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The Alpine Rif Belt (Morocco): A Case of Mountain Building in a

Subduction-Subduction-Transform Fault Triple Junction

Article in Pure and Applied Geophysics · January 2004

DOI: 10.1007/s00024-003-2460-7

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 Ó Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, 2004
Pure appl. geophys. 161 (2004) 000–000
0033 – 4553/04/000000 – 00 Pure and Applied Geophysics
DOI 10.1007/s00024-003-2460-7

The Alpine Rif Belt (Morocco): A Case of Mountain Building

in a Subduction-Subduction-Transform Fault Triple Junction
A. CHALOUAN1 and A. MICHARD2

Abstract — The Rif belt forms with the Betic Cordilleras an asymmetric arcuate mountain belt
(Gibraltar Arc) around the Alboran Sea, at the western tip of the Alpine orogen. The Gibraltar Arc
consists of an exotic terrane (Alboran Terrane) thrust over the African and Iberian margins. The Alboran
Terrane itself includes stacked nappes which originate from an easterly, Alboran-Kabylias-Peloritani-
Calabria (Alkapeca) continental domain, and displays Variscan low-grade and high-grade schists
(Ghomarides-Malaguides and Sebtides-Alpujarrides, respectively), shallow water Mesozoic sediments
(mainly in the Dorsale Calcaire passive margin units), and infracontinental peridotite slices (Beni Bousera,
Ronda). During the Late Cretaceous?-Eocene, the Alboran Terrane was likely located south of a
SE-dipping Alpine-Betic subduction (cf. Nevado-Filabride HP-LT metamorphism of central-eastern
Betics). An incipient collision against Iberia triggered back-thrust tectonics south of the deformed terrane
during the Late Eocene-Oligocene, and the onset of the NW-dipping Apenninic-Maghrebian subduction.
The early, HP-LT phase of the Sebtide-Alpujarride metamorphism could be hypothetically referred to the
Alpine-Betic subduction, or alternatively to the Apenninic-Maghrebian subduction, depending on the
interpretation of the geochronologic data set. Both subduction zones merged during the Early Miocene
west of the Alboran Terrane and formed a triple junction with the Azores-Gibraltar transform fault. A
westward roll back of the N-trending subduction segment was responsible for the Neogene rifting of the
internal Alboran Terrane, and for its coeval, oblique docking onto the African and Iberian margins.
Seismic evidence of active E-dipping subduction, and opposite paleomagnetic rotations in the Rif and Betic
limbs of the Gibraltar Arc support this structurally-based scenario.

Key words: Alpine belt, tectonics, orogenic arc, terrane, collage, subduction rollback, Western
Mediterranean, Morocco, Betic Cordilleras.

Introduction

The Moroccan Rif belt is the westernmost segment of the 2000-km-long

Maghrebide belt which fringes North Africa and Sicily south of the Mediterranean
Sea (Fig. 1). The Rif belt is also the southern limb of the Betic-Rif arcuate mountain
belt which seems to seal Africa to Iberia and almost closes the Alboran Sea to the

1
Département de Géologie, Faculté des Sciences, BP 1014, Rabat 10000, Maroc.
E-mail: [email protected]
2
Ecole Normale Supérieure, 24 rue Lhomond, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France.
E-mail: [email protected]

S B 0 1 2 4 6 0
Journal number Manuscript number B Dispatch: 21.10.2003
Author’s disk received 4
Journal: Pure and applied Geophysics
Used 4 Corrupted Mismatch
No. of pages: 31
Keyed
2 A. Chalouan and A. Michard Pure appl. geophys.,

Figure 1
The West Mediterranean domain: Sketch map with location of the Betic-Rif orogen. Empty arrows:
Present-day horizontal compression direction after BALLING and BANDA (1992) and BUFORN et al. (1995).
Azores-Gibraltar fault zone in the Gulf of Cadiz after MALDONADO et al. (1999). Ed: Edough massif; GB:
Gorringe Bank.

west. Whereas the Maghrebide belt continues into the Apennines through the
Calabrian Arc, the Betic Cordilleras continuation towards Corsica and the Alps is
conjectural, due to the Oligocene-Miocene opening of the Algerian-Provençal basin.
Hence, the Rif belt belongs to a puzzling orogenic bend which seems to close the
Mediterranean Alpine belt upon itself, and to conceal the eastern projection of the
Iberia-Africa plate boundary, i.e., the Azores-Gibraltar fault zone. Contradictory
models have been proposed for the Betic-Rif (Maghrebide) orogen, which was
depicted either as, i) a collisional orogen unrelated to any subduction zone
(KORNPROBST and VIELZEUF, 1984; PLATT and VISSERS, 1989; partially VISSERS
et al., 1995; TURNER et al., 1999; MONTEL et al., 2000); or, ii) a subduction-related
belt, with a NW-dipping subduction zone extending from Gibraltar to the Apennines
(BUFORN et al., 1995; ZECK, 1996; LONERGAN and WHITE, 1997; CALVERT et al.,
2000; CABY et al., 2001); or else, iii) an orogen involving two subduction zones, i.e.,,
the SE-dipping Alpine-Betic subduction and the NW-dipping Apenninic-Maghrebide
subduction, with a microcontinent in between (Andrieux et al., 1971; DURAND-
DELGA and FONTBOTÉ, 1980; REHAULT et al., 1984; TORRES-ROLDAN et al., 1986;
GUERRERA et al., 1993; DOGLIONI et al., 1998, 1999; FRIZON de LAMOTTE et al., 2000;
CHALOUAN et al., 2001; MICHARD et al., 2002). Likewise, MALDONADO et al. (1999)
Vol. 161, 2004 The Alpine Rif Belt (Morocco) 3

retain the occurrence of two opposite subductions beneath the Alboran domain, but
assume that the southern subduction (sensu lato) mainly concerns the delaminated,
lower African lithosphere. Indeed, the models ii) and iii) clearly consider the
correlations between the Alboran-Kabylias-Peloritani-Calabria metamorphic units
(Alkapeca; BOUILLIN et al., 1986), but only the two-subduction models completely
take into account the critical correlations with the Western Alps (MICHARD et al.,
1991, 2002; DOGLIONI et al., 1998, 1999).
In this study, we first summarize the structure and evolution of the Rif domain,
with emphasis on deep structure, metamorphism and geochronology. Then we infer a
tectonic history involving two successive subduction zones, i.e., the Alpine-Betic and
Apenninic-Maghrebide subductions zones. However, contrasting with our previous
publications (CHALOUAN et al., 2001; MICHARD et al., 2002) we infer that the Rif-
Betic metamorphism can be described through two alternative scenarios instead of a
single one, as long as more convincing dates are not obtained for the early, high-
pressure, low-temperature (HP-LT) parts of this metamorphism.

