UNIT IV

Europe from 1871-1945 (Imperialism and Colonialism)

Developments in Germany
The German Empire, established in 1871 after the Prussian victory in the Franco-Prussian
War, marked a significant transformation in European political dynamics and set the stage for
major developments leading up to World War I. Here’s a detailed look at the German Empire
from its founding in 1871 to the onset of World War I in 1914:
Founding and Domestic Policies
Unification and Bismarckian Policies: The unification of Germany was formalized with the
proclamation of the German Empire in January 1871 in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles. Otto
von Bismarck, the Prussian Chancellor, became the first Chancellor of the Empire, shaping
its early policies. Bismarck implemented the Kulturkampf, an anti-Catholic campaign, aimed
at reducing the influence of the Roman Catholic Church in predominantly Protestant
Germany. He also introduced social welfare programs, including health insurance, accident
insurance, and pensions—innovative at the time, intended to appease the working class and
undermine socialist movements.
Economic Development
Industrial Growth: Germany experienced rapid industrial growth, becoming one of the
world's leading industrial powers by the late 19th century. This was supported by a high rate
of population growth, substantial urbanization, and an excellent system of railways. Key
industries included coal, steel, and chemicals, placing Germany at the forefront of the Second
Industrial Revolution.
Foreign Policy and Militarism
Weltpolitik
Weltpolitik, translated as "world policy", was a term used to describe the foreign policy
adopted by Germany under Kaiser Wilhelm II following his ascension to the throne in 1888.
This policy marked a significant shift from the more cautious and continental-focused
approach of his predecessor, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, to a more aggressive and
expansive foreign policy aimed at asserting Germany as a global power.
Vision and Objectives
I. Global Prestige and Power: The primary vision of Weltpolitik was to elevate
Germany to the status of a global power, on par with the United Kingdom and France,
who had extensive overseas empires. Kaiser Wilhelm II believed that Germany's great
economic and industrial successes should be complemented by a strong international
presence, including overseas colonies and a powerful navy.
II. Colonial Expansion: One of the key objectives of Weltpolitik was to acquire
overseas colonies. This was driven by a desire for economic resources, trade
opportunities, and global prestige. Germany was relatively late to the colonial game
compared to Britain and France, and Kaiser Wilhelm II saw the acquisition of
colonies as essential to Germany’s status as a world power.
III. Naval Expansion: A significant aspect of Weltpolitik was the expansion of the
German Navy, which was formalized through a series of Naval Laws starting in 1898.
These laws were spearheaded by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, the Navy Secretary, who
advocated for a fleet strong enough to challenge the British Royal Navy. The rationale
was that a strong navy would secure Germany's global trade and colonial possessions,
and also serve as a deterrent against other naval powers.
IV. Economic Expansion: Weltpolitik also aimed at securing and expanding Germany's
economic interests abroad. This included not just colonies but also economic
influence in regions like the Middle East and Latin America. The construction of the
Berlin-Baghdad Railway is an example of such economic expansionism, aiming to
increase German influence in the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East.
Founder
Kaiser Wilhelm II: Weltpolitik is closely associated with Kaiser Wilhelm II, who was the
driving force behind the shift from Bismarck’s Realpolitik. Wilhelm’s personality—
ambitious, impetuous, and nationalistic—played a significant role in shaping this policy. He
was eager to put a personal stamp on German foreign policy and saw himself as a monarch
on par with Britain’s rulers, deserving of a global empire.
Influence of Advisors: While Wilhelm II is the figure most associated with Weltpolitik,
several influential advisors also played crucial roles, particularly Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz
in naval matters. These advisors helped craft the specifics of the policy and its
implementation, particularly in terms of military and naval expansions.
In conclusion, Weltpolitik was a reflection of Kaiser Wilhelm II's desire for Germany to have
"a place in the sun" alongside the other great powers of the age. However, the aggressive
pursuit of this policy contributed to the tensions leading up to World War I, as it alarmed and
antagonized other powers, particularly the United Kingdom, France, and Russia, setting the
stage for the conflict that would erupt in 1914.
