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Ahmad S. Al-Adsani
Omid Beik

Multiphase
Hybrid
Electric
Machines
Applications for Electrified Powertrains
Multiphase Hybrid Electric Machines
Ahmad S. Al-Adsani • Omid Beik

Multiphase Hybrid Electric

Machines
Applications for Electrified Powertrains
Ahmad S. Al-Adsani Omid Beik
Department of Electrical Engineering Department of Electrical and Computer
Technology, Public Authority for Applied Engineering
Education and Training (PAAET) McMaster University
College of Technological Studies (CTS) Hamilton, ON, Canada
Kuwait City, Kuwait

ISBN 978-3-030-80434-3 ISBN 978-3-030-80435-0 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80435-0

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the
material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

Development of road vehicles through electrified powertrains without compromising

their power capability, efficiency, performance, reliability, safety, driving range, and
cost has been the center of attention in academia and industry. This book is a user-
friendly reference and attractive subject for researchers and undergraduate and
graduate engineers who are interested in multiphase, permanent magnet and hybrid
machine topologies with a specific application in electric and hybrid electric
vehicles.
This book begins with an overview and principals of classical electric machine
operation, magnetic modeling, and characteristics of materials. Various classical
electric machine topologies, including brushed DC, and different AC machines are
discussed in Chap. 1.
Chapter 2 discusses hybrid electric machine concept together with a review of
different hybrid machine topologies, indicating their operational philosophy, advan-
tages, and disadvantages.
Chapter 3 presents a hybrid permanent magnet (HPM) machine topology that is
selected and analyzed in terms of its geometry, excitation field technique, back-
EMF, and developed electromagnetic torque for both no-load and on-load opera-
tions. The HPM topology consists of two different synchronous machines, a perma-
nent magnet (PM) and a wound field (WF) machine that are coupled on the same
rotor shaft, rotate with the same speed, and share the same multiphase stator.
Chapter 4 discusses an overview of multiphase electric machines. AC and
rectified DC output voltage waveforms of three- and nine-phase systems with
associated power electronics are presented. A comparison of three- and two nine-
phase machine winding, rectification characteristics, and losses for both HPM and
PM machine topologies is presented in Chap. 4.
Chapter 5 presents an overview of electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric
vehicles (HEVs), their powertrains, and on-board energy sources. Different battery
technologies are discussed, and in the case of HEVs the feasibility of disconnecting
the internal combustion engine (ICE) from the electric drivetrain is studied. Driving
range, fuel economy, and emissions are evaluated over different driving cycles, and
at different vehicle powertrain hybridization ratios (HR) in Chap. 5.
v
vi Preface

In Chap. 6, a dynamic model of vehicle powertrain that includes a HPM generator

integrated into an ICE in an SHEV while considering a load demand is presented.
The ICE/HPM generator output power control scheme is modeled while maintaining
ICE efficiency within its optimal region. Several operating scenarios for the HPM
generator excitation scheme are assessed, and the HPM generator is characterized
utilizing a 32-phase brushless excitation scheme. In addition, different cases, such as
normal, boost, and buck functionality of HPM machine operation, are analyzed, and
a choice of the most appropriate operation mode has been selected to regulate the
total back-EMF via a WF excitation current control.
Dr. Al-Adsani wishes to express his sincere gratitude toward his wife, and the
authors extend special thanks to Dr. Nigel Schofield at the University of Hudders-
field for his valuable inputs and to the team at Springer for their care during the book
production.

Kuwait City, Kuwait Ahmad S. Al-Adsani

Toronto, ON, Canada Omid Beik
Contents

1 General Electric Machine Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Magnetic Circuit Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Magnetic Field Distribution and Flux Density . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Ferromagnetic Materials and Magnetization Curves . . . . . 3
1.2 Electric Machine Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Overview of Classical Electric Machine Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1 Brushed DC and AC Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2 Brushless AC Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.3 Switch Reluctance Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 WF and PM Synchronous Machine Excitation Fields . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.1 Magnetic Flux Path Representation of WF
Synchronous Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.2 Magnetic Flux Path Representation of PM
Synchronous Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2 Hybrid Electric Machine Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Hybrid Electric Machine Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Different Hybrid Machine Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.1 PM Synchronous Machine with Claw Pole
Field Excitation (PSCPF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.2 Toroidal-Stator Transverse-Flux Machine (TSTFM) . . . . . 21
2.3.3 Hybrid Excitation Synchronous Machine (HESM) . . . . . . 23
2.3.4 Synchronous Permanent Magnet Hybrid AC
Machine (SynPM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.5 Consequent Pole Permanent Magnet Hybrid
Excitation Machine (CPPM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.6 Field Controlled Torus-NS (FCT-NS) Machine . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.7 Dual-Rotor Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.8 Imbricated Hybrid Excitation Machine (IHEM) . . . . . . . . 33

vii
viii Contents

2.3.9 Series Double Excited Synchronous Machine

(SDESM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3.10 Switch Reluctance Machine with Stator Field
Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.11 Dual-Stator Hybrid Excited Synchronous
Wind Generator (DSHESG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.4 Summary of Surveyed Literature on HPM Machines . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3 Hybrid Permanent Magnet Machine Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2 Machine Volume Envelope Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2.1 PM Machine Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.2.2 PM Machine Stator Winding Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.2.3 Stator Winding Fill Factor and Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.2.4 Finite Element Method Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2.5 Machine Back-EMF Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.6 PM Machine Analysis Via EMC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.3 WF Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.3.1 WF Rotor Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.3.2 WF to PM Split Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.3.3 Comparative Analysis of WF Rotor Designs . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.4 HPM Machine Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.4.1 Torque Prediction and Saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.4.2 Synchronous Inductance and Winding Resistance . . . . . . 73
3.5 HPM Machine Final Design Model Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.5.1 Rotor PM Demagnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.5.2 Core Loss Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.6 HPM Machine Thermal Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.6.1 General Principle of the Lumped Parameter Method . . . . . 81
3.6.2 Conduction Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.6.3 Convection Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.6.4 Radiation Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.6.5 HPM Machine Thermal Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.7 Comparison Between PM and Four HPM Machine
Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4 Multiphase HPM Generator Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.1 Overview on Multiphase Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.1.1 Multiphase Windings Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.1.2 Rectified Voltage due to Three- and Nine-Phase
HPM Generator Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.2 Nine-Phase HPM Generator Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.2.1 Nine-Phase Winding Layout and Back-EMF . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.2.2 Back-EMF and Torque Waveform Harmonics
Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Contents ix

4.2.3 Synchronous Inductance Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

4.2.4 Construction of HPM Machines Prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.2.5 Resistance and Inductance Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.3 Analysis Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.3.1 General dq Mathematical Model of HPM Generator . . . . . 115
4.3.2 Simulation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.4 Three- and Nine-Phase HPM Generator System Studies . . . . . . . . 119
4.4.1 Impact on Synchronous Inductance and Rectifier . . . . . . . 121
4.4.2 System Sensitivity to Generator Synchronous
Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.4.3 DC-Link Voltage Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.5 Loss Audit of Generator Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.5.2 Core Loss Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.5.3 Passive and Active Converter Loss for HPM
and PM Generator Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5 Electric and Hybrid Electric Powertrains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.2 Overview of EVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.2.1 EV Powertrain Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.2.2 Battery Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.3 Overview of HEVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.3.1 HEV Powertrain Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.4 Vehicle Driving Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.5 Series Hybrid Electric Vehicle (SHEV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.5.1 ZEBRA Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.5.2 Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.5.3 Engine-Mounted Multiphase HPM Generator . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.6 Electric Vehicle Range Extender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.6.2 Literature Review of EV Range Extender Studies . . . . . . . 160
5.7 ICE/HPM Generator Range Extender in SHEVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.7.1 Vehicle Traction Machine Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.7.2 Hybridization Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.7.3 Range Extender Sizing in SHEV Powertrain . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.7.4 Study Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6 Operation and Characterization of Multiphase HPM
Generator in SHEV Powertrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.2 HPM Machine Back-EMF Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.2.1 Control Strategy Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.2.2 DC-link Design Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
x Contents

6.3 HPM Machine Output Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

6.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.3.2 HPM Generator Operating Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.3.3 Energy Loss Prediction for Two Driving Cycles . . . . . . . . 187
6.3.4 Solving Final Choice with Full Simulation Model . . . . . . 189
6.3.5 Thermal Analysis Results of the Investigated
HPM Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.4 HPM Machine Characterization Using Brushless Excitor . . . . . . . . 194
6.4.1 32-Phase Brushless Excitation Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.4.2 Performance Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
6.4.3 Efficiency Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Chapter 1
General Electric Machine Theory

1.1 Magnetic Circuit Principles

In electric machines, a magnetism phenomenon is utilized to build an electromotive

force (EMF) to supply an electric load, as in generators, or to drive a mechanical load
as in motors. In electric devices, four basic principles can describe how magnetic
field is used [1]:
(i) In a current-carrying conductor, a magnetic field is produced around that
conductor.
(ii) In transformer action, a time changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil
if it passes on it.
(iii) In generator action, a moving conductor in the presence of a magnetic field
induces a voltage and hence current flows through that conductor.
(iv) In motor action, a current-carrying conductor in the presence of a magnetic field
has an electromotive force induced on it.