Geology and Geophysics

Shallow Structure and Stratigraphy

The Rif belt displays three major stratigraphic/structural domains (Fig. 2). The
External Zones (equivalent to the Algerian Tell units) consists of a fold-thrust belt
detached from the attenuated African crust along Upper Triassic evaporitic redbeds
(Fig. 3A). From SW to NE and bottom to top, three groups of stacked units are
shown, i.e., the Prerif, Mesorif and Intrarif units (SUTER, 1980). South of Al-
Hoceima (Alhucemas), the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous Intrarif metasediments
overlay the serpentinized lherzolites of the Beni Malek massif, interpreted as an
obducted serpentinite ridge from the tip of the African paleomargin (MICHARD et al.,
1992; ELAZZAB et al., 1997). Pre-orogenic sediments characterize the External Zones
up to the Lower-Middle Eocene, whereas varied turbiditic deposits develop there
from the Middle-Late Eocene onward (CHALOUAN et al., 2001, their Fig. 4). Note
that the External Rif sediments are about three times thicker than the corresponding
Sub-Betic sediments, which belong to another continental margin.
The Maghrebian Flysch Nappes overthrust the External Zones, except some
inliers that overlay the Internal Zones through Early Miocene olistostromes
(BOUILLIN et al., 1973; DURAND-DELGA, 1980). It is currently accepted that these
unrooted nappes originate from an oceanic/transitional crust-floored ‘‘Maghrebian
Trough’’ extending between Africa and the Internal Zone domain during the
Jurassic-Early Miocene times (WILDI, 1983; HOYEZ, 1989; DURAND-DELGA et al.,
2000). The Maghrebian Flyschs are known from Sicily up to the Gibraltar area, but
hardly extend in Spain east of Granada.
4 A. Chalouan and A. Michard Pure appl. geophys.,

Figure 2
Structural map of the Rif belt, west-central Betic Cordilleras, Alboran basin and Gulf of Cadiz after
CHALOUAN et al. (2001), MARTÍNEZ-MARTÍNEZ and AZAÑON (1997), COMAS et al (1999), and MALDONADO
et al. (1999), respectively. See Figure 1 for location. Tortonian synclines (External Rif) and Plio-
Quaternary basins in white. Shallow granitic basement in southwest Gharb basin (dashed area with
crosses) after RIMI et al. (1998). Kinematic directions after FRIZON DE LAMOTTE et al. (1991), and
MARTÍNEZ-MARTÍNEZ and AZAÑON (1997). A, B: Traces of cross-sections Figure 3; BB: Beni Bousera;
BM: Beni Malek; FF: Jebel Fahies fault; JF: Jebha fault; NF: Nekor fault; R: Ronda; Tems.: Temsamane.
Vol. 161, 2004 The Alpine Rif Belt (Morocco) 5

Figure 3
Structural profiles across the Rif orogen (location: Fig. 2). A: Transverse cross-section of the Rif belt and
SW Alboran basin; thickness of external sedimentary prism and underlying crust after FAVRE (1995);
Alboran basin after CHALOUAN et al. (1997) and TORNÉ et al. (2000); deep geometry of the African–Alboran
transition inferred from geology and intermediate-depth seismicity (SEBER et al., 1996). B: Longitudinal
crosssection of the Internal Zones. The occurrence of crystalline rocks benath the Beni Bousera peridotites is
hypothetic, and inferred from that of the Sebta or Monte Hacho gneisses at Ceuta (Sebta) and of the Ojen
crystalline rocks at the bottom of the Ronda ultramafics in Spain.

The Internal Zones, which the Rif belt shares with the Betic Cordilleras, consist of
three nappe complexes of continental origin. These nappes include, from SW to NE
and structurally from top to bottom (Figs. 2, 3), i) the stacked carbonate slabs of the
Dorsale Calcaire, with Upper Triassic-Liassic platform to passive margin deposits
(pelagic deposits as early as the Sinemurian in the external part of the platform),
followed upward by Jurassic-Late Cretaceous pelagic layers, and Priabonian-
Aquitanian clastics and olistostromes (WILDI et al., 1977; BENYAICH et al., 1986;
EL HATIMI et al., 1991; EL KADIRI et al., 1992); ii) four stacked Ghomaride ¼
Malaguide nappes, each one consisting of low-grade Paleozoic metasediments
unconformably overlain by Triassic redbeds, Liassic limestones, Paleocene-Eocene
calcarenites (CHALOUAN and MICHARD, 1990; MAATÉ, 1996), and eventually by post-
nappe late Oligocene-Miocene clastic deposits (FEINBERG et al., 1990) ; and iii) the
Sebtide ¼ Alpujarride nappes, affected by a low- to high-grade Alpine metamor-
phism (see below), and deformed by the late-metamorphic Beni Mezala and Beni
Bousera antiforms. The Sebtide nappes include from top to bottom the Federico
units (Permian-Triassic phyllites and quartzites, and Middle Triassic meta-carbon-
ates), the Filali unit (high-grade schists and gneisses), the Beni Bousera unit
(kinzigite/granulite slivers overlying 2-km-thick ultramafics), and lastly the Sebta
6 A. Chalouan and A. Michard Pure appl. geophys.,

Figure 4
Paleomagnetic rotations (mean site values) in the Betic-Rif arcuate mountain belt, after FEINBERG et al.
(1996), modified. The inferred approximate N-S strike of the pre-Early Miocene orogen is schematically
shown in the mid-Alboran area. This also restores the main ductile shear directions of the west Gibraltar
Arc in a rectilinear to smoothly arcuate N-S trend. References: 1: NAJID et al. (1981); 2: ELAZZAB and
FEINBERG (1994); 3: SADDIQI et al. (1995); 4: FEINBERG et al. (1996); 5–9: PLATZMAN (1992), PLATZMAN
et al. (1993), ALLERTON et al. (1994); 10: PLATZMAN et al. (2000), CALVO et al. (2001); 11, 12: CALVO et al.
(1997).

(Ceuta) orthogneiss unit (KORNPROBST, 1974; MICHARD et al., 1997). The Sebtides,
units strictly compare with the west Alpujarride nappes (Benarraba imbrications,
Jubrique schists, Ronda kinzigites and peridotites, and Ojen gneiss, respectively;
BALANYÁ et al., 1997). Similar rocks have been cored from the Alboran Sea basement
(COMAS et al., 1999).
The Rif Internal units, their Betic equivalents, and the intervening Alboran
basement constitute the Alboran Terrane, in the sense of CHALOUAN et al. (2001) and
MICHARD et al. (2002), thrust onto the African margin units (Rif External Zones), and
roughly symmetrically onto the Sub-Betic Iberian units of western Betics. In the central
and eastern Betics, however, large antiformal windows allow another complex, i.e., the
Nevado-Filabride nappes, to crop out beneath the Alpujarrides. The upper Nevado-
Filabride units (Mulhacén Complex) include both continental rocks (Paleozoic
orthogneisses and schists, Permian and Triassic metasediments; MARTÍNEZ-MARTÍNEZ
and AZAÑÓN, 1997) and serpentinites, gabbros and basalts of arguable oceanic (Puga
et al., 1999, 2002a,b) or transitional crust origin (GOMEZ-PUGNAIRE et al., 2000) partly
dated from the Late Jurassic (PUGA et al., 2002a,b). The Mulhacén Complex was
affected by an early Alpine HP-LT metamorphism. The underlying HT-LP Veleta
Vol. 161, 2004 The Alpine Rif Belt (Morocco) 7

Figure 5
Intermediate-depth seismicity (A, B) and interpretation of seismic tomography data (B) in the Gibraltar
Arc region. (A) after BUFORN et al. (1995, 1997), (B) after CALVERT et al. (2000), modified for the
interpretation of the Tell margin.

Complex only consists of polymetamorphic Paleozoic schists probably originating

from distal parts of the Iberian margin (ANDRIEUX et al., 1989).