Weltpolitik and Naval Expansion: Under Kaiser Wilhelm II, who ascended to the throne in
1888 after the deaths of his father and grandfather, Germany shifted its foreign policy from
Bismarck’s cautious diplomacy to a more aggressive stance known as Weltpolitik. The aim
was to transform Germany into a global power through an expanded navy and overseas
colonies, which put Germany in direct competition with Britain and France.
Arms Race: The launch of the Weltpolitik coincided with significant naval expansion,
epitomized by the Naval Laws of 1898 and 1900, which aimed to build a fleet large enough
to challenge the British Royal Navy. This led to an arms race, particularly with Britain,
exacerbating tensions in a Europe already divided by complex alliances.
Alliance Systems and Diplomatic Relations
Complex Alliances: Bismarck’s diplomatic efforts had initially isolated France
diplomatically after 1871 through a network of alliances, including the Triple Alliance with
Austria-Hungary and Italy. However, Kaiser Wilhelm II’s approach led to deterioration in
relations with Russia, which subsequently allied with France in the Franco-Russian Alliance
of 1894.
Balkan Entanglements: German foreign policy increasingly focused on the unstable
Balkans, where tensions between Austria-Hungary and Russia threatened European stability.
Germany’s support for Austria-Hungary in the Balkan crises of the early 20th century further
strained relations with Russia and its allies.
Prelude to War
July Crisis of 1914: The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo in
June 1914 triggered the July Crisis. Germany’s unconditional support for Austria-Hungary
during this crisis, known as the "blank check," emboldened Austria-Hungary to confront
Serbia, leading to a chain of events that quickly escalated into World War I.
Summary
From its establishment in 1871 to the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the German Empire
underwent significant internal development and external expansion. While it transformed into
a leading industrial power and expanded its global influence, its aggressive foreign policies
and military expansion were key factors contributing to the tensions that led to World War I.
The period is characterized by rapid industrialization, aggressive nationalism, complex
diplomatic alliances, and ultimately, a path to global conflict.
 The Hague Conventions (1899, 1907), Declaration of London (1909), First World War
(Near East, Partition of Africa, Militant Nationalism and the Armament Race)
INTRODUCTION
The Hague Conventions, the Declaration of London, and various geopolitical developments
at the turn of the 20th century, including militant nationalism and the arms race, all played
significant roles in shaping the international environment leading up to World War I. These
events and treaties reflected the complex interplay of diplomacy, military preparation, and
imperial ambitions among the major powers. Here’s a detailed look at these elements:
The Hague Conventions (1899, 1907)
The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 were significant international treaties aimed at
regulating warfare and reducing the impact of armed conflicts. These conferences were
among the first formal global attempts to address the laws of war and war crimes,
establishing standards of armed conflict that sought to protect both combatants and non-
combatants.
Parties Involved
1899 Convention: The first Hague Conference was initiated by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia
and was attended by representatives from 26 nations, including major powers like the United
States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and Russia, along with smaller nations. The
aim was to have a wide representation to discuss peace and disarmament.
1907 Convention: The second conference was attended by representatives from 44
countries, significantly more than the first, reflecting broader international participation and
the increasing recognition of the importance of international law.
Objectives
General Objectives: The primary objective of the Hague Conventions was to establish a
comprehensive set of international laws that governed the conduct of warfare and aimed to
limit its effects, particularly on civilians. The motivations were both humanitarian, seeking
to make war less cruel, and practical, aiming to define and limit the ways in which hostilities
were conducted.
Provisions
1899 Provisions:
 Laws of War on Land: The Convention formalized laws that were to be followed by
armies during wartime, including the treatment of prisoners of war and the protection
of civilians.
 Prohibition of Certain Weapons: This included the banning of expanding bullets
and chemical weapons, which were deemed too cruel.
  Arbitration System: Establishment of the Permanent Court of Arbitration to handle
disputes between nations peacefully, which was a major step forward in international
law.

1907 Provisions:
 Expansion of Laws on War on Land: Updated and expanded the laws set in 1899.
 Naval Warfare: Introduced laws regarding naval warfare, including the laying of sea
mines and the rights of neutral vessels.
