrointestinal infections, cholera, dysentery, and hepatitis.

Exposure to toxic chemicals, heavy metals, or pathogens in water can lead to serious
long-term health issues, including cancer, organ damage, and developmental problems
in children.
Below is a list of common waterborne diseases:

1. Cholera
Cause Transmission Symptoms Treatment
The bacterium Vibrio Consuming Severe diarrhea, Oral rehydration
cholerae. contaminated water vomiting, solutions (ORS),
or food. dehydration, and antibiotics in severe
electrolyte imbalance. cases.

2. Dysentery
Cause Transmission Symptoms Treatment
Caused by two types of Fecal-oral route, Bloody diarrhea, Antibiotics,
bacteria, Shigella (bacterial consuming abdominal pain, rehydration.
dysentery) and Entamoeba contaminated water fever, and
histolytica (amoebic or food. dehydration.
dysentery).
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3. Typhoid Fever
Cause Transmission Symptoms Treatment
The bacterium Fecal-oral route, High fever, stomach pain, Antibiotics, hydration.
Salmonella typhi. through weakness, and loss of
contaminated food appetite.
and water.

4. Hepatitis A
Cause Transmission Symptoms Treatment
Hepatitis A virus Contaminated Jaundice (yellowing of the Supportive care, rest,
(HAV). water, food, or skin), fatigue, nausea, and hydration (no
close personal abdominal pain, and fever. specific antiviral
contact with an treatment).
infected person.
5. Giardiasis
Cause Transmission Symptoms Treatment

The protozoan Contaminated Diarrhea, bloating, Antiprotozoal

parasite Giardia water, particularly nausea, and stomach medications such as
lamblia. in areas with poor cramps. metronidazole.
sanitation.
6. Amoebiasis (Amoebic Dysentery)
Cause Transmission Symptoms Treatment

The protozoan Contaminated water Diarrhea, abdominal Antiprotozoal drugs like

Entamoeba and food. cramps, blood in stools, metronidazole or
histolytica. and sometimes liver tinidazole.
abscesses.

7. Malaria
Cause Transmission Symptoms Treatment

The Plasmodium Though not directly Fever, chills, fatigue, Antimalarial drugs.
parasite transmitted waterborne, headaches, and muscle
by the bite of stagnant water aches.
infected Anopheles serves as a breeding
mosquitoes. ground for
mosquitoes that
spread malaria.

8. Schistosomiasis
Cause Transmission Symptoms Treatment

The parasitic worm Contact with water Abdominal pain, diarrhea, Anthelminthic drugs
Schistosoma. contaminated with blood in the stool, liver like praziquantel.
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the larvae of the damage, and in severe

worm, which cases, organ failure.
penetrate the skin.

9. Cryptosporidiosis
Cause Transmission Symptoms Treatment

The protozoan Contaminated Watery diarrhea, stomach Usually self-limiting,

parasite water, particularly cramps, nausea, and but in
Cryptosporidium. in swimming pools, dehydration. immunocompromised
lakes, or rivers. individuals,
antiprotozoal drugs like
nitazoxanide may be
required.

10. Rotavirus Infection

Cause Transmission Symptoms Treatment

Rotavirus, a viral Fecal-oral route, Severe diarrhea, vomiting, Oral rehydration

pathogen. through fever, and dehydration solutions (ORS),
contaminated water (especially in infants and vaccines for prevention.
or food. young children).

11. Polio (Poliomyelitis)

Cause Transmission Symptoms Treatment

Poliovirus. Fecal-oral route, Fever, fatigue, headache, No specific antiviral

often through and in severe cases, treatment; vaccination is
contaminated water. paralysis. the key preventive
measure.
12. Leptospirosis
Cause Transmission Symptoms Treatment

Bacteria of the genus Contact with water Fever, headache, muscle Antibiotics like
Leptospira. contaminated by the aches, vomiting, and doxycycline or
urine of infected sometimes liver or kidney penicillin.
animals (typically damage.
rodents).

13. Trichuriasis (Whipworm Infection)

Cause Transmission Symptoms Treatment

The parasitic worm Contaminated water Abdominal pain, diarrhea, Anthelminthic drugs
Trichuris trichiura. or food with the and sometimes rectal like mebendazole or
eggs of the worm. prolapse in severe cases. albendazole.
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14. Typhus Fever

Cause Transmission Symptoms Treatment

Rickettsia bacteria, Not directly High fever, headache, Antibiotics such as

transmitted by lice, waterborne, but rash, and muscle aches. doxycycline.
fleas, and mites. water sources can
be contaminated by
these vectors.

15. Campylobacteriosis
Cause Transmission Symptoms Treatment

The bacterium Contaminated Diarrhea (often bloody), Antibiotics in severe

Campylobacter. water, particularly abdominal cramps, fever, cases, rehydration.
from animal feces. and vomiting.

3.2.2 Environmental Impact: Water pollution disrupts aquatic ecosystems, leading to the
death of fish, plants, and other aquatic organisms.
Pollutants such as oil, plastics, and chemicals can poison species, destroy habitats,
and reduce biodiversity. The contamination of coral reefs and other marine habitats is
especially harmful.
3.2.3 Economic Consequences: Polluted water can have severe economic impacts. It affects
industries reliant on clean water, such as fishing, agriculture, and tourism.
The cost of water treatment increases, and waterborne diseases can result in lost
productivity and higher healthcare costs.
3.2.4 Eutrophication: Excess nutrients in water cause excessive growth of algae, known as
eutrophication. This process reduces the oxygen level in the water, creating "dead
zones" where aquatic life cannot survive. Eutrophication affects fisheries and
recreational water activities.
3.2.5 Global Warming and Climate Change: Thermal pollution can exacerbate the effects
of climate change, as the higher temperature in water bodies reduces oxygen levels and
affects aquatic ecosystems' ability to adapt.

3.3 Water Pollutants

Now pollution of water is caused by substances termed as water pollutants.

Water pollutants are substances or agents that contaminate water bodies, leading to
degradation of water quality and negatively impacting ecosystems, human health, and
economic activities.
The types of water pollutants can be categorized based on their nature, source, and impact
on the environment. Below are the different types of water pollutants:
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a) Chemical Pollutants
Chemical pollutants include a wide range of harmful substances that contaminate water
through human activities or natural processes.
These pollutants are often toxic and can have long-term effects on aquatic life and human
health.
• Heavy Metals: Examples include mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic, and
chromium. These metals can come from industrial effluents, mining operations, and
sewage. They are persistent in the environment and accumulate in the food chain,
leading to poisoning in aquatic organisms and humans.
i. Effects: They can cause neurological damage, kidney failure, reproductive
issues, and developmental problems.
• Pesticides and Herbicides: Chemicals used in agriculture to control pests and weeds
often wash into water sources through runoff.
i. Effects: These can be toxic to aquatic life, reduce biodiversity, and enter the
human food chain, leading to potential health problems.
• Industrial Chemicals: These include solvents, paints, acids, detergents, and
petroleum products. They can leak from factories or be improperly disposed of.
i. Effects: These pollutants can be toxic, carcinogenic, or mutagenic and harm
aquatic ecosystems.
• Nutrients (Eutrophication): Excessive nitrogen and phosphorus, typically from
agricultural runoff, untreated sewage, and fertilizers, can promote the overgrowth of
algae in water bodies, known as eutrophication.
o Effects: This depletes oxygen levels in the water, causing "dead zones" where
aquatic life cannot survive.

b) Biological Pollutants
Biological pollutants are living organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites, that
contaminate water sources, usually through sewage or agricultural runoff.
• Bacteria: Pathogenic bacteria like Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Salmonella are
commonly found in contaminated water.
i. Effects: They can cause a wide range of waterborne diseases, including diarrhea,
cholera, and typhoid fever.
• Viruses: Viruses such as Hepatitis A, Norovirus, and Rotavirus can contaminate
water sources and cause infections.
i. Effects: These infections can lead to gastrointestinal diseases, liver damage, and
sometimes severe dehydration.
• Parasites: Protozoans like Giardia and Cryptosporidium can thrive in contaminated
water, leading to illnesses like giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis.
i. Effects: These parasites can cause diarrhea, stomach cramps, and dehydration.
• Fungi and Algae: Harmful algal blooms (HABs) caused by excessive nutrients can
be toxic and harmful to aquatic organisms and humans.
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i. Effects: These can lead to fish kills, contaminate drinking water, and cause
respiratory issues in humans and animals.

c) Physical Pollutants
Physical pollutants are those that affect the physical properties of water, such as
temperature, clarity, and suspended solids.
• Sediment Pollution: Soil, sand, and silt that enter water bodies from erosion,
construction sites, or agricultural activities.
o Effects: Excess sediment can clog fish gills, destroy habitats, reduce light
penetration, and alter water temperature.
• Thermal Pollution: This occurs when industries or power plants discharge heated
water into nearby water bodies.
o Effects: Elevated water temperatures can reduce dissolved oxygen levels, harm
aquatic life, and disrupt natural ecosystems.
• Turbidity: High levels of suspended particles (such as soil, organic matter, or
industrial waste) can make water cloudy or murky.
o Effects: High turbidity can reduce light penetration, affecting photosynthesis in
aquatic plants, and clog fish gills, leading to respiratory distress.
• Oil Pollution: Oil spills from ships, pipelines, or industrial discharges can
contaminate water surfaces.
o Effects: Oil coats marine life, harming fish, birds, and mammals, and can
disrupt food chains.

d) Organic Pollutants
Organic pollutants are substances that contain carbon and are typically derived from
human activities, such as agriculture, industry, and urban waste.
• Organic Waste: Decaying plant and animal matter, sewage, and food waste are
common organic pollutants.
i. Effects: Organic pollutants can decompose in water, consuming oxygen and
leading to oxygen depletion, which harms aquatic life (this is part of the process
of eutrophication).
• Detergents and Surfactants: Chemical agents used in household products, such as
soaps and shampoos, can enter water through runoff or wastewater.
i. Effects: These can increase biological oxygen demand (BOD), causing oxygen
depletion and harming aquatic organisms.
• Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs): Chemical compounds
found in medicines, personal care products, and cosmetics can enter water bodies
through wastewater discharges.
i. Effects: They can affect aquatic organisms’ reproductive systems and even
contribute to antibiotic resistance.
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e) Radioactive Pollutants
Radioactive materials are naturally occurring or man-made substances that release
radiation and can contaminate water.
• Sources: Radioactive materials can enter water bodies through mining activities,
nuclear power plant discharges, or improper disposal of radioactive waste.
o Effects: Prolonged exposure to radioactive water can lead to cancer, genetic
mutations, and other serious health issues.

f) Plastic Pollutants
Plastics, which are non-biodegradable, are one of the most pervasive forms of water
pollution today. Plastics can enter water bodies through waste, stormwater runoff, or
improper disposal.
• Microplastics: Tiny plastic particles less than 5mm in size can contaminate water
sources.
i. Effects: Microplastics can be ingested by aquatic organisms, causing physical
harm, and they can accumulate in the food chain, impacting both aquatic species
and humans.
• Plastic Debris: Larger plastic items such as bags, bottles, and fishing nets often end
up in oceans and rivers.
i. Effects: These items can entangle marine animals, block their digestive systems,
and cause deaths.

g) Agricultural Pollutants
Agriculture is a major source of water pollution, particularly through the use of chemicals
and farming practices.
• Fertilizers: High levels of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers are washed into water
bodies through runoff.
o Effects: Fertilizer runoff can cause eutrophication, leading to algal blooms,
hypoxia (low oxygen levels), and fish kills.
• Pesticides: Chemical pesticides used to control pests can enter water sources through
agricultural runoff.
o Effects: Pesticides can harm aquatic life, reduce biodiversity, and contaminate
drinking water.
• Animal Waste: Livestock waste can pollute water through runoff from farms.
o Effects: Animal waste introduces nutrients and pathogens into water,
contributing to eutrophication and waterborne diseases.

h) Wastewater Pollutants
Wastewater from households, industries, and agriculture contains a mixture of various
pollutants, including organic matter, chemicals, and pathogens.
• Untreated Sewage: Raw sewage or poorly treated wastewater can introduce harmful
bacteria, viruses, and chemicals into water bodies.
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i. Effects: It can cause waterborne diseases and significantly degrade water quality.