Kinematics
Active tectonics is characterized in the Alboran area by NNW-trending
horizontal compression direction (Fig. 1), as recorded by shallow seismicity and
fault plane solutions (BALLING and BANDA, 1992; BUFORN et al., 1995; MEGHRAOUI
et al., 1996). The effect of the Iberia-Africa convergence is also recorded in Miocene-
Pleistocene major strike-slip faults onland and in the Alboran basin (LEBLANC and
OLIVIER, 1984; CAMPOS et al., 1992; MALDONADO et al., 1992; MAUFFRET et al., 1992)
such as the Nekor (Fig. 2) and Palomares faults (Fig. 4). The SW-trending sinistral
fault system seems to continue southwestward in the Middle-Atlas shear zone
(JACOBSHAGEN, 1992; BIERMANN, 1995; ELAZZAB and EL WARTITI, 1998; BERNINI et
al., 2000; ANDEWEG and CLOETINGH, 2001). The structure of the Rif foreland was
deeply marked by the compressional reactivation of ancient NE- and E-trending
crustal faults (PIQUÉ et al., 1987, 1998; ZOUHRI et al., 2001). However, tectonic
displacements in the Betic-Rif belt have been considerably more complicated than
expected if only caused by the Iberia-Africa convergence.
Paleogene to Early Miocene displacements are seldom recorded in the metamor-
phic units of the Gibraltar Arc (see Metamorphic evolution section). In contrast, the
Miocene transport directions were clearly established on structural criteria (Fig. 2).
8 A. Chalouan and A. Michard Pure appl. geophys.,

The nappe transport direction changes from SSE-ward, east of the NE-trending
Nekor-Temsamane sinistral shear zone, to SW-ward, west of the latter zone (FRIZON
DE LAMOTTE, 1987; FRIZON de LAMOTTE et al., 1991), and finally to WSW-ward in
the westernmost External Rif (Morley, 1987). By contrast, top-to-NE displacement
of extensional units characterizes the Internal Zones (e.g., Zaouia fault, Fig. 6
hereafter), as well as the southwest Alboran basin (Chalouan et al., 1997). In the
Betic External Zones, WNW to NW thrust transport directions prevail from the
Gibraltar area to the easternmost part of the belt (FRIZON de LAMOTTE et al., 1991),
except along the External-Internal boundary zone east of Granada where conspic-
uous backthrust structures occur (ALLERTON et al., 1994). In central Betics, the
Alpujarride-Malaguide nappe stack was diplaced SW-ward on top of the Nevado-
Filabrides in ductile to brittle extensional conditions (MARTÍNEZ-MARTÍNEZ and
AZAÑÓN, 1997), whereas in western Betics, the thrust contact at the bottom of the
Alpujarride-Malaguide was inverted as a SE-dipping low-angle extensional fault
(GARCÍA-DUEÑAS et al., 1992; CRESPO-BLANC and CAMPOS, 2001).

Figure 6
Metamorphic structure of the Sebtide nappes, after BOUYBAOUENE (1993), SADDIQI (1995) and MICHARD et
al. (1997). Arrows: HT-LP stretching lineations. The Federico units mainly consist of Permian metapelites,
Triassic quartzites and carbonates.
Vol. 161, 2004 The Alpine Rif Belt (Morocco) 9

Paleomagnetic studies also yielded kinematic information (Fig. 4). Rotations of

the Late Jurassic and Late Cretaceous limestones are anticlockwise (ACW) in the Rif
Dorsale units, except in the Tetouan area (PLATZMAN et al., 1993), and clockwise in
the Betic Dorsale and Penibetic (Internal Sub-Betic) Zones (PLATZMAN, 1992;
ALLERTON et al., 1994; VILLALAÍN et al., 1994). Similar opposite rotations are
observed in the Beni Bousera (SADDIQI et al., 1995) and Ronda peridotites and
associated granite dykes, allowing FEINBERG et al. (1996) to date the rotations from
the c. 20 Ma-old cooling of these rocks. In the Beni Malek ultramafics and overlying
metasediments of eastern Intrarif, ELAZZAB and FEINBERG (1994) observed a high-
temperature component with a 14° ACW rotation, and an unrotated lower-T
component. These HT and LT components can be interpreted as related to the
superimposed regional metamorphic events, i.e., a greenschist-facies and very-low
grade metamorphic events, dated at 28 Ma and 7–8 Ma, respectively (MONIÉ et al.,
1984). If so, the Beni Malek data suggest a moderate ACW rotation of eastern
Intrarif between 28–7 Ma. Indeed, rotations were over by the time (c.18–4 Ma) when
the Trans-Alboran volcanism (HERNANDEZ et al., 1987) occurred, at least in the
central and eastern parts of the orogen (NAJID et al., 1981; CALVO et al., 1997). The
Early Miocene rotation pattern, complemented by the clockwise rotations observed
in the Malaga extensional allochthon (PLATZMAN et al., 2000; CALVO et al., 2001),
suggests that prior to c. 21 Ma, the future Gibraltar Arc was a roughly N-trending
orogenic segment (PLATZMAN, 1992). This major conclusion is strongly supported by
the change in orientation of the ductile kinematic indicators on top of the Beni
Bousera and Ronda ultramafics from top-to-the NW to top-to-the NE, respectively
(Fig. 4, and Fig. 6 hereafter).

Deep Structure
Gravimetric modeling suggests that, from the Rif foreland (Moroccan Meseta
and Atlas domain) to the Internal Zones (Fig. 3), the Moho depth weakly decreases
from c. 30 km to c. 27 km (flexural rebond), then increases northward up to c. 35 km
(FAVRE, 1995). Seismic refraction data and gravity modeling show that the Alboran
Sea is underlain by a thinned continental crust, about 15–20 km thick in the central
basin (HATZFELD et al., 1978; BANDA et al., 1993; WATTS et al., 1993; GALINDO-
ZALDIVAR et al., 1998). The crust thickens again northward beneath the Betics, up to
c. 38 km under the Sierra Nevada, before stabilizing around 35 km in the Betic
foreland (BANDA et al., 1993; GALINDO-ZALDIVAR et al., 1997). The Moho deepens to
30–32 km beneath the Gibraltar Strait (TORNÉ et al., 2000). The lithospheric mantle
thickness also shows strong lateral variations in the Alboran domain. Tomography
studies imaged a pronounced low-velocity anomaly beneath the Alboran Sea
(BLANCO and SPAKMAN, 1993; CALVERT et al., 2000). According to TORNÉ et al.
(2000), 3-D gravity modeling suggests that the base of the lithosphere shallows from
140–120 km depth beneath the mountainous arc and the Gibraltar Strait, to c. 45 km
10 A. Chalouan and A. Michard Pure appl. geophys.,

depth in the Alboran Sea, which is consistent with heat flow data (POLYACK et al.,
1996; FERNÀNDEZ et al., 1998). A travel-time tomography profile from western Betics
to eastern Tell (Fig. 5) imaged a high-velocity body dipping SE-ward from
lithospheric depths to depths of c. 350 km beneath the Alboran low-velocity region,
and a detached body at c. 600 km near a cluster of deep earthquakes (CALVERT et al.,
2000). The latter cluster was repeatedly interpreted as related to a relic of subducted
slab (UDÍAS et al., 1976; BLANCO and SPAKMAN, 1993; ZECK, 1996; MALDONADO et
al., 1999). The N-S line of intermediate-depth earthquakes extending from the west
Betics to the Rif coast (BUFORN et al., 1995, 1997) coincides with the W-E transition
from high- to low-velocities. Gravity modeling and seismic attenuation allowed
MORALES et al. (1999) to display the continental nature of the seismic low-velocity
zone, therefore interpreted as the result of active subduction of the Iberian crust.
Likewise, ANDEWEG and CLOETINGH (2001) interpret the low heat flow values
(40 mWm)2) east of the Gibraltar Strait, and the strong heat flow gradient between
the latter area and the western Alboran basin (110 mWm)2), as the dynamic effects
of active underthrusting of the Iberian crust under the Alboran crust.