1.1.1 Magnetic Field Distribution and Flux Density

The magnetic field that is created by current-carrying conductors based on Ampere’s

right-hand rule, as in Fig. 1.1a, shows a right hand with the thumb pointing in the
direction of current flow, while the magnetic field is rotating in the direction of the
other fingers. Notice in Fig 1.1b that the symbol ⨂ denotes a cross-sectional view of
the conductor carrying the current into the paper, while the symbol ⦿ denotes the
current flow out of the paper. A magnetic field intensity (H ) is characterized as an
effort a current is putting into establishing a magnetic field. The field intensity due to
excitation DC current (I), which passes in a coil with (N ) turns through magnetic
circuit path length (Lc), is calculated in (1.1) [2]. The strength of a magnetic field flux
density (B) is governed by H and core material, as in (1.2). μ represents the magnetic

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 1

A. S. Al-Adsani, O. Beik, Multiphase Hybrid Electric Machines,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80435-0_1
2 1 General Electric Machine Theory

Fig. 1.1 Magnetic field

direction due to a current-
carrying conductor coil (a)
Current-carrying conductor
coil and right-hand rule (b)
Magnetic flux direction for
in and out of the page
current directions

permeability of the material. A convenient way of representing the magnetizability

of materials is by comparing material permeability to the permeability of free space
(μo ¼ 4π  107 H/m), which is referred to as relative permeability (μr). Note in the
magnetic circuit that the flux density is governed by the flux (φ) and the cross-
sectional area (A) of the medium that it is passing through, as in (1.4).

NI
H¼ ð1:1Þ
Lc
B ¼ μH ð1:2Þ
μ
μr ¼ ð1:3Þ
μo
φ
B¼ ð1:4Þ
A

By considering the simple core shape in Fig. 1.1a, the magnetic path in the core
has a uniform shape, which has a reluctance value that depends on the path length,
core permeability, and cross-sectional area as in (1.5). The reluctance in the magnetic
circuit is like the resistance in the electric circuit, where one governs the flow of flux
and the flow of current, respectively, as in Fig. 1.2. In the magnetic circuit, the coil
has NI quantity that is called magnetomotive force (MMF). However, for permanent
magnet (PM) materials, the MMF is calculated as in (1.7), where Hc is the PM core
field intensity and Lc is the PM core length (thickness).
1.1 Magnetic Circuit Principles 3

Fig. 1.2 Electric and its magnetic circuit analogy (a) Electric circuit (b) Magnetic circuit

L
R ¼ ð1:5Þ
μA
MMF ¼ NI ð1:6Þ
MMF ¼ H c Lc ð1:7Þ

1.1.2 Ferromagnetic Materials and Magnetization Curves

When the magnetic circuit is divided into sections of materials that easily allow flux
line path to be formed, this is called ferromagnetic materials (FERMMs). In
FERMMs, there are atoms, and each atom has its own magnetic moment direction,
which is separated by a domain wall in each crystal boundary, as in Fig. 1.3a. These
magnetic moments tend to align in the same direction over domains containing many
atoms when they are subjected to a magnetic field intensity [2]. As H increases
further and further, more domain directions will align until all the domains are in the
same direction and when the material is magnetized to the maximum extent (satu-
ration region), as shown in Fig. 1.3a. Here, if the majority of the domains are in the
same directions after the applied field is removed, the material is said to be perma-
nently magnetized. Another important phenomenon that occurs in FERMMs is
called hysteresis. Hysteresis is described by referring to a typical B–H curve in
Fig. 1.3a. When a current flows through a coil warped around a ferromagnetic core,
MMF will then be created. As the MMF increases, so does H until the core saturates,
which is presented by point o to point a in Fig. 1.3a. Now, if the current decreased to
zero, the MMF and hence field intensity will go to zero. However, flux density will
not go to zero, which is presented by point a to point b in Fig. 1.3a. Here, the core
remains magnetized, even though the applied current and field intensity have gone to
zero. The magnetism that remains in the core is called residual magnetism, and this
effect creates a permanent magnet. If the applied current is reversed and slowly
increases in the negative direction, the flux density will be driven to zero, as
presented by point b to c in Fig. 1.3a. The negative field intensity needed to drive
B to zero is called coercive force, as presented by point c in Fig. 1.3a. As the current
4 1 General Electric Machine Theory

Fig. 1.3 General hysteresis loops for FERMMs (a) B versus H hysteresis loop showing path major
points (b) Soft ferromagnetic materials (c) Hard ferromagnetic materials

is made more negative, the core will eventually saturate and the flux density will
have a polarity opposite to that in the original case, as presented by point d in
Fig. 1.3a. Finally, if the current is reduced to zero and then made positive again, the
curve will join up with the original curve passing through points e and f [2], where
this closed loop joining points a, b, c, d, e, and f is called a hysteresis loop.
Thus, a PM material is typically a metal alloy, which after being subjected to field
intensity retains a substantial residual flux density (Br). In order to reduce the flux
density to zero, an H field direction opposite in sense to the original magnetizing
field must be applied. This impressed field magnitude must have a value (Hc) known
as the coercive force.
Here, materials magnetism can be categorized as permanent or temporary based
on their ability to be magnetized and hold their magnetism or their magnetism
1.2 Electric Machine Fundamentals 5

Fig. 1.4 Different cuts of PM materials available in the market [3] (a) Ferrite (b) Neodymium–
Iron–Boron (NdFeB) (c) Samarium–Cobalt (SmCo) (d) Aluminum–Nickel–Cobalt (AlNiCo)
(Magnetic materials: Goudsmit Magnetics, the Netherlands)

Fig. 1.5 Hard and soft

permanent magnet
demagnetization curves

vanishes as the DC supply source of the conductor that carries the current is turned
off [1]. Magnetic materials are relatively easy to magnetize since their relative
permeability values are high. FERMMs are classified as soft, in which the most
common magnetic materials include steels, iron, nickel, aluminum, cobalt, and rare-
earth elements. Fig. 1.3b illustrates the expected hysteresis loop behavior for the soft
FERMMs. Hard FERMMs, which have the expected hysteresis loop as in Fig. 1.3c,
comprise the permanent magnet materials such as alnico, the alloys of cobalt with
rare-earth elements such as samarium, copper–nickel alloys, chromium steels, and
other metal alloys. Fig. 1.4 shows different permanent magnet materials with special
cuts found in the market. In Fig. 1.5, the B–H demagnetization curves for several soft
and hard magnetic materials with different grades are illustrated. The PM material
grade is a number, which is specified after material type, to show different curves for
the same material based on cost, magnetic performance, and operational temperature
resistance.

1.2 Electric Machine Fundamentals

Electric machines are considered electromechanical power converters, such that they
convert mechanical power into electrical, as in generators, and convert electrical into
mechanical energy, as in motors. For generators, a source of mechanical power is
6 1 General Electric Machine Theory

Fig. 1.6 Fundamental

concepts associated with
electrical/mechanical
systems

required to rotate the machine shaft (prime mover), via applied torque (T ), at a fixed
or variable speed (ω) to develop an electromotive force (voltage difference) at the
machine terminals (v) and vice versa for motor action as illustrated in Fig. 1.6.
Hence, the electric field is considered the coupled medium between generation and
motor output quantities. The electric machines differ in their internal magnetic
source type, construction, and operation. In this chapter, the source of the magnetic
field in general electric machines and their stator and rotor geometry are discussed.

1.3 Overview of Classical Electric Machine Topologies

Electric machines consist of two major parts: stator and rotor. Stator is the stationary
part that does not move during operation, while the rotor is free to move and it can be
the inner or outer part of the machine. Both stator and rotor parts are made of
FERMMs that are discussed in the previous section. The stator accommodates the
alternating current (AC) conductors in slots that are cut on the inner periphery and in
some machines topologies in the outer periphery of the rotor structure. The coupling
between stator and rotor fields can be increased by selecting a low reluctance
material, which increases the flux density through the machine’s active parts. The
classification of various electrical machine topologies focuses on the machines with
or without commutators together with synchronous and asynchronous AC machines
types, as shown in Fig. 1.7. The utilization of these machine topologies in the
industry is subjected to meet the designer target in terms of efficiency, power
density, and cost while their usage ranges from light- to heavy-duty loads.
1.3 Overview of Classical Electric Machine Topologies 7

Fig. 1.7 Classical electric machine common classifications

1.3.1 Brushed DC and AC Machines

Direct current (DC) machines have essential features that made them continually find
application because of the relative simplicity and flexibility of their drive systems
compared with AC machines. In brushed DC machine topology, as in Fig. 1.8,
having a higher number of stator salient poles causes core saturation; hence, two,
four, and six poles are common. Their field winding is placed on the salient stator,
and the armature winding is placed on the round rotor. Through the field winding, a
DC current is applied to produce the flux, which presents the major component in the
general induced voltage formula. Such that, the induced voltage (e) in a conductor of
length (l) moving with linear velocity (v) in a non-time-varying magnetic flux
density is given in (1.8) [1, 4]. A unidirectional terminal voltage can be applied
through a brush and mechanical commutator assembly. For a single coil in DC
machines, a commutator action is to provide a full-wave rectification, and by
8 1 General Electric Machine Theory

Fig. 1.8 Radial view for two and four salient pole brushed DC machines topology. (a) Two salient
pole (b) Four salient pole

assuming sinusoidal flux distribution, the voltage waveform between brushes can be
transformed to a DC or average voltage (Ea) value between brushes as in (1.9) [4],
where ω represents the machine rotational speed.

e ¼ Blv ð1:8Þ
Z π
1 2
Ea ¼ ωNφ sin ωtd ðωt Þ ¼ ωNφ ð1:9Þ
π 0 π

DC machine working principle lays on the current flow through a coil within a
magnetic field, and then a magnetic force is produced to generate a torque that rotates
the rotor through four field excitation design topologies to display a wide variety of
volt-ampere or speed-torque characteristics for both dynamic and steady-state oper-
ation [4]. In DC generators, the field excitation topologies are called (i) separately
excited, (ii) shunt, (iii) series, (iv) cumulative compound (adds shunt and series
effect), and (v) differential compounded (subtract shunt and series effect) generator
[4]. Generally, these DC generator schemes are compared by their terminal voltage
regulation. Unlike DC motors, which are compared based on their speed regulation
capability. DC motors are driven from DC power supply. Unless otherwise specified,
the input voltage to a DC motor is assumed to be constant because that assumption
simplifies the analysis of motor comparison. Also, DC motors have five field
excitation topologies: (i) separately excited, (ii) shunt, (iii) series, (iv) compound,
and (v) permanent magnet [1].
However, brushed AC machines, as in Fig. 1.9, differ from DC machines in their
armature winding location. Their armature windings are almost always located on
the stator, while their field windings are located on the rotor. Generally, there are two
magnetic fields presented: magnetic field from rotor circuit DC current excitation
and another magnetic field from stator circuit. The interaction of these two magnetic
fields produces a torque in the machine, just like two PMs near each other that will
experience a torque that causes them to line up. The rotating magnetic field from the
1.3 Overview of Classical Electric Machine Topologies 9