3.4 Water Quality Assessment

Accessing water quality is essential for determining its safety for human consumption,
environmental sustainability, and agricultural use.
Several techniques and methods are used to assess water quality, ranging from field tests and
laboratory analysis to remote sensing and advanced technologies. Below are the different
techniques to assess water quality:

3.4.1 Physical Methods

These methods assess the observable characteristics of water such as temperature,
turbidity, color, and suspended solids.
• Temperature Measurement:
i. Method: A thermometer or digital temperature probe is used to measure the water
temperature.
ii. Importance: Temperature affects the solubility of gases (such as oxygen) and the
metabolic rate of aquatic organisms.
• Turbidity Measurement:
i. Method: A turbidity meter or nephelometer measures the cloudiness of water,
caused by suspended particles such as sediments, microorganisms, or pollutants.
ii. Importance: High turbidity reduces light penetration, affecting aquatic life and
photosynthesis. It also indicates the presence of contaminants.
• Color Measurement:
i. Method: The color of water is visually assessed or measured using a colorimeter
or spectrophotometer or tintometer.
ii. Importance: The color of water can indicate the presence of organic material,
algae, or pollutants.
• Suspended Solids (SS):
i. Method: A water sample is filtered, and the weight of the solids left behind is
measured.
ii. Importance: High levels of suspended solids can cause sedimentation, smother
aquatic habitats, and affect aquatic organisms.

3.4.2 Chemical Methods

Chemical methods are used to assess the concentration of various substances in water,
such as pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), nutrients, heavy metals, and other pollutants.
• pH Measurement:
i. Method: pH meters or pH indicator strips are used to measure the acidity or
alkalinity of water.
ii. Importance: pH affects aquatic life, as most aquatic organisms thrive within a
specific pH range (usually 6.5–8.5).
• Dissolved Oxygen (DO):
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i.Method: The DO concentration is measured using an electrochemical oxygen

probe or a titration method (Winklers method)
ii. Importance: DO is essential for the survival of aquatic life. Low oxygen levels
can lead to hypoxia, harming fish and other organisms.
• Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
i. Method: A chemical oxidizing agent is used to determine the amount of organic
matter in water by measuring the oxygen required to oxidize the substances.
Importance: COD indicates the organic pollution in water, which can affect
oxygen levels and aquatic ecosystems.
• Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD):
i. Method: A water sample is incubated for a particular period 5 or 3 days to
measure the oxygen consumed by microorganisms as they break down organic
matter.
ii. Importance: BOD is a measure of the degree of organic pollution in water, which
can lead to oxygen depletion and harm aquatic life.
• Nutrient Testing:
iii. Method: Water samples are tested for nutrients like nitrogen (nitrates and
nitrites), phosphorus (phosphates), and ammonia using colorimetric tests or ion-
selective electrodes.
o Importance: Excess nutrients can lead to eutrophication, causing algal blooms
and oxygen depletion in water bodies.

3.4.3 Biological Methods

Biological assessments are used to determine the health of an aquatic ecosystem by
studying the organisms living in or around the water.
• Bioindicator Species:
i. Method: Certain species of plants, insects, and aquatic organisms (such as
macroinvertebrates, fish, and algae) are monitored for their sensitivity to changes
in water quality.
ii. Importance: These species serve as indicators of water quality, as their presence
or absence can reflect the levels of pollutants or oxygen in the water.
• E. coli or Coliform Testing:
i. Method: Water samples are tested for the presence of fecal coliforms or E. coli
bacteria, which are indicators of fecal contamination.
ii. Importance: These bacteria can cause waterborne diseases, so their presence in
drinking water or recreational waters is a significant health concern.
• Aquatic Invertebrate Bioassays:
i. Method: The survival and health of aquatic invertebrates (such as water fleas or
mayflies) are assessed in laboratory or field experiments.
ii. Importance: The presence of sensitive invertebrates indicates good water quality,
while a lack of them can suggest pollution.
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3.4.4 Advanced and Remote Sensing Techniques

These modern techniques provide a comprehensive and rapid assessment of water quality
over large areas.
• Remote Sensing:
i. Method: Satellite imagery, drones, and aerial photography are used to monitor
large bodies of water. Instruments like spectrometers measure water color,
temperature, and turbidity from the air.
ii. Importance: Remote sensing allows for the monitoring of large and hard-to-reach
water bodies, detecting algae blooms, sedimentation, and other water quality
issues.
• Fluorescence Spectroscopy:
i. Method: Fluorescence spectroscopy involves measuring the fluorescence emitted
by dissolved organic materials in water.
ii. Importance: It helps detect organic pollution and microbial activity in real-time
without the need for sample collection.
• Water Quality Monitoring Sensors:
i. Method: Automatic sensors or probes placed in water bodies measure multiple
parameters, such as pH, temperature, turbidity, DO, and conductivity,
continuously.
ii. Importance: These sensors provide real-time data for ongoing water quality
assessment, which is particularly useful in large water systems and industrial
applications.
• Geographic Information System (GIS):
i. Method: GIS technology is used to analyze spatial and temporal variations in
water quality by integrating data from sensors, satellite imagery, and field
measurements.
ii. Importance: GIS allows for mapping water quality issues over large geographic
areas, helping to identify pollution sources and trends.

3.4.5 Microbiological Techniques

Microbiological methods are used to detect pathogens or harmful microorganisms in
water.
• Membrane Filtration (MF):
i. Method: Water samples are passed through a membrane filter, which traps
bacteria. The filter is then incubated, and the colonies are counted.
ii. Importance: It provides an accurate count of bacteria like E. coli and other
coliforms, indicating the degree of fecal contamination.
• Most Probable Number (MPN):
i. Method: A statistical method used to estimate the number of viable
microorganisms in a water sample based on the pattern of growth in a series of
inoculated test tubes.
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ii. Importance: MPN is used for detecting bacteria, such as coliforms, in drinking
water and recreational waters.
• PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) Testing:
i. Method: A molecular technique used to amplify and detect the DNA of specific
pathogens (e.g., Vibrio cholerae, Giardia, or Cryptosporidium).
ii. Importance: PCR is highly sensitive and can detect low concentrations of
pathogens, allowing for early detection and rapid response.

3.5 Water Treatment

Water treatment is the process of improving water quality to make it safe for drinking, industrial
use, and other applications. Various methods are employed depending on the water quality and
intended use. Here are different methods of water treatment:

3.5.1 Physical Methods

a) Sedimentation
• Description: Involves allowing water to stand undisturbed in a large tank or basin to
let heavier particles (sediments) settle at the bottom.
• Process: Water is allowed to sit for a period of time so that the heavier particles settle
to the bottom, after which the clearer water is collected from the top.
• Applications: Often used as a pre-treatment before further purification.
b) Coagulation and Flocculation
• Description: Coagulation is the addition of chemicals (coagulants like alum) to water
to bind with suspended particles, forming larger clusters called flocs.
• Process: After coagulation, the water is gently stirred (flocculation) to help the flocs
form and settle faster.
• Applications: Effective for removing fine particles, algae, and microorganisms, and
is commonly used in drinking water treatment.
c) Filtration
• Description: Filtration involves passing water through a medium (such as sand,
gravel, or charcoal) to remove solid particles, sediments, and impurities.
• Types:
i. Sand Filtration: Water is passed through layers of sand and gravel to remove
suspended particles.
ii. Activated Carbon Filtration: Activated carbon adsorbs organic compounds,
chlorine, and bad odors.
iii. Membrane Filtration (Reverse Osmosis): Water is pushed through a
semipermeable membrane to remove dissolved salts, bacteria, viruses, and
organic molecules.
iv. Microfiltration: Removes particles like bacteria and suspended solids.
v. Ultrafiltration: Removes larger molecules, including bacteria, viruses, and
colloidal substances.
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• Applications: Typically used for removing suspended particles, turbidity, and larger
microorganisms.

3.5.2 Chemical Methods

a) Chlorination
• Description: Chlorine is added to water to disinfect it by killing bacteria, viruses,
and other pathogens.
• Process: Chlorine (or its compounds like chlorine dioxide) is added in controlled
amounts to eliminate harmful microorganisms.
• Advantages: Widely used for large-scale water treatment due to its effectiveness and
residual disinfecting action.
• Applications: Commonly used in municipal drinking water treatment and swimming
pools.
b) Ozonation
• Description: Ozone (O₃) is a strong oxidizing agent that is bubbled through water to
disinfect and break down organic pollutants.
• Process: Ozone is generated on-site and then injected into the water to kill pathogens
and remove organic contaminants.
• Advantages: Ozone breaks down into oxygen, leaving no residual chemicals.
• Applications: Used in water treatment for high-quality purification and odor
removal.
c) Disinfection by UV (Ultraviolet) Radiation
• Description: UV light is used to disinfect water by damaging the DNA or RNA of
pathogens, rendering them inactive.
• Process: Water is exposed to UV light that destroys harmful microorganisms without
using chemicals.
• Advantages: No chemicals are added, and UV treatment leaves no taste or odor.
• Applications: Often used in residential, commercial, and municipal water systems,
particularly in smaller-scale treatment.
d) Addition of Lime or Alkaline Agents
• Description: Lime (calcium hydroxide) or other alkaline chemicals are added to
water to adjust pH and remove dissolved impurities like heavy metals.
• Process: Lime helps to precipitate unwanted minerals, such as calcium and
magnesium (hardness), and heavy metals like iron and manganese.
• Applications: Used in hard water treatment or to neutralize acidic water.

3.5.3 Biological Methods

a) Biological Filtration (Biofiltration)
• Description: Biofilters use microorganisms (bacteria, algae, or fungi) to degrade
organic pollutants and remove dissolved contaminants.
• Process: Water passes through a filter medium (like sand or activated carbon) that
contains biofilm of microorganisms, which break down organic pollutants.
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• Advantages: Environmentally friendly and effective for treating wastewater or water

with high organic load.
• Applications: Common in wastewater treatment plants and some advanced drinking
water treatment systems.

b) Constructed Wetlands
• Description: This natural treatment method uses wetland plants, soil, and
microorganisms to treat wastewater.
• Process: Water flows through a planted bed of soil and gravel, where plants and
microorganisms absorb and filter pollutants.
• Advantages: Sustainable, low-cost treatment for domestic and agricultural
wastewater.
• Applications: Used in small communities, rural areas, and decentralized water
treatment.

3.5.4 Advanced Treatment Methods

a) Reverse Osmosis (RO)
• Description: A semipermeable membrane is used to remove dissolved salts, bacteria,
viruses, and other contaminants from water by applying pressure.
• Process: Water is forced through a membrane that allows only water molecules to
pass, leaving contaminants behind.
• Advantages: Removes a wide range of contaminants, including salts, bacteria,
viruses, and heavy metals.
• Applications: Commonly used in desalination plants, drinking water purification,
and wastewater reuse.
b) Distillation
• Description: Water is heated to produce steam, which is then condensed back into
water, leaving impurities behind.
• Process: Water is boiled, and the steam is captured and cooled to produce distilled
water, free from salts, bacteria, and other contaminants.
• Advantages: Very effective at removing salts and heavy metals.
• Applications: Used for purifying water in laboratories, distillation plants, and for
small-scale desalination.
c) Activated Carbon Adsorption
• Description: Activated carbon (charcoal) is used to adsorb organic compounds,
chlorine, and other impurities from water.
• Process: Water flows through an activated carbon filter, where contaminants are
adsorbed onto the surface of the carbon particles.
• Advantages: Very effective for removing odors, chlorine, volatile organic
compounds, and some heavy metals.
• Applications: Often used as a polishing step in water treatment or in point-of-use
filtration devices.
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d) Ion Exchange
• Description: Ion exchange resins are used to remove undesirable ions (e.g., calcium,
magnesium, or toxic metals) and replace them with more desirable ions (e.g.,
sodium).
• Process: Water passes through a resin bed, and undesirable ions are exchanged for
harmless ions.
• Advantages: Effective for softening water (removing hardness) and removing heavy
metals.
• Applications: Common in water softeners and industrial water treatment.

3.6 Solutions to Water Pollution

1. Wastewater Treatment: Proper treatment of sewage and industrial effluents can prevent
harmful pollutants from entering water bodies. Advanced treatment methods such as
filtration, chemical treatment, and biological treatment can help remove contaminants.
2. Sustainable Agriculture: Reducing the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, using
organic farming practices, and implementing better irrigation techniques can reduce
nutrient pollution from agriculture.
3. Oil Spill Prevention: Strict regulations, better technology for spill detection, and
improved response plans can minimize the risk and impact of oil spills.
4. Plastic Reduction: Reducing plastic waste through recycling, better waste management,
and the use of biodegradable alternatives can reduce plastic pollution in water bodies.
5. Public Awareness: Educating the public about the dangers of water pollution and the
importance of conservation, proper waste disposal, and sanitation can help reduce the
volume of pollutants entering water sources.
6. Erosion Control: Implementing better land management practices, such as planting cover
crops, building terraces, and controlling deforestation, can reduce sedimentation in water
bodies.
7. Pollution Regulation and Enforcement: Stronger environmental regulations,
monitoring, and enforcement are essential to curb water pollution. Industries and
municipalities should be held accountable for their water discharges, and penalties should
be imposed for violations.