Petrology and Geochronology

Metamorphic Evolution
The African margin units only display low-grade greenschist facies recrystalliza-
tion which affected exclusively the eastern and most internal parts of the External
Zones (FRIZON DE LAMOTTE, 1985). This event was dated at 28 Ma (MONIÉ et al.,
1984), consistent with the Upper Oligocene unconformity observed in the area
(FAVRE, 1992). A younger (7–8 Ma), very low-grade event also occurred in the eastern
Rif, prior to the Tortonian post-nappe sedimentation. In contrast, the Alboran
Terrane units display widespread, and often high-grade Alpine metamorphic imprints.
These imprints are virtually lacking in the Dorsale Calcaire and Ghomaride
(Malaguide) nappes, except at the very bottom of the latter nappes, where
greenschist-facies recrystallizations, dated at c. 25 Ma (MONTIGNY et al., 2003),
overprinted the Hercynian greenschist assemblages (CHALOUAN and MICHARD, 1990).
In fact, Alpine metamorphism essentially characterizes the Sebtides (Alpujar-
rides) units. In the Permian-Triassic metapelites of the Beni-Mezala antiform
(Fig. 6A), the peak P-T conditions increase downward from greenschist (Tizgarine
unit) to HP-greenschist (Boquete Anjera), to blueschist (upper Beni Mezala), and
eventually to eclogite-facies conditions in the lower Beni Mezala unit (BOUYBAOU-
ENE, 1993; GOFFÉ et al., 1996; MICHARD et al., 1997; VIDAL et al., 1999). In the latter
unit, the retrograde P-T path (Fig. 7A) reveals a roughly isothermal unloading from
1.5–1.8 GPa down to c. 0.6 GPa, followed by unloading under decreasing T (AGARD
et al., 1999). The southern Federico units of the Beni Bousera antiform (Fig. 6B) do
Vol. 161, 2004 The Alpine Rif Belt (Morocco) 11

P (GPa)

2.0 - Lower Beni-Mezala Beni-Bousera

unit (BM 1) and Filali crustal units

1.5 - I
II II
1.0 -
44(?)-27 Ma III
III
0.5 - 27-21 Ma 22-19 Ma
IV
18-16 Ma
IV

-
-

-
-

-
200 400 600 400 600 800
T (˚C)

Figure 7
P-T path evolution of the main Sebtide units, estimated by the calculation of phase equilibria in the
observed mineralogical assemblages, after BOUYBAOUENE (1993), GOFFÉ et al. (1996), VIDAL et al. (1999),
AGARD et al. (1999), with tentative dating of the tectonic-metamorphic phases after MONTIGNY et al.
(2003). I: burial stage; II: isothermal unloading; III: HT-LP contraction; IV: syn-rift exhumation tectonics.

not show HP-LT relic assemblages. The lowermost, Souk-el-Had unit seemingly
suffered a metamorphic climax under lower P/T gradient than its northern equivalent
(BM1 unit), with peak conditions close to 600 °C, 1.2 GPa, and late cordierite and
andalusite growth under lower P. In the underlying Filali schists and gneisses, T
calculations give conditions ranging from 530 °C at the top to 780 °C at the bottom,
at a maximum pressure of c. 0.7 GPa before the late stage of andalusite growth
(KORNPROBST, 1974; EL MAZ and GUIRAUD, 2001). In the Beni Bousera unit, the
kinzigite slivers (garnet-sillimanite ± kyanite-graphite metapelites) on top of the
ultramafics show peak P-T conditions in the range 800–850 °C, 0.9–1.3 GPa, locally
760–820 °C, > 1.6 GPa (Ichendirene HP-granulite; BOUYBAOUENE et al., 1998).
In the Beni Mezala units, white micaceous assemblages from retrogressed HP-LT
Permian metapelites yielded K/Ar ages comprised between 19.4 ± 1.2 Ma and
27.4 ± 0.6 Ma, and a green amphibole yielded an age of 44.7 ± 1.6 Ma (MONTIGNY
et al., 2003). 39Ar/40Ar measurement on the micas with the older age yielded high-T
degassing steps between 38–40 Ma. The latter date could either record the occurrence
of excess Ar, or represent a minimum age for the blueschist/eclogite-facies
metamorphism which preceded the isothermal unloading stage. In contrast, the
onset of cooling seems confidently dated at c. 27 Ma (Fig. 7A). In the Beni Bousera
antiform, biotites from both the Filali schists and kinzigites reveal a cluster of K/Ar
ages around 22 ± 2 Ma (MONTIGNY et al., 2003), in agreement with the multimethod
age determinations previously performed on various metamorphics, pyroxenites and
anatectic leucogranites from the Beni-Bousera antiform and Spanish equivalents (e.g.,
REISBERG et al., 1989; MONIÉ et al., 1991, 1994; ZECK et al., 1992; KUMAR et al., 1996;
BLICHERT-TOFT et al., 1999; PLATT and WHITEHOUSE, 1999; SÁNCHEZ-RODRIGUEZ
and GEBAUER, 2000). Although the presence of Hercynian high-grade crustal rocks in
12 A. Chalouan and A. Michard Pure appl. geophys.,

the Sebtide-Alpujarride nappes can be contended (MICHARD et al., 1997; BOUYBAO-

UENE et al., 1998; SÁNCHEZ-RODRIGUEZ and GEBAUER, 2000; MONTEL et al., 2000),
the multimethod age cluster around 22 ± 2 Ma can be viewed as reflecting a rapid
cooling of the deep Sebtide-Alpujarride units following an Alpine HT-LP climax of
metamorphism close to 750–800 °C, 1.0 GPa (Fig. 7B).
In both the pre-Permian and Mesozoic rocks, the main foliation and the NNE- to
NW-trending stretching lineation (Fig. 6) developed contemporaneously with the
retromorphic minerals, and are associated with dominant top-to-the-N kinematic
indicators. These structures are overprinted by crenulation folds trending parallel
to the local antiform axis, i.e., roughly parallel to the stretching lineation (SADDIQI
et al., 1988; ZAGHLOUL, 1994; MICHARD et al., 1997). These structurally recorded
tectonic-metamorphic phases are labelled II and III in Figure 7, after BALANYÁ et al.
(1997). Phase I corresponds to the subduction event responsible for the HP-LT
conditions observed in the Beni Mezala and in various Alpujarride units (GOFFÉ
et al., 1989; TUBÍA and GIL IBARGUCHI, 1991; BOUYBAOUENE, 1993; AZAÑÓN, 1994).
Phase IV refers to the extensional tectonics which initiated under HT-LP conditions
(emplacement of anatectic dykes), and then operated under decreasing T in brittle
conditions (e.g., Zaouia low-angle normal fault, Fig. 6B).