Fig. 1.9 Radial view for two and four salient pole brushed three-phase AC machine topology. (a)
Two pole (b) Four pole

rotor field windings of an AC machine induces a three-phase set of AC voltages,

which are shifted by 120 electrical, into the stator armature windings calculated as
in (1.10). Conversely, a three-phase set of currents in the stator armature windings
produces a rotating magnetic field, which interacts with the rotor magnetic field,
producing torque in the machine [1]. Hence, the relationship between electrical angle
(θe) and the mechanical angle (θm) for AC machines with a number of poles (P) is
given in (1.11). Similarly, the relationship between electrical frequency ( fe) and the
mechanical frequency ( fm) of magnetic field rotation is given in (1.12). Note that it is
also possible to relate the electrical frequency in hertz to the resulting mechanical
speed (nm) of the magnetic fields in revolutions per minute (RPM) as in (1.13).

ea ðtÞ ¼ ωNφ sinðωtÞ

eb ðtÞ ¼ ωNφ sinðωt  120o Þ ð1:10Þ
ec ðtÞ ¼ ωNφ sinðωt  240o Þ

P
θ e ¼ θm ð1:11Þ
2

P
fe ¼ f ð1:12Þ
2 m
10 1 General Electric Machine Theory

nm P
fe ¼ ð1:13Þ
120

There are two rotor types, salient and nonsalient (round), in wound field
(WF) synchronous generators. The rotors are subjected to changing magnetic fields,
and it is constructed of thin laminations to reduce eddy current losses. Rotor DC field
winding can be supplied by DC source through slip rings and brushes as in Fig. 1.9,
or it can be through a special DC source mounted directly on the shaft of the
synchronous generator. Slip rings and brushes are applied for small synchronous
machines because no other methods are cost-effective [5]. On the other hand, large
generators and motors and brushless exciters are used to supply the DC field current
to the machine. A brushless exciter is a small AC generator with its field circuit
mounted on the stator and its armature circuit on the rotor [4]. By controlling the
small DC field current of the exciter generator, the rotor DC field winding of the
main WF synchronous generator is regulated.

1.3.2 Brushless AC Machines

An induction machine (IMs) is one in which AC current is supplied to the stator

directly and to the rotor by induction or transformer action. As in the synchronous
machine, the stator winding is like the synchronous generator discussed in the
previous section. When excited from a balanced three-phase source, it produces a
magnetic field in the air-gap rotating at synchronous speed as determined by the
numbers of poles and the applied stator voltage frequency. In IM topology, there are
two rotor types: squirrel-cage and wound rotor [4]. In this section, only the squirrel-
cage rotor is considered, as shown in Fig. 1.10. Compared with the wound rotor type,

Fig. 1.10 Radial view for brushless three-phase squirrel-cage IM machine topology
1.3 Overview of Classical Electric Machine Topologies 11

Fig. 1.11 Radial view for round and salient four-pole brushless three-phase PM machine topology.
(a) Salient PM rotor (b) Nonsalient PM rotor

the squirrel-cage rotor winding does not require slip rings and brushes; however, it
consists of conducting bars embedded in slots in the rotor iron core and short-
circuited at each end by conducting end rings. The squirrel-cage motor is substan-
tially a constant speed motor having a few percent drops in speed (slip) from no load
to full load. Different classes of squirrel-cage machines are presented in the literature
based on the effective resistance of the rotor-cage circuit [4]. Such that, the effect of
using these rotor-cage classes dictates machine torque-speed characteristics. Hence,
the extreme simplicity and raggedness of the squirrel-cage construction are excep-
tional advantages of this type of IM.
As for the brushless machine types, permanent magnet AC machines or brushless
PM machines are occasionally built to operate as synchronous machines with
rotating field winding replaced by a PM. Fig. 1.11 illustrates the brushless three-
phase PM synchronous machine having either salient or nonsalient PM rotor type.
The flux paths due to a four-pole PM AC machine that links stator phase coils with
rotor magnetic field are shown in Fig. 1.11a. Knowing that, if a constant torque is
exerted on the shaft to run the machine at a constant speed, this provides generator
action. On the other hand, if the three-phase winding is excited using a semicon-
ductor control switching pattern, then the machine is operating as a motor.

1.3.3 Switch Reluctance Machines

In terms of electric machine construction, switch reluctance machines (SRMs) are

considered a simple and rigid machine type. Their excitation winding is placed in the
salient or nonsalient stator only, where they always have salient magnetic rotor
shape. They operate using generated flux linkage due to stator applied current; its
path between stator and rotor tries to generate maximum torque through a tendency
12 1 General Electric Machine Theory

Fig. 1.12 Radial view for brushless SRM topology showing two stator poles to rotor poles ratio.
(a) 4/2 SRM (b) 6/4 SRM

to align rotor with the stator-produced flux linkage [4], as shown in Fig. 1.12. For the
control, the rotor position sensing is required in order to properly energize the stator
phase windings to produce torque. The SRM needs to be designed such that the
stator winding inductance varies with rotor position, while the stator core of SRM
requires high permeability magnetic material. The torque characteristics of SRM are
governed by the saliency of stator and rotor, which enhances the difference between
maximum and minimum inductances [4].
In SRMs, the torque is proportional to the magnitude of the phase current and
does not depend on its direction. Hence, unidirectional current can be used to supply
the stator winding through solid-state switches. Therefore, for motor drive, only half
of the solid-state switches are required to energize the stator phase through a single
current direction, which reduces the control electronics by half compared with the
other machine drive system [4], such as in brushless PM machines. The zero torque
position in the SRM cannot be presented if the ratio between the stator poles (SP) to
rotor poles is not an integer. For instance, SP/P for 6/4 SRM is 1.5, and hence there
will not be a simultaneous alignment of stator phase inductance.
However, in some instances, a SRM with an integer pole ratio is desirable; in this
case, the elimination of zero torque is attained by constructing the machine with an
asymmetric rotor [4]. Therefore, the rotor pole width is made wider than that of the
stator. In general, when a given phase is excited, the torque is such that the rotor is
pulled to the nearest position of maximum flux linkage. As excitation is removed
from this phase and the next phase is excited, the rotor is then pulled to a new
maximum flux-linkage position [4].
1.4 WF and PM Synchronous Machine Excitation Fields 13

1.4 WF and PM Synchronous Machine Excitation Fields

As discussed in the previous sections, the wound field (WF) and PM rotor types of
AC synchronous machines provide rotating magnetic fields that produce the three-
phase set of voltages in the stator coils as given in (1.10). The excitation field in the
WF rotor type is supplied by the DC voltage source through slip rings and brushes,
as in Fig. 1.9. While the PM rotor type does not need that, it instead requires spatial
arranging of soft or hard PM material, which can be accommodated on the rotor core
in common ways known as surface-mounted magnets, inset magnets, buried mag-
nets with radial magnetization, and buried magnets with circumferential magnetiza-
tion [5]. Note that, in this book, surface-mounted magnet rotor type is chosen for the
synchronous PM machine topology, as in Fig. 1.11.

1.4.1 Magnetic Flux Path Representation of WF

Synchronous Machines

By Ampere’s law, the current in a coil of wire wrapped around a ferromagnetic

material core produces a magnetic flux in the core. In a magnetic path representation,
the reluctance is the counterpart of electrical circuit resistance, and its unit is ampere-
turns per weber (A•t/Wb), while the MMF in magnetic path representation is
analogous to EMF voltage in an electrical circuit and its unit is ampere-turns (A•t).
The magnetic path representation translates the magnetic field behavior within
electric machine parts to a simplified manner, which otherwise is complex to analyze
for machine design process, as will be seen in detail in Chap. 3.
Assume that a concentrated stator winding is employed when the number of stator
slots is equal to the number of rotor poles. By considering a sectional view of a WF
synchronous machine, here the flux does not behave in a simple manner since there
are different ferromagnetic rotor and stator materials in addition to air-gap and
different cross-sectional flux path areas. Therefore, different cross-section path
reluctances are calculated using (1.5). Machine active parts are the parts through
which magnetic flux is passing causing generation of EMF voltage and electromag-
netic torque. There are nine different reluctances and one rotor coil MMF, which is
calculated as in (1.6), in the considered machine section. The flux-linkage path
reluctances are represented by left side stator yoke (R sy1), right side stator yoke
(R sy2 ), stator tooth (R st ), stator tooth tip (R stt ), air-gap (R g ), rotor tooth tip (R rtt ),
rotor tooth (R rt ), left rotor yoke (R ry1 ), and right rotor yoke (R ry2 ), as illustrated in
Fig. 1.13. Note, air-gap reluctance is very large compared with the other core
sections’ reluctances due to very low air permeability value. Hence, Kirchhoff’s
voltage law (KVL) can then be used to calculate the magnetic flux linkage.
14 1 General Electric Machine Theory

Fig. 1.13 Magnetic flux

path representation of a WF
synchronous machine
section

Fig. 1.14 Magnetic flux

path representation of a PM
synchronous machine
section
1.4 WF and PM Synchronous Machine Excitation Fields 15