Questions

1. Which of the following is a primary source of water pollution in urban areas?

A) Agricultural runoff
B) Industrial effluents
C) Household sewage
D) Construction waste
Answer: C) Household sewage
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2. Which of the following is the major contributor to water pollution from agriculture?
A) Heavy metals from machinery
B) Plastic waste
C) Fertilizers and pesticides
D) Erosion from deforestation
Answer: C) Fertilizers and pesticides

3. Which of the following is the main cause of thermal pollution in water bodies?
A) Discharge of heated water from power plants
B) Dumping of untreated sewage
C) Agricultural runoff
D) Oil spills
Answer: A) Discharge of heated water from power plants

4. Which of the following pollutants is commonly found in industrial wastewater?

A) Nitrates
B) Lead and mercury
C) Phosphates
D) Sulfur dioxide
Answer: B) Lead and mercury

5. Which of the following activities is the primary cause of water pollution in coastal
areas?
A) Mining
B) Sewage and wastewater discharge
C) Land-based plastic waste
D) Ocean oil spills
Answer: B) Sewage and wastewater discharge

6. What is one of the most common health impacts of water pollution?

A) Respiratory diseases
B) Waterborne diseases
C) Skin rashes
D) Hearing loss
Answer: B) Waterborne diseases

7. Which of the following is a significant ecological impact of water pollution?

A) Increased soil erosion
B) Loss of biodiversity in aquatic ecosystems
C) Desertification
D) Ozone depletion
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Answer: B) Loss of biodiversity in aquatic ecosystems

8. Which of the following is an effect of excess nitrogen and phosphorus in water bodies?
A) Eutrophication
B) Acidification
C) Soil degradation
D) Smog formation
Answer: A) Eutrophication

9. How does water pollution impact aquatic animals?

A) By causing food scarcity
B) By causing physical harm
C) By causing reproductive issues
D) All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above

10. What is the main effect of oil spills on marine life?

A) Decreased oxygen levels
B) Poisoning and suffocation
C) Increased water temperature
D) Increased nutrient levels
Answer: B) Poisoning and suffocation

11. Which of the following is a common water pollutant that can harm aquatic life?
A) Nitrogen
B) Oxygen
C) Carbon dioxide
D) Hydrogen
Answer: A) Nitrogen

12. Which of the following pollutants is most commonly associated with industrial
waste?
A) Plastics
B) Heavy metals
C) Phosphates
D) Pesticides
Answer: B) Heavy metals

13. Which of the following water pollutants is most commonly found in wastewater from
domestic sources?
A) Oil and grease
B) Pesticides
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C) Detergents
D) Pharmaceuticals
Answer: C) Detergents

14. What is the primary source of nutrient pollution (e.g., nitrogen and phosphorus) in
water?
A) Urban runoff
B) Industrial discharges
C) Agricultural runoff
D) Wastewater treatment plants
Answer: C) Agricultural runoff

15. Which of the following pollutants is a common component of oil spills?

A) Mercury
B) Lead
C) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
D) Phosphates
Answer: C) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

16. Which of the following tests measures the oxygen demand in water, indicating the
level of organic pollution?
A) pH test
B) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
C) Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
D) Turbidity test
Answer: B) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

17. Which of the following parameters is commonly tested to assess nutrient pollution in
water?
A) Ammonia
B) Nitrogen
C) Phosphorus
D) All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above

18. What is the purpose of testing for total coliform bacteria in water?
A) To determine the concentration of chemicals in water
B) To assess the presence of pathogens
C) To measure the pH of water
D) To determine water temperature
Answer: B) To assess the presence of pathogens
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19. What does the term "turbidity" in water refer to?

A) The amount of oxygen dissolved in water
B) The presence of suspended particles in water
C) The temperature of water
D) The pH level of water
Answer: B) The presence of suspended particles in water

20. Which of the following is the first step in water treatment?

A) Filtration
B) Coagulation and flocculation
C) Chlorination
D) Sedimentation
Answer: D) Sedimentation

21. Which process is used to remove fine particles from water after coagulation and
flocculation?
A) Sedimentation
B) Filtration
C) Chlorination
D) Distillation
Answer: B) Filtration

22. What is the primary purpose of chlorination in water treatment?

A) To remove suspended particles
B) To kill harmful microorganisms
C) To improve the taste of water
D) To remove dissolved salts
Answer: B) To kill harmful microorganisms

23. Which of the following methods is most commonly used for removing dissolved salts
from water?
A) Coagulation
B) Filtration
C) Reverse osmosis
D) Chlorination
Answer: C) Reverse osmosis

24. What is the function of alum in water treatment?

A) It removes dissolved salts
B) It helps in coagulation
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

C) It disinfects water
D) It filters out microorganisms
Answer: B) It helps in coagulation
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

Chapter-4| Water Conservation Strategies

4.1 Domestic Water Conservation Methods: It includes the methods for conserving
water in households:
4.1.1 Rainwater Harvesting
Description: Collect rainwater from rooftops
and store it in tanks or recharge underground
water tables.
How It Works:
i. Install gutters and downspouts to channel
rainwater into storage tanks.
ii. Use collected rainwater for gardening,
flushing toilets, and cleaning purposes.
Benefits:
iii. Reduces dependence on municipal water
supplies. Figure: Rainwater harvesting
iv. Mitigates stormwater runoff and prevents
flooding.

4.1.2 Fixing Leaks

Description: Identify and repair leaks in taps,
pipes, and other water fixtures.
How to Do It:
i. Regularly inspect plumbing for drips or
leaks.
ii. Replace worn-out washers and faulty
fixtures promptly.
Benefits:
i. Saves thousands of liters of water annually.
ii. Reduces water bills.
Figure: Fixing leaks

4.1.3 Water-Efficient Fixtures

Description: Install modern fixtures designed to minimize water wastage.
Examples:
i. Low-flow Showerheads: Use less water without compromising pressure.
ii. Aerators: Attach to faucets to reduce flow while maintaining effectiveness.
iii. Dual-Flush Toilets: Provide options for low or high water usage based on need.
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Benefits:
i. Significantly lowers household water consumption.

Figure: Water efficient fixtures

4.1.4 Greywater Recycling

Description: Reuse water from baths, sinks,
and washing machines for secondary purposes
like irrigation.
How It Works:
i. Divert greywater into a separate plumbing
system connected to gardens or storage
tanks.
ii. Use eco-friendly soaps to ensure safety for
plants.
Benefits:
i. Reduces water wastage.
ii. Provides a sustainable water source for non-
Figure: Greywater Recycling
potable uses.

4.1.5 Smart Irrigation

Description: Use efficient watering systems
for gardens and landscapes.
Methods:
i. Drip Irrigation: Delivers water directly
to plant roots with minimal wastage.
ii. Timing: Water plants early in the
morning or late in the evening to reduce
evaporation.
Benefits:
i. Prevents overwatering. Figure: Greywater Recycling
ii. Conserves water while maintaining healthy
plants.
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4.1.6 Water-Efficient Appliances

Description: Use appliances designed to use
less water and energy.
Examples:
i. Washing machines with adjustable load
settings.
ii. Dishwashers with eco-friendly cycles.
iii. Low flow toilets, showerheads.
iv. Water efficient faucets and aerators.
v. Advanced water purifiers.
vi. Energy star appliances. Figure: Water-Efficient Appliances
Benefits:
i. Reduces water and energy bills.
ii. Promotes eco-friendly living.

4.1.7 Behavioural Changes

• Description: Adopt habits that reduce unnecessary water use.
• Tips:
i. Turn off taps while brushing teeth or washing dishes.
ii. Use a bucket instead of a running hose for cleaning vehicles.
iii. Take shorter showers.
• Benefits:
i. Easy to implement and requires no additional cost.
ii. Instils a culture of water conservation.

4.1.8 Rain Gardens

Description: Create gardens designed to
absorb rainwater runoff.
How It Works:
i. Use plants with deep roots to slow down
and absorb rainwater.
ii. Position rain gardens in areas where water
naturally flows.
Benefits:
iii. Enhances groundwater recharge.
iv. Beautifies the environment.
Figure: Rain Gardens
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

4.1.9 Mulching
Description: Cover soil with organic or
synthetic material to retain moisture.
How It Works:
i. Spread mulch around plants to reduce
evaporation.
ii. Use materials like straw, wood chips, or
bark.
Benefits:
iii. Keeps soil moist for longer.
iv. Reduces the frequency of watering.
Figure: Mulching

4.1.10 Bucket Washing

Description: Use buckets instead of hoses for
cleaning purposes.
How to Do It:
i. Fill buckets for car washing, floor cleaning,
or outdoor tasks.
ii. Use minimal water while rinsing.
Benefits:
iii. Avoids water wastage from running hoses.
iv. Allows better control over water usage. Figure: Bucket Washing

4.2 Agriculture Conservation

Agricultural conservation is a crucial water conservation technique that focuses on using
sustainable agricultural practices to reduce water usage, improve water efficiency, and
minimize the environmental impact of farming.
By managing water resources more effectively, agricultural conservation aims to protect water
quality, prevent soil erosion, and ensure the long-term health of ecosystems. Below are
some key methods of agricultural conservation related to water conservation:

4.2.1 Irrigation Management

Efficient irrigation is essential to conserve water while maintaining crop health. Key practices
include:
• Drip Irrigation: This technique involves delivering water directly to the plant’s root
zone through a system of tubes, pipes, and emitters, reducing water loss due to
evaporation and runoff. It is especially effective for high-value crops and in areas with
limited water.
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• Center Pivot Irrigation: This method uses rotating sprinklers mounted on wheeled
towers to cover a circular area of land. With modern technology, it can be adjusted for
efficiency, reducing water waste.
• Surface Irrigation with Proper Design: Proper grading and levee designs ensure that
water flows evenly and doesn’t run off. This helps in minimizing water wastage.
• Smart Irrigation Technology: Using weather-based sensors, soil moisture monitors,
and data analytics, farmers can optimize irrigation schedules, ensuring that water is
applied only when necessary.

4.2.2. Soil Conservation Techniques

Healthy soil can improve water retention and reduce the need for irrigation. Techniques
include:
• Cover Cropping: Planting cover crops like legumes or grasses during the off-season
can improve soil structure, reduce evaporation, and increase water infiltration.
• Mulching: Adding organic or synthetic mulch on the soil surface reduces water
evaporation, moderates soil temperature, and suppresses weeds that compete for water.
• No-till Farming: This practice reduces soil compaction and helps water penetrate the
soil more effectively. By avoiding plowing, water retention is improved, and soil
erosion is minimized.

4.2.3. Water Harvesting

Collecting and storing rainwater for agricultural use can reduce reliance on conventional water
sources:
• Rainwater Harvesting Systems: Farmers can set up systems that collect rainwater
from roofs or other surfaces to store in tanks or ponds. This water can be used for
irrigation, especially during dry periods.
• Runoff Capture: Capturing surface runoff from fields, roads, and other infrastructure
through ditches, swales, or ponds can help conserve water and direct it to where it's
needed.

4.2.4. Water-Efficient Crop Selection

Choosing crops that are better suited to the local climate and soil conditions can reduce the
overall need for water:
• Drought-Resistant Crops: These crops require less water to thrive and are more
resilient to water stress, reducing the need for supplemental irrigation. Examples
include certain varieties of wheat, millet, and sorghum.
• Climate-Appropriate Planting: By planting crops that are adapted to the local weather
conditions, farmers can reduce the dependence on irrigation and improve water-use
efficiency.
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4.2.5. Crop Rotation and Diversification

Rotating crops and diversifying plantings help improve soil structure, reduce pests, and
increase water retention in the soil. For example, rotating deep-rooted plants with shallow-
rooted crops can ensure that soil moisture is utilized more efficiently across seasons.

4.2.6. Watershed Management

In large-scale agricultural systems, managing entire watersheds ensures sustainable water use
across different farming regions. Strategies include:
• Riparian Buffers: Planting vegetation along rivers and streams prevents soil erosion,
filters runoff, and stabilizes water quality. These buffers can help retain water and
improve its infiltration into the soil.
• Wetland Preservation: Wetlands act as natural water filters and buffers, slowing down
water movement and promoting infiltration. Protecting wetlands around agricultural
land helps conserve water by preventing flooding and enhancing water storage.