Late-orogenic Magmatism
Late-orogenic, calc-alkaline magmatism is widespread in the entire Alboran
region (‘‘Trans-Alboran province’’, partly shown in Fig. 2; HERNANDEZ et al., 1987).
The earliest occurrences are concentrated in the Malaga area, where basaltic-
andesitic dyke swarm with arc-tholeite affinities yielded K/Ar ages of 23–20 Ma
(TORRES-ROLDAN et al., 1986), and 40Ar/39Ar ages of 30–18 Ma (TURNER et al.,
1999). The Alboran Island andesites yielded K/Ar ages of 18–7 Ma (APARICIO et al.,
1991), but most of the Trans-Alboran calc-alkaline volcanism (andesites, shoshonitic
trachy-andesites, rhyolites of eastern Betics, Alboran basin and eastern Rif) took
place during the Middle-Late Miocene (HERNANDEZ et al., 1987; MAURY et al.,
2000). According to TURNER et al. (1999), these volcanics could derive from
decompression melting of asthenosphere, although alternative interpretations,
involving interaction between subducting lithosphere, asthenospheric mantle and
upper plate continental crust are advocated by LONERGAN and WHITE (1997),
CARMINATI et al. (1998), ZECK and WHITEHOUSE (1999), and MAURY et al. (2000).
Volcanic outpours still occurred in the eastern Rif and neighbouring Atlas
foreland from the end of Messinian to Early Quaternary. This post-orogenic
volcanism mainly consists of undersaturated alkalic basalts. According to PIQUÉ
et al. (1998), transition from calc-alkaline to alkaline magmatism might be related to
separation of the ‘‘Central Maghreb indenter’’ from the Moroccan Meseta through
NE-trending sinistral shear zones (e.g., Middle Atlas shear zone; ELAZZAB and EL
WARTITI, 1998; BERNINI et al., 2000).
Vol. 161, 2004 The Alpine Rif Belt (Morocco) 13

Mountain-building Process

Pre-orogenic Setting
During the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous, i.e., during the climax of the Neo-
Tethys opening (SAVOSTIN et al., 1986), the Alboran Terrane is the western part of an
Alkapeka block (Fig. 8A), bounded to be located hundreds of kilometres east of its
present-day position as, i) the Triassic-Liassic sequences of the Ghomaride-
Malaguide and Dorsale nappes strongly contrast with that of Morocco and southern

Figure 8
The Betic-Rif mountain building : broad paleogeographic and tectonic evolution in map view.
Positions and displacements (empty arrows) of Africa, Iberia and Adria versus Europe according to
SAVOSTIN et al. (1986), ROEST and SRIVASTAMA (1991), DERCOURT et al. (1993). Western Alps after
FROITZHEIM et al. (1996) and STAMPFLI et al. (1998). Miocene setting (D) after FACCENNA et al. (1997) and
BOUILLIN et al. (1998). AA: Austroalpine; C: Corsica; Iv.: Ivrea zone; M: Marseilles; SA: South-Alpine;
S-M: Sesia-Margna; Tusc: Tuscany; V: Valencia; Z: Zürich.
14 A. Chalouan and A. Michard Pure appl. geophys.,

Iberia, and compare with that of southern Apulia, Tuscany and Austroalpine areas
(BOUILLIN et al., 1986; MICHARD et al., 1991), and ii) the Alkapeca Variscan
evolution is similar to that of Eastern Morocco and Tuscany, rather than of southern
Sardinia (CHALOUAN and MICHARD, 1990; MICHARD et al., 2002). In line with
ANDRIEUX et al. (1989) and GUERRERA et al. (1993), we contend that the Alboran/
Alkapeca block was surrounded by two Neo-Tethyan arms, namely the Maghrebide-
Ligurian ocean to the SE, and the Betic-Alpine one to the NW. Then, Alkapeca
should be a southern equivalent of the Sesia block, drifted away from the Apulian
lower plate of the Tethyan rift (FROITZHEIM et al., 1996; MANATSCHAL and
BERNOULLI, 1999). Such an origin is consistent with the occurrence of Variscan
granulites and peridotites in the Sesia/Ivrea zones and Alkapeca blocks (Beni
Bousera, Ronda and their Kabylian equivalents; REUBER et al., 1982; BOUYBAOUENE
et al., 1998), while they are lacking in the Briançonnais and related Alpine units
(MICHARD et al., 1993). U-Pb high-resolution datings of zircon at 183–131 Ma in the
Ronda ultramafics point to their early exhumation being related to the Pangea break-
up (SÁNCHEZ RODRIGUEZ and GEBAUER, 2000), coeval with the Ivrea ultramafic
uplift (HANDY et al., 1999).
At that time, the future Ghomaride-Malaguide and Dorsale nappes can be
restored at the center and southern margin of the Alboran/Alkapeca block,
respectively—a setting which is preserved up to the Eocene (Fig. 9A, left). This is
supported by stratigraphic evidence of continuity from the Maghrebian Flysch
Trough to the Dorsale Calcaire passive margin (cf. occurrence of ‘‘Predorsalian’’
transitional units; DURAND-DELGA and OLIVIER, 1988), to the Ghomaride-Mala-
guide platform (EL KADIRI et al., 1992; MAATÉ, 1996; OLIVIER et al., 1996).
Accordingly, the Sebtide-Alpujarride units would have been located at the northern
margin of the continental block (DURAND-DELGA and OLIVIER, 1998; MICHARD
et al., 1992, 2002; CHALOUAN et al., 2001). However, following WILDI et al. (1977),
one can assume as an alternative hypothesis, consistent the stratigraphic data (see
above), that the Sebtide-Alpujarride rocks formed the basement of the unrooted
Dorsale nappes (Fig. 9A, right).

Alpine-Betic Subduction
From the onset of the Africa-Europe convergence (80 Ma) to the Middle Eocene,
Iberia and Africa are brought together by c. 300 km (Fig. 8B). The North-African
margin, Maghrebian Flysch Trough, and southern-central Alboran Terrane (Dor-
sale, Ghomarides-Malaguides) remain virtually undisturbed (Fig. 9A), except along
some (sinistral) strike-slip faults related to the terrane drift along North Africa, and
evidenced in the Dorsale and African margin units (RAOULT, 1974; WILDI et al.,
1977; KUHNT and OBERT, 1991). A branch of this transform system could have been
located between the southern (Massylian) and northern (Mauretanian) subbasins
which display deep water Infra-Numidian clays and shallow water Microcodium
Vol. 161, 2004 The Alpine Rif Belt (Morocco) 15

Figure 9
The Betic-Rif mountain building: Two alternative scenarios, depending on the age (still poorly
constrained) of the HP-LT metamorphic event in the Sebtides-Alpujarrides. Location of the sketch
cross-sections: Figure 8.