1.4.2 Magnetic Flux Path Representation of PM

Synchronous Machines

Given the same concentrated winding assumptions for the PM machine topology as
in WF machines, different cross-section path reluctances are calculated using (1.5).
There are eight different reluctances and one rotor PM MMF, which is calculated as
in (1.7), in the considered machine section. For the stator and air-gap of the PM
machine section, the flux-linkage path reluctances are similar to those found in the
WF machine case, while the PM rotor reluctances are represented by rotor PM (R m),
left rotor yoke (R ry1 ), and right rotor yoke (R ry2 ), as illustrated in Fig. 1.14. Again,
KVL can be used to calculate the magnetic flux linkage that will be shown in detail in
Chap. 3.
Chapter 2
Hybrid Electric Machine Concept

2.1 History

As the demand for less expensive and more efficient electrified powertrain grows,
the need for optimized electric machines becomes more apparent. An interesting
electric machine topology that leads to simplified powertrains is hybrid excitation
electric machines. In hybrid excitation machines, there exist two magnetic fields.
This provides a flexible field control capability with an acceptable power density and
without the need for an expensive power converter control system.
Different methods of hybrid excitation field regulation topologies, including a
PM combined with a WF excitation, have been considered in the literature [6–15,
16–39]. By combining PM and WF excitation, here referred to as hybrid PM (HPM)
machine, the advantages of both PM and WF synchronous machines are utilized.
The HPMs can be classified based on their magnetic excitation field paths (series or
parallel) and based on their place in the machine stationary, rotary or both parts, as in
Fig. 2.1.

2.2 Hybrid Electric Machine Classification

For HPM machine topologies, there are at least two excitation field sources that
provide the net machine excitation. In general, a PM source provides the main
excitation, and a wound field component acts to regulate the machine flux distribu-
tion either by boosting or by weakening the PM field depending on the direction of
the wound field DC excitation current. The DC field winding may be placed on the
rotor part of the machine as the PMs [22, 23, 33, 39], which necessitates slip rings
and brushes or an exciter, or on the stator [17–22, 24, 26, 28, 31, 37–39].

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 17

A. S. Al-Adsani, O. Beik, Multiphase Hybrid Electric Machines,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80435-0_2
18 2 Hybrid Electric Machine Concept

Fig. 2.1 General

classification of HPM
machines

Fig. 2.2 Cross sections of the permanent magnet synchronous machine with claw pole field
excitation (PSCPF) [16]

2.3 Different Hybrid Machine Topologies

For the HPM machines to operate as a variable voltage generator, the range of
air-gap flux density variation has to be designed to match the anticipated application
requirements. A number of HPM machine topologies have been reported in the
literature in recent years. The reported HPM machine topologies will be reviewed
next. An assessment will be made for each topology with a view of arriving at a
topology that will be studied in the following chapters.

2.3.1 PM Synchronous Machine with Claw Pole Field

Excitation (PSCPF)

PM synchronous machine with claw pole field excitation (PSCPF) is briefly

discussed by Zhao and Yan [16], where machine components and the associated
flux linkages are detailed; Fig. 2.2 shows the machine cross section. The PSCPF is
composed of two parts, one called the main part and the other the assistant part. Both
2.3 Different Hybrid Machine Topologies 19

Fig. 2.3 Flux path of the

(PSCPF) machine as
reported in [16]

Fig. 2.4 Simplified construction figure of HESG as reported in [17] (a) Axial section view (b)
Radial section view

parts of the machine share one common stator. Referring to Fig. 2.2, the assistant
part is composed of components 2–5; these represent the claw pole structure. The
field winding is placed on the stator; therefore, slip rings and brushes are not
required.
When current flows through the field winding (component 5), the magnetic path
of the DC flux is through the inner cylinder of component 3 (axial); the bottom of
component 3 (radial); the outer cylinder of component 3 (axial); the air-gap δ1
(radial); plane magnet pole (axial); the main air-gap δ (radial); stator iron core
(radial); air-gap δ (radial); claw pole magnet pole 2 (radial); magnetic shaft (axial);
air-gap δ2 (radial); and inner cylinder of component 3. The magnetic path of the PM
is through the claw pole magnet pole; air-gap δ (radial); stator iron core; air-gap δ
(radial); claw-plane magnetic pole; PM (N pole); and rotor iron core and PM
(S pole), as illustrated in Fig. 2.3.
Zhao and Yan also discussed an improved PSCPF machine, referred to as the
hybrid excitation synchronous generator (HESG), as illustrated in Fig. 2.4. It is
20 2 Hybrid Electric Machine Concept

Fig. 2.5 A new type hybrid excitation claw pole synchronous machine (HECPSG) components
[40]

Fig. 2.6 HECPSG machine

assembly [40]

basically a similar structure to that of the PSCPF, the dissimilarity being that the
latter has clapboard inserts that are made of nonmagnetic material. The clapboard
introduces an air-gap and thus reduces the coupling between the PM and wound field
excitation, making the two fields independent of each other. For both the PSCPF and
HESG designs, the PM and wound field excitations act independently; that is, they
are magnetically in parallel.
In 2007, Chao-hui et al. [18] presented a study of a new HPM machine based on
the HESG topology called the hybrid excitation claw pole synchronous generator
(HECPSG). The structure of the HECPSG is shown in Figs. 2.5 and 2.6.
The stator of the HECPSG consists of multiphase windings. The claw poles of the
rotor are magnetized by a cylindrical wound coil and a cylinder-shaped permanent
magnet, which is axially magnetized. The flux under one pole pair consists of two
2.3 Different Hybrid Machine Topologies 21

Table 2.1 HESPSG advantages and disadvantages

Field
Advantages Disadvantages path
(1) Good flux weakening [18] (1) Rotor structure is Parallel
(2) The structure of the claw pole is helpful to arrange more relatively complex*
magnet poles when the rotor diameter is relatively small
[18]
(3) Slip rings and brushes are not required [18]
Note: Deduced by the author (*)
Reported in the literature [18]

parts: one is produced by the permanent magnets and the other produced by the coil
exciting current [18]. The magnetic field from one claw pole passes through the
air-gap and stator core and back to another claw pole. No detailed discussion is given
for the interaction between the PM and winding fields, that is, potential for demag-
netization, heating effects, and reaction effects. Furthermore, the contribution from
each field source to the stator-induced back-EMF is not discussed. Table 2.1 sum-
marizes the advantages and disadvantages of the HECPSG topology.

2.3.2 Toroidal-Stator Transverse-Flux Machine (TSTFM)

Spooner et al. [19]. discussed hybrid excitation of AC and DC machines for rail
traction and engine-mounted generators. Transverse-flux AC synchronous machines
are excited by means of a simple DC coil mounted on the stator, as shown in
Fig. 2.7a. Consequently, they are naturally brushless, they are reported to have
low rotor losses (since the rotor has no permanent magnet poles), and they are
mechanically suited to very high speed. However, the authors do not consider high-
frequency losses that may occur in the solid rotor poles. The basic machine cross-
section schematic is illustrated in Fig. 2.7a, consisting of two stator sections joined
by a soft-magnetic outer casing and separated by the field coil. The rotor has two
similar sections, one in each stator section and mutually displaced in space, in this
case by 180 mechanical. Each rotor section has a salient structure, Fig. 2.7b. The
field coil DC current establishes a set of north poles on rotor Sect. 1 and a set of south
poles on rotor Sect. 2, as illustrated in Fig. 2.7b. Each stator coil encloses both stator
core sections and experiences alternate north and south rotor poles as the rotor turns.
The flux-linking of a stator coil is equivalent to that in a conventional radial field
machine design of half the total core length [19] since there are empty spaces
between the rotor soft-magnetic iron poles. A major problem for designers is the
provision of sufficient magnetic material to carry flux between the two rotor sections.
Furthermore, there is a substantial leakage flux when the stator sections are faced by
the large effective air-gap of the “empty” or high reluctance rotor sections.
Fixing magnets in the empty spaces of each rotor section, as shown in Fig. 2.7c,
provides a pole opposite to those established by the field winding and enhances the
22 2 Hybrid Electric Machine Concept

Fig. 2.7 Transverse-flux machine components as reported by Spooner et al. [19] (a) Machine cross
section (b) Machine soft-magnetic rotor (c) Machine rotor with saliency and permanent magnets

mechanical rotational symmetry (balance). The flux that passes through the machine
shaft due to the permanent magnets is subtracted from that due to the excitation field
current and so makes possible a greater flux-per-pole for each rotor section. The
required field current can thus be reduced from the design of Fig. 2.7b, and leakage
flux is also reduced [19]. Thus, transverse-flux machine arrangements appear to be
an attractive option for small- and medium-size generators [19].
Spooner et al. [40] presented a rotary toroidal version of the transverse-flux
hybrid excitation machine, based on the work of Evans and Eastham transverse-
flux AC machine topology. The machine construction is illustrated in Fig. 2.8,
showing a toroidal wound stator core of multiphase windings, DC field winding
located inside the toroidal core, and two rotating discs with alternate permanent
magnet and soft-magnetic poles. The flux-linkage paths throughout the machine
parts due to both the PM’s and stationary field coil are illustrated in Fig. 2.9. If the
two rotor poles are only provided by PMs, the flux path can be traced from one rotor
plate containing north pole magnets, crossing the air-gap into the toroidal stator, and
then traveling circumferentially across the second air-gap into the south magnet pole
on the opposite plate, through the plate into the shaft and back to the first plate to
2.3 Different Hybrid Machine Topologies 23

Fig. 2.8 Toroidal

transverse-flux machine
reported by Spooner et al.
[19]

close the loop at the north pole [20], as shown in Fig. 2.9a. A modification to the
design of Fig. 2.9a has soft-magnetic poles between the respective north and south
PM poles, as illustrated in Fig. 2.11b [19], resulting in additional flux paths. Thus,
flux from the north pole on the right-hand side plate crosses to the stator but then
comes back to the same rotor disc via the soft iron pole [20], as shown in Fig. 2.9b. In
this case, flux does not generally pass through the rotor shaft. However, during the
operation of the machine, flux travels through both paths, subject to reluctance
variation in the shaft. Finally, there is a third flux path due to the field excitation
coil that drives flux through the rotor shaft, rotor plate, iron poles, air-gap, stator, and
the second iron poles on the opposite disc [20], as illustrated in Fig 2.9b, c for both
strengthening and weakening modes, respectively. The toroidal transverse-flux
machine configurations are brushless machines generating an AC output that is
modified by the DC field winding excitation current [21]. For both transverse-flux
topologies illustrated in Figs. 2.7, 2.8 and 2.9, the main PM field and moderating
wound field are magnetically in parallel, their advantages and disadvantages being
noted in Table 2.2.