Figure: Watershed management

4.2.7. Precision Agriculture

This involves the use of technology to monitor and manage water use more effectively:
• GPS and Remote Sensing: Satellite imagery, drones, and sensors help farmers monitor
soil moisture levels, temperature, and crop health, enabling them to apply water more
accurately and efficiently.
• Data-Driven Decision Making: Using big data and analytics, farmers can predict
weather patterns and crop water needs, reducing over-irrigation and ensuring water is
only applied when necessary.

4.2.8. Agroforestry
The practice of integrating trees and shrubs into agricultural landscapes helps conserve water
by:
• Reducing Wind and Water Erosion: Trees and shrubs act as barriers, reducing wind
and water erosion that can lead to water runoff and loss of topsoil.
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• Increasing Water Infiltration: The roots of trees help increase soil permeability,
allowing more water to enter the ground and reducing surface runoff.
Benefits of Agricultural Conservation for Water:

• Reduced Water Consumption: By improving irrigation efficiency and reducing

runoff, agricultural conservation helps lower the total amount of water needed for crop
production.
• Enhanced Soil Health: Many conservation practices, such as cover cropping and no-
till farming, promote better soil structure and moisture retention, ensuring crops thrive
with less water.
• Improved Ecosystem Health: Protecting wetlands, riparian zones, and natural habitats
conserves water for wildlife and preserves biodiversity.
• Climate Resilience: Conservation practices make agriculture more resilient to climate
change by reducing dependency on erratic rainfall patterns and making water use more
sustainable.

4.3 Industrial Water Conservation

Industrial water conservation is a critical aspect of sustainable manufacturing and
production processes. As industries use large amounts of water for various purposes like
cooling, cleaning, and processing, the need for efficient water use and wastewater management
has become more pronounced.
Industrial conservation techniques are designed to minimize water consumption, enhance
water reuse and recycling, and reduce the overall environmental impact of industrial
operations. Below are the key techniques and strategies used in industrial water conservation:
4.3.1. Water Recycling and Reuse
One of the most effective methods of industrial water conservation is the recycling and reuse
of water within the facility. Instead of using fresh water for each stage of production, industries
can treat and recycle water for use in multiple cycles:
• Closed-Loop Water Systems: These systems recirculate water within the facility,
reusing water after it has been treated. The water is filtered, treated, and reused in
various stages of the production process. This reduces the need for fresh water input.
• Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD): ZLD systems aim to recover and reuse almost all of
the water used in industrial processes, with little to no discharge of wastewater into the
environment. This is achieved by advanced filtration, reverse osmosis, and evaporation
processes that allow industries to treat and reuse water, leaving only solid waste.
4.3.2. Efficient Cooling Systems
Many industries, particularly those in the power, chemical, and manufacturing sectors, require
substantial amounts of water for cooling processes. Efficient cooling systems can significantly
reduce water usage:
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• Air-Cooled Systems: Replacing water-cooled systems with air-cooled heat exchangers

reduces the demand for water in cooling processes. These systems use air instead of
water to cool machinery and equipment, cutting down on water consumption.
• Cooling Tower Optimization: For industries that rely on cooling towers, optimizing
their operation by reducing evaporation losses and improving the efficiency of heat
exchange can significantly reduce water use. This can include adjusting the cycles of
concentration, monitoring chemical treatments, and maintaining proper cooling tower
management.
• Recirculating Cooling Systems: These systems reuse water within the cooling process,
circulating it through the system multiple times before it is discharged or treated for
reuse. This reduces the volume of water needed for cooling purposes.
4.3.3. Water-Efficient Technologies
Implementing advanced water-efficient technologies can lead to significant reductions in water
consumption across industrial operations:
• Reverse Osmosis (RO) and Nanofiltration: These filtration technologies are used to
purify and treat water for reuse in industrial processes. Reverse osmosis, in particular,
can desalinate water and remove contaminants, making it suitable for high-demand
applications like cooling, cleaning, or processing.
• Ultrafiltration: This technology is used to remove suspended solids, bacteria, and other
microorganisms from water, making it suitable for reuse in various industrial
applications.
• Water-Saving Equipment: Installing water-efficient equipment, such as low-flow
valves, automated metering, and water-saving devices in machinery, helps optimize
water use and minimize waste.
4.3.4. Rainwater Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting systems capture and store rainwater for use in industrial processes. By
diverting rainwater runoff from roofs, parking lots, and other surfaces, industries can reduce
their dependence on municipal water supplies and lower their water consumption:
• Storage Tanks and Ponds: Water collected from rainwater harvesting systems is stored
in large tanks or ponds for later use. This harvested water can be used for non-potable
purposes, such as landscape irrigation, cooling systems, or cleaning.
• Filtration and Treatment: To ensure the water is clean and safe for industrial use, it
must be filtered and treated before being utilized. Filtration systems such as sand filters,
carbon filters, or ultraviolet (UV) disinfection can help remove debris and pathogens.
4.3.5. Process Optimization and Automation
Process optimization techniques focus on improving the efficiency of industrial operations,
ensuring that water is used only when needed and in the right amounts:
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• Leak Detection and Repair: Regular inspection and maintenance of water pipes,
pumps, and other infrastructure can prevent leaks and water wastage. Using sensors and
smart monitoring systems helps detect leaks early and fix them before they result in
significant water loss.
• Flow Meters and Control Systems: Installing flow meters and automated control
systems allows industries to monitor and regulate water usage in real-time. This ensures
that only the required amount of water is used in each stage of production, and excess
water consumption is avoided.
• Data-Driven Decision Making: Using data analytics and sensors, industries can
optimize water use based on real-time demand and production schedules. This can help
identify areas where water conservation is needed and implement corrective actions
quickly.
4.3.6. Wastewater Treatment and Management
Industries generate wastewater during production processes, which, if not managed properly,
can lead to environmental pollution and excessive water consumption. By treating wastewater
and repurposing it for other applications, industries can reduce their reliance on fresh water:
• Primary and Secondary Treatment: Wastewater treatment typically involves primary
treatment (removal of large solids) and secondary treatment (biological processes to
remove organic pollutants). After treatment, water can be reused in industrial processes
or safely discharged into the environment.
• Advanced Treatment Technologies: Techniques like advanced oxidation, membrane
filtration, and chemical treatment can further purify wastewater, making it suitable for
reuse in high-demand processes such as cooling or cleaning.
• Sludge Management: Sludge produced during wastewater treatment can be processed
and disposed of or converted into energy or fertilizers, reducing waste and
environmental impact.
4.3.7. Water-Efficient Cleaning and Sanitation
Many industries, particularly food processing, pharmaceuticals, and chemicals, require
frequent cleaning of equipment and facilities. Adopting water-efficient cleaning methods can
significantly reduce water usage:
• High-Pressure, Low-Volume Cleaning Systems: These systems use high-pressure jets
to clean surfaces while consuming less water than traditional methods. They are often
used in industries that need to maintain hygiene and cleanliness.
• Dry or Steam Cleaning: In some industries, dry or steam cleaning methods can replace
water-intensive cleaning processes, reducing the need for large amounts of water.
• Cleaning-in-Place (CIP) Systems: These systems allow for automated cleaning of
equipment without disassembling it, ensuring water is used efficiently and reducing the
overall consumption for sanitation.
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4.3.8. Eco-Friendly Product Design

Industrial water conservation can also be enhanced by designing products and processes that
require less water:
• Waterless Technologies: Some industries, such as textile manufacturing, are moving
towards waterless dyeing and finishing technologies, which eliminate or drastically
reduce the need for water.
• Alternative Materials: Using materials that require less water in their production, such
as water-based adhesives or paints, can reduce the overall water footprint of
manufacturing.
4.3.9. Sustainable Water Sourcing
Sourcing water from sustainable, local sources reduces the environmental impact of water
extraction. This includes:
• Non-Potable Water Sources: In many cases, industries can use non-potable water
sources (such as wastewater or brackish water) for industrial processes, leaving potable
water for human consumption.
• Aquifer Recharge and Sustainability: Industries can invest in projects that help
replenish groundwater supplies, ensuring that water extraction does not exceed the
natural replenishment rate of aquifers.
4.4. Benefits of Industrial Water Conservation:
• Cost Savings: Reducing water usage and implementing water recycling can lower
water and wastewater treatment costs, as well as energy costs associated with water
pumping, cooling, and heating.
• Environmental Protection: Efficient water use reduces the strain on local water
resources and minimizes the environmental impact of wastewater discharge, helping
protect ecosystems and water quality.
• Regulatory Compliance: Many industries face stringent regulations regarding water
use and wastewater discharge. Implementing water conservation techniques ensures
compliance with these regulations and avoids fines.
• Sustainability and Corporate Social Responsibility: Companies that adopt water
conservation practices demonstrate a commitment to sustainability and environmental
responsibility, which can improve their brand reputation and customer loyalty.
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a) Using more water for cleaning equipment: Using more water for cleaning increases
water consumption rather than conserving it.
b) Disposing of wastewater directly into rivers: This is harmful to the environment and is
not a water conservation technique.
1. How does rainwater harvesting benefit industrial water conservation efforts?
a) It allows industries to use untreated water in their operations
b) It reduces the need for external water sources by collecting and storing rainwater
c) It decreases water availability for municipal systems
d) It improves water quality for industrial purposes
Answer: b
Explanation:
a) It allows industries to use untreated water in their operations: Rainwater harvesting
involves collecting rainwater, which may be used for non-potable purposes but may require
treatment depending on use.
b) It reduces the need for external water sources by collecting and storing rainwater:
This is the correct benefit; rainwater harvesting helps reduce dependence on municipal or
other external water sources.
c) It decreases water availability for municipal systems: Rainwater harvesting does not
decrease municipal water availability, but rather supplements water supply.
d) It improves water quality for industrial purposes: Rainwater quality can vary; treatment
may be needed before using it in certain industrial processes.

WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination
WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES
UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination
WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

Chapter-5| Water Policy and Governance

5.1 Government Policies: A Historical Background
• A chronology of events in the evolution of the Government Water Policies in India is
given below:

➢ 1866 The government is given the main role in the irrigation and development

➢ 1935 Central government transferred irrigation to the states governments.

➢ 1950 Beginning of the planned development

➢ 1972 Second irrigation commission report

➢ 1980 The Rashtriya Barh Ayog (National Commission on Floods) submitted its
report.

➢ 1986 Formulation of NWRC

➢ 1987 National Water Policy (1987) finalized in the first meeting of NWRC

➢ 1994 Modified draft of National Water Policy Allocation among states, circulated
to the states.

➢ 1998 Water sector review by the GOI and World Bank

➢ 1999 Second meeting of NWRC considered water allocation and river basin
authorizes

➢ 1999 Report of the National Commission on integrated water development

➢ 2000 Water vision by India Water Partnership

➢ 2002 National water Policy (2002)

➢ 2004 CPSP (Country Policy Support Programme) India studies by ICID

(International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage).

