OCEANIA.

The ornamentation of the people of the Pacific Isles is full of interest, and is remarkable for the
evolution and perfecting of an ornamental style by a primitive people, with myths and traditions
purely local, and in no way influenced by other nations. It is a style of ornament full of meaning and
symbolism, yet simple in detail and arrangement, not founded upon the beautiful vegetation and
flora of their islands, but upon abstract forms derived from the human figure, and arranged with a
pleasing geometrical precision remarkable for a primitive people.

The ornamental art of these people may be broadly divided into provinces, each with its distinct
ornamental characteristics and tradi- tions, New Zealand showing the highest development and
Australia the lowest in the ornament of Polynesia and Melanesia.

Much of the ornament is purely linear, consisting of parallel and zig-zag lines; that of Australia
consists almost entirely of these lines incised in the ground and occasionally filled in with colour. In
New Guinea a higher development is reached, the ornament, of straight and curved lines, being
carved in flat relief. In the pro- vince of Tonga-Samoa, the surface is divided into small fields, and the
linear ornament runs in a different direction on each of the fields. The Hervey and Austral Islands are
distinguished by their remarkable adaptations of the human female figure, the illustrations given
here showing the original type and its ornamental development. These ex- amples, together with
the circular eye pattern, form the elements of the Hervey province, of which the Heape collection
contains many
fine examples. In the Solomon Island the linear ornament is occasionally interspersed with an inlay
of angular pieces of mother of pearl. The New Zealand province is distinguished by its skilful pierced
carving, the beauty of its spiral forms adapted from the human figure (figs. 1-12). and the con- stant
use of the border here given

EGYPTIAN ORNAMENT.

The history of Egypt, extending from 4400 .c. to 340 B.C., during which thirty dynasties existed, is
usually divided into three groups: (i) The Ancient Empire, I.-XI. dynasties, 4400-2466 B.C.; (2) The
Middle Empire, XII.-XIX., 2466-1200 B.C.; and (3) the New Empire, XX.-XXX. dynasties, 1200-340 B.C.

The capitals of the Ancient Empire comprised Memphis and Abydos; of the Middle Empire, Thebes,
Luxor, and Tanis; and of the New Empire, Sais and Bubastes. The remarkable civilization of these
early dynasties is attested by the many fine remains of architecture, sculpture, and decorative arts
that enrich our national museums. The Great Pyramids were built during the VI. dynasty, the largest
by Kheops, 3733-37OO B.C., is 756 ft. by 756 ft., and 480 ft. high; the second, by Kephren, 3666-3633
B.C., is 707 ft. by 707 ft. and 454 ft. high; and the third, 333 ft. by 330 ft., and 218 ft. high, was
erected by Mykerinos, 3633-3600 B.C.

The Sphinx, half animal and half human, is probably of the VI. dynasty, yet it is singular that all the
earliest sculptures of the III. and IV. dynasties with which we are acquainted were realistic por-
traiture, remarkable for fidelity to nature. Kings, queens, and individuals of note were finely
sculptured, frequently of a colossal size. But the Deities, Amen Sckhet, Horus, Hathor, Iris, and Osiris
were represented in the later dynasties by small votive statuettes, noticeable for their number
rather than for their artistic qualities, never reaching the excellence or vitality of the earlier period.
Much of the architec- tural enrichment was in Ccfuo Relievo, a peculiarly Egyptian mode of
ornamentation, the outline of the figures, birds, or flowers being sunk into the surface of the granite
or basalt, and then carved within this sunk outline, leaving the ground or bed raised, these reliefs
being invariably painted red, blue, green, and yellow. The frieze, which in the hands of the Greeks, at
a later period, became their principal ornamental field, was used by the Egyptians in superposed
bands, showing, in cavo relievo, the industrial arts and pursuits weaving, glass blowing, and the
making of pottery; ploughing, sowing, and n-.iping; also hunting and fishing. The composition and
sculpture of these incidents was simple, refined, and purely decorative, with a naivete' and
unaflfectedness so appropriate to the architectonic condi- tion^ Mingled with these incidents were
the beautiful hieroglyphs, or picture writing of the Egyptians. Figs. 7-13 are examples of painted
decorations showing the spiral construction of lines, together with the symbolic treatment of the
Lotus, the latter being regarded by the Egyptians as a symbol of fertility and of a new life, hence the
profusion with which it was used in their decorative work. Great fertility of invention was displayed
in enriching their architectural capital- with the Lotus, the Papyrus, and the Palm. A singular feature
introduced during the XVIII. dynasty was the Hathor Capital. surmounted by a small Naos. During the
Ptolemaic period i < v><> the Hathor Capital
ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT.

The early history of Babylonia and Assyria is one long series of wars and conquests. Originally one
nation, they became divided, and the younger Assyria in the north became the most powerful
empire of that period, under Tiglath-Pileser I., B.C. noo, Ashur-nasir-pal, B.C. 885-60, Shalmaneser II.,
B.C. 860-25, Tiglath- Pileser III., B.C. 745-27, the Great Sargon, B.C. 722-705, Senna- cherib, B.C. 705-
681, Esarhaddon, B.C. 681-668, and Ashur-ban-pal, B.C. 668-626. In B.C. 609 the capital, Nineveh
was destroyed by Cyaxares the Mede, and Babylon arose again to power under Nebuchadnezzar,
B.C. 604-562 : this city was destroyed by Cyrus the Persian, B.C. 539.

Assyrian art, with its racial influences, religious beliefs, and climatic conditions, differs in a
remarkable degree from Egyptian art. Though stone is found in Assyria, the great cities were built of
brick, no doubt owing to the fact of the arts and civilization comiijg from Chaldea, where stone was
scarce and clay plentiful. Both at Babylon in Chaldea and Nineveh in Assyria the traditional type of
building was rectangular, with arched openings and vaults, built of sun-dried bricks. The lower part
of the wall was covered with large alabaster slabs, carved in low relief with scenes representing the
king and his warriors engaged in hunting or fighting (fig. l). The upper part of the wall was in
enamelled brick, or in coloured stucco, with details of the Lotus and the bud, together with the
rosette, which was often carried round the archivolt. The representa- tion of the industrial arts and
the pursuits of agriculture, which is so admirably illustrated upon the Egyptian reliefs, is entirely
absent in Assyria. The enamelled bricks of Chaldea were modelled in low relief, with enamels of
turquoise blue, yellow, white, and black, of fine quality and colour one splendid example of enamel
on beton is the Frieze of Archers from the Palace of Susa. The enamelled bricks of Assyria were
usually flat, or modelled but slightly, and the enamels were less pure. The external walls were similar
to the internal ones, but with larger friezes and bolder reliefs, and usually with religious subjects (fig.
9). The portals were enriched with colassal winged and human-headed bulls, of alabaster, finely
carved in relief. Typical examples of Assyrian ornament are the Lotus and the bud (figs. 2 and 3), the
Patera or Rosette (figs. 6 and 7), and the Horn, or Tree of Life (fig. 8). The Lotus enrichment shows
Egyptian influence, and only came into use during the 7th century B.C., when intercourse between
the two nations was established. It is differentiated from the Egyptian Lotus by its vigorous growth
and curved profile, and the geometrical form of the calyx of the flower and bud (fig. 2).

The Anthemion or Horn, with its alternate bud and fir-cone, and with strong lateral markings, is
beautiful in line and proportion >f mass (fig. 3). The Horn is frequently used as a flower on the sacred
tree, a form of enrichment that influenced much of the later P< i and Sicilian textile fabrics
 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.