2.3.3 Hybrid Excitation Synchronous Machine (HESM)

Naoe and Fukami discussed the structure of a hybrid excitation synchronous

machine (HESM) [22]. The machine has a conventional AC stator and a two-part
rotor construction where each part is separated by an air-gap. One rotor part has PM
excitation and the other part wound field excitation. Each rotor part is independent of
the other and, in the case reported, is of radial field design. The HESM is illustrated
schematically in Fig. 2.10. The flux produced by the field winding is designed not to
pass through the PMs because of their large reluctance, thus keeping the field
24 2 Hybrid Electric Machine Concept

Fig. 2.9 Flux paths in the

toroidal transverse-flux
machine, as reported by
Spooner et al. [19]. (a) Flux
paths due to PMs alone;
without rotor iron poles (b)
Flux paths due to both PMs
and DC field excitation in
strengthening mode; with
rotor iron poles (c) Flux
paths due to both PMs and
DC field excitation in
weakening mode; with rotor
iron poles

winding MMF low [22]. Hence, the machine air-gap flux can be modified by the field
winding current direction and magnitude. The PM and rotor wound field excitation
sources are magnetically in parallel. Table 2.3 summarizes the advantages and
disadvantages of the HESM topology.
2.3 Different Hybrid Machine Topologies 25

Table 2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of toroidal-stator transverse-flux machine topologies

Field
Advantages Disadvantages path
(1) Control is relatively simple [19] (1) The magnetic path of the electrical Parallel
(2) The short axial length makes this excitation is relatively large, which neces-
machine suitable for directly mounting to sitates relatively high excitation MMF*
an engine shaft replacing, in part, the (2) Mechanics are complex*
flywheel [19] (3) The design magnetic field of the toroi-
(3) Slip rings and brushes are not required dal is restricted by the machine diameter
[19] [19]
Note: Deduced by the author (*)
Reported in the literature [19]

Fig. 2.10 Structure of the

HESM with a two-part rotor
[22]

Table 2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of the HESM

Field
Advantages Disadvantages path
(1) Machine is simple in structure (1) Slip rings and brushes exist, which Parallel
[22] increases complexity and maintenance costs*
(2) Short magnetic path [22]
(3) The air-gap flux can be easily
controlled by the field current [22]
Note: Deduced by the author (*)
Reported in the literature [22]

2.3.4 Synchronous Permanent Magnet Hybrid AC Machine

(SynPM)

The synchronous permanent magnet hybrid AC machine (SynPM) was presented by

Xiaogang and Lipo [23]. The machine is a combination of four PM poles and two
wound field excitation poles on the same rotor, as illustrated in Fig. 2.11. The PM
poles provide the major part of air-gap flux, while the wound field excitation poles
act as a flux regulator to adjust the air-gap flux distribution. By appropriate connec-
tion of the stator coils and rotor winding excitation, the net phase flux linkage and
hence back-EMF may be weakened or strengthened. Considering one of the stator
26 2 Hybrid Electric Machine Concept

Fig. 2.11 Cross section of the of SynPM machine reported by Xiaogang and Lipo, showing one
phase belt of the stator winding [40]

Fig. 2.12 Back-EMF of

one coil of the phase belt
winding [40]

phase belt coils, the coil back-EMFs for the three excitation modes are as shown in
Fig. 2.12, while Fig. 2.13 illustrates the corresponding open circuit flux lines due to
positive, zero, and negative DC field currents. A phase belt is formed by connecting
three coils of the same phase in series, as shown in Fig. 2.11; thus, the resulting
phase back-EMFs for the cases of positive, zero, and negative field winding current
are as shown in Fig. 2.14. Slip rings and brushes are required for this machine
topology. For the machine discussed, excitation produces around 67% of the total
air-gap flux [23]. The flow of the flux is radial for both PM and DC field windings,
which are magnetically acting in parallel. Table 2.4 summarizes the advantages and
disadvantages of the SynPM topology.
2.3 Different Hybrid Machine Topologies 27

Fig. 2.13 Flux lines of the six-pole SynPM machine presented by Xiaogang and Lipo [40]. (a) Full
positive field current (b) Zero field current (c) Full negative field current

2.3.5 Consequent Pole Permanent Magnet Hybrid Excitation

Machine (CPPM)

Tapia et al. discussed a consequent pole permanent magnet hybrid excitation

machine [24–25]. The machine combines fixed PM excitation with variable flux
via a field winding fixed in the stator. The machine is similar to the transverse-flux
machine reported by Spooner et al. [19]. However, Tapia et al. discussed a greater
number of design options and discussed the design in greater depth. The machine
consists of a rotor divided into two sections, each section having radially magnetized
surface-mounted permanent magnets interleaved with laminated iron poles, as
illustrated in Fig. 2.15a. The magnetization of each rotor section is shifted 1-pole-
pitch with respect to the other section.
The stator is composed of two laminated tooth sections inside a solid outer soft
magnet yoke. A conventional three-phase AC winding is located in slots around the
periphery of the inner stator diameter, and a circumferential field winding is placed
between the two stator sections, as illustrated in Fig. 2.15a. The field winding is
excited by DC current. For no field current, the machine excitation is due to the rotor
PMs alone and is essentially radial, each PM linking with a consequent soft iron pole
on the same machine half. When excited with positive current, the flux generated by
the field winding flows in a direction such that it adds to the PM flux and the flux
closes its path in the same half stator, as illustrated in Fig. 2.15b. If the field current is
negative, the direction of the air-gap flux is as shown in Fig. 2.15c. Figure 2.15d
shows further views of the CPPM components. The stator and rotor yokes provide a
low reluctance path for the axial flux, which is considered an important feature of the
machine operation. The current of the field winding is externally controlled in order
to provide variable excitation.
28 2 Hybrid Electric Machine Concept

Fig. 2.14 Example of

resultant coil and phase
back-EMF for different field
winding excitation
conditions [40]. (a) Back-
EMF of one circuit with full
positive excitation (b) Back-
EMF of one circuit with zero
excitation (c) Back-EMF of
one phase with full negative
excitation
2.3 Different Hybrid Machine Topologies 29

Table 2.4 Advantages and disadvantages of the SynPM

Field
Advantages Disadvantages path
(1) Machine is comparatively simple in (1) Slip rings and brushes exist [23] Parallel
structure* (2) The combination of four-pole or
(2) In addition, it is easy to fabricate short two-pole field flux in field weakening,
magnetic paths. A high power density is with the six-pole stator flux, will result in
suggested, but no data are quoted* a number of space and time-harmonic
components and undesirable torque pul-
sations and vibration [23]
(3) At high speed, when the field is
weakened, a high iron loss in the stator
might appear*
Note: Deduced by the author (*)
Reported in the literature [23]

Fig. 2.15 Consequent pole PM hybrid excitation machine (CPPM) [40]. (a) Magnetic structure of
the CPPM machine [25] (b) Magnetizing effect of the field flux (c) Demagnetizing effect of the field
flux (d) 3 kW CPPM prototype
30 2 Hybrid Electric Machine Concept

Fig. 2.16 Field controlled Torus-NS machine (FCT-NS) [40]. (a) Machine components (b) Stator
assembly (c) Rotor assembly

2.3.6 Field Controlled Torus-NS (FCT-NS) Machine

Aydin et al. discussed an axial flux machine designed to improve the flux weakening
operation of the previously reported axial flux, toroidal PM machines [26]. The
machine is essentially an axial field version of the CPPM and was referred to as the
field controlled Torus-NS (FCT-NS) machine. The machine construction consists of
two outer rotor discs carrying axially magnetized permanent magnets alternatively
placed with slotted magnetic iron pole pieces. There are two slotted stator cores, an
inner and outer core, realized by tape wound laminations inserted with multiphase
AC windings and a DC field winding between the stator inner and outer cores, as
illustrated schematically in Fig. 2.16. Variations on the FCT-NS design were
presented by Lipo and Aydin [27, 28].
Figure 2.17 shows the main flux direction of a two-pole portion of the FCT
machine at the average diameter [26] (a); rotor flux directions (b); air-gap flux
directions (c); and operating principle of the FCT machine (d) for zero (i), positive
(ii), and negative (iii) field current. Figure 2.17e shows the FCT stator and rotor
components. Figure 2.18 illustrates schematics of the single-rotor-single-stator
topology (a); the NN- and NS-type double-rotor-single-stator (b and c); double-
stator-single-rotor (d); and multistage (e) concepts.
Figure 2.19 illustrates the hardware of the NN-type FCAFPM machine as
reported in the literature. The CPPM and variants are all parallel permanent magnet
and wound field magnetic designs. Table 2.5 summarizes the advantages and
disadvantages of the CPPM and variants as reported in [24–29].