limestones and Nummulitic calcarenites during the Paleogene, respectively. In

contrast, the Mulhacén oceanic/transitional crust domain is seemingly involved at
that time in a SE-dipping subduction zone. This hypothesis relies on, i) the
occurrence of Alpine blueschist- and eclogite-facies rocks in this nappe complex; ii)
the paleontologic constraints which bound this HP-LT metamorphism to be younger
than the early Late Cretaceous post-ophiolitic calcschists (TENDERO et al., 1993),
older than the poorly dated (Eocene?) Soportújar Formation which reworks the
high-grade Mulhacén rocks before being affected by a lower-grade tectonic-
metamorphic event (PUGA et al., 1996), and significantly older than the Late
Oligocene-Early Miocene deposits that covered the Alpujarrides nappes after their
emplacement onto the Nevado-Filabrides (DURAND-DELGA et al., 1993; LONERGAN
and MANGE-RADETZKY, 1994); iii) 39Ar/40Ar dates clustering between 48–36 Ma in
the Mulhacén Complex (MONIÉ et al., 1991; DE JONG et al., 1992; NIETO et al., 1997;
PUGA et al., 2002a), with additional Sm/Nd ages of 91 ± 21 Ma and 62 ± 11 Ma
(NIETO et al., 1997), and a 51.6 ± 1.3 Ma phengite 39Ar/40Ar age from the
underlying Veleta Complex (PUGA et al., 2002a). SHRIMP zircon dates at about
15 Ma from Mulhacén pyroxenites were interpreted as closely reflecting the age of
16 A. Chalouan and A. Michard Pure appl. geophys.,

the HP-LT event (LÓPEZ SÁNCHEZ-VIZCAÍINO et al., 2001), but alternatively can
reflect the dramatic HT extensional event which affected the Alboran area during the
Miocene (see below). Then we contend that the SE-dipping, Late Cretaceous-
Paleogene subduction of Western Alps (SCHMID et al., 1996; MICHARD et al., 1996;
STAMPFLI et al., 1998) and Corsica (MALAVIEILLE et al., 1998; BRUNET et al., 2000)
should have extended southwestward along the northern branch of the Alpine ocean
up to the Betic transect. Note that Early-Late Cretaceous synmetamorphic shear
zones are described in Great Kabylia (SAADALLAH and CABY, 1996; CHEILLETZ et al.,
1999).
The fate of the Sebtide-Alpujarride rocks during the same time interval depends
on their initial location. If they should have been located north of the Alboran
Terrane, they might be involved in the Alpine-Betic subduction zone (Fig. 9A, left).
Alternatively, provided they were located south of the Alboran Terrane, they would
escape any deformation and metamorphism (Fig. 9A, right). Indeed, the age of the
Sebtide-Alpujarride HP-LT event is quite poorly known yet, due to the strong HT-
LP overprint at c. 22 Ma (see Metamorphic evolution). Although scarce K/Ar and
39
Ar/40Ar dates at 38-44 Ma were obtained in the Beni Mezala, the older, and most
convincing dates are close to 27 Ma in the Sebtides (MONTIGNY et al., 2003), and 25
Ma in the Alpujarrides (MONIÉ et al., 1991).

Apenninic-Maghrebide Subduction
During the Late Eocene-Oligocene, most of the Alboran Terrane (Ghomaride-
Malaguide domain) is emerged, with rare conglomeratic formations (Fig. 9B).
Clastic sediments invade the Dorsale margin and neighbouring Mauretanian basin
(Beni Ider Flysch), i.e., the northern part of the Maghrebian Trough, while the infra-
Numidian clays characterizes the southern part of the same trough. In the African
margin itself, transpressional synmetamorphic deformation occurs in the eastern
Intrarif (FRIZON DE LAMOTTE, 1985), south-verging thrusts affect the eastern Mesorif
(FAVRE, 1992), and sandy sediments accumulate in Prerif depocenters (BENYAICH,
1991; MORLEY, 1992; CHALOUAN et al., 2001). This seemingly testifies to the onset of
backthrust tectonics in response to the Betic subduction slow-down as more and
more Iberian crust is involved in the subduction zone. A similar, and coeval back-
thrust event occurs in the Western Alps (PIANA and POLINO, 1995; SCHMID et al.,
1996). Along strike in the Apennine transect (Fig. 8C), the Eocene-Oligocene
backthrust zone changes to a west-dipping subduction zone, due to the occurrence of
oceanic crust at the leading edge of the Adria plate (DOGLIONI et al., 1998). As a
similar tectonic setting prevails all along the African plate leading edge, we might
admit with DOGLIONI et al. (1998) and others (GUERRERA et al., 1993; ZECK, 1996;
LONERGAN and WHITE, 1997; FRIZON DE LAMOTTE et al., 2000) that the Apenninic
subduction continues southwestward into a Maghrebian subduction up to the
Alboran area.
Vol. 161, 2004 The Alpine Rif Belt (Morocco) 17

In the latter area, the role of the Maghrebian subduction can be envisioned in two
alternative ways, according to the age which is assumed for the Sebtide-Alpujarride
HP-LT event. Should we retain an Eocene age, then the signature of the Oligocene
subduction is essentially the closure of the Maghrebian Trough and building of a SE-
vergent orogenic wedge (Fig. 9B, left). Conversely, if we retain an Oligocene age for
the Sebtide-Alpujarride metamorphism, then we can assume that it occurred within
the Maghrebian subduction zone itself (Fig. 9B, right). Exhumation of the HP-LT
rocks began shortly after during the Paleogene in synorogenic conditions as in many
other Mediterranean Alpine belts (AVIGAD et al., 1997; BALANYÁ et al., 1997;
AZAÑÓN and CRESPO BLANC, 2000; CHALOUAN et al., 2001).
During the late Oligocene-Miocene, the SE-ward retreat (rollback mechanism)
and progressive curvature of the subduction zone (Fig. 8D) triggered the boudinage
of the backarc domain, the drift of Corsica, Sardinia and Balearic Islands away from
Iberia, and the fragmentation of the Alkapeca orogenic prism, with the Alboran
Terrane drifting towards eastern Morocco (GUEGUEN et al., 1997; LONERGAN and
White, 1997; MALDONADO et al., 1999; VERGÉS and SÀBAT, 1999; FRIZON DE
LAMOTTE et al., 2000). Coarse Aquitanian turbidites (Numidian flysch; Hoyez,
1989) record this stage in the Maghrebian Trough before it closes at c. 19 Ma. Next,
from the Early Miocene to the mid-Tortonian, docking of the Alboran Terrane onto
the African margin developed, with a growing accretionary prism at the bottom of
the exotic units, formed by unrooted Dorsale slivers, detached Maghrebian flyschs,
and more and more sediments and low-grade meta-sediments from the continental
margin (Fig. 9C). This formed a ‘‘Proto-Rif belt’’, the foredeep of which was the still
undeformed Prerif domain. Flexural bending of the African lithosphere in front of
the Proto-Rif prism resulted in the Langhian-Serravallian onlap over the Mesozoic
cover of the Atlas foreland (Rides Prérifaines, Figs. 2, 3; ZIZI, 1996). The
Maghrebian subduction progressively adopt a N-directed trend at its western end
(Figs. 8C,D), being pinned there to the tip of the Eocene-Oligocene orogen and to
the Tangiers crustal salient, a major structure of the African margin clearly shown on
gravimetric maps, and related to the late Hercynian-Atlasian fault network
(MENVIELLE and LE MOUËL, 1985; FAVRE, 1995). Then, the Maghrebian subduction
zone was likely able to merge with the Alpine-Betic one, giving birth to the strong
curvature of the Betic-Rif orocline. The occurrence of thinned continental crust
(Iberian and African margins) west of the subduction zone favoured the westward
thrusting of the upper plate units, as documented in the Gulf of Cadiz by
MALDONADO et al. (1999). The oblique convergence of the Alboran Terrane with
respect to Africa is recorded by the sinistral Nekor and Jebha faults in the SE Rif,
and dextral Jebel Fahies fault N of Ceuta, which operated as lateral ramps of the
SW-moving tectonic prism (LEBLANC and OLIVIER, 1984). The Jebha fault is
coincident with, and was likely guided by a transition zone from normal to thinned
crust in the Tangiers salient of the African margin (OLIVIER, 1981–1982; MORLEY,
1987).
18 A. Chalouan and A. Michard Pure appl. geophys.,