Classic or columnar architecture is divided into the Greek and Roman styles, and each style
comprises several orders of architecture: the Grecian orders are the Doric, the Ionic, and the
Corinthian, and many examples of each of these orders are still extant in Greece and her colonies
Asia Minor, Southern Italy, and Sicily. From a comparison of these buildings, certain constructive and
decorative features are observed to be present, and thence they are considered as the
characteristics of the style or order, which comprises the Base (except in the Grecian Doric, which
has no base), Column and Capital, and the Entablature, which consists of the Architrave, Frieze, and
Cornice. The proportions of these orders are generally determined by the lower diameter of the
column, which is divided into 2 modules or 60 parts, the height of the column always including the
base and capital. The DORIC order was used for the early Greek temples from B.C. 650, and cul-
minated in the Parthenon, B.C. 438. The COLUMNS in this order are 4 1 / to 6 diameters in .height,
with 20 shallow flutings with intermediate sharp arrises; the CAPITAL is half a diameter in height,
and is composed of an echinus or ovolo moulding with annulets or deep channellings below, and a
large square abacus above. The ARCHITRAVE is plain; the FRIEZE is enriched by rectangular blocks,
with 3 vertical channellings in the face, termed triglyths, alternately with square metopes which
were fre- quently sculptured. The CORNICE, composed of simple mouldings, projects considerably
beyond the face of the frieze.

Hie IONIC order has COLUMNS of from 9 to 9' ,. diameters in height, with 24 flutings divided by
narrow fillets; the BASE is half a diameter in height, and composed of a plinth, torus, fillet, cavetto,
fillet, torus, and fillet. The CAPITAL is T 7 ff of a diameter high, and consists of a pair of double scrolls
or volutes, supported by an echinus moulding enriched with the egg and tongue, with an astragal
below.

The ENTABLATURE is one quarter the height of the columns, the

\KtniiK\vi of one or more fascias, the FRIEZfc continuous and

frequently enriched with sculpture in low relief; the CORNICE has

simple and compound mouldings supported by a dentil band.

aides were occasionally introduced into this order; they were

female figures clad in drapery having vertical folds which re-echoed

the ilutings of the Ionic column. These Caryatides supported the

entablature in place <.f the columns; a beautiful example is in the

south portico of the Krechtheum at Athens

CORINTHIAN order was not much used by the Greeks; the examples, however, show considerable
refinement and delicacy of details. The COLUMNS are 10 diameters in height, with 24 flutings; the
BASE is half a diameter high; the CAPITAL is a little greater than a diameter in height, and is enriched
with acanthus foliated leaves and spiral volutes. The ENTABLATURE is richer and the CORNICE
deeper and more elaborate than those of the other orders.
The principal Doric buildings in Greece are: The Temples at Corinth 2 - 8 , B.C. 650, yEgina 2 ' 8 , B.C.
550, the Parthenon 2 - , and the Theseum 2 - 8 , B.C. 438 ; the Temples of Jupiter at Olympia 2 - 8 ,
B.C. 436, Apollo Epicurius at Bassae 2 - 8 , B.C. 436, Propylaea at Athens, B.C. 431, and the Minerva
at Sunium, B.C. 420. Ionic buildings are: Temples at Ilyssus 1 - 7 , B.C. 484, Nike Apteros 1 * 7 , B.C.
420, and the Erechtheum, B.C. 420 (see plan, plate 57), North Portico 7 , East Portico 8 , at Athens. In
Asia Minor there are the Temples of Samos 8 , Priene 8 , Teos 8 , Diana at Ephesus 9 (with 36 of its
columns sculptured), and of Apollo at Miletos. Corinthian buildings are : The Monument of
Lysicrates, B.C. 335, the Tower of the Winds (octagonal in plan), and Jupiter Olympius 2 - 8 , B.C. 200.

During the 5th century B.C. the Doric order was extensively used in the Greek colonies at Sicily. At
Agrigentum there are the remains of six fine Doric temples, of which the Temple of Zeus 2 , B.C. 450,
is the largest, being 354 by 175 ft. In this Temple were found the Telemones, or Atlantes, male
figures, 25 ft. in height, with their arms raised, probably supporting the roof. This Temple is also
remarkable for its portido of seven columns, 60 ft. in height, and having the peristyle walled up.

At Selinus there are five large Doric temples 2 - 8 , and one 5 - 9 with columns 57 ft. in height, with
an entablature of 19 ft. At Segesta there is a Doric temple 2 - 8 with only the peristyle complete and
the columns unfluted, and at Paestum, in southern Italy, there are two Doric temples 2 - 8 and a
basilica 5 with its porticos of nine columns each.

All these buildings in Sicily and Paestum date between 500 and 430 B.C.
gREEK ORNAMENT.

Greece, or Hellas, consisted of a number of small states, speaking the same language, and
worshipping the same gods. Almost the whole of the /Egean coast of Asia Minor was occupied in
early times by Greek Colonies, which supplanted those of the Phoenicians of Tyre and Sidon. The
southern portion of this seaboard was occupied by the Dorians, and the northern by lonians. In the
course of time other Greek settlements were made on the Black Sea and Medi- terranean Coast of
Asia Minor, as well as at Syracuse, Gela and Agrigentum in Sicily, and in Etruria and Magna Grecia in
Italy. These colonies appear to have reached a higher state of art at an early period than Greece
itself. The ascendency in art in Greece was en- joyed by the Dorians circa, 800 B.C. ; after which
Sparta took the lead but was in turn excelled by the lonians, when Athens became the focus of
Greek art, and attained a degree of perfection in that respect that has remained unequalled to this
day. Athens was des- troyed by the Persians under Xerxes, 480 B.C.; but under Pericles (470-429
B.C.) Greek art reached its culmination.

The abundant, although fragmentary, remains of Grecian architec- ture, sculpture, and the industrial
arts, show most vividly the artistic feeling and culture of the early Greeks, with their great
personality and religious sentiment, in which the personal interest of the gods and goddesses was
brought into relation with the life and customs of the people. Their myths and traditions, their
worship of legendary heroes, the perfection of their physical nature, and their intense love of the
beautiful, were characteristic of the Greek people, from the siege of Troy to their subjection by
Rome, B.C. 140. The almost inexhaustible store of Greek art, now gathered in the British Museum,
and in other European museums, furnishes one of the most valuable illustrations of the many
glorious traditions of the past. The vitality of con- ception, the dignity and noble grace of the gods,
the consummate knowledge of the human figure, and the exquisite skill of craftsman- ship, are here
seen in the greatest diversity of treatment and incident. The work of Phidias, the most renowned of
Greek sculptors, is ly represented in the British Museum by noble examples, showing hi- threat
personality, wonderful power, and his remarkable influence upon contemporary and later plastic art.

The Parthenon, or temple of the goddess Athene, which was built upon the Acropolis at Athens by
Ictinus and Callicrates, B.C. 454-438, enriched with splendid works of sculpture by Phidias. Many of
the original^ .in- now in the British Museum forming part of the Klj,Mn Marbles, which were
purchased from the Earl of Elgin, in 1815. Tin two pediments of the temple contained figure
sculpture in the round, larger than Jife size. The Eastern group represents the birth of Athene, and
tin- western group the contest of Athene and Poseidon

for the soil of Attica. The fragments of these pedimental groups are now in the British Museum, and,
though sadly mutilated, show the perfection of sculpture during the Phidian age. Of the 92 square
metopes sculptured in high relief, that enriched the Doric frieze, 15 are included in the Elgin
Marbles. The subject represented on these metopes was the battle between the Centaurs and
Lapithae, or Greeks, a fine example of composition of line and mass, and dramatic power of
expression.