2.3.7 Dual-Rotor Machine

Amara et al. proposed a dual-rotor machine that is composed of two rotors placed
together (one wound and the other with PMs) inside the same stator assembly, as
shown in Fig. 2.20. The design employs juxtaposed magnetic circuits that, according
2.3 Different Hybrid Machine Topologies 31

Fig. 2.17 Field controlled Tours-NS type (FCT-NS) [40]. (a) Main flux direction of the FCT
machine [26] (b) Rotor flux directions [26] (c) Air-gap flux directions (d) Operating principle (e)
FCT rotor and stator components

to the authors, avoids the risk of PM demagnetization [30]. Flux weakening is

achieved via excitation of the wound rotor to create a flux opposite to that created
by the rotor PMs [30]. The design is similar in form to the HESM presented in Sect.
2.3.3 [22] but having slightly different rotor topologies.
32 2 Hybrid Electric Machine Concept

Fig. 2.18 Reported combinations of the FCAFPM machines [40]. (a) Single-rotor-single-stator (b)
NN-type double-rotor-single-stator (c) NS-type double-rotor-single-stator (d) Double-stator-single-
rotor (e) Multistage

Fig. 2.19 NN-type FCAFPM machine reported in [40]. (a) Stator view pre-impregnation (b)
Complete stator assembly (c) Rotor assembly

2.3.8 Imbricated Hybrid Excitation Machine (IHEM)

Amara et al. also proposed an imbricated hybrid excitation machine (IHEM), as

illustrated in Fig. 2.21. The rotor is composed of two magnetically isolated parts, one
containing the PM excitation, and the other is used to direct flux created by an
2.3 Different Hybrid Machine Topologies 33

Table 2.5 Advantages and disadvantages of CPPM and variants as reported in [24–29]
Field
Advantages Disadvantages path
(1) Control of the CPPM is convenient (1) Additional DC winding in the stator Parallel
(2) The air-gap flux can be controlled reduces the power density, such that the
without affecting the magnetization char- additional air-gap surface associated with
acteristics of the PMs this winding does not participate in the
(3) A wide range of air-gap flux control energy conversion process
can be obtained with a low DC excitation
field ampere-turn requirement
(4) Slip rings and brushes are not required

Fig. 2.20 Dual-rotor

machine [40]

Fig. 2.21 Imbricated hybrid excitation machine (IHEM) [40]. (a) Machine cross section (b) Rotor
structure

excitation coil that is located on either the rotor or the stator, the latter case avoiding
all sliding contacts. The stator is composed of two identical parts linked by a yoke, as
shown in Fig. 2.21a. The main goal of this design was to ensure that the flux created
by the excitation winding does not pass through the PM; hence, the possibility of
demagnetization is greatly reduced [30].
34 2 Hybrid Electric Machine Concept

Furthermore, Vido et al. proposed two improved versions of the IHEM [31], the
(i) homopolar and (ii) bipolar hybrid excitation synchronous machines, HHESM and
BHESM, respectively, as illustrated in Fig. 2.22. Cross-sectional schematics of both
prototypes are shown in Fig. 2.22. The rotors consist of three parts, one a solid core,
one part laminated core, and a set of permanent magnets. The schematics show an
axial cut of the stator and rotor for both prototypes, which are six-pole pairs. The two
machine rotors have the same dimensions. By comparing the two topologies, it can
be observed that the lateral permanent magnets are not present in the BHESM
prototype [31].
The various flux paths created by excitation coils, lateral PMs (side magnets), and
azimuth PMs may be divided into two categories: homopolar and bipolar flux paths.
The homopolar flux path represents a flow of flux through machine parts in axial and
radial directions. The bipolar design has flux paths in either radial or axial direction.
Therefore, the flux generated by the field DC coils has only one path, which is
homopolar in nature, as shown in Fig. 2.23a. Moreover, the homopolar path for the
lateral PMs can be observed in Fig. 2.23a. The flux generated by the PMs has two
distinct paths, one of which is bipolar, as shown in Fig. 2.23b, c, which creates north
and south poles under the active parts [32]. The flux path generated by the azimuth
PMs is primarily oriented perpendicular to the axial direction of the machine [32]. A
portion of the flux generated by the lateral PMs is oriented in the axial direction of
the machine via the rotor flux collector, as shown in Fig. 2.23c. In other words, the
fluxes created by either the PMs or the wound field excitation that exhibits a
homopolar path only give rise to one type of pole (either north or south), depending
on the direction in which the magnets are magnetized and the polarity of current in
the DC field coils [32]. Flux only passes once through the air-gap under the active
part, and then it returns first via the stator end shields and then via the rotor flux path,
as illustrated in Fig. 2.23d [32]. Figure 2.24a shows flux paths created by the DC
field coils for the BHESM design. This bipolar configuration passes through two
annular excitation coils. Each coil acts in one polarity of pole [31]. The flux created
by an excitation coil goes through active parts and an air-gap (homopolar path).
Figure 2.24b shows the bipolar flux path created by PMs, where this bipolar flux
passes through active parts and air-gap, creating north and south poles. Figure 2.24c
shows the PM leakage flux path, which is not through the active parts and hence does
not contribute to torque production [31]. Figure 2.25 shows homopolar flux paths
created by PMs, as reported in [31]. For homopolar hybrid excitation machines, the
total flux passing through the stator windings exhibits a DC component, while for
bipolar hybrid excitation machines, the total flux passing through the armature
windings does not have a DC component [31]. Thus, although air-gap flux control
is effective for both the HHESM and BHESM machines, the DC current excitation
efficiency is better for the HHESM because of the solid rotor core parts [31]. For the
HHESM operating with enhanced excitation flux, magnetic saturation occurs when
the magnetic pole in which the DC excitation is acting is saturated, even if the other
pole is still not saturated [32]. However, for the BHESM, magnetic saturation occurs
only when both magnetic poles are saturated, from which the authors conclude that
the BHESM has a wider excitation flux variation [32]. The efficiency of the hybrid
2.3 Different Hybrid Machine Topologies 35

Fig. 2.22 Homopolar and bipolar hybrid excitation synchronous machines [40]. (i) Schematic
(i) Schematic (ii) Prototype rotor details (ii) Prototype rotor details (iii) Prototype stator and rotor
(iii) Rotor laminations (a) First prototype machine (HHESM) (b) Second prototype machine
(BHESM)
36 2 Hybrid Electric Machine Concept

Fig. 2.23 HHESM various flux paths due to deferent excitations [40]. (a) Homopolar flux path due
to DC coils (b) Bipolar flux path (azimuthal magnets) (c) Bipolar flux path due to PMs (d)
Homopolar flux path due to PMs

excitation is better for the HHESM than it is for the BHESM design because of the
leakage flux path, as shown in Fig. 2.24c [31], which does not contribute to torque
production. Table 2.6 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of the IHEM
topology.

2.3.9 Series Double Excited Synchronous Machine (SDESM)

Fodoren et al. present the series double excited synchronous machine (SDESM) that
has series excitation circuits [33, 34]. The parallel excitation circuit reported in some
of the previously presented topologies suffer from the drawback of construction
complexity [33]. The main advantage of the SDESM appears in applications where
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My reminiscences of the first year of Bolshevist administration are
jumbled into a kaleidoscopic panorama of impressions gained while
journeying from city to city, sometimes crouched in the corner of
crowded box-cars, sometimes travelling in comfort, sometimes riding
on the steps, and sometimes on the roofs or buffers. I was nominally
in the service of the British Foreign Office, but the Anglo-Russian
Commission (of which I was a member) having quit Russia, I
attached myself to the American Y.M.C.A., doing relief work. A year
after the revolution I found myself in the eastern city of Samara,
training a detachment of boy scouts. As the snows of winter melted
and the spring sunshine shed joy and cheerfulness around, I held my
parades and together with my American colleagues organized
outings and sports. The new proletarian lawgivers eyed our
manœuvres askance, but were too preoccupied in dispossessing the
“bourgeoisie” to devote serious attention to the “counter
revolutionary” scouts, however pronounced the anti-Bolshevik
sympathies of the latter. “Be prepared!” the scouts would cry,
greeting each other in the street. And the answer, “Always
prepared!” had a deep significance, intensified by their boyish
enthusiasm.

Then one day, when in Moscow, I was handed an unexpected

telegram. “Urgent”—from the British Foreign Office. “You are wanted
at once in London,” it ran. I set out for Archangel without delay.
Moscow, with its turbulences, its political wranglings, its increasing
hunger, its counter-revolutionary conspiracies, with Count Mirbach
and his German designs, was left behind. Like a bombshell followed
the news that Mirbach was murdered. Leaning over the side of the
White Sea steamer, a thousand kilometres from Moscow, I cursed my
luck that I was not in the capital. I stood and watched the sun dip
low to the horizon; hover, an oval mass of fire, on the edge of the
blazing sea; merge with the water; and, without disappearing,
mount again to celebrate the triumph over darkness of the nightless
Arctic summer. Then, Murmansk and perpetual day, a destroyer to
Petchenga, a tug to the Norwegian frontier, a ten-day journey round
the North Cape and by the fairy-land of Norwegian fjords to Bergen,
with finally a zigzag course across the North Sea, dodging
submarines, to Scotland.

At Aberdeen the control officer had received orders to pass me

through by the first train to London. At King’s Cross a car was
waiting, and knowing neither my destination nor the cause of my
recall I was driven to a building in a side street in the vicinity of
Trafalgar Square. “This way,” said the chauffeur, leaving the car. The
chauffeur had a face like a mask. We entered the building and the
elevator whisked us to the top floor, above which additional
superstructures had been built for war-emergency offices.