➢ 2012 National water Policy

➢ 2022 National water Policy is drafted

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Sl. Sector National Water National Water Policy Na

No. Description Policy (1987) (2002) (20
1. Water Use The efficiency of Efficiency of utilisation Th
Efficiency utilisation in all in all the diverse uses of "ba
the diverse uses of water should be eff
water should be optimised and an im
improved and an awareness of water as a con
awareness of scarce resource should and
water as a scarce be fostered. stu
resource should arr
be fostered. pro
evo
eff
bas
be
pur
lev
2. Flood Emphasis on Emphasis on non- W
management non-structural structural measures, be
measures, such as such as flood re
flood forecasting forecasting and flo
and warning and warning, flood plain th
flood plain zoning and flood no
zoning, so as to proofing, so as to reduce em
reduce the the recurring pr
recurring expenditure on flood /d
expenditure on relief. m
flood relief. G
be
of
sy
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3. Access to Safe Adequate Adequate safe drinking Minimum quantity of

Drinking drinking water water facilities should potable water for essential
Water facilities should be provided to the entire health and hygiene to all
be provided to population both in its citizens, available
the entire urban and in rural areas. within easy reach of the
population both household, must be
in urban and in ensured.
rural areas by
1991.
4. Inter-basin Water should be Water should be made Inter-basin transfers are
transfer made available to available to water short not merely for increasing
water short areas areas by transfer from production but also for
by transfer from other areas including meeting basic human need
other areas transfers from one river and achieving equity and
including basin to another, based social justice. Inter- basin
transfers from on a national transfers of water should
one river basin to perspective, after taking be considered on the basis
another, based on into account the of merits of each case after
a national requirements of the evaluating the
perspective, after areas / basins. environmental, economic
taking into and social impacts of such
account the transfers.
requirements of
the areas/basins.
5. Project Water resource Water resource All water resources
Planning development development projects projects, including hydro
projects should should as far as possible power projects, should be
as far as possible be planned and planned to the extent
be planned and developed as feasible as multi-purpose
developed as multipurpose projects. projects with provision of
multipurpose storage to derive
projects. maximum benefit from
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available topology and

water resources.
6. Environmental No specific Minimum flow should A portion of river flows
Flow in Rivers mention except be ensured in the should be kept aside to
providing for the perennial streams for meet ecological needs
preservation of maintaining ecology ensuring that the
the quality of and social proportional low and high
environment and considerations. flow releases correspond
the ecological in time closely to the
balance. natural flow regime.
7. Ground-water Exploitation of Exploitation of ground Declining ground water
development ground water water resources should levels in over-exploited
resources should be so regulated as not to areas need to be arrested
be so regulated as exceed the recharging by introducing improved
not to exceed the possibilities, as also to technologies of water use,
recharging ensure social equity incentivizing efficient
possibilities, as water use and encouraging
also to ensure community based
social equity. management of aquifers.
8. Perspective for National National perspectives Integrated perspective
Water perspectives considering local,
Resources regional, State and
Planning national context.
9. Information Standardized Standardized national All water related data,
System national information system should be integrated with
information well-defined procedures
system and formats to ensure
online updation and
transfer of data to facilitate
development of database
for informed decision
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making in the
management of water.
10. Water Hydrological Hydrological unit such Integrated Water
Resources unit such as a as a drainage basin as a Resources management
Planning drainage basin as whole, or a sub-basin. taking river basin/sub-
a whole, or a sub- basin as a unit, should be
basin. the main principle for
planning, development
and management of water
resources.
11. Gap between Concerted Concerted efforts All components of water
Irrigation efforts, such as should be made to resources projects should
Potential command area ensure that the irrigation be planned and executed
created and development, potential created is fully in a pari-passu manner so
utilized should be made utilised. For this that intended benefits start
to ensure that the purpose, the command accruing immediately and
irrigation area development there is no gap between
potential created approach should be potential created and
is fully utilised adopted in all irrigation potential utilized.
and the gap projects.
between the
potential created
and its utilisation
is removed.

5.2 National Water Policy (NWP) 2022

India's National Water Policy (NWP) 2022 emphasizes water conservation, efficient
use, equitable distribution, and sustainable management of water resources in the context
of increasing demand, climate change, and rapid urbanization. Below are the key
highlights of the policy:
5.2.1 Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM)
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• Promotes holistic management of water resources, addressing surface and

groundwater together.
• Prioritizes river basin management to ensure equitable water distribution among
states.
5.2.2. Water Governance and Legal Framework
• Advocates the creation of a National Water Framework Law to guide water
governance.
• Proposes restructuring existing institutions for better coordination among states and
central government.
5.2.3 Prioritization of Water Use
• Drinking water and sanitation are prioritized over other uses.
• Other priorities include agriculture, hydroelectric power, industry, and environmental
flows.
5.2.4. Groundwater Management
• Suggests measures to prevent overextraction of groundwater.
• Encourages regulated groundwater use, focusing on community-based
management and strict monitoring.
5.2.5. Climate Change Adaptation
• Emphasizes the need to address climate resilience in water management.
• Proposes creating infrastructure for drought mitigation and flood management.
5.2.6. Water Efficiency
• Encourages adoption of water-saving technologies in agriculture, such as drip and
sprinkler irrigation.
• Promotes reuse and recycling of water in industries and urban areas.
5.2.7. Demand Management
• Advocates demand-side management to reduce water wastage in all sectors.
• Supports the idea of using pricing mechanisms to promote efficient water use.
5.2.8. Equitable Access
• Ensures equitable distribution of water resources, focusing on marginalized and
vulnerable communities.
• Stresses providing access to safe drinking water and sanitation for all.
5.2.9. River Rejuvenation
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• Aims to restore and maintain the ecological health of rivers.

• Focuses on sustaining environmental flows and controlling river pollution.
5.2.10. Urban Water Management
• Encourages cities to adopt rainwater harvesting, wastewater treatment, and smart
water grids.
• Proposes steps for efficient stormwater management to prevent urban flooding.
5.2.11. Water Quality
• Recommends strict enforcement of water quality standards.
• Focuses on controlling industrial and agricultural pollution in water bodies.
5.2.12. Role of Technology
• Advocates leveraging advanced technologies such as IoT, GIS, and remote sensing
for real-time monitoring.
• Promotes research and innovation for water management solutions.
5.2.13. Community Participation
• Emphasizes the importance of community involvement in water management.
• Promotes local governance structures, such as water user associations, for
decentralized decision-making.
5.2.14. Financing and Investments
• Calls for increased public and private investments in water infrastructure.
• Advocates exploring public-private partnerships (PPPs) for large-scale projects.
5.2.15. Water Security
• Recognizes water as a national security concern and recommends measures to
ensure long-term availability and equitable distribution.
5.3 Government policies for water conservation in India
Certain government policies for integrated water resource management and efficient use
are as follows:
• Jal Shakti Abhiyaan,
• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchain Yojana
• (PMKSY),
• National Rural Drinking Water Programme
• (NRDWP), and
• Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABHY).
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5.4 Legal framework for water in India

The Existing Legal Framework: The existing legal, institutional and decision making
frame work for water law in India, both at the National and state level is embodied in
the following Acts at the National and state level. The National Legislations as
applicable to water are:
• Water prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1974
• Air prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1977
• Environment Protection Act 1986
• Forest Conservation Act 1980 and amended in 1988
• Public Liability Insurance Act 1991
• Environment Assessment Development of Projects, 1994
Constitutional Provisions -The constitution defines the allocation of functions relating
to water resource development between the centre and state governments.
Water is designated as a state subject open to the central intervention to regulate the
development of interstate rivers and for settlement of interstate disputes on water.
The River Boards Act and the Interstate Water Disputes Act are made under these
provisions. The central government can also intervene in the interest of protecting
environment and forest and under provisions regarding national planning for
development.
5.5 Accountable Institutions
At present, the roles of various institutions in the matter of the evolution of water policies
by the Union government are as follows:
5.5.1 The National Water Resources Council: The council performs the function of
approving water-related policies through the evolution of a consensus.
5.5.2 The National Water Board: The Board assists the National Water Resources
Council.
5.5.3 The Ministry of Water Resources: It has the crucial role of drafting the agenda of
the National Water Resources Council. The other important function is of giving effect
to the decisions.
5.5.4 The Central Water Commission: The Commission acts as the secretariat to the
National Water Board. Prepares the basic documents and drafts about water policies.
Advising and assisting the ministry.
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5.5.5 The Central Ground Water Board: Its main function is to assess groundwater
through geo-hydrological surveys and studies, and through the drilling of exploratory
tube wells to facilitate such studies
5.5.6 The Central Ground Water Authority: It has legal powers to regulate the
exploitation of groundwater in order to ensure that environmental damage due to
overexploitation of groundwater is avoided.
5.5.7 The National Committees: These Committees participated in the deliberations on
various specialized subjects such as hydrology, irrigation and drainage, hydraulic
research, etc. for deciding research areas as also in evolving a consensus at the
professional level, about the problems and possible solutions.
5.5.8 The Specialized National Institutes: Within the ministry of water resources these
institutes carry out research on problem areas including issues like the role of forests in
hydrology, the quantum of return flows from irrigation, etc. which have a bearing on
policies.
5.5.9 Various River Basin Institutes: The Ministry such as the Brahmaputra Board, the
Betwa Board, the Upper Yamuna River Board, the Narmada Control Authority, etc. over
sees the implementation of the various agreements, tribunal awards, etc.
5.5.10 Various Water Dispute Tribunals: To adjudicate on the water disputes in
accordance with the terms of reference fixed by the government to formulate the awards.
The case law so evolved, and the spirit of the award itself, has important implications on
future evolution of water policies.
5.5.11 Non -Governmental Organizations: The NGOs act as watchdogs to pressurize
the state governments and the central government in regard to various executive
decisions and policy evolution.
5.5.12 The Judiciary: The decisions of the water dispute tribunal cannot be revised
through appeals to the courts. However, before a tribunal is set up, the aggrieved states
can and do approach the judiciary for a remedy.
5.6 Water Pricing and Subsidies
5.6.1. Importance of Water Pricing
Water pricing is seen as a key tool to:
• Promote efficient water use: By assigning an economic value to water, consumers
are encouraged to use it responsibly.
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• Recover costs: Ensures that water supply and management systems remain
financially viable.
• Reduce wastage: Rational pricing discourages excessive and wasteful use of water,
especially in agriculture and industries.
• Encourage investment: Proper pricing can attract private and public investments
for water infrastructure.
5.6.2. Principles for Water Pricing
The policy proposes the following principles for water pricing:
• Differential Pricing: Prices should reflect the socio-economic status of users.
Marginalized communities and economically weaker sections should receive
subsidies or free water for basic needs.
• Full Cost Recovery: Over time, tariffs should aim to cover the operation and
maintenance (O&M) costs and part of the capital costs of water infrastructure.
• Polluter Pays Principle: Industries and entities responsible for water pollution must
pay higher charges to account for environmental and treatment costs.
5.6.3. Water Pricing Mechanisms
The policy suggests the adoption of transparent and flexible pricing mechanisms:
• Tiered Pricing: Water tariffs should increase with higher consumption. Basic needs
like drinking water and sanitation should be affordable, while higher tariffs can be
levied for luxury uses or excessive consumption.
• Metering: Accurate water metering is essential to implement fair pricing. All users,
including domestic, industrial, and agricultural consumers, should have metered
connections.
• Seasonal Pricing: Higher prices during dry seasons can encourage conservation and
promote efficient water use.
5.6.4. Water Subsidies
Water subsidies are aimed at ensuring affordability for vulnerable and marginalized
groups while encouraging sustainable practices. Key considerations include:
a) Need for Subsidies
• Ensuring Equity: Subsidies ensure access to safe water for economically weaker
sections and rural communities.
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• Supporting Farmers: Since agriculture consumes a significant portion of water,

subsidies are often necessary to support small and marginal farmers.
• Promoting Social Welfare: Subsidies for drinking water and sanitation contribute
to better health outcomes and improved living standards.
b) Reforming Existing Subsidies
• The policy recognizes inefficiencies in current subsidy systems, such as excessive
subsidies leading to overuse and wastage.
• Targeted Subsidies: Reforms should focus on directing subsidies to those who need
them most, using tools like direct benefit transfers (DBTs).
• Phased Reduction: Over time, subsidies for non-essential uses (e.g., luxury crops
requiring excessive water) should be reduced.
c) Conditional Subsidies
Subsidies should be linked to:
• Adoption of water-efficient practices (e.g., drip irrigation in agriculture).
• Compliance with water conservation norms (e.g., reuse and recycling in
industries).
5.6.5. Sector-Wise Water Pricing and Subsidy Approaches
a) Domestic Sector
• Affordable Pricing for Basic Needs: Lifeline water for drinking and sanitation
should be either free or heavily subsidized for low-income households.
• Full Cost for Non-Essential Use: For higher consumption, tariffs should cover the
cost of supply, ensuring cross-subsidization within the domestic sector.
b) Agriculture
• Subsidized Water for Farmers: Farmers, especially small and marginal ones, may
receive subsidies to ensure irrigation water remains affordable.
• Encouraging Efficiency: Tariffs should incentivize water-saving technologies like
drip and sprinkler irrigation.
• Disincentivizing Wasteful Practices: Overuse of water for water-intensive crops in
water-scarce regions should be discouraged through higher pricing.
c) Industrial and Commercial Sectors
• Cost Reflective Pricing: Industries should pay tariffs based on the full cost of water
supply, including extraction, treatment, and environmental impact.
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• Penalty for Pollution: Industries should be charged additional fees for polluting
water sources, aligned with the "polluter pays principle."
• Reuse and Recycling Incentives: Subsidies or reduced tariffs can encourage
industries to adopt water recycling and reuse practices.
5.6.6. Challenges in Implementing Water Pricing and Subsidies
• Resistance to Change: Public and political resistance to pricing reforms, especially
in agriculture.
• Inefficiencies in Subsidy Delivery: Leakage and corruption in the existing subsidy
frameworks.
• Affordability Concerns: Ensuring that pricing reforms do not disproportionately
burden the poor.
• Technical Barriers: Lack of metering infrastructure and data for accurate pricing.
5.6.7. Recommendations for Effective Implementation
• Stakeholder Engagement: Engage communities, industries, and farmers in
decision-making to build trust and acceptance.
• Capacity Building: Invest in training and infrastructure for water metering and
monitoring.
• Digital Platforms: Use technology to track water usage, ensure transparent pricing,
and deliver subsidies directly to beneficiaries.
• Periodic Reviews: Regularly review and revise tariffs to reflect economic,
environmental, and social changes.
5.7. International Water Cooperation.
International Water Cooperation: An Overview
Water is a shared resource that transcends national boundaries, with more than 260
transboundary river basins and numerous aquifers spanning multiple countries.
Effective international water cooperation is essential for sustainable water management,
equitable allocation, conflict prevention, and fostering peace and prosperity among
nations.
5.7.1 Significance of International Water Cooperation
a) Shared Resource Management:
• Transboundary rivers, lakes, and aquifers require joint efforts to ensure equitable
distribution and sustainable use.
• Examples: The Nile, Mekong, Indus, and Rhine rivers.
b) Conflict Prevention:
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• Water scarcity or disputes over access can lead to conflicts. Cooperation helps
prevent tensions and promotes stability.
c) Economic Development:

• Joint water projects (e.g., dams, irrigation systems) can boost regional economies,
improve trade, and ensure food and energy security.
d) Environmental Conservation:

• Collaborative efforts are crucial for protecting ecosystems, maintaining

biodiversity, and mitigating pollution.
e) Adaptation to Climate Change:

• Coordinated responses to climate change impacts (e.g., droughts, floods) are more
effective in transboundary water systems.