 Creation of an International Prize Court: Proposed the establishment of a court to
oversee naval captures, though this court was never actually established.
Impact
Legal Framework: The conventions were pioneering in that they created a legal framework
for the conduct of war, influencing subsequent international law, including the Geneva
Conventions. They established rules that were referred to in later conflicts, setting precedents
for how wars should be fought.
Limitations in Enforcement: Despite their groundbreaking nature, the conventions had
significant limitations, particularly in enforcement. There was no mechanism to enforce these
rules, and adherence was often based on the goodwill of the signatory parties. During World
War I and subsequent conflicts, many of the provisions were ignored, leading to calls for
stronger international legal bodies and enforcement mechanisms.
Long-term Influence: The conventions influenced the development of later international law
by establishing that rules could be set for war, a concept that was relatively new at the time.
They laid the groundwork for the Geneva Conventions and helped establish the norms that
would later be embodied in the United Nations and other international bodies.
In summary, the Hague Conventions marked the beginning of a new era in international law,
setting standards for the conduct of armed conflict and establishing institutions for
international dispute resolution. While not fully effective in preventing the atrocities of
subsequent wars, they were a critical step in the evolution of global governance and
humanitarian law.
Declaration of London (1909)
The Declaration of London in 1909 was a significant diplomatic effort aimed at codifying the
laws of naval warfare, mirroring the earlier land warfare regulations set out by the Hague
Conventions. It represented an attempt by the major maritime powers of the time to create a
standardized set of guidelines that would govern naval conflicts, particularly regarding
the treatment of neutral parties and the handling of maritime contraband.
Parties Involved
The Declaration of London was drafted by representatives from the world's major naval
powers at the time, including:
  The United Kingdom
 Germany
 France
 Italy
 Russia
 Japan
 The United States (as an observer)
These countries participated in the International Naval Conference held in London, which
sought to address unresolved issues concerning maritime warfare and neutral rights, areas
that had been only partially covered by the earlier Hague Conventions.
Objectives
The main objectives of the Declaration of London were to:
1. Clarify the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers: The declaration aimed to
establish clear rules regarding the rights and duties of neutral nations during naval
warfare, an area of international law that was often ambiguous and source of
international tension.
2. Regulate Blockades and Contraband: To provide a uniform approach to the
declaration of blockades, and the treatment of contraband, including what constituted
contraband of war.
3. Standardize Maritime Warfare Rules: Similar to the Hague Conventions' approach
to land warfare, the Declaration of London sought to bring predictability and a sense
of fairness to naval warfare, which was becoming increasingly important given the
global nature of sea trade and military strategies.
Provisions
The Declaration of London included several key provisions:
1. Blockades: To be legally binding, a blockade had to be effective, meaning it had to be
maintained by a force sufficient to really prevent access to the enemy coastline.
2. Contraband: The declaration distinguished between absolute contraband (items
directly useful in war, like weapons), conditional contraband (items like food and fuel,
which could be used in war but also had civilian uses), and free goods (items not
usable in war).
3. Neutral Ships: Neutral vessels were only to be captured if they were breaching a
blockade, carrying contraband, or engaging in certain other activities like unneutral
service.
4. Prize Courts: The declaration outlined procedures for the adjudication of captured
vessels (prizes) in international prize courts, aiming for fair treatment of all parties
involved.
Impact
The Declaration of London, though never ratified due to opposition primarily from the British
Admiralty and Parliament, who feared it would favor the interests of Germany and restrict
British naval supremacy, had a significant impact:
1. Influence on WWI Naval Conduct: Despite its non-ratification, the principles
enshrined in the Declaration influenced naval conduct during World War I. Both the
Allies and Central Powers referred to its guidelines, although adherence was often
influenced by strategic and tactical considerations.
2. Foundation for Future Agreements: The Declaration helped lay the groundwork for
future international agreements on maritime law. Many of its principles were later
incorporated into the United Nations Conventions on the Law of the Sea.
3. Legal Precedent: It served as a reference point for discussions on international law
concerning the sea, influencing subsequent legal texts and treaties in maritime
warfare.