I had always associated rabbit-warrens with subterranean abodes,

but here in this building I discovered a maze of rabbit-burrow-like
passages, corridors, nooks, and alcoves, piled higgledy-piggledy on
the roof. Leaving the elevator my guide led me up one flight of steps
so narrow that a corpulent man would have stuck tight, then down a
similar flight on the other side, under wooden archways so low that
we had to stoop, round unexpected corners, and again up a flight of
steps which brought us out on the roof. Crossing a short iron bridge
we entered another maze, until just as I was beginning to feel dizzy
I was shown into a tiny room about ten feet square where sat an
officer in the uniform of a British colonel. The impassive chauffeur
announced me and withdrew.

“Good afternoon, Mr. Dukes,” said the colonel, rising and greeting me
with a warm handshake. “I am glad to see you. You doubtless
wonder that no explanation has been given you as to why you
should return to England. Well, I have to inform you, confidentially,
that it has been proposed to offer you a somewhat responsible post
in the Secret Intelligence Service.”

I gasped. “But,” I stammered, “I have never——May I ask what it

implies?”
“Certainly,” he replied. “We have reason to believe that Russia will
not long continue to be open to foreigners. We wish someone to
remain there to keep us informed of the march of events.”

“But,” I put in, “my present work? It is important, and if I drop it

——”

“We foresaw that objection,” replied the colonel, “and I must tell you
that under war regulations we have the right to requisition your
services if need be. You have been attached to the Foreign Office.
This office also works in conjunction with the Foreign Office, which
has been consulted on this question. Of course,” he added, bitingly,
“if the risk or danger alarms you——”

I forget what I said but he did not continue.

“Very well,” he proceeded, “consider the matter and return at 4.30

p.m. to-morrow. If you have no valid reasons for not accepting this
post we will consider you as in our service and I will tell you further
details.” He rang a bell. A young lady appeared and escorted me out,
threading her way with what seemed to me marvellous dexterity
through the maze of passages.

Burning with curiosity and fascinated already by the mystery of this

elevated labyrinth I ventured a query to my young female guide.
“What sort of establishment is this?” I said. I detected a twinkle in
her eye. She shrugged her shoulders and without replying pressed
the button for the elevator. “Good afternoon,” was all she said as I
passed in.

Next day another young lady escorted me up and down the narrow
stairways and ushered me into the presence of the colonel. I found
him in a fair-sized apartment with easy chairs and walls hidden by
book-cases. He seemed to take it for granted that I had nothing to
say. “I will tell you briefly what we desire,” he said. “Then you may
make any comments you wish, and I will take you up to interview—
er—the Chief. Briefly, we want you to return to Soviet Russia and to
send reports on the situation there. We wish to be accurately
informed as to the attitude of every section of the community, the
degree of support enjoyed by the Bolshevist Government, the
development and modification of its policy, what possibility there
may be for an alteration of régime or for a counter-revolution, and
what part Germany is playing. As to the means whereby you gain
access to the country, under what cover you will live there, and how
you will send out reports, we shall leave it to you, being best
informed as to conditions, to make suggestions.”

He expounded his views on Russia, asking for my corroboration or

correction, and also mentioned the names of a few English people I
might come into contact with. “I will see if—er—the Chief is ready,”
he said finally, rising; “I will be back in a moment.”

The apartment appeared to be an office but there were no papers on

the desk. I rose and stared at the books on the bookshelves. My
attention was arrested by an edition of Thackeray’s works in a
decorative binding of what looked like green morocco. I used at one
time to dabble in bookbinding and am always interested in an
artistically bound book. I took down Henry Esmond from the shelf.
To my bewilderment the cover did not open, until, passing my finger
accidentally along what I thought was the edge of the pages, the
front suddenly flew open of itself, disclosing a box! In my
astonishment I almost dropped the volume and a sheet of paper
slipped out on to the floor. I picked it up hastily and glanced at it. It
was headed Kriegsministerium, Berlin, had the German Imperial
arms imprinted on it, and was covered with minute handwriting in
German. I had barely slipped it back into the box and replaced the
volume on the shelf when the colonel returned.

“A—the—er—Chief is not in,” he said, “but you may see him to-
morrow. You are interested in books?” he added, seeing me looking
at the shelves. “I collect them. That is an interesting old volume on
Cardinal Richelieu, if you care to look at it. I picked it up in Charing
Cross Road for a shilling.” The volume mentioned was immediately
above Henry Esmond. I took it down warily, expecting something
uncommon to occur, but it was only a musty old volume in French
with torn leaves and soiled pages. I pretended to be interested.
“There is not much else there worth looking at, I think,” said the
colonel, casually. “Well, good-bye. Come in to-morrow.”

I wondered mightily who “the Chief” of this establishment could be

and what he would be like. The young lady smiled enigmatically as
she showed me to the elevator. I returned again next day after
thinking overnight how I should get back to Russia—and deciding on
nothing. My mind seemed to be a complete blank on the subject in
hand and I was entirely absorbed in the mysteries of the roof-
labyrinth.

Again I was shown into the colonel’s sitting-room. My eyes fell

instinctively on the bookshelf. The colonel was in a genial mood. “I
see you like my collection,” he said. “That, by the way, is a fine
edition of Thackeray.” My heart leaped! “It is the most luxurious
binding I have ever yet found. Would you not like to look at it?”

I looked at the colonel very hard, but his face was a mask. My
immediate conclusion was that he wished to initiate me into the
secrets of the department. I rose quickly and took down Henry
Esmond, which was in exactly the same place as it had been the day
before. To my utter confusion it opened quite naturally and I found
in my hands nothing more than an édition de luxe printed on India
paper and profusely illustrated! I stared bewildered at the shelf.
There was no other Henry Esmond. Immediately over the vacant
space stood the life of Cardinal Richelieu as it had stood yesterday. I
replaced the volume, and trying not to look disconcerted turned to
the colonel. His expression was quite impassive, even bored. “It is a
beautiful edition,” he repeated, as if wearily. “Now if you are ready
we will go and see—er—the Chief.”

Feeling very foolish I stuttered assent and followed. As we

proceeded through the maze of stairways and unexpected passages
which seemed to me like a miniature House of Usher, I caught
glimpses of tree-tops, of the Embankment Gardens, the Thames, the
Tower Bridge, and Westminster. From the suddenness with which the
angle of view changed I concluded that in reality we were simply
gyrating in one very limited space, and when suddenly we entered a
spacious study—the sanctum of “—er—the Chief”—I had an
irresistible sentiment that we had moved only a few yards and that
this study was immediately above the colonel’s office.

It was a low, dark chamber at the extreme top of the building. The
colonel knocked, entered, and stood at attention. Nervous and
confused I followed, painfully conscious that at that moment I could
not have expressed a sane opinion on any subject under the sun.
From the threshold the room seemed bathed in semi-obscurity. The
writing desk was so placed with the window behind it that on
entering everything appeared only in silhouette. It was some
seconds before I could clearly distinguish things. A row of half-a-
dozen extending telephones stood at the left of a big desk littered
with papers. On a side table were numerous maps and drawings,
with models of aeroplanes, submarines, and mechanical devices,
while a row of bottles of various colours and a distilling outfit with a
rack of test tubes bore witness to chemical experiments and
operations. These evidences of scientific investigation only served to
intensify an already overpowering atmosphere of strangeness and
mystery.

But it was not these things that engaged my attention as I stood

nervously waiting. It was not the bottles or the machinery that
attracted my gaze. My eyes fixed themselves on the figure at the
writing table. In the capacious swing desk-chair, his shoulders
hunched, with his head supported on one hand, busily writing, there
sat in his shirt-sleeves——

Alas, no! Pardon me, reader, I was forgetting! There are still things I
may not divulge. There are things that must still remain shrouded in
secrecy. And one of them is—who was the figure in the swing desk-
chair in the darkened room at the top of the roof-labyrinth near
Trafalgar Square on this August day in 1918? I may not describe
him, nor mention even one of his twenty-odd names. Suffice it to say
that, awe-inspired as I was at this first encounter, I soon learned to
regard “the Chief” with feelings of the deepest personal regard and
admiration. He was a British officer and an English gentleman of the
finest stamp, absolutely fearless and gifted with limitless resources of
subtle ingenuity, and I count it one of the greatest privileges of my
life to have been brought within the circle of his acquaintanceship.

In silhouette I saw myself motioned to a chair. The Chief wrote for a

moment and then suddenly turned with the unexpected remark, “So
I understand you want to go back to Soviet Russia, do you?” as if it
had been my own suggestion. The conversation was brief and
precise. The words Archangel, Stockholm, Riga, Helsingfors recurred
frequently, and the names were mentioned of English people in
those places and in Petrograd. It was finally decided that I alone
should determine how and by what route I should regain access to
Russia and how I should despatch reports.

“Don’t go and get killed,” said the Chief in conclusion, smiling. “You
will put him through the ciphers,” he added to the colonel, “and take
him to the laboratory to learn the inks and all that.”

We left the Chief and arrived by a single flight of steps at the door of
the colonel’s room. The colonel laughed. “You will find your way
about in course of time,” he said. “Let us go to the laboratory at
once....”

And here I draw a veil over the roof-labyrinth. Three weeks later I
set out for Russia, into the unknown.

I resolved to make my first attempt at entry from the north, and

travelled up to Archangel on a troopship of American soldiers, most
of whom hailed from Detroit. But I found the difficulties at Archangel
to be much greater than I had anticipated. It was 600 miles to
Petrograd and most of this distance would have to be done on foot
through unknown moorland and forest. The roads were closely
watched, and before my plans were ready autumn storms broke and
made the moors and marshes impassable. But at Archangel, realizing
that to return to Russia as an Englishman was impossible, I let my
beard grow and assumed an appearance entirely Russian.