5.8. Principles of International Water Cooperation

5.8.1 Equitable and Reasonable Utilization:

• Countries sharing water resources should have fair access, considering population,
geography, and existing uses.
5.8.2 No Significant Harm:

• Activities in one country should not cause significant harm to co-riparian states.
5.8.3 Sustainable Development:

• Cooperation must aim for long-term benefits, ensuring the resource is preserved for
future generations.
5.8.4 Data Sharing and Transparency:

• Regular exchange of hydrological, meteorological, and ecological data fosters trust

and informed decision-making.
5.8.5 Dispute Resolution:

• Mechanisms like arbitration, mediation, or third-party intervention can help resolve

disagreements peacefully.

5.9 Key Areas of International Water Cooperation

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5.9.1. Transboundary River Basins

Cooperation involves agreements on water sharing, joint infrastructure, and ecosystem

protection.
• Example: Indus Waters Treaty (1960):
➢ Agreement between India and Pakistan mediated by the World Bank.
➢ Allocates waters of six rivers between the two countries.
5.9.2. Shared Aquifers
Groundwater systems that cross borders require joint management to prevent over-
extraction and pollution.
• Example: Guarani Aquifer Agreement (2010):
➢ Collaboration among Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay for sustainable
management.
5.9.3. Infrastructure Development
Co-financing and joint development of dams, canals, and hydroelectric projects.
• Example: Senegal River Basin Development:
➢ Joint efforts by Senegal, Mauritania, and Mali for energy and irrigation projects.
5.9.4. Pollution Control
Addressing industrial discharge, agricultural runoff, and urban waste affecting shared
water bodies.
• Example: Rhine River Cooperation: Collaborative pollution control by riparian
European countries.
5.9.5. Hydropower Development
Sharing benefits from hydropower projects.
• Example: Mekong River Commission: Promotes equitable hydropower
development among Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam.
5.10 Global Frameworks and Agreements for Water Cooperation
5.10.1. United Nations Watercourses Convention (1997):
• Focuses on the use, management, and protection of international watercourses.
• Principles: Equitable use, prevention of harm, and peaceful dispute resolution.

5.10.2. UNECE Water Convention (1992):

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• Encourages cooperation for sustainable water management in transboundary

contexts.
• Open for accession by all UN member states since 2016.
5.10.3. Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6:
• SDG 6.5 emphasizes integrated water resource management and transboundary
cooperation.
5.10.4. International Organizations:
• UNESCO: runs programs like the International Hydrological Programme (IHP) to
promote cooperation.
• Global Environment Facility (GEF): Funds transboundary water management
projects.
5.11 Challenges in International Water Cooperation
5.11.1 Political Tensions:
• Geopolitical rivalries can hinder trust and joint efforts.
• Example: Tensions between Ethiopia, Sudan, and Egypt over the Grand Ethiopian
Renaissance Dam (GERD).
5.11.2 Economic Disparities:
• Differences in financial and technical capacities can create inequalities in benefits.
5.11.2 Data and Information Gaps:
• Lack of reliable data on water availability and quality complicates planning.
5.11.3 Climate Change:
• Unpredictable changes in water flow exacerbate challenges in resource sharing.
5.11.4 Enforcement of Agreements:
• Weak enforcement mechanisms lead to non-compliance with treaties.

5.12 Water Conservation in Uttar Pradesh: A Comprehensive Overview

Uttar Pradesh (UP), India's most populous state, is highly dependent on water resources
for agriculture, industry, and domestic needs. With increasing demand and dwindling
supply, water conservation has become a critical focus area for the state. Here's an in-
depth look at water conservation efforts, challenges, and strategies in Uttar Pradesh.
5.12.1 Importance of Water Conservation in Uttar Pradesh
a) Agricultural Dependency:
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• UP is a primarily agrarian state, with over 70% of the population engaged in

agriculture.
• Water-intensive crops like sugarcane and paddy dominate the state’s agriculture,
increasing water demand.
b) Population Pressure:
• The large population exerts immense pressure on water resources for drinking,
sanitation, and industrial use.
c) Groundwater Depletion:
• Overextraction of groundwater for irrigation and domestic use has led to declining
water tables in many regions.
d) Climate Change Impacts:
• Erratic monsoons and rising temperatures exacerbate water scarcity.
e) Urbanization and Industrialization:
• Rapid urban growth and industrial development have increased water demand
and pollution.
5.13 Government Initiatives for Water Conservation
5.13.1 Jal Shakti Mission (National Initiative):
• Uttar Pradesh actively participates in the Jal Shakti Abhiyan, a national campaign
focusing on water conservation and rainwater harvesting.
5.13.2 Bundelkhand Package:
• Special measures for drought-prone Bundelkhand region include constructing check
dams, ponds, and other water harvesting structures.
5.13.3 Atal Bhujal Yojana:
• Focuses on improving groundwater management through community participation
in water-scarce districts of the state.
5.13.4 Jal Jeevan Mission:
• Aims to provide tap water connections to all rural households, reducing dependence
on groundwater sources.
5.13.5 Mission Kakatiya:
• Restoration of traditional water bodies like ponds, tanks, and lakes in rural areas.
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5.13.6 Namami Gange Program:

• Conservation of the Ganga River and its tributaries through pollution abatement,
afforestation, and rejuvenation efforts.
5.14 Key Water Conservation Strategies in Uttar Pradesh
5.14.1. Rainwater Harvesting:
• Mandatory installation of rainwater harvesting systems in urban and rural areas.
• Government subsidies for individuals and institutions adopting rainwater
harvesting.
5.14.2 Revival of Traditional Water Bodies:
• Restoration of ponds, lakes, and stepwells that historically served as community
water sources.
• Example: Revival projects in districts like Kanpur, Prayagraj, and Gorakhpur.
5.14.3. Efficient Irrigation Techniques:
• Promoting micro-irrigation systems like drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation
to reduce water wastage.
• Encouraging farmers to adopt crop diversification with less water-intensive crops.
5.14.4. Groundwater Management:
• Installation of recharge wells and trenches to replenish groundwater levels.
• Enforcement of groundwater regulations to prevent overextraction.
5.14.5. Afforestation and Catchment Area Treatment:
• Plantation drives to enhance soil and water retention in catchment areas.
• Example: Tree plantation along the Ganga and Yamuna rivers.
5.14.6. Public Awareness Campaigns:
• Sensitizing communities about the importance of water conservation through
workshops, school programs, and media campaigns.
5.14.7. Industrial Water Conservation:
• Mandating industries to install wastewater treatment plants and adopt water
recycling practices.
• Encouraging zero-liquid discharge (ZLD) systems in industries.
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5.15 Community-Led Initiatives

5.15.1 NGO Participation:
• Several NGOs work in partnership with the government and communities to
implement water conservation projects.
• Example: Parmarth Samaj Sevi Sansthan focuses on water harvesting in
Bundelkhand.
5.15.2 Farmers' Participation:
• Farmers in regions like western UP are adopting efficient irrigation methods and
crop rotation practices.
5.15.3 Traditional Knowledge Integration:
• Reviving traditional water conservation practices, such as constructing johads
(small earthen dams) and kuins (traditional wells).
5.16 Success Stories
5.16.1 Bundelkhand's Revival of Water Bodies:
• Hundreds of ponds and tanks restored under government schemes have improved
water availability and supported agriculture.
5.16.2 Noida’s Rainwater Harvesting Drive:
• Urban areas in Noida have seen significant success in implementing rainwater
harvesting systems in residential societies and public buildings.
5.16.3 Prayagraj’s Water Body Rejuvenation:
• Restoration of historic ponds like Nagvasuki Talaab has enhanced local water
recharge and ecological balance.
5.17. Challenges in Water Conservation
5.17.1 Groundwater Overextraction:
• High dependency on groundwater for irrigation and drinking water depletes aquifers.
5.17.2 Poor Implementation of Policies:
• Delayed execution of conservation projects and lack of monitoring impact results.
5.17.3 Pollution of Water Bodies:
• Industrial effluents, sewage, and agricultural runoff contaminate rivers and ponds.
5.17.4 Lack of Awareness:
• Limited understanding of water conservation practices in rural areas.
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

5.17.5 Climate Variability:

• Unpredictable rainfall patterns disrupt water recharge efforts.
5.18. Future Directions
5.18.1 Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM):
• Comprehensive planning for surface and groundwater management, pollution
control, and conservation.
5.18.2 Use of Technology:
• Leveraging satellite imagery, GIS mapping, and IoT for real-time water resource
monitoring.
5.18.3 Policy Strengthening:
• Enforcing stricter penalties for illegal groundwater extraction and water body
encroachments.
5.18.4 Incentives for Conservation:
• Providing subsidies and tax benefits to industries, farmers, and communities
adopting sustainable water practices.
5.18.5 Public-Private Partnerships (PPP):
• Engaging private players in developing water infrastructure and conservation
projects.