The Declaration of London was an ambitious attempt to bring order and fairness to naval
warfare, and while it was not adopted in its intended form, it represented a significant step in
the development of international maritime law.
First World War (Near East, Partition of Africa, Militant Nationalism and the
Armament Race)
The First World War was a cataclysmic event that reshaped the political, economic, and social
landscapes of the world. Its causes were complex and multifaceted, involving a range of
geopolitical dynamics, including the situation in the Near East, the Partition of Africa,
militant nationalism, and the armament race. Each of these factors contributed to the tensions
that ultimately led to the outbreak of the war in 1914.
Near East or the Eastern Question
“I shall not see the World War, but you will, and it will start in the Near East.” - Bismarck

The Near East, particularly the Balkans and the areas under the weakening control of the
Ottoman Empire, played a critical role in the lead-up to World War I. This region was a
hotbed of nationalist tensions, great power rivalries, and strategic considerations, all of which
contributed significantly to the outbreak of the war.
Ottoman Decline and Strategic Importance
The Ottoman Empire, once a formidable power, was in a state of decline by the early 20th
century. This decline opened a vacuum that various European powers sought to fill, each
hoping to expand their influence or secure strategic territories. The empire's territories in the
Balkans and the Middle East were especially significant due to their geographic location:
they served as a bridge between Europe and Asia and included critical routes such as the
Dardanelles, which provided naval access from the Mediterranean Sea to the Black Sea.
Russian Ambitions and British Concerns
Russia had long-standing ambitions in the region, driven by both strategic and religious
motives. Strategically, Russia sought access to the Mediterranean Sea, which necessitated
control over the straits controlled by the Ottoman Empire. Religiously, Russia positioned
itself as the protector of Eastern Orthodox Christians in the Balkans, many of whom lived
under Ottoman rule.
The British, meanwhile, were primarily concerned with protecting their routes to India, their
"jewel in the crown." The Suez Canal was a vital maritime route for Britain, and stability in
the Ottoman Empire was crucial to safeguarding this passage. Britain was thus interested in
maintaining a balance of power that prevented any single power, particularly Russia, from
dominating the region.
Balkan Nationalism and Wars
The Balkans were dubbed the "powder keg of Europe" for their volatile mix of ethnic groups
and nationalist movements. The decline of Ottoman authority in this region led to the rise of
nationalist sentiments among various ethnic groups, including Serbs, Bulgarians, Greeks, and
Albanians, each seeking independence or greater autonomy.
Two Balkan Wars (1912-1913) dramatically reshaped the region:
1. First Balkan War (1912): Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro formed the
Balkan League to drive the Ottomans out of their European territories, which they
largely achieved.
2. Second Balkan War (1913): Dissatisfied with the division of spoils from the first
war, Bulgaria attacked its former allies, leading to a quick and humiliating defeat that
left Serbia significantly strengthened.
These wars not only reshaped the map but also heightened tensions among the Great Powers
who had stakes in the region. Austria-Hungary, in particular, was concerned about Serbian
expansionism, fearing that it would inspire Slavic groups within its borders to seek secession.
Austrian-Hungarian and Serbian Rivalry
Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908 had stoked fears in Serbia,
which saw its ambitions of becoming a South Slavic leader thwarted. The relationship
between Austria-Hungary and Serbia became increasingly antagonistic, with each viewing
the other as a direct threat to their national interests. Pan-Slavism, the movement to unite
Slavic peoples under Russian leadership, drove nationalist sentiments, especially in the
Balkans, where Russia felt a duty to protect Serbian and other Slavic interests.
The Spark in Sarajevo
The immediate catalyst for World War I was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
of Austria by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb nationalist, in Sarajevo in 1914. This event
triggered a series of mobilizations and declarations of war due to the complex alliance
systems in place.
Austria-Hungary, backed by Germany, saw the assassination as a pretext to neutralize Serbia
as a threat. However, Russia's support for Serbia meant that any conflict in the region could
escalate into a broader European war. The intricate system of alliances that connected the
Great Powers turned a regional conflict into a global one, leading directly to the outbreak of
World War I.