Failing in Archangel I travelled down to Helsingfors to try my luck

from the direction of Finland. Helsingfors, the capital of Finland, is a
busy little city bristling with life and intrigue. At the time of which I
am writing it was a sort of dumping-ground for every variety of
conceivable and inconceivable rumour, slander, and scandal,
repudiated elsewhere but swallowed by the gullible scandalmongers,
especially German and ancien régime Russian, who found in this city
a haven of rest. Helsingfors was one of the unhealthiest spots in
Europe. Whenever mischance brought me there I lay low, avoided
society, and made it a rule to tell everybody the direct contrary of my
real intentions, even in trivial matters.

In Helsingfors I was introduced at the British Consulate to an agent

of the American Secret Service who had recently escaped from
Russia. This gentleman gave me a letter to a Russian officer in
Viborg, by name Melnikoff. The little town of Viborg, being the
nearest place of importance to the Russian frontier, was a hornets’
nest of Russian refugees, counter-revolutionary conspirators,
German agents, and Bolshevist spies, worse if anything than
Helsingfors. Disguised now as a middle-class commercial traveller I
journeyed on to Viborg, took a room at the hotel I had been told
Melnikoff stayed at, looked him up, and presented my note of
introduction. I found him to be a Russian naval officer of the finest
stamp and intuitively conceived an immediate liking for him. His real
name, I discovered, was not Melnikoff, but in those parts many
people had a variety of names to suit different occasions. My
meeting with him was providential, for it appeared that he had
worked with Captain Crombie, late British Naval Attaché at
Petrograd. In September, 1918, Captain Crombie was murdered by
the Bolsheviks at the British Embassy and it was the threads of his
shattered organization that I hoped to pick up upon arrival in
Petrograd. Melnikoff was slim, dark, with stubbly hair, blue eyes,
short and muscular. He was deeply religious and was imbued with an
intense hatred of the Bolsheviks—not without reason, since both his
father and his mother had been brutally shot by them, and he
himself had only escaped by a miracle. “The searchers came at
night,” he related the story to me. “I had some papers referring to
the insurrection at Yaroslavl which my mother kept for me. They
demanded access to my mother’s room. My father barred the way,
saying she was dressing. A sailor tried to push past, and my father
angrily struck him aside. Suddenly a shot rang out and my father fell
dead on the threshold of my mother’s bedroom. I was in the kitchen
when the Reds came and through the door I fired and killed two of
them. A volley of shots was directed at me. I was wounded in the
hand and only just escaped by the back stairway. Two weeks later
my mother was executed on account of the discovery of my papers.”

Melnikoff had but one sole object left in life—to avenge his parents’
blood. This was all he lived for. As far as Russia was concerned he
was frankly a monarchist, so I avoided talking politics with him. But
we were friends from the moment we met, and I had the peculiar
feeling that somewhere, long, long ago, we had met before,
although I knew this was not so.

Melnikoff was overjoyed to learn of my desire to return to Soviet

Russia. He undertook not only to make the arrangements with the
Finnish frontier patrols for me to be put across the frontier at night
secretly, but also to precede me to Petrograd and make
arrangements there for me to find shelter. Great hostility still existed
between Finland and Soviet Russia. Skirmishes frequently occurred,
and the frontier was guarded jealously by both sides. Melnikoff gave
me two addresses in Petrograd where I might find him, one at a
hospital where he had formerly lived, and the other of a small café
which still existed in a private flat unknown to the Bolshevist
authorities.
Perhaps it was a pardonable sin in Melnikoff that he was a toper. We
spent three days together in Viborg making plans for Petrograd while
he drank up all my whisky except a small medicine bottle full which I
hid away. When he had satisfied himself that my stock was really
exhausted he announced himself ready to start. It was a Friday and
we arranged that I should follow two days later, on Sunday night,
the 24th of November. Melnikoff wrote out a password on a slip of
paper. “Give that to the Finnish patrols,” he said, “at the third house,
the wooden one with the white porch, on the left of the frontier
bridge.”

At six o’clock he went into his room, returning in a few minutes so

transformed that I hardly recognized him. He wore a sort of
seaman’s cap that came right down over his eyes. He had dirtied his
face, and this, added to the three-days-old hirsute stubble on his
chin, gave him a truly demoniacal appearance. He wore a shabby
coat and trousers of a dark colour, and a muffler was tied closely
round his neck. He looked a perfect apache as he stowed away a big
Colt revolver inside his trousers.

“Good-bye,” he said, simply, extending his hand; then stopped and

added, “let us observe the good old Russian custom and sit down for
a minute together.” According to a beautiful custom that used to be
observed in Russia in the olden days, friends sit down at the moment
of parting and maintain a moment’s complete silence while each
wishes the others a safe journey and prosperity. Melnikoff and I sat
down opposite each other. With what fervour I wished him success
on the dangerous journey he was undertaking for me! Suppose he
were shot in crossing the frontier? Neither I nor any one would
know! He would just vanish—one more good man gone to swell the
toll of victims of the revolution. And I? Well, I might follow! ’Twas a
question of luck, and ’twas all in the game!

We rose. “Good-bye,” said Melnikoff again. He turned, crossed

himself, and passed out of the room. On the threshold he looked
back. “Sunday evening,” he added, “without fail.” I had a curious
feeling I ought to say something, I knew not what, but no words
came. I followed him quickly down the stairs. He did not look round
again. At the street door he glanced rapidly in every direction, pulled
his cap still further over his eyes, and passed away into the darkness
—to an adventure that was to cost him his life. I only saw him once
more after that, for a brief moment in Petrograd, under dramatic
circumstances—but that comes later in my story.

I slept little that night. My thoughts were all of Melnikoff, somewhere

or other at dead of night risking his life, outwitting the Red outposts.
He would laugh away danger, I was sure, if caught in a tight corner.
His laugh would be a devilish one—the sort to allay all Bolshevist
suspicions! Then, in the last resort, was there not always his Colt? I
thought of his past, of his mother and father, of the story he had
related to me. How his fingers would itch to handle that Colt!

I rose early next day but there was not much for me to do. Being
Saturday the Jewish booths in the usually busy little market-place
were shut and only the Finnish ones were open. Most articles of the
costume which I had decided on were already procured, but I made
one or two slight additions on this day and on Sunday morning when
the Jewish booths opened. My outfit consisted of a Russian shirt,
black leather breeches, black knee boots, a shabby tunic, and an old
leather cap with a fur brim and a little tassel on top, of the style
worn by the Firms in the district north of Petrograd. With my shaggy
black beard, which by now was quite profuse, and long unkempt hair
dangling over my ears I looked a sight indeed, and in England or
America should doubtless have been regarded as a thoroughly
undesirable alien!

On Sunday an officer friend of Melnikoff’s came to see me and make

sure I was ready. I knew him by the Christian name and patronymic
of Ivan Sergeievitch. He was a pleasant fellow, kind and considerate.
Like many other refugees from Russia he had no financial resources
and was trying to make a living for himself, his wife, and his children
by smuggling Finnish money and butter into Petrograd, where both
were sold at a high premium. Thus he was on good terms with the
Finnish patrols who also practised this trade and whose friendship he
cultivated.

“Have you any passport yet, Pavel Pavlovitch?” Ivan Sergeievitch

asked me.

“No,” I replied, “Melnikoff said the patrols would furnish me with

one.”

“Yes, that is best,” he said; “they have the Bolshevist stamps. But we
also collect the passports of all refugees from Petrograd, for they
often come in handy. And if anything happens remember you are a
‘speculator.’”

All were stigmatized by the Bolsheviks as speculators who indulged

in the private sale or purchase of foodstuffs or clothing. They
suffered severely, but it was better to be a speculator than what I
was.
 The Author, Disguised

When darkness fell Ivan Sergeievitch accompanied me to the station

and part of the way in the train, though we sat separately so that it
should not be seen that I was travelling with one who was known to
be a Russian officer.

“And remember, Pavel Pavlovitch,” said Ivan Sergeievitch, “go to my

flat whenever you are in need. There is an old housekeeper there
who will admit you if you say I sent you. But do not let the house
porter see you—he is a Bolshevik—and be careful the house
committee do not know, for they will ask who is visiting the house.”
I was grateful for this offer, which turned out to be very valuable.

We boarded the train at Viborg and sat at opposite ends of the

compartment, pretending not to know each other. When Ivan
Sergeievitch got out at his destination he cast one glance at me but
we made no sign of recognition. I sat huddled up gloomily in my
corner, obsessed with the inevitable feeling that everybody was
watching me. The very walls and seat seemed possessed of eyes!
That man over there, did he not look at me—twice? And that
woman, spying constantly (I thought) out of the corner of her eye!
They would let me get as far as the frontier, then they would send
word over to the Reds that I was coming! I shivered and was ready
to curse myself for my fool adventure. But there was no turning
back! Forsan et haec olim meminisse juvabit, wrote Virgil. (I used to
write that on my Latin books at school—I hated Latin.) “Perhaps
some day it will amuse you to remember even these things”—cold
comfort, though, in a scrape and with your neck in a noose. Yet
these escapades are amusing—afterwards.

At last the train stopped at Rajajoki, the last station on the Finnish
side of the frontier. It was a pitch-dark night with no moon. Half-a-
mile remained to the frontier, and I made my way along the rails in
the direction of Russia and down to the wooden bridge over the little
frontier river Sestra. I looked curiously across at the gloomy
buildings and the dull, twinkling lights on the other bank. That was
my Promised Land over there, but it was flowing not with milk and
honey but with blood. The Finnish sentry stood at his post at the bar
of the frontier bridge, and twenty paces away, on the other side, was
the Red sentry. I left the bridge on my right and turned to look for
the house of the Finnish patrols to whom I had been directed.

Finding the little wooden Villa with the white porch I knocked timidly.
The door opened, and I handed in the slip of paper on which
Melnikoff had written the password. The Finn who opened the door
examined the paper by the light of a greasy oil lamp, then held the
lamp to my