Questions
1. Which of the following is the primary goal of the National Water Policy 2012?
a) To increase the allocation of water to industrial sectors
b) To ensure equitable and sustainable development and management of water
resources
c) To improve the aesthetic quality of water bodies
d) To promote the privatization of water resources
Answer: b) To ensure equitable and sustainable development and management of water
resources
Explanation:
a) Incorrect: The policy focuses on equitable water distribution, not prioritizing industrial
sectors alone.
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b) Correct: The primary goal is the equitable and sustainable management of water resources
to meet the needs of agriculture, industry, and domestic consumption.
c) Incorrect: While water quality is important, the policy does not focus solely on aesthetic
quality.
d) Incorrect: Privatization is not the key focus of the policy, although private sector
participation is encouraged in certain areas.
2. According to the National Water Policy 2012, which of the following should be the
priority for water allocation?
a) Industry
b) Domestic use and drinking water
c) Commercial purposes
d) Agriculture and irrigation
Answer: b) Domestic use and drinking water
Explanation:
a) Incorrect: While industry is important, it is not given priority in water allocation under the
policy.
b) Correct: Domestic use and drinking water are the top priorities in the National Water Policy
2012 to ensure basic needs are met.
c) Incorrect: Commercial purposes are not a priority for water allocation according to the
policy.
d) Incorrect: Agriculture and irrigation are important but are given lower priority than domestic
and drinking water.
3. What is the policy's stance on water pricing in India as per the National Water
Policy 2012?
a) Water should be made available at a uniform rate for all users
b) Water pricing should be market-driven with no subsidies
c) Water pricing should reflect the true cost of water, including ecological and
environmental costs
d) Water pricing should be completely abolished
Answer: c) Water pricing should reflect the true cost of water, including ecological and
environmental costs
Explanation:
a) Incorrect: Water pricing should not be uniform for all users, as the policy emphasizes that
pricing should reflect the cost.
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b) Incorrect: While the policy advocates for true cost pricing, it does not imply a market-driven
approach with no subsidies for the poor.
c) Correct: The policy emphasizes pricing water based on its true cost, which includes
ecological and environmental costs, promoting efficient use.
d) Incorrect: Water pricing is not abolished but regulated to ensure sustainability.
4. The National Water Policy 2012 emphasizes the importance of which of the
following strategies for ensuring water sustainability?
a) Complete reliance on surface water
b) Increased groundwater extraction without regulation
c) Integrated water resource management (IWRM)
d) Water diversion to industrial hubs only
Answer: c) Integrated water resource management (IWRM)
Explanation:
a) Incorrect: The policy stresses a balanced approach between surface and groundwater
resources, not total reliance on surface water.
b) Incorrect: Groundwater extraction should be regulated, not increased without controls.
c) Correct: The policy advocates for Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM), which
balances the needs of various sectors and ensures sustainability.
d) Incorrect: The policy encourages equitable distribution, not just water diversion to industrial
hubs.
5. Which of the following is a key focus of the National Water Policy 2012 regarding
the management of groundwater resources?
a) Unrestricted extraction of groundwater for all purposes
b) Strict regulation and management of groundwater resources
c) Encouraging only industrial use of groundwater
d) Subsidizing groundwater use for agricultural purposes
Answer: b) Strict regulation and management of groundwater resources
Explanation:
a) Incorrect: Unrestricted extraction is discouraged, especially given the growing concerns
about groundwater depletion.
b) Correct: The policy emphasizes the need for strict regulation and management of
groundwater, ensuring its sustainability.
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c) Incorrect: The policy encourages sustainable use across all sectors, not just industry.
d) Incorrect: The policy advocates for proper pricing and regulation, not blanket subsidies for
agriculture.
6. Which of the following is the primary objective of water pricing in the context of
water resource management?
a) To reduce the demand for water
b) To ensure equitable distribution of water
c) To recover the full economic cost of water
d) To eliminate the need for water subsidies
Answer: c) To recover the full economic cost of water
Explanation:
a) Incorrect: While pricing may affect demand, its main purpose is not to reduce demand but
to allocate resources efficiently.
b) Incorrect: While water pricing can help in achieving equity, its main objective is to reflect
the full cost of water.
c) Correct: The primary goal is to recover the full economic cost of water, which includes the
costs of infrastructure, environmental costs, and social impacts.
d) Incorrect: Water pricing does not aim to eliminate subsidies, but to ensure that water pricing
reflects the real cost of water.
7. According to the National Water Policy, who should be responsible for determining
water prices?
a) Only the government
b) Local bodies and water utilities
c) Private water companies
d) International organizations
Answer: b) Local bodies and water utilities
Explanation:
a) Incorrect: While the government plays a role in setting policies, the pricing responsibility
often lies with local bodies and utilities.
b) Correct: Water pricing decisions are typically made by local bodies and water utilities, with
oversight from the government.
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c) Incorrect: While private companies may be involved in water provision, the determination
of prices is generally not solely in their hands.
d) Incorrect: International organizations provide guidance but do not set water prices locally.
8. What is the main goal of providing water subsidies according to the National Water
Policy?
a) To make water freely available to all sectors
b) To support high-income communities with affordable water
c) To ensure equitable access to water, especially for the poor
d) To reduce government expenditure on water supply
Answer: c) To ensure equitable access to water, especially for the poor
Explanation:
a) Incorrect: Water should not be provided freely to all sectors. Pricing needs to be fair and
equitable, but not free.
b) Incorrect: Subsidies are typically targeted at lower-income groups, not high-income
communities.
c) Correct: The main goal of subsidies is to provide affordable water to those who cannot afford
the full cost, ensuring equity.
d) Incorrect: While subsidies help in affordability, their goal is to ensure access, not to reduce
government expenditure.
9. How does water pricing contribute to water conservation?
a) By making water more expensive for industrial sectors
b) By reflecting the true cost of water, encouraging its efficient use
c) By providing free water to low-income households
d) By subsidizing water for agricultural use
Answer: b) By reflecting the true cost of water, encouraging its efficient use
Explanation:
a) Incorrect: Water pricing can be used to encourage conservation across all sectors, not just
industries.
b) Correct: When water pricing reflects its true cost, it encourages all users to adopt water-
saving technologies and efficient practices.
c) Incorrect: Providing free water does not encourage conservation; it may lead to waste.
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d) Incorrect: Subsidizing water for agriculture might increase its use without ensuring efficient
practices.
10. Which of the following best describes cross-subsidization in water pricing?
a) Charging the same rate for water across all sectors
b) High-income groups subsidize the cost of water for low-income groups
c) Water pricing is based on the water availability in the region
d) Industrial users pay lower rates than agricultural users
Answer: b) High-income groups subsidize the cost of water for low-income groups
Explanation:
a) Incorrect: Cross-subsidization involves different pricing for different user groups, not the
same rate.
b) Correct: Cross-subsidization allows wealthier sections of society to pay more for water,
which helps subsidize water costs for lower-income groups.
c) Incorrect: While availability can influence pricing, cross-subsidization is about adjusting
prices to ensure equity.
d) Incorrect: This is not typical of cross-subsidization. Pricing depends on usage and ability to
pay, not necessarily on who consumes more.
11. What is the main objective of international water cooperation?
a) To share water resources equally between countries
b) To prevent transboundary water conflicts and ensure sustainable use
c) To privatize water resources across national borders
d) To increase water supply through large-scale dams
Answer: b) To prevent transboundary water conflicts and ensure sustainable use
Explanation:
a) Incorrect: Water sharing should be based on equitable and reasonable use, not equal
distribution.
b) Correct: The primary goal is to prevent conflicts and promote cooperation for sustainable
and fair use of transboundary water resources.
c) Incorrect: Privatization is not the main goal of international cooperation in water
management.
d) Incorrect: Large-scale dams may sometimes be part of solutions, but they are not the primary
focus of international cooperation.
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12. Which of the following is a key international agreement aimed at promoting

cooperation over shared water resources?
a) The Paris Agreement
b) The Helsinki Rules
c) The Kyoto Protocol
d) The Montreal Protocol
Answer: b) The Helsinki Rules
Explanation:
a) Incorrect: The Paris Agreement focuses on climate change, not specifically on water
resources.
b) Correct: The Helsinki Rules (1966) provide guidelines for equitable and reasonable use of
shared international waters and are a key international instrument in water cooperation.
c) Incorrect: The Kyoto Protocol is related to climate change, not water resources.
d) Incorrect: The Montreal Protocol focuses on ozone depletion and does not deal with water
resources.
13. What is the role of the United Nations in international water cooperation?
a) To establish a global water market
b) To set global water pricing standards
c) To promote integrated water resource management through various programs
d) To regulate water use by individual countries
Answer: c) To promote integrated water resource management through various programs
Explanation:
a) Incorrect: The UN does not establish global water markets; instead, it encourages equitable
management of water resources.
b) Incorrect: The UN does not set global water pricing standards but focuses on governance
and management.
c) Correct: The UN, through programs like UN Water and the International Water Assessment
Programme (IWAP), promotes integrated water resource management globally.
d) Incorrect: The UN does not regulate national water use but encourages cooperation and
sustainable management practices.
14. Which of the following is a principle of the United Nations Convention on the Law
of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses (1997)?
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a) All countries have an equal right to the use of water resources

b) The priority use of water must always be for agriculture
c) Watercourses must be used in an equitable and reasonable manner
d) Watercourses should be entirely controlled by the country of origin
Answer: c) Watercourses must be used in an equitable and reasonable manner
Explanation:
a) Incorrect: The right to use water is based on equity and reasonable use, not equal distribution.
b) Incorrect: Agriculture is not automatically prioritized over other uses; equitable use is
emphasized.
c) Correct: The Convention stresses the importance of equitable and reasonable use, which is
the basis for fair international water cooperation.
d) Incorrect: The Convention advocates for shared responsibility and cooperation, not
unilateral control by one country.
15. What does the term "transboundary waters" refer to?
a) Waters that flow entirely within one country
b) Waters that cross international borders or are shared by two or more countries
c) Waters that are managed by private corporations
d) Waters that are found in underground aquifers
Answer: b) Waters that cross international borders or are shared by two or more
countries
Explanation:
a) Incorrect: Transboundary waters, by definition, cross national borders.
b) Correct: Transboundary waters are shared by countries, and cooperation is needed to manage
them sustainably.
c) Incorrect: While some water bodies may be privatized, this is not related to the concept of
transboundary waters.
d) Incorrect: While groundwater may be shared, the term "transboundary waters" usually refers
to surface water that crosses borders.
16. Which of the following is the primary reason for water scarcity in Uttar Pradesh?
a) Excessive rainfall
b) Over-extraction of groundwater
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c) Lack of rainfall
d) Pollution of rivers
Answer: b) Over-extraction of groundwater
Explanation:
Uttar Pradesh faces significant water scarcity mainly due to the over-extraction of
groundwater, especially in agriculture. Excessive pumping of groundwater exceeds the
natural replenishment rate.
17. The primary objective of the 'Namami Gange' project is to:
a) Increase water supply to UP
b) Promote river rejuvenation
c) Build large dams on the Ganges
d) Facilitate irrigation for farmers
Answer: b) Promote river rejuvenation
Explanation:
'Namami Gange' is a project aimed at cleaning and conserving the Ganges River, with a
focus on wastewater treatment, riverfront development, and afforestation to rejuvenate the
river's health.
18. Which of the following methods is effective for water conservation in agricultural
practices in Uttar Pradesh?
a) Drip irrigation
b) Flood irrigation
c) Using chemical fertilizers
d) Overgrazing by livestock
Answer: a) Drip irrigation
Explanation:
Drip irrigation is an efficient method of irrigation that delivers water directly to the plant
roots, minimizing wastage, unlike flood irrigation, which leads to water runoff and
evaporation.
19. The major water source for irrigation in Uttar Pradesh is:
a) Rivers
b) Lakes
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

c) Groundwater
d) Dams
Answer: c) Groundwater
Explanation:
Groundwater is the primary source for irrigation in Uttar Pradesh. However, over-extraction
of groundwater has led to issues like decreasing water levels and water scarcity.
20. The Uttar Pradesh Government initiated the 'Jal Jeevan Mission' with the goal to:
a) Improve water quality
b) Ensure universal access to safe drinking water
c) Promote water-intensive crops
d) Build more water reservoirs
Answer: b) Ensure universal access to safe drinking water
Explanation:
The 'Jal Jeevan Mission' aims to provide safe drinking water to all households in Uttar
Pradesh and other states, with an emphasis on sustainability and water conservation.
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WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

Chapter-6| Emerging water issues

Impact of Climate Change: Climate Change has induced following changes with respect to
water resources
6.1. Changes in Precipitation Patterns
• Increased Variability:
➢ Climate change disrupts global weather systems, causing unpredictable rainfall
patterns. Some regions experience excessive rainfall leading to floods, while others
face prolonged droughts.
• Seasonal Shifts:
➢ Shifts in monsoon timings or snowmelt periods affect agricultural and water resource
planning.
• Impacts:
➢ Farmers struggle to time planting and harvesting.
➢ Hydropower projects face challenges due to erratic water availability.
6.2. Melting Glaciers and Snowpacks
• Faster Melting:
➢ Rising temperatures accelerate the retreat of glaciers and reduce seasonal snowpacks,
which are critical for feeding rivers during dry periods.
• Reduced Storage:
➢ Glaciers act as natural reservoirs, storing water in winter and releasing it in summer.
Their decline means less regulated water flow.
• Impacts:
➢ Communities relying on glacial melt, such as those in South Asia or South America,
face water shortages for drinking, irrigation, and hydropower.

6.3. Rising Sea Levels

• Saltwater Intrusion:
➢ As sea levels rise, saltwater moves into freshwater aquifers, making water unsuitable
for drinking and irrigation.

• Coastal Erosion:
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➢ Coastal regions lose land, and ecosystems like mangroves and wetlands are at risk.
• Impacts:
➢ Water scarcity in coastal areas and damage to agriculture and fisheries.

6.4. Increased Water Scarcity

• Droughts:
➢ Higher evaporation rates due to warming reduce surface and groundwater levels.
• Population Growth:
➢ With rising populations, the demand for water increases, further straining limited
resources.
• Impacts:
➢ Competition for water resources intensifies, potentially leading to conflicts between
communities or nations.