Thus, the Near East, with its mix of declining imperial control, rising nationalist movements,
and great power rivalries, was a central factor in the conditions leading up to World War I.
Balkan Countries
Partition of Africa
The partition of Africa, occurring from approximately 1880 to the early 20th century,
involved the division and colonization of African territory by European powers. This period,
often termed the "Scramble for Africa," saw nations such as Britain, France, Germany,
Belgium, Italy, and Portugal carve the continent into colonies, protectorates, and spheres of
influence. This scramble was formalized at the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, where these
powers established rules for annexing African territory to prevent conflict among themselves.
However, this division sowed the seeds of rivalry and distrust that contributed indirectly to
the conditions leading to the First World War.
Strategic and Economic Interests
European powers were driven by strategic and economic interests in Africa. Colonies were
not only sources of raw materials and markets for European manufactured goods but also
strategic assets in global power games. Control over regions like North and East Africa was
crucial for maintaining and controlling trade routes, particularly those leading to Asia through
the Suez Canal.
Intensification of Rivalries
The aggressive nature of the scramble led to heightened tensions among European countries.
For instance, the Fashoda Incident of 1898, where French and British forces nearly came to
blows over Sudan, underscored the potential for conflict stemming from colonial ambitions.
Similarly, the Agadir Crisis in 1911, involving Germany and France over the status of
Morocco, demonstrated how colonial disputes could escalate into broader confrontations,
drawing in other powers and influencing European diplomatic relations.
Contribution to Militarism and Alliance Systems
The rivalries in Africa fed into broader militaristic tendencies and the development of alliance
systems in Europe. As nations sought to protect their interests and colonies, they built up
military capabilities and formed strategic alliances. The Triple Entente (comprising Britain,
France, and Russia) and the Triple Alliance (between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy)
were partly influenced by colonial competitions. These alliances were meant to provide
security guarantees against rival blocs, thus creating a highly polarized and militarized
Europe.
Indirect Influence on the Outbreak of War
While the direct cause of the First World War was the assassination of Archduke Franz
Ferdinand in 1914, the underlying conditions created by colonial rivalries cannot be ignored.
The scramble for Africa contributed to the climate of suspicion and rivalry that made
diplomatic resolutions difficult. It exacerbated the fears and ambitions of European powers,
ensuring that any spark, such as the crisis in the Balkans, could ignite a wider conflict,
drawing on the entangled commitments and suspicions of the pre-war period.
In summary, the partition of Africa did not directly cause the First World War, but it played a
significant role in creating the conditions that made the war possible. By fostering rivalries,
building alliances, and promoting militarism, the scramble for Africa was a contributing
factor to the broader dynamics that led to one of the most devastating conflicts in modern
history.
Militant Nationalism and the Armament Race
Militant nationalism and the armament race were pivotal factors that contributed significantly
to the onset of the First World War. Each of these elements exacerbated tensions and
instabilities in Europe, setting the stage for a conflict that would engulf the continent.
Militant Nationalism
Militant nationalism, a fervent and often aggressive form of nationalism, was marked by a
strong belief in the superiority of one's nation and the imperative of national assertiveness or
expansion. This ideology was prevalent in many European countries before the war,
manifesting in various forms:
 Germany: The concept of Weltpolitik and the desire to assert Germany as a dominant
world power led to increased militarism and confrontational foreign policies.
  France: Revanchism, particularly concerning the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany
in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871), fueled a desire for revenge and territorial
recovery.
 Russia: Pan-Slavism, the movement to unite Slavic peoples under Russian leadership,
drove nationalist sentiments, especially in the Balkans, where Russia felt a duty to
protect Serbian and other Slavic interests.
 Austria-Hungary: Nationalistic fervor within the empire, with various ethnic groups
striving for greater autonomy or independence, strained the cohesion of the state,
leading to aggressive stances against perceived threats like Serbia.
These nationalist movements often demanded assertive foreign policies and were unwilling to
compromise on territorial or diplomatic disputes, creating an environment ripe for conflict.