The continuous frieze upon the upper part of the cella wall, under the colonnade or Peristyle, was 40
feet from the ground, 40 inches in height, and 523 feet in length. It was carved in low relief, the
subject being the Panathenaeic procession, the most sacred and splendid of the religious festivals of
the Ancient Greeks. This frieze, with its rhythm of movement and unity of composkion, its groups of
beautiful youths and maidens, sons and daughters of noble citizens
its heroes and deities, heralds and magistrates; its sacrificial oxen, and its horses and riders are
doubtless the most perfect production of the sculptor's art. Each figure is full of life and motion,
admirable in detail, having an individuality of action and expression, yet with a unity of composition,
appropriate to its architectural purpose as a frieze or band.

The Parthenon, however, was but the shrine of the standing figure or statue of the goddess Athene,
which was 37 feet high, and formed of plates of gold and ivory, termed Chryselephantine sculpture.
Probably owing to the intrinsic value of the material, this work of Phidias disappeared at an early
date.

Among the examples of sculptured marbles in the British Museum is the beautiful frieze from the
interior of the Temple of Apollo at Phigaleia, erected by Ictinus, B.C. 450-430. This frieze, which
shows an extraordinary vitality and movement, is 101 feet long and consists of 23 slabs 25V2 inches
in width, the incidents depicted being the battle of the Greeks and the Amazons, and the contest
between the Centaurs and the Lapithae. The dignity and reserve of the Parthenon frieze is here
replaced by activity and energy of line and an exuber- ance of modelling.

Some of the marbles in the British Museum are from the Nereid Monument of Xanthos, B.C. 372, so
called because the female figures display moist clinging garments, and have fishes and seabirds
between.

their feet. These sculptures show a high degree of perfection, and were probably the work of the
Athenian sculptor, Bryaxis.

Among other examples of the Greek treatment of the frieze, is that of the Erechtheum, B.C. 409,
with its black Elusinian stone background, and white marble reliefs. The Temple of Nike Apteros, of
about the same date, is noted for the beautiful reliefs from the balustrade which crowned the lofty
bastion on which the temple stands. An example of Nike or victory, adjusting her sandal is here
given. These reliefs are remarkable for their delicacy and refine- ment of treatment, and the
exquisite ren- dering of the draped female figure. Other friezes now in the British Museum are from
the Mausoleum erected by Artemisia to her husband, Mausolus, B.C. 357-348. This tomb consisted
of a solid basement of masonry, supporting a cella surrounded by a colonnade of 36 columns. The
upper part of the basement was enriched with a frieze illustrating the battle of the Centaurs and
Lapithae; the frieze of the cella was illustrated with funeral games in honour of Mausolus. Seventeen
slabs of the frieze of the order from the colonnade are in the British Museum; they represent the
battle of the Greeks and Amazons. In their composition these slabs show extraordinary energy of
movement and richness of invention. This frieze differs absolutely from the Parthenon frieze in its
fertility of incident and intensity of action. Bryaxis, the sculptor of the Nereid monument executed
the north frieze, while the south was by Timotheus, the east by Scopas, and the west by Leochares.

A remarkable building, where again the frieze was an important feature, was the great altar at
Pergamos, erected by Eumenes II., B.C. 1 68. This had a basement of masonry 160 ft. by 160 ft., and
1 6 ft. high, enriched with a sculptured frieze 7 ','2 ft. high. The sub- ject is the Gigantomachia, or
battle of the gods and giants; the treatment being characterized by passionate energy and
expression, and daring skill in grouping and technique. Ninety-four of the original slabs of this frieze
are now in the Berlin Museum.
The frieze was an important decorative feature with the Assyrians and Greeks. The continuity of
incident and rhythm of movement that was possible with the continuous frieze, together with its
func- tional use of banding, no doubt tended to preserve its traditional form, hence we have many
remains from antiquity of this beautiful decorative treatment. An early and fine example is the frieze
of Archers from the palace of Susa, B.C. 485, now in Louvre. This

Is differentiated from that of Greece by the extensive use of the arch and of superposed orders. The
many fine remains of Roman temples and public buildings show the extraordinary versatility and
conception of the Roman architects, their constructive skill, and their remarkable power of
assimilating the arts of other nations. The Roman temples were somewhat similar in plan to their
Greek prototypes, but usually without the side colonnade, larger in scale, and with an ostentatious
display of mouldings and ornaments, less refined in contour and detail.

A typical example is given here of a triumphal arch, namely, that of Septimus Severus, A.D. 203.
Other examples are the Arch of Titus, A.D. 83, and the Arch of Constantine, A.D. 326, all near the
Forum at Rome. Trajan's Arch, A.D. 114, was destroyed by Con- stantine, who used many of the
reliefs for the building of his own arch.

The superposition of columns and arches is seen in the Theatre of Marcellus, B.C. 20, where the
lower order is of the Doric and the upper I the Ionic; this, like the early Greek Theatre, was semi-
circular in plan.

The Colosseum, commenced by Vespasian. \ i>. 72, and completed

The Tuscan and Composite orders were added to the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, thus
forming the five orders of architecture.

The Romans rarely used the peristyle temple, consequently the cella was of the same width as the
portico. In the civic buildings and palaces.

and splendour of embellishment. The skilful planning and appro- priateness of decorative treatment
in their basilicas and amphitheatres are evidences of the practical nature of the Romans.

The Basilica or Hall of Justice was an important architectural feature, rectangular in plan, with a
semi-circular apse at one end, where the tribunal was placed; roofed with timber framing, or vaulted
with concrete, and supported with rows of columns or piers. The remains of two typical Roman
basilicas are still in existence: the Basilica of Trajan, A.D. 1 14, rectangular, 180 by 160 ft., five aisles,
the centre aisle with a semi-circular wooden roof, and enriched with bronze plates, is typical of one
class ; and the Basilica of Maxentius, A.D. 310, with a width of 195 ft., and a length of 260 ft., is
typical of a vaulted Basilica, the two side aisles with barrel-vaults, and the centre aisle with an
intersecting vaulted roof.

These Roman basilicas were adopted by the early Christians to their service, and the basilica church
became the typical form used up to the 1 2th century in the Romanesque provinces.
The Roman houses were of two types : the Domus, or houses clustered together, and the Insular,
houses which were surrounded by streets. Most of the finest Pompeian houses were of the Insular
type.

The usual plan of a Roman house consisted of the Ostiuni, an entrance or Vestibule, which opened
into the Atrium, a large room or court partly

which was the Impluvium, or cistern of water, placed below the level of the ground. Small chambers
surrounded the Atrium, and at the further end was the Tablimim or private room, frequently leading
to the Peristylium or private part of the house, an open court, with a colonnade surrounding a
marble fountain, with flowers, shrubs, and trees, forming a Viridarium. Sur- rounding the Peristylium
were private rooms, one of which was the Tri- clinium, or dining room. From the

Peristylium, fauces or passages led to the Porticus, a colonnade which overlooked the garden.

ROMAN ORNAMENT.