6.5. Impacts on Water Quality

• Flooding and Pollution:
➢ Heavy rains wash pollutants like pesticides, sewage, and industrial waste into rivers
and lakes, degrading water quality.
• Thermal Pollution:
➢ Rising water temperatures lower oxygen levels, affecting aquatic ecosystems.
• Impacts:
➢ Increased costs for water treatment and higher risks of waterborne diseases.

6.6. Reduced Groundwater Recharge

• Disruption in Recharge Cycles:
➢ Altered rainfall patterns and urbanization reduce natural groundwater replenishment
through infiltration.
• Overextraction:
➢ Excessive use of groundwater for agriculture, industry, and domestic purposes leads
to depletion.
• Impacts:
➢ Falling water tables, increased pumping costs, and potential land subsidence.

6.7. Impact on Ecosystems

• Aquatic Ecosystems:
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➢ Temperature changes disrupt aquatic biodiversity. Cold-water species may be unable

to survive in warming habitats.
• Wetlands:
➢ Wetlands, which filter water and provide habitats, shrink due to reduced water levels.
• Impacts:
➢ Loss of biodiversity and critical ecosystem services like water purification and flood
control.

6.8. Changes in Hydrological Extremes

• Increased Flooding:
➢ More frequent and intense rainfall events overwhelm drainage systems, causing urban
flooding.
• Prolonged Droughts:
➢ Longer dry periods exacerbate water scarcity and stress ecosystems.
• Impacts:
➢ Higher economic losses, human displacement, and threats to food security.

6.9. Impact on Agriculture

• Irrigation Challenges:
➢ Reduced water availability limits irrigation for crops, threatening yields.
• Soil Degradation:
➢ Flooding and droughts erode soil quality, reducing its fertility.
• Impacts:
➢ Decline in agricultural productivity, impacting food security and rural incomes.

6.10. Implications for Energy Production

• Hydropower:
➢ Irregular river flows affect electricity generation from dams, reducing reliability.
• Thermal Power Plants:
➢ Higher water temperatures reduce the efficiency of cooling systems in thermal power
plants.
• Impacts:
➢ Disruptions in energy supply lead to higher costs and affect industrial and domestic
energy needs.

6.11. Water Security

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Water security refers to the ability of a population to access sufficient, safe, and sustainable
water to meet their needs for drinking, sanitation, agriculture, industry, and ecosystem
preservation. It is a critical component of human survival, economic development, and
environmental health.

6.11.1 Key Components of Water Security

(a) Availability of Water Resources:
➢ Ensuring that there is adequate water to meet the needs of the population, agriculture,
industry, and ecosystems.
➢ Includes surface water (rivers, lakes) and groundwater sources.
(b) Quality of Water:
➢ Providing water that is safe for consumption and use.
➢ Minimizing contamination from pollutants such as industrial waste, agricultural runoff,
and untreated sewage.
(c) Accessibility:
➢ Ensuring equitable access to water for all segments of society, including marginalized
and rural communities.
➢ Overcoming physical, economic, and social barriers to access.
(d) Sustainability:
➢ Managing water resources to meet current needs without compromising future
availability.
➢ Includes efficient use, conservation, and protection of natural water systems.
(e) Resilience to Climate Change:
➢ Adapting water management systems to address the impacts of climate change, such
as altered precipitation patterns, droughts, and floods.

6.12. Challenges to Water Security

a) Population Growth:
➢ Increasing demand for water due to rising populations strains existing resources.
b) Climate Change:
➢ Alters water availability through changes in precipitation, melting glaciers, and
rising sea levels.
➢ Leads to more frequent and severe water-related disasters like floods and droughts.
c) Water Pollution:
➢ Industrial waste, agricultural runoff, and untreated sewage degrade water quality.
➢ Polluted water increases health risks and reduces the availability of usable water.
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d) Overextraction:
➢ Excessive withdrawal of groundwater for agriculture and urban needs leads to
depletion and land subsidence.
e) Inequitable Distribution:
➢ Urban-rural disparities, gender inequalities, and geopolitical conflicts over
transboundary water resources hinder access.
f) Aging Infrastructure:
➢ Leaking pipes, inefficient irrigation systems, and outdated treatment facilities waste
water and increase maintenance costs.
6.13. Strategies to Achieve Water Security
(a) Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM):
• Holistic approach to managing water resources by balancing social, economic, and
environmental needs.
• Encourages coordination between sectors like agriculture, industry, and urban
development.
(b) Sustainable Water Use:
• Promoting water-efficient practices in agriculture (drip irrigation), industry (water
recycling), and households (low-flow fixtures).
• Encouraging behavioral changes to reduce water wastage.
(c) Infrastructure Development:
• Investing in modern water treatment plants, storage reservoirs, and distribution
systems.
• Upgrading irrigation infrastructure to minimize losses.
(d) Protecting Water Ecosystems:
• Restoring wetlands, forests, and rivers to ensure natural water filtration and recharge.
• Preventing encroachment and degradation of water bodies.
(e) Policy and Governance:
• Enforcing regulations on water use and pollution control.
• Promoting community-based water management systems.
• Strengthening transboundary water treaties to reduce conflicts.
(f) Climate Adaptation:
• Building flood defenses and drought-resilient infrastructure.
• Enhancing water storage through rainwater harvesting and aquifer recharge.
(e) Technological Innovations:
• Desalination technologies to convert seawater into freshwater.
• Smart irrigation systems and sensors for efficient water use in agriculture.
• Advanced water recycling and purification techniques.
(f) Public Awareness and Education:
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• Campaigns to promote water conservation practices.

• Education programs to highlight the importance of sustainable water management.

6.14. Benefits of Water Security

a) Health Improvement:
➢ Reduces waterborne diseases by ensuring access to safe drinking water and sanitation.
b) Economic Development:
➢ Supports agriculture, industry, and energy production.
➢ Boosts productivity and reduces poverty.
c) Social Stability:
➢ Prevents conflicts over water resources and ensures equitable access for all.
d) Environmental Protection:
➢ Maintains the health of ecosystems, biodiversity, and natural water cycles.
e) Resilience to Climate Change:
➢ Prepares communities to adapt to water-related challenges posed by climate change.

6.15. Global Perspective on Water Security

• UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 6):
➢ Ensures availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all by
2030.
• Key Global Issues:
➢ Many regions, including sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, face acute water stress.
➢ Transboundary rivers like the Nile, Ganges, and Mekong highlight the geopolitical
dimension of water security.

Question
1. Which of the following is a direct impact of climate change on freshwater availability?
A) Increased fish populations
B) Altered precipitation patterns
C) Increased industrial water demand
D) Improved water purification techniques

Answer: B) Altered precipitation patterns

A) Increased fish populations: This is not a direct impact of climate change on water
availability; rather, it relates to ecosystems and biodiversity.

B) Altered precipitation patterns: Climate change can lead to changes in rainfall distribution,
intensity, and frequency, directly affecting freshwater availability.
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C) Increased industrial water demand: While industrial demand can increase due to various
factors, it is not a direct impact of climate change.

D) Improved water purification techniques: This is a human response to water quality issues,
not a direct impact of climate change on water availability.

2. How does rising temperature primarily affect snowpack in mountainous regions?

A) It increases snow accumulation
B) It causes earlier snowmelt
C) It stabilizes the snowpack
D) It has no impact on snowpack

Answer: B) It causes earlier snowmelt

A) It increases snow accumulation: Rising temperatures generally reduce snow accumulation

as more precipitation falls as rain.

B) It causes earlier snowmelt: Higher temperatures cause snow to melt earlier, impacting
water availability downstream.

C) It stabilizes the snowpack: Rising temperatures destabilize, rather than stabilize, snowpack.

D) It has no impact on snowpack: Rising temperatures have a significant impact on

snowpack, altering its timing and extent.

3. Which of the following is a consequence of sea level rise on freshwater resources?

A) Salinization of coastal aquifers
B) Increase in freshwater fish species
C) Enhanced river flow
D) Expansion of freshwater lakes

Answer: A) Salinization of coastal aquifers

A) Salinization of coastal aquifers: Sea level rise can lead to saltwater intrusion into
freshwater aquifers, contaminating drinking water supplies.

B) Increase in freshwater fish species: Sea level rise does not typically increase freshwater
fish species; it can harm aquatic habitats.

C) Enhanced river flow: River flow may not be enhanced; it could be disrupted or diminished
in some areas.

D) Expansion of freshwater lakes: Sea level rise generally affects coastal areas, not the size of
inland freshwater lakes.

4. Which agricultural impact is a result of climate change affecting water resources?

A) Increased crop yields due to better water availability
B) More frequent waterlogging of fields
C) Reduced irrigation water availability
D) Decrease in soil erosion

Answer: C) Reduced irrigation water availability

A) Increased crop yields due to better water availability: Climate change often reduces
water availability, negatively affecting crop yields.
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B) More frequent waterlogging of fields: Waterlogging can occur due to changes in rainfall
patterns, but it is not as common as water scarcity.

C) Reduced irrigation water availability: Climate change often reduces the water available
for irrigation, impacting agricultural productivity.

D) Decrease in soil erosion: Climate change can increase soil erosion due to more intense
rainfall events, not decrease it.

5. What is one impact of climate change on groundwater resources?

A) Groundwater recharge rates decrease
B) Groundwater becomes less important
C) Groundwater storage capacity increases
D) Groundwater pollution decreases

Answer: A) Groundwater recharge rates decrease

A) Groundwater recharge rates decrease: Reduced precipitation and increased evaporation

due to climate change can decrease groundwater recharge rates.

B) Groundwater becomes less important: Groundwater remains crucial, especially when

surface water supplies are affected by climate change.

C) Groundwater storage capacity increases: Climate change does not increase natural
storage capacity; it may even decrease it due to over-extraction.

D) Groundwater pollution decreases: Pollution can increase as water resources become

stressed, leading to concentration of contaminants.

6. What is a primary indicator of water security in a region?

A) Abundance of freshwater fish species
B) Reliable access to safe drinking water
C) Large natural lakes
D) High annual rainfall

Answer: B) Reliable access to safe drinking water

Explanation:

A) Abundance of freshwater fish species: This indicates ecological health but not necessarily
water security for human use.

B) Reliable access to safe drinking water: This is a fundamental measure of water security,
ensuring that people have sufficient, safe, and affordable water.

C) Large natural lakes: While large lakes contribute to water resources, they don't guarantee
water security without proper management and distribution.

D) High annual rainfall: High rainfall doesn’t always translate to water security, especially if
infrastructure or management is lacking.

7. Which factor can significantly undermine water security?

A) Sustainable water management practices
 UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination
WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

B) Population growth
C) Investment in water infrastructure
D) Use of water-saving technologies

Answer: B) Population growth

Explanation:

A) Sustainable water management practices: These enhance water security by ensuring

long-term water availability.

B) Population growth: Rapid population growth increases water demand, potentially straining
water resources and threatening water security.

C) Investment in water infrastructure: This supports water security by improving water

distribution and storage.

D) Use of water-saving technologies: These help conserve water and improve water security.

8. Which of the following best describes a key component of water security?

A) Predictable annual rainfall
B) Equitable access to water
C) High water consumption rates
D) Exclusive access to private water sources

Answer: B) Equitable access to water

Explanation:

A) Predictable annual rainfall: While helpful, it doesn’t ensure equitable distribution or

access to water.

B) Equitable access to water: Water security requires that all individuals have fair access to
adequate water resources.

C) High water consumption rates: High consumption can threaten water security if it
surpasses sustainable levels.

D) Exclusive access to private water sources: This can create inequality and reduce overall
water security in a community.

9. Which global challenge most directly impacts water security?

A) Space exploration
B) Climate change
C) Advancements in digital technology
D) Urbanization trends in rural areas

Answer: B) Climate change

Explanation:
 UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination
WATER RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES

A) Space exploration: While important, it has little direct impact on water security.

B) Climate change: Climate change alters water availability, distribution, and quality,
significantly impacting water security.

C) Advancements in digital technology: These can support water management but are not a
direct challenge to water security.

D) Urbanization trends in rural areas: Urbanization can affect water security, but climate
change poses a more direct and widespread threat.

10. How can poor water governance affect water security?

A) By enhancing water distribution networks
B) By causing inefficient water use
C) By reducing water tariffs
D) By promoting community water projects

Answer: B) By causing inefficient water use

Explanation:

A) By enhancing water distribution networks: This would improve water security.

B) By causing inefficient water use: Poor governance often leads to mismanagement of water
resources, reducing efficiency and availability.

C) By reducing water tariffs: This may make water more affordable but doesn’t directly
address security if not paired with sustainable practices.

D) By promoting community water projects: This typically enhances water security by

involving local stakeholders in water management.