Armament Race
Parallel to the rise of militant nationalism was the armament race, which involved the rapid
expansion and modernization of military forces in Europe. The major powers, influenced by
advances in military technology and driven by mutual suspicions, embarked on a significant
buildup of armaments:
 Naval Arms Race: The most notable aspect was the naval rivalry between Britain and
Germany. Britain, with its longstanding policy of maintaining a navy "as strong as the
next two navies combined," was challenged by Germany's aggressive naval expansion
under Kaiser Wilhelm II. The launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906, a revolutionary
battleship, escalated this competition, prompting both nations to produce more of
these powerful vessels.
 Army Expansion: On land, the German Schlieffen Plan, designed to quickly defeat
France before turning to Russia, prompted France and Russia to increase their military
readiness and conscription levels. This militarization was not confined to the Triple
Entente; the Triple Alliance members also expanded their forces.
Interaction Between Nationalism and Armament
The interaction between militant nationalism and the armament race created a highly volatile
situation in Europe. Nationalistic fervor justified and propelled military buildup, while the
visibility of this buildup fueled nationalistic zeal and insecurity among neighbors. This cycle
of militarization and nationalism made peaceful resolutions to disputes increasingly unlikely
and conditioned the public and leaders to think of war as an acceptable, even inevitable,
solution to international problems.
Consequently, when the crisis triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
unfolded in 1914, Europe was a powder keg ready to explode. The extensive military
preparations and the pervasive nationalistic rhetoric meant that once the conflict began, it
rapidly expanded into a full-scale war involving multiple nations, each driven by a mix of
defensive stances and aggressive ambitions. This interplay of militant nationalism and the
armament race was thus crucial in both the lead-up to and the expansion of the First World
War.
Timeline of the First World War
In World War I, the two main alliances were the Central Powers and the Allied Powers. Each
side consisted of various nations with shared strategic, political, and economic interests:
Central Powers
Members: Primarily Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.
Common Interests:
1. Territorial Expansion: Both Germany and Austria-Hungary aimed to expand their
territories. Germany sought to establish itself as a dominant power in Europe, while
Austria-Hungary aimed to solidify its control over the Balkans.
2. Counteracting Russian Influence: Particularly for Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman
Empire, limiting Russian expansion and influence in the Balkans and the Middle East
was crucial.
3. Preservation of Empires: Both the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary were
concerned with preserving the integrity of their multi-ethnic empires against
nationalist movements within their borders.
Allied Powers
Members: Initially, the key countries included France, Russia, and the United Kingdom. Italy
joined in 1915, and the United States in 1917, among others. Common Interests:
1. Containment of Germany: The Allies were primarily concerned with countering
German expansionism, which threatened the balance of power in Europe.
2. Economic Interests: The United Kingdom and France were keen on maintaining their
overseas colonies and trade routes, which were threatened by the Central Powers'
ambitions.
3. Support for Nationalism: Particularly for France and the UK, supporting nationalist
movements in Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman territories aligned with weakening their
enemies and potentially gaining strategic allies.
These shared interests motivated the countries within each alliance to enter into and sustain
the conflict, despite the immense costs. The war was marked by a complex interplay of
national ambitions and fears, which dictated the strategies and alliances of the participating
nations.
The First World War, a global conflict that lasted from 1914 to 1918, involved most of the
world's great powers and was one of the deadliest conflicts in history. Here is a detailed
timeline of key events:
1914: Outbreak and Initial Engagements
 June 28: Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary is assassinated in Sarajevo.
This event triggers a series of diplomatic maneuvers known as the July Crisis.
 July 28: Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia, after Serbia rejects some of the
demands in the Austro-Hungarian ultimatum.
  August 1-4: Germany declares war on Russia and France, and invades Belgium,
leading the United Kingdom to declare war on Germany due to the violation of
Belgian neutrality—this formalizes the division into the Central and Allied Powers.
 August 23-30: Battle of Tannenberg—German forces decisively defeat Russian forces
in East Prussia, stalling the Russian advance.
1915: Stalemate and Widening of the War
 April 22: Second Battle of Ypres—Germany uses poison gas on a large scale for the
first time on the Western Front, marking a new phase in trench warfare.