Rome, founded by Romulus, B.C. 783, became by successive wars and conquests the mistress of the
world, absorbing the arts and the architecture of the Etruscans B.C. 567, the Samnites B.C. 340, and
of Corinth and Carthage B.C. 146. From these varied sources arose the style termed Roman,
assimilating and adopting the column and the horizontal entablature of the Greeks; the arch, the
vault, the mural paintings, and the decorative use of bronze and terra- cotta of the Etruscans, with
the sculpture, ornament, mosaics and coinage of the Greeks and Carthaginians. These varied arts
were assimilated and perfected by the Romans during the period B.C. 100 to 337 A.D.

Roman ornament is the continuity of the Greek and Etruscan styles, consisting of the anthemion, the
acanthus and the scroll; the Romans using these forms with greater exuberance and elaboration,
together with bold and vigorous carving, yet lacking the simplicity, refinement, and graceful contour
of the Greek and Etruscan forms.

Roman ornament consists largely of continuous spiral lines, clothed with cups and sheaths of
acanthus foliage, the various spirals ter- minating in a rosette. These main spirals are frequently
interwoven with fine curved or spiral lines, clothed with acanthus or other foli- ation, such as the
vine, olive and ivy. Birds and reptiles and cupids, and the chimera or griffin (fig. i) are often
interspersed with the ornament, thus giving that large- ness of mass, and contrast of form, which is
so characteristic of Roman art. The Thermae, or baths and public buildings, dis- played fine
decorative ceilings, having deep sunk panels called Lacunaria, or coffers; square, hexagonal or
octagonal in form, with a centre rosette in high re- lict .,.,,1 thr bonier mouldings of KKRKD CRIMNG.
BASIUICA the rollers being enriched with

the egg and dart, or the water leaf. These exhibit an effecti\e : ment of moulded surfaces. The
ceilings of the tombs and palaces
were in many cases ornamented with circular and square panels, richly decorated with arabesques
or mythical figures, and cupids in low relief of fine stucco; the mouldings or divisions in higher relief,
and having the water leaf or the egg and dart enrichment (plate 9).

The architectural frieze and the sepulchral urn and sarcophagi of this period were often decorated
with festoons (figs. 4 and 5, plate 9),

which were supported by cupids or by candelabra (plate 9), or by the skulls of oxen, as on the frieze
from the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli, here given, which is no doubt a survival of the sacrificial custom
of worship.

The architectural basilica and

of Damascus, was of the utmost magnificence, the remains attesting to the skill and artistic
craftsmanship of the Romans. Apollodorus also erected the marble column of Trajan, having a
rectangular pedestal 18 feet high, and richly sculptured with the dresses, armour and standards of
the Roman army. This pedestal supports a column of the Tuscan order of architecture 97 1 /* ft.
highi, and 12 ft. in diameter, enriched with a series of spiral bands, having bas-reliefs representing
the successive events of the Dacian War by the Emperor Trajan. This magnificent and well preserved
relic of antiquity furnishes a complete epitome of the costumes and the arms and armour of that
period. Another well preserved column, similar to that of Trajan, was erected in Rome by Marcus
Aurelius, A.D. 174. the subjects of its reliefs being the war with the Marcomans. Large marble urns,
or tazze, enriched with Bacchanalian figures, surrounded with foliage and birds and animals;
magnificent tables, chairs, couches, and candelabra, of bronze, enriched with silver damascening,
together with the choice remains of sculpture and mosaics, all indicate the llixu- riousness and love
of magnificence of the wealthy Roman citizens. In Roman architectural ornament we see the most
powerful model- ling combined with the use of the continuous scroll growing from a nest of foliage,
repeated in their painted decorations (see Pompeian). This elaboration of the typical Greek
ornamentation and the rounded serrations of the Acanthus (see plate 36) forms the chief character-
istic of Roman ornament, which is wonderfully bold and vigorous in conception and execution, but
deficient in the refinement and delicacy of Greek art.

There is a considerable difference in the foliations of the various capitals. The Corinthian capital of
the Parthenon has foliage of the simple olive leaf type. In the composite capital of the Arch of Sep-
timus Severus the foliage is serrated like fig. 8, plate 8, while that of the Corinthian capital of the
Temple of Vesta, Tivoli, is more of the parsley leaf type, and each leaf is folded forward at the
terminations.

POMPEIAN ORNAMENT.

Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabia, Roman cities, were buried by an eruption of Vesuvius, A.D. 79.
These cities had already suffered from an earthquake, A.i>. 63, and were being rapidly rebuilt when
they were finally destroyed by the eruption. The Younger Pliny, the historian, was a spectator of the
event at Pompeii, and wrote two letters to his friend Tacitus, describing the event and his flight from
the doomed city, which remained buried for seventeen centuries, with the treasures of gold and
silver, bronzes of rare workmanship, mural paintings on a most magnificent scale, and floors of
mosaics of marvellous execution and design; everything affording a vivid glimpse of the domestic
and public life of the Romans of the ist century A.D. Herculaneum was discovered in 1709, and
Pompeii 1748, and from these cities many valuable remains of art have been taken. In the museum
at Naples there are over 1,000 mural paintings, some 13,000 small bronzes, over 150 large bronzes
of figures and busts, and 70 fine large mosaics.

A plan of a Roman house is given on page 23 showing the arrange- ment and use of the rooms. The
floors were covered with mosaics (see plate 37), those of the vestibule, corridors, and small rooms
having simple patterns enclosed with borders of the key pattern, or the Guilloche in black, red, grey,
and white tesserae. The floor of the triclinium, or dining room, was often a magnificent mosaic
repre- senting some mythological or classical subject. The walls were painted in colour, usually with
a dado Veth the height of the wall, with pilasters dividing the wall into rectangular panels and a
frieze above (plate 10). The general scheme of colour was, the dado and pilasters black, the panels
red, and the frieze white; or black dado, red pilasters and frieze, with white or yellow panels. The
decorations upon these various coloured grounds was light and fanciful, and painted with great
delicacy. Representations of architectural forms, such as columns and entablatures, are often
rendered in perspective upon the painted walls.

The painted ornament has somewhat the same characteristics as the Roman relief work, but is
usually much more delicate in treat - ment. The spiral form and the sheath are always prevalent, and
from these sheaths and cups grow the finer tendrils or delicately painted spray of foliage, upon
which birds are placed.

Stucco enrichments, such as ornamental string courses and mould- ings, were frequently combined
with the painted ornament; they consist of small details, such as the water leaf, the egg and dart,
and the anthemion, and are repeated in a regular series.
Herculaneum differed considerably from Pompeii, for here the finest works of art and innumerable
MSS. have been found, showing that a higher intellectual life existed than that at Pompeii, where
not a single MS. has been found. It is probable that Herculaneum equal to Athens itself in the wealth
of its art treasures

BYZANTINE ORNAMENT.

The decline of the Roman empire, in the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D., had its inevit- able influence
upon contemporary art, but perhaps a more potent influence was that of Christianity, which, in the
reign of Constantine, received state recognition and support; and when this Emperor removed the
seat of government from Rome to Byzantium, the traditional Greek and Roman arts were
assimilated with those of Persia and Syria, but moulded and influenced by the new religion, giving
that strong vitality, deep significance, and symbolism which is so remark- able a feature of the
Byzantine style.