Alboran Rifting and Coeval Contraction

In the backarc domain, the internal parts of the Alboran orogen collapsed
through a dramatic rifting process, dated from the late Oligocene-Middle Miocene
(Figs. 8D, 9C; GARCÍA-DUEÑAS et al., 1992; MALDONADO et al., 1992; WATTS et al.,
1993; CHALOUAN et al., 1997, 2001; COMAS et al., 1999). The oldest unconformable
‘‘post-nappe’’ deposits over the Ghomaride units are late Oligocene-Aquitanian in
age (FEINBERG et al., 1996; Chalouan et al., 1995), whereas those over the
Alpujarrides, or including HP-LT mineral clasts are dated from the latest
Aquitanian-Burdigalian (DURAND-DELGA et al., 1993; LONERGAN and MANGE-
RAJETSKY, 1994; EL KADIRI et al., 2001; PUGLISI et al., 2001). These stratigraphic
data are consistent with the cooling ages of the Sebtide-Alpujarride rocks being
concentrated around 22 ± 2 Ma (MONTIGNY et al., 2003). The low-angle normal
fault on top of the Filali-Beni Bousera units (Zaouia fault, Fig. 6B) is also dated at c.
25–20 Ma. At the onset of the Alboran Sea extensional event, anatectic melts form at
depth (SÁNCHEZ-GÓMEZ et al., 1995; SÁNCHEZ-RODRIGUEZ and GEBAUER, 2000),
then the Trans-Alboran calc-alkaline volcanism develops, indicative of interaction
between subducting lithosphere, asthenospheric mantle and upper plate continental
crust (LONERGAN and WHITE, 1997; CARMINATI et al., 1998; ZECK and WHITEHOUSE,
1999; MAURY et al., 2000). During the Middle Miocene, the Numidian units at the
crest of the accretionary prism are submitted to erosion (DIDON and FEINBERG,
1979), and allowed to detach and slide inward on the Alboran basin slope (Jbel
Zemzem klippe, Fig. 2). Such Maghrebian Flysch inliers are widespread in Algeria,
associated with olistostromes (BOUILLIN et al., 1973; DURAND-DELGA, 1980).
The late Miocene-Pliocene events poorly change the Rif-Betic structure. During
the early-middle Tortonian, contraction goes on in the Rif orogenic prism, and
causes the External Rif nappe stacking and folding (locally associated with very-low-
grade metamorphism of the Early-Middle Miocene sediments at c. 7–8 Ma; MONIÉ
et al., 1984), the detachment of the Prerif cover in the Triassic evaporite level, and the
synsedimentary thrusting of the detached Prerif on top of the Gharb foredeep series
(SEPTFONTAINE, 1983; WERNLI, 1987). The so-called ‘‘olistostrome front’’ of the
Prerif nappe, i.e., the front of the Miocene-Pliocene imbrications (LITTO et al., 2001)
can be connected with that of the Sub-Betic - Guadalquivir basin area (FLINCH et al.,
1996; FERNÀNDEZ et al., 1998) through the submarine structures of the Gulf of Cadiz
(Fig. 2) described by MALONADO et al. (1999). Strike-slip and reverse fault activity
and folding occur in the Alboran basin (Alboran Ridge, Fig. 2; MALDONADO et al.,
1992; CHALOUAN et al., 1997). In contrast, during the late Tortonian-early Pliocene
interval, extensional faulting characterizes the External Rif (South-Rifian Seaway),
likely due to the superimposed effects of the accretionary prism collapse, and African
crust flexural bending (MOREL, 1989; FLINCH, 1996; SAMAKA et al., 1997).
Finally, during the late Pliocene-Pleistocene, the External Rif is again submitted
to contractional tectonics, resulting in the Central Rif ‘‘post-nappe synclines,’’ and
Vol. 161, 2004 The Alpine Rif Belt (Morocco) 19

reverse faults at the Prerif-foredeep boundary (e.g., Rides Prérifaines) (FAUGÈRES,

1978; AHMAMOU and CHALOUAN, 1988; ZIZI, 1996; MEDINA, 1995; LITTO et al., 2001).
This contraction event is shown all around the Gibraltar Arc (WEIJERMARS et al., 1985;
MOREL, 1989) with a roughly radiating compressional axis, which discards the
hypothesis that it could only result from the ongoing Africa-Iberia convergence, and
supports the role of arcuation of a retreating slab in the Alboran area.

Discussion and Conclusion

Our ‘‘two-subduction scenario,’’ wether in its early version (CHALOUAN et al.,

2001; Fig. 9, left) or in our new working hypothesis (Fig. 9, right) conflicts on critical
points with some previous models.

Peridotite Emplacement
Based on petrologic and (mostly) geochronological arguments, the Beni Bousera-
Ronda ultramafic massifs have been, and still are interpreted as hot asthenospheric
diapirs emplaced during the Neogene and responsible for the Alpujarride-Sebtide
metamorphism (LOOMIS, 1975; PLATT and VISSERS, 1989; BLICHERT-TOFT et al.,
1999; MONTEL et al., 2000). As admitted by VISSERS et al. (1995), this is inadequate to
account for the occurrence of Alpine HP-LT assemblages in varied Sebtide-
Alpujarride rocks (GOFFÉ et al., 1989; TUBÍA and GIL IBARGUCHI, 1991; BOUYBAO-
UENE, 1993; AZAÑÓN, 1994; GOFFÉ et al., 1996; VIDAL et al., 1999), and for their
dating at >25–27 Ma (MONIÉ et al., 1991; MONTIGNY et al., 2003). In our view, the
Beni Bousera-Ronda lherzolites emplaced as tectonic slivers during the Paleogene
subduction/collision process, at the expense of infracontinental lithospheric mantle
(KORNPROBST, 1974) uplifted at upper crustal levels during the Tethyan rifting
(REUBER et al., 1982; MICHARD et al., 1991). Indeed, the Ojen eclogites and Ronda
pyroxenites yielded U-Pb SHRIMP zircon ages between 183 ± 3 and 131 ± 3 Ma
which seemingly record the Tethyan extensional event (SÁNCHEZ-RODRIGUEZ and
GEBAUER, 2000). A Sm/Nd age of 235.1 ± 1.7 Ma from Alpujarride garnets may
also record the Triassic breakup of Pangea (ARGLES et al., 1999).