 May 7: The sinking of the RMS Lusitania by a German submarine galvanizes public
opinion in neutral countries against Germany.
 September-October: The Allies launch the Gallipoli Campaign, aimed at securing a
sea route to Russia and knocking the Ottoman Empire out of the war, which
ultimately fails and results in heavy casualties.
1916: Major Battles
 February 21: The Battle of Verdun begins. It becomes one of the longest and most
devastating battles of the war, lasting until December.
 July 1: The Battle of the Somme starts with the largest artillery bombardment of the
war and the first use of tanks in September. The aim is to relieve pressure on French
forces at Verdun and weaken German forces, but results in massive casualties.
1917: Global Realignments and Russian Withdrawal
 April 6: The United States enters the war on the side of the Allies, providing fresh
troops and significant economic support.
 November 7: The Bolshevik Revolution leads to the signing of the Armistice of
Brest-Litovsk on December 15, with Russia withdrawing from the war. This shifts the
Eastern Front significantly.
1918: The War Concludes
 March 21: Germany launches the Spring Offensive in an attempt to break the Allied
lines before American troops can be fully deployed.
 July 18: The Second Battle of the Marne marks the last major German offensive of
the war, which fails, leading to a continuous Allied advance known as the Hundred
Days Offensive.
 September 26: The Meuse-Argonne Offensive begins as part of the final Allied push;
it involves 1.2 million American soldiers in one of the largest offensives in United
States military history.
 November 11: Germany signs the Armistice of Compiègne, effectively ending the
fighting.
This timeline reflects the progressive escalation and eventual de-escalation of the conflict,
illustrating the complex dynamics and profound impact of World War I on the 20th century
geopolitical landscape. Each event not only shaped the course of the war but also influenced
the subsequent political and social developments in Europe and beyond.
The conclusion of World War I saw several significant agreements and treaties that aimed to
reshape the political landscape of Europe and establish a new international order. These
agreements were primarily centered around the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, which
involved leaders from over 30 nations. Here are the major treaties signed at the end of World
War I:
Treaty of Versailles (June 28, 1919)
 Parties: Allied Powers and Germany
 Key Provisions:
 Germany was required to accept responsibility for causing the war along with
its allies, as stated in the "War Guilt" clause.
 Reparations were imposed on Germany to compensate the Allies for war
damages.
 German military capabilities were severely restricted, including limits on the
size of the army and navy, and prohibition of an air force.
 Germany lost territorial holdings in Europe and its colonies were redistributed
among the Allies.
Treaty of Saint-Germain (September 10, 1919)
 Parties: Allied Powers and Austria
 Key Provisions:
 Dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
 Recognition of the independence of Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Yugoslavia.
 Significant territorial losses for Austria, and military restrictions similar to
those imposed on Germany.
Treaty of Neuilly (November 27, 1919)
 Parties: Allied Powers and Bulgaria
 Key Provisions:
 Bulgaria ceded territory to Greece, Romania, and the newly formed
Yugoslavia.
 Military restrictions were imposed.
 Reparations were mandated similar to those imposed on Germany.
Treaty of Trianon (June 4, 1920)
  Parties: Allied Powers and Hungary
 Key Provisions:
 Hungary, as the successor state of Austria-Hungary, lost about two-thirds of its
territory to Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia, significantly affecting
its population and economic base.
 Military limitations and reparations were also part of the treaty.
Treaty of Sèvres (August 10, 1920) – later superseded by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923
 Parties: Allied Powers and Ottoman Empire
 Key Provisions (Sèvres):
 Dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire.
 Establishment of various nation-states and recognition of the Republic of
Turkey.
 Severe restrictions on Turkish sovereignty and military capabilities.
The Treaty of Lausanne rectified some of the perceived injustices of Sèvres, setting the
modern boundaries of Turkey and formally ending the hostilities between the Allied Powers
and Turkey.
These treaties collectively reshaped national borders, created new nations, and imposed
punitive measures on the defeated Central Powers. They aimed to prevent future conflicts but
also sowed the seeds of future discontent and upheaval, notably contributing to the conditions
leading to World War II.