The change of style did not take place immediately, for most of the buildings erected by Constantine
were in the traditional Roman style, but the arts were gradually perfected until they culminated in
the building of S. Sophia, by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, during the reign of
Justinian, A.D. 538. This building is remarkable for its splendid dome, supported by semi-domes and
pendentives on a square plan (see plate 57), its embellishment with mosaics of glorious colours, and
the great inventiveness and symbol- ism of the detail. The traditional sharp acanthus foliage of the
Greeks was united with the emblems of Christianity, such as the circle, the cross, the vine, and the
dove; the peacock also is fre- quently seen. Figure sculpture was rarely used, but groups of figures
were used in great profusion in the gold-ground mosaics that covered the upper part of the walls
and the vaults and domes of the magnifi- cent Byzantine buildings. The churches of Ravenna, in Italy,
have somewhat similar characteristics: S. Vitale, A.D. 535, the basilica churches of S. Apollinare
Nuovo, A.D. 493-525, S. Apollinare in Classe, A.D. 535-45, together with the Baptisteries, are rich in
mosaics and sculptured capitals of the 6th and 7th centuries. -In the cathedrals of Torcello, A.D. 670,
and Murano, and the beautiful S. Mark's at Venice, marbles and mosaics were used in great pro-
fusion to enhance the architecture. The sketch plans given on plate 57 are typical of Byzantine
planning, in which the symbolism of the circle and cross are used as constructive features. This sym-
bolism is a marked feature in Byzantine ornament; interlacing circles and crosses mingle with the
acanthus or the vine, and arc cut with a peculiar V-shaped section. The circular drill is largely used at
the sinking of the leaves, and but little of the background is visible in the sculptured ornament of this
period.

Pierced marble screens of interlaced foliage, or the fret in combina- tion with their circle, were
frequently used (see plate 56). A large number of pierced parapets in S. Mark's are carved in low
relief, with various modifications of the interlacing Guillochr. or circles.
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE ftf ORNAMENT.

Romanesque architecture differs from Roman chiefly in the universal use of the arch, the absence of
the classic entablature, and in the imagery and symbol- ism of its sculpture and ornament, doubtless
due to Northern influence. One of the earliest existing buildings of this style is the church of S.
Ambrogio, Milan (nth century), which has a na\ (. and aisles, three eastern apses, and a western
atrium, surrounded by an open arcade, enriched with vigorous reliefs of interlaced orna- ment and
animals. Contemporary in date is S. Michele, Pavia, with a nave and transepts and central cupola:
there is a single eastern apse, having an open external gallery and bands of sculptured orna- ment.
This and the frequent use of the lion or griffin as a support for pillars, are characteristic of the
Lombardic style, and are seen at S. Michele, Lucca, and the Cathedral, Baptistery, and the Campanile
of Pisa.

It was, however, in France and Germany that the Romanesque reached its highest development,
principally in the south and south- west of France, where the churches are distinguished for the
richness of the west fronts.

S. Trophime, Aries (i2th century), has a fine low semi-circular pro- jecting porch, resting upon a
sculptured frieze and pillars. A cloister, with arcading of coupled columns richly sculptured, is
attached to this church; while S. Gilles (1076) has a low projecting porch of three arches, enriched
with vigorous, sculpture and ornament (plate 12).

The Cathedral at Angoul6me has a vaulted nave, with three cupolas, and a west front with recessed
arcading and figures: two square towers, with open arcading and conical spires, rise from the angles
of the facade. Notre Dame, Poitiers, is even more rich in its gabled west front, having a fine doorway
with two tiers of arcading above. The facade is flanked by two circular turrets, with massive columns
attached, having an open arcade above, with a conical spire ; enriched corbel tables are carried
across the front, over the door, tlit upper arcade and window, and round the turrets.

nt-Front, PeVigueux, has a richly sculptured west front and nave of tin- iith century, to which was
added in 1150 a larger church similar in plan to S. Mark's at Venice (a Greek cross, see plate 57), and
roofed with five cupolas in stone. In central France there was the magnificent Abbey Church of
Cluny, with its range of six towers; md in Germany this number of towers is found at the great
Roman- esque churches of Speyer, Worms, and Laach, with their singular western apse and external
clearstory gallery.

Plate 12 illustrates a few of the chief features of Romanesque

orn.iinrnt. The uppi-r frieze is similar to the Roman scroll, but !<-

;ous in modelling, ami with a rounder form of serration ot leaf

form. The I..I.MI capital ha^ rich interlacing ornament and animals

it suggest Scandinavian influence. The portal of Saint-GUkfl ?how- the exuberant carving and -
toriation that characterized many of the churches of south-west France
CELTIC ORNAMENT.

No period in the history of art is more remarkable than the Celtic. The carved stone architecture and
crosses, the bronzes, enamels, and silversmith's work, the splendid illuminated books and
manuscripts with capitals and borders, full of imagery and intricacy of detail, and the clear and
accurate writing of the text are all indications of the culture and love of ornament of the early Irish
people, showing a remarkable preference for the spiral and interlacing forms. The bronze shield (fig.
6), with its spirals and bosses of enamel enriched with the northern " Fylfot " is a typical example of
the 2nd or 3rd century, A.D. Then comes the trumpet pattern or divergent spiral, which, seen in its
infancy on the bronze shield, reached a great degree of elaboration in the 8th and 9th centuries,
A.D. (figs. 2 to 7), being typical of Celtic work up to the middle of the 1 1 th century when all trace of
this spiral is lost. The interlacing bird and animal forms used from the 8th to the I4th cen- turies are
doubtless derived from Byzantine and Lombardic sources. The serpent or dragon, which is such a
marked feature from the 7th to 1 5th century must have been borrowed from the north, as Ireland
had no traditions of snakes or dragons, and it is to Scandinavia, with its legend of Fafni, that we must
look for the origin of the dracontine treatment. It is this Zoo- morphic character that distinguishes
the Celtic from all other styles of ornament except Scan- dinavian. The obverse of the magnificent
processional Cross of Cong (A.D. 1 123), is divided into 46 panels of decorations, and convoluted
snakes occupy 38 of them.

The illustration given here of the Irton Cross is a typical example of the Celtic ornamentation. The
early or Pagan period is noted for its bronze work, cast and wrought, and enriched with Cham-
pleve" enamels. The fine chalice of Ardagh (page 125) and the Tara Brooch (plate 43) 7th century,
are splendid examples of the Christian period dating from St. Patrick, A.D. 440-460. The beautiful
Book of Kells, the Book of Armagh, the Book of Durrow, manuscripts of the early part of the Qth
century (Trinity College, Dublin), and the Book of Durham, called the Lindisfarne Gospels, A.I'. 689-
721. written by Eadf rith, and illumin by Ethelwald, are a tribute to the vitality, assimilation of ideas,
and the culture and wonder- ful craftsmanship of the early Irish people. In Irish manuscripts gold is
not used. ex< -pt in the I.mdi-f.irnr Compels, where a minute quant used.

CANDINAVIAN ORNAMENT.