Collision vs. Subduction-collision Orogen. I: Eocene Subduction

The authors who assign a major tectonic-metamorphic role to a Neogene
asthenospheric diapir tend to depict the Betic-Rif orogen as a collisional orogen,
unrelated to any true subduction process, and devoid of any exotic terrane (PLATT
and VISSERS, 1989; VISSERS et al., 1995; MONTEL et al., 2000). VISSERS et al. (1995)
differ from PLATT and VISSERS (1989) as they admit that the Africa-Iberia
convergence was underway by the late Eocene, with stacking of continental units
in the hanging-wall of a subduction zone, dipping presumably to the NW (cf.
20 A. Chalouan and A. Michard Pure appl. geophys.,

VAN DER WAL and VISSERS, 1993). Likewise, ZECK (1996) hypothesises an African
subduction beneath Iberia at the onset of the Betic-Rif orogeny during the Eocene-
Oligocene, and makes no reference to an exotic Alboran domain. A similar view is
expressed by CABY et al. (2001) for the east Algerian transect (Edough massif). In
contrast, we insist on the occurrence of lost oceanic/transitional crust floored areas
(recorded on the one hand by the Maghrebian Flyschs and associated ophiolitic
slivers, and on the other hand by the ultramafics and metabasites of the Mulhacén
Complex) on both sides of a widely displaced Alboran/Alkapeca continental block. If
one considers, i) this paleogeographic restoration (based on stratigraphical/structural
evidences); ii) the strong, Eocene HP-LT metamorphic imprint in the upper Nevado-
Filabrides (Mulhacén Complex); and iii) the obvious continuity of the Alpine belt at
the plate tectonic scale before the Mediterranean basin opening (ALVAREZ, 1976),
then one can hardly escape the conclusion that the Late Cretaceous-Eocene,
SE-dipping subduction of the Western Alps extended up to the Betic transect. Note
that the SE dip of the Eocene subduction in Corsica, although questioned by
PRINCIPI and TREVES (1984), DURAND-DELGA et al. (2000), and PADOA and
DURAND-DELGA (2001), was re-assessed, based on geological and/or seismic data
(CROP profiles) by MALAVIEILLE et al. (1998), DOGLIONI et al. (1998, 1999),
MARRONI et al. (2001) and FINETTI et al. (2001).

Collision vs. Subduction-collision Orogen. II: Oligocene-Neogene Subduction

VISSERS et al. (1995) and ZECK (1996) argue that the Oligocene-Miocene
evolution of the Rif-Betic orogen essentially depends on some form of detachment or
convective removal of lithospheric mantle, shortly before 22 Ma. According to
VISSERS et al. (1995), ‘‘there should have been an immediate increase of surface
elevation, possibly reflected in the increased clastic sedimentation during
the Oligocene-Early Miocene in the flysch basins on the African margin and in the
Gibraltar area.’’ However, i) the Beni Ider Flysch, actually nourished from the
Internal zones, accumulated during the Oligocene-Aquitanian interval, c. 33–20 Ma;
and ii) the Numidian Flysch, the sedimentation of which is actually concentrated in
the latest Oligocene-Aquitanian interval, c. 24–20 Ma, has been nourished from
Saharan sources (HOYEZ, 1989). In fact, there is a large chronologic decoupling
between, on the one hand, the surface uplift in the Internal Zones, stratigraphically
bracketed between the Paleocene-Eocene (shallow water limestones, c. 55–40 Ma)
and the mid-upper Oligocene (c. 30–25 Ma; CHALOUAN et al., 2001, with references
therein), and on the other hand, the onset of the Alboran Sea extensional event and
associated rapid cooling, dated at 22 ± 2 Ma.
A Miocene, collision-induced ‘‘subduction’’ which would have only concerned
the delaminated lower lithosphere of the African margin was proposed by DOCHERTY
and BANDA (1992) and MALDONADO et al. (1999). Contrary to these authors and to
Vissers et al. (1995), but in line with LONERGAN and WHITE (1997) and FRIZON DE
Vol. 161, 2004 The Alpine Rif Belt (Morocco) 21

LAMOTTE et al. (2000), we contend that the late Oligocene-Neogene Betic-Rif

tectonics is better explained by considering the evolution of a NW-dipping
Apenninic-Maghrebian subduction zone. The birth of this young subduction zone
as a result of incipient blocking of the older, Alpine subduction zone was repeatedly
discussed by DOGLIONI et al. (1998, 1999). The structural, magmatic, and seismic/
tomographic signature of this subduction is clearly documented on the Northern
Apennine-Corsica transect (SERRI et al., 1993; BOCCALETTI et al., 1997; VAN DER
MEULEN et al., 1999; BRUNET et al., 2000). This subduction was responsible for the
Mediterranean backarc basin opening, and for the dispersal of the deformed
Alkapeka fragments in Alboran, Kabylia, Sicily (Peloritani) and Calabria (REHAULT
et al., 1984; MALINVERNO and RYAN, 1986; ROYDEN, 1993; GUEGUEN et al., 1997;
LONERGAN and WHITE, 1997; JOLIVET and FACCENNA, 2000). The Apenninic
subduction was also responsible for the Oligocene HP-LT metamorphism of Tuscany
(BRUNET et al., 2000) and Calabria (ROSSETTI et al., 2001). In the Alboran transect,
the Appeninic-Maghrebian subduction is evidenced by the Early Miocene closure of
the Maghrebian Trough and coeval building of an orogenic wedge thrust onto the
African margin, but the potential, Oligocene metamorphic record of this subduction
is controversial. If we attach a geologic meaning to the K/Ar and 40Ar/39Ar ages at
44 Ma and 40–38 Ma respectively, obtained in the upper Sebtides, the Sebtide-
Alpujarride HP-LT metamorphism could be ascribed to the Betic subduction (Fig. 9,
left). If we alternatively retain a younger age, based on the significant dates at 25 Ma
(central Alpujarrides) and 27 Ma (Sebtides) reported by MONIÉ (1991) and
MONTIGNY et al. (2003), then the Sebtide-Alpujarride metamorphism must be
ascribed to the Oligocene-Miocene subduction zone (Fig. 9, right). Whatever the
final choice may be between these alternative hypotheses, the Alpine-Betic and
Apenninic subduction zones had to meet west of the Alboran Terrane, i.e., close to
the Azores-Gibraltar transform fault. The latter plate boundary was characterized by
dextral transpression from the Late Eocene onward (ROEST and SRIVASTAVA, 1991).
Then, from the Early Miocene onward, the Gibraltar Arc developed as a
compressional Subduction-Subduction-Transform fault triple junction.

Acknowledgments

This work would not have been possible without the cooperation of numerous
Moroccan colleagues and students, among whom we will only cite late Prof. Ahmed
Benyaich. Field and laboratory works were supported by the French-Moroccan
Inter-Universities Cooperation Program, Actions Intégrées 93/629 and 98/161, and
by the Moroccan Programme d’Appui à la Recherche Scientifique, Sci. Univers, n°
26. In Spain, we were nicely guided by Victor Garcı́a-Dueñas, Paco González-
Lodeiro and their colleagues, and supported by the Institut National des Sciences de
l’Univers, Programme DBT, thème 5. We are indebted to Carlo Doglioni, Claudio
22 A. Chalouan and A. Michard Pure appl. geophys.,

Facenna, and Dominique Frizon de Lamotte for constructive criticism of our recent
papers on the area, and to Michel Durand-Delga, Raymond Montigny and an
anonymous reviewer for careful review of an early draft of this paper.

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(Received jjj, accepted jjj)

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