The beautiful bronze and silver jewellery and imple- ments of war of the early Viking period, found in
Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, display no trace of plant forms in their ornamentation, the latter
consist- ing wholly of interlacing animal forms chiefly the dragon. The Viking ship found at Sandifiord
in 1880, although destitute of ornament, shows traces of the " Bronze Dragon Prow," referred to in
the early Scandinavian Sagas. At the commencement of the 1 2th century, plant forms are found
mingled with the dragons, and figure sculpture became important in treating of the myths of the
gods; Frey, Woden, Thor, and Tyr, of the pagan period, being influenced by the newer cult in
religion. This is shown by the Sigurd Overlap, and the story of Sigurd the Volsung.
The farmer Hreithmar had three sons Otter, Fafni, and Regin the smith; and three of the
Scandinavian gods Woden, Hceni, and Loki wandered towards the farm, and, through
misunderstanding, Loki killed Otter. For this the three gods were seized, and released only on
payment of enough gold to cover the skin of Otter (fig. 2) when hung up by the nose. This price was
procured by Loki, who compelled the dwarf Andwari to surrender all the gold he possessed, as well
as a magic ring, which carried with it a curse that for eight lives the gold should be fatal to its owner.
Then Hreithmar was slain by his surviving sons for the treasure, which was carried off to a great
mound on Gnita Heath by Fafni, who lay round his plunder in the form of a dragon. Regin, his
brother, in 'order to obtain the treasure, prompted Sigurd, his foster son, to slay the dragon. Sigurd,
in testing his sword, broke it in twain; thereupon Regin made him a magic sword, with which he lay
in the trail of the dragon, and pierced it through (figs. 1-4). Then Regin took out the heart of the
dragon, which Sigurd cut into pieces and toasted while Regin slept. Sigurd, burning his fingers,
placed them in his mouth, and tasted the blood of Fafni, the dragon (fig. i), and, lol he heard the
voice of birds saying that Regin was plotting to kill him. Then Sigurd killed Regin, ate the heart of
Fafni, placed the treasure on the back of the noble horse Grani, and departed, only to be slain for
the gold by Gunnar, who for this crime was cast into the pit of serpents (fig. i).

This myth explains much of the Scandinavian ornament, for in i and 2 the story is told in a series of
incidents remarkable for tin- fertility of invention and dracontine ornamentation. Halton Cross, in
Lancashire, ' and a slab at Kirk Andreas, Isle of Man, illustrate the same subjects, dating from the nth
century. In later times, the dragon becomes more pronounced in character, until in tin 141)1 reiitury
it fills the whole portal with the beautiful interlacing ornament (fig. 6).
ORMAN GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.

English Gothic architecture has been broadly divided into periods for the purpose of classifying the
styles, the following being the most generally accepted:

BY RICKMAN.-

A.n.

1066- i 189 1 1 89- 1 307

- > 3 7-i379

- i 379- 1483 1483-1546

Most of our magnificent cathedrals were founded, A.D. 1066-1170, by Norman bishops, some upon
the old Saxon foundations, such as Canterbury and York, or near the original Saxon buildings, as at
Winchester, or upon new sites, such as Norwich and Peterborough; and were without exceptions
more magnificent erections -than those of the anterior period, portions of the older style still
existing in many cathedrals, showing the fusion of Roman and Byzantine archi- tecture with the
more personal and vigorous art of the Celtic, Saxon, and Scandinavian peoples.

Lincoln is a typical English plan, showing no trace of the semi- circular apsidal arrangement so
universal in Norman and French cathedrals. Each vertical division in the nave, the choir, and transept

is termed a bay. On plate 15 is an illus- tration of four typical bays of English cathedrals, showing the
development of style from the I2th to the I5th century. The general characteristic of each bay is
given separately, but obviously it can only be approximate, as the building of each cathedral was
influenced by local considera- tions, each period necessarily overlapping its predecessor, thus
forming a transitional style. For instance, in the choir of Ripon Cathedral the aisle and clearstory
have semi-circular Norman windows, and the nave arcading has pointed arches. In the triforium and
clearstory arcading, round arches are seen side by side with the pointed arch. The PIERS sometimes
termed columns of these bays have

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORMAN PERIOD.

NAVE ARCADING. The universal use of the round arch, cylindri- cal or rectangular piers, with semi-
circular shafts attached to each face. Capitals cubical and cushion-shaped. Arch mouldings en- riched
with concentric rows of Chevron and Billet ornament.

TRIFORIUM. In early work, of one arch. In later work, two or four small arches carried on single
shafts under one large semi-circular arch.

CLEARSTORY. One window, with an open arcading in front, of three arches, the centre one larger
and often stilted. This arcade forms a narrow gallery in the thickness of the Clear- story wall. The
roof of the nave of wood, flat and panelled, roof of the aisles semi-circular quadripartite vaulting. An
ar- cading of semi-circular arches was usually placed upon the wall, under the aisle windows. Early
windows are narrow, flush with the external wall, and deeply splayed on the inside. Later windows
are re- cessed externally, with jamb- shafts and capitals supporting an enriched moulded arch. A few
semi-circular rose windows still remain, of which a fine

example is to be found I; irfrestone Church. Kent

PERPENDICULAR AND TUDOR.

The PIERS of this style are lofty and enriched with shallow mouldings carried round the pier arch ;
where capitals are introduced they frequently resemble a hand round the pier at the springing of the
arch, or occasionally they are octagonal in form, and decorated with an angular treatment of the
vine. In some instances the upper part of the plain octagonal capital is relieved with an
embattlement. The latter is also frequently used as a cresting for the elaborate per- pendicular
screens, or for relieving the clearstory strings, or on the transoms of the lofty windows.

The TRIFORIUM is absent in this period, the bay consisting of two horizontal divisions only. The
CLEARSTORY, owing to the sup- pression of the Triforium, becomes of more importance. The
windows are large and often in pairs, with vertical mullions extending to the arch mouldings of the
window head. The aisle windows are similar, and when lofty have horizontal transoms, on which the
battlement ornament is displayed. The aisle arcading being also suppressed, all plain wall space was
covered with perpendicular surface tracery. Enrichment of this type was used in the greatest
profusion upon walls, parapets, buttresses, and arches, also upon the jambs and soffits of doorways.
This, together with the use of the four-centred arch, forms the characteristic feature of the
Perpendicular and Tudor periods.
The remarkable growth of the Gothic style during the I3th and 1 4th centuries was contemporary in
England, France, Flanders, Germany, and in a less degree in Italy. One of the most beautiful churches
in Italy is S. Maria della Spina, at Pisa, with its rich crocketed spires and canopies, features which
were repeated a little later at the tomb of the famous Scaligers at Verona. Venetian Gothic is
differentiated by the use of the ogee arch with cusps and pierced quatrefoils.

At Venice there are many magnificent examples of Gothic arrhi- tecture, remarkable for the
beautiful central grouping of the windows, arcades, and balconies and the prevalence of the ogee
arch, with cusps and pierced quatrefoils and rich foliated capitals. The facade of the Doge's Palace,
with its great colonnade of 36 pillars with rich foliated capitals (see Ruskin's " Seven Lamps of
Architecture," plate V.\ and the Porta della Carta, or entrance, with its magnifi-

NORMAN ORNAMENT.

Norman Architecture was distinguished by the use of the traditional semi-circular arch, superseded
by the pointed arch of the early Gothic period. These semi-circular arches in the earlier dates were
decorated with rudely executed carvings, cut or worked with the axe. Later Norman work is very
rich, the mouldings being well carved with enrichments of the Chevron, the Cable, Billet, Star, Fret,
or Key Patterns; the Lozenge and the Beading or Pearling. Characteristic features of this period also
are the Beakhead (fig. 5), and the Corbel-table, which was a series of heads of men or animals, from
which spring small arches supporting the parapet. Many rich examples of Norman surface ornament
are still extant; at Christ- church, Hants, a beautiful intersecting arcading of semi-circular arches
occurs, the enrichment above being a scale or imbricated pattern ; at St. Peter's, Northampton, a
very rich example of surface ornamenta- tion may be seen (fig. 6).

Floral forms are but rarely used in Norman ornament; instances are known of the use of the rose
and the fir-apple, but they are the exception and not the rule.

Early doorways usually have a square head recessed under semi- circular arch mouldings, decorated
with the Chevron, Key, or Beak- head. The semi-circular Tympanum over the door was plain or
enriched with rude sculpture in low relief. Later doors show a great profusion of ornament in the
archivolt and arch mouldings, which are often carried down the jamb mouldings. The recessed
columns are also enriched with the Chevron, or diagonal lines of pearling (fig. i). and have sculptured
capitals showing a classical tendency in the arrangement of acanthus foliage and the volute. Fine
examples of this period may be seen in the west front of Lincoln Cathedral (fig. i). tin Galilee porch at
Durham, and the west door of Iffley Church, Oxfordshire. A fine, deeply recessed semi-circular
Norman doorway is at Tutbury Church, having a richly recessed window over, now filled with
flamboyant tracery.

Early Norman capitals are usually cubical or cushion-shaped, with a square or cruciform abacus, or
occasionally octagonal as at Durham, or circular as at Gloucester, and enriched with the Chevron,
Star, or Anthemion, the Capitals being escalloped with segments of circles, or enriched with Volutes
or the Anthemion. Early examples are in the \Yhite Tower, and St. Bartholomew, London. Later
Capitals. usually rirh in ornamentation, are found at St. Peter's, Northampton, and at Wooton, more
frequently they have interlacing bands of orna- ment and animals; there are others with figures, or
"Storied Capitals," as in the North Porch, Wells.
In tin- transition period end of I2th century Capitals \\cre con-

or bell-shaped, with foliage of the serrated water leaf type cling-

) thr bell and turning up under the .i ! -rtning a Volute.

Thi- t<>li.i-< \va- varied in type and vigorous in technique. 1 m

examples are at Christ Church Oxford, and at Canterbury Cathedral.

The NORMAN style was succeeded by the pointed, or GOTHIC style, remarkable for its variety, its
beauty of proportion, and the singular grace and vigour of its ornament. Showing no traditions,
beyond Sicilian and Arabian influence, it grew rapidly, and reached a high degree of perfection in
France and England. The massive and barbaric character of the Norman style gave place to the light
clustered shafts and well-proportioned mouldings of the early English Gothic, with its capitals
characterized by a circular abacus, and the typical three-lobed .foliage growing upwards from the
necking of the shafts, thence spreading out in beautiful curves and spirals under the abacus. This
tendency to the spiral line is peculiar to the early Gothic, and differentiates it from the Decorated
and Perpendicular Period. The diagrams of the three crockets here given show the distinctive
character of English Gothic ornament.

Early Gothic, three-lobed leaves arranged in spiral lines. Decorated Gothic, with natural types of
foliage, such as the oak and maple, with a flowing indulating line. Perpendicular Gothic, showing the
vine and leaves as elements, and arranged in a square and angular manner. The same features and
characteristics

are observed in the borders here given. The beautiful carved span- dril from the Chancel Arcade,
Stone Church, Kent (fig. i), is one of the most beautiful examples of English ornament, remarkable
for the vigour and flexibility of curve, its recurring forms of ornamen- tation, and admirable spacing,
typical of much of our early Eng- lish foliage from about 1 1701280.

The type of foliage in early English stained glass is somewhat similar to contemporary carved work,
but showing more of the profile of the leaf; it has a geometric or radiating arrangement in addition
to the spiral forms of foliage (plate 42), and the admir- able spacing of the ornament shows the skill
in design that the mediaeval craftsman possessed
ECORATED OR GEOMETRIC GOTHIC,

Decorated Gothic is remarkable for its geometric- tracery, its natural types of foliage, and the
undulat- ing character of line and form, in its ornamental details. The foliage of the oak, the vine, the
maple, the rose, and the ivy were introduced in much luxuriance and profusion, being carved with
great delicacy and accuracy. Lacking the dignity and architectonic qualities of the early Gothic
foliage, it surpassed it in brilliancy and inventiveness of detail. The capitals, enriched with
adaptations from nature, carved with admirable precision, were simply attached round the bell
(page i62),giving variety and charm of model- ling, but lacking that unity which was so characteristic
of early work. The illustrations from Southwell are charac- teristic examples of the richly-carved
clustered capitals of this period. The arch mouldings were also enriched with foliage of a similar
type, and at the springing of the vaulting shaft of the nave, beautiful carved corbels, such as those at
Exeter, were used ; while the walls, screens, and parapets, were diapered with low relief carving.

Crockets and finials, which were introduced in the early Gothic period, were now treated with
exceeding richness and used in the greatest profusion. A characteristic example is given here from
Exeter Cathedral.

The Queen Eleanor crosses (erected 1291-4). are perhaps the richest examples of the decorated
period, showing the exuberance of model- ling and the versatility and skill of the English craftsman in
the finest period of Naturalistic foliage (1280-1315). These- crosses were erected at Lincoln,
Grantham, Stamford, Stony Stratford, Woburn, Duns- table, St. Albans, Eastcheape, and Charing, all
of which have been destroyed, but those at Geddington, Northampton, and Waltham still remain.
The statues of Queen Eleanor are probably by William of Ireland.

The " Ball Flower " so characteristic of the decorated period, re- placed the equally characteristic "
Tooth Ornament " of the preceding st\le. and was much used in some buildings, even to excess as in
the south aisle of Gloucester Cathedral. It is found in the hollows round doorway>. windows arches,
and canopies, and it frequently alternates with the " Foui petalled Flower."
ERPENDICULAR GOTHIC.

Late or rectilinear Gothic is characterized by a rigidity of line in construction and ornament. The one
exception is the beautiful fan-vaulting, such as that in the cloisters at Gloucester Cathedral, and in
Henry VII. Chapel at Westminster, which are not approached by any Continental example for beauty
of craftsmanship or the scientific precision of "their masonry. The many splendid towers, having
elaborate panelled tracery, and capped with pinnacles, open parapets and battlements, such as
those at Wrexham and S. Mary's, Taunton, are also characteristic of this period. The windows, with
vertical mullions running to the window-head, which is frequently a four-centred arch, have one or
more transoms, enriched with battle- ments or Tudor flowers, to divide the lofty windows
horizontally (plate 1 5). The many choir screens and stalls, .with their canopies, have panels, friezes,
crestings, and finials, and are frequently carved with an angular treatment of the vine and its
tendrils, more or less conventionalized (figs. 1-7), the Tudor flower being perhaps the most
prevalent. The freedom and flexibility of the modelling and carving of the middle period of Gothic,
was replaced by a stiff symmetrical arrangement of foliage, and the painted diapers succeeded the
carved ones of the earlier period. The terminals of the ends of pews were frequently en- riched with
foliated " Poppy-heads," often of great beauty.

Heraldic forms, such as shields, with their supporters, together with badges and crests, were largely
associated with the ornament in the richer buildings of this per- iod, such as King's College Chapel at
Cambridge, and Henry VII. 's Chapel at \W-t- minster.

The piers of the nave are usually rectangular or lozenge in section, consisting of a few rounds and
double ogee moulds, which are fre- quently carried round the arch without the intervening capital;
or an octagonal capital, with the typical square foliated ornament, is led by some of the round
members of the pier; or a series of moulded capitals, without enrichment, is employed. The only
enrichment in the hollows of the strings and arch-mouldings is a four-petalled flower, alternate
square and circular (figs. 7 and 8)
RENCH GOTHIC.

French cathedrals show a marked contrast in scale and enrichment to those of England, being wider, shorter,
and higher in proportion, and the sculpture bolder, more profuse, and larger in scale than in temporary English
cathedrals. The principal door- ways are also on a large scale, and are usually enriched with numerous statues,
placed under canopies, which cover the whole of the recessed arch; whilst the cen- tral pier of the door,
carrying the figure of the Madonna or a bishop, supports the tympanun (the space within the arch), which is
also cov- ered with horizontal bands of sculp- ture. The figure sculpture of the late 1 3th and early i4th
centuries has considerable skill of composition, and well-arranged draperies; broad and simple in mass, and
vigorous in execution (page 165).

The gables of the doors are fre- quently enriched with crockets and finials, or with beautiful open tracery as in
the west doors of Rouen Cathedral. The Cathedral of Amiens has a delightful series of sculptured reliefs of
Biblical subjects, called the Bible of Amiens, enclosed within quatre-foil panels, which extends across the lower
part of the facade.

relief. It differs from contemporary English work in having a rounder form of leaf, divided into lobes, with
strongly marked radiating mid-ribs (compare fig. I, plate 20, with fig. I, plate 17). The capitals, with the foliage
clinging closely to the bell (fig. 3), have not the spiral tendency which characterized English ornament of ihe
same period. The abacus is generally square (page 159), and the clustered pillars and the bell-shaped moulded
capitals, without foliage, which are typical of English work, are almost un- known in France. In the I4th century,
the foliage, like contemporary carving in England, is naturalistic (figs. 4 and 5, plate 20, and page , with a
ribbed tool-mark following the direction of the leaf.

Among the many splendid examples of the i^th century, or flam- boyant period, are the stalls of Amiens (fig.
2), where flowing tracery is intermingled with rich cusped-arches, open gables, and crocketed
pinnacles
RENASCENCE ARCHITECTURE & ORNAMENT.

Lombardy, in the north of Italy, had witnessed a singular blending of the old classic art with the vigorous
traditions and myths of the Longobards, and the symbolisms of the old Byzantine; thus producing the
architecture known as Lombardic, with its multiplicity of small columns and arches, quaint imagery of
sculpture, and the frequent use of a lion or dragon as a support for the columns. These are features of the
early art at Lucca, Bergamo, Padua, Verona, and other towns in Lombardy (see Romanesque, page 33) ; a
beautiful illustration from Lucca is given in the appendix to Ruskin's " Stones of Venice," Vol. i. Contemporary
with this period came the Gothic influence, with its clustered columns, pointed arches, its cusps and crockets,
and its strong vitality, impressing the arts and architecture with a lasting influence; hence, during the I2th and
I3th cen- turies in Italy, this intermingling of styles, traditions, religious beliefs and myths, produced an art
barbaric and vigorous in character, the imagery full of suggestiveness, and the detail rich and varied in con-
ception". Yet it was but the herald of a style which culminated in the glorious epoch of the Renascence, a style
where symmetry was to play an important part, as in classic art, where refinement of line and detail, of culture
and craftsmanship, are found ; and which, though beautiful in proportion, unity of parts, and perfect
adaptability, yet lacked that symbolism, suggestiveness, inventiveness and rugged strength of the early
Byzantine, Lombardic, and Gothic styles.

Italian Renascence is broadly divided into three periods, viz. : The Tre-Cento, A.D. 1300-1400; the Quattro-
Cento, 1400-1500; and the Cinque-Cento, 1500-1600.

In the Tre-Cento period the sculpture and decorative arts are marked by dignity of conception, and a mingling
of Gothic and classic traditions. Two of the earliest examples showing Renascence in- fluence are the
hexagonal pulpits in the Baptistery at Pisa and the Cathedral at Siena by Niccolo Pisano. These are transitional
in style having sculptured panels, distinctly classical in treatment, associated with cusped Gothic arches.
Niccolo also executed the beautiful octagonal fountain at Perugia and was assisted in much of his work by his
son Giovanni Pisano, who was the author of the beautiful pulpit in the Cathedral at Pisa. A fine monumental
work showing these characteristics, is the tomb of S. Peter, the martyr, in the Church of S. Eustorgio at Milan.

In the architecture, Gothic forms prevail, together with panelling of white and grey marble, lofty pilasters,
pinnacles, and gables, en- riched with a geometric patterning of marbles or mosaic, and also a frequent use of
the twisted pilla

The first and second storeys of this Loggia are roofed with low cupolas. In the first storey the cupolas are
decorated by Giovanni da Udine, two with trellis work alternate with one with coffered panels. The second
storey is the most richly decorated, (plate 23), the walls, piers, pilasters, and ceilings being covered with arab-
esques. In the cupolas of the ceiling are small rectangular panels painted by Raphael with Scriptural subjects,
and called Raphael's Bible. The arabesques are painted in polychrome, chiefly in the secondary colours, on a
light ground, with panels painted with festoons of fruit on a dark blue ground by Giovanni da Udine.

The third storey was also largely the work of Giovanni (1520 30), but in 1580 Padre I. Danti painted upon the
walls maps of ancient and modern Italy, and Tempesta and Paul Briel, towns and landscapes.

.Modelled stucco work took a most important part in framing the pilasters and panels of this loggia, doubtless
under the direction of Giovanni da Udine, for Georgio Vasari writes : " One Pietro Lorenzo Luzzi, a youth from
Feltri, studied many of the graves and grottos, and earned for himself the name of Morto di Feltri. He re-
introduced into ornamental art Stucco and Sgraffito, for al- though it may have been by Giovanni da Udine and
other artists who are now distinguishing themselves, that these decorations have been brought to their
ultimate perfection, yet it is not to be for- gotten that our first thanks and commendations are due to Morto di
Feltri, who was the first to discover and restore the kind of painting we call ' grotesque,' seeming that they
were for the most part hidden among the subterranean portions of the ruins of Rome whence he brought
them."

Morto went to Florence, and with Andrea di Cosimo, executed at the Gondi Palace the first sgraffito
decorations.

Contemporaneously with the Loggia of the Vatican, the Stanze, a series of four rooms, was enriched with
mural paintings by Raphael. His first mural painting here was the " Disputa " ( 1 508) in the Camera della
Segnatura, followed by the " Poetry, Philos- ophy, or School of Athens " and " Jurisprudence," the ceiling being
painted with figures and arabesques by Sodoma (Bazzi). The Stanze of Heliodorus (1514) has the "Expulsion of
Heliodorus from the Temple," " Miracle of Bolsena," " Leo I. and Attila," and the " Deliverance of S. Peter." In
the Stanze Incendio del Borgo (1517), are the "Incendio del Borgo Vecchio," the " Justifica- tion of Leo HI.,
before Charlemagne," the " Coronation of Charle- magne by Leo III.," and the " Victory of Leo IV. over the
Saracens." Perino del Vaga and Giovanni da Udine assisted Raphael in the last two paintings. The mural
paintings for the Sala of Constantine were designed by Raphael, but were carried out by his pupils, Giulio
Romano, Francesco Penni, and Raphael del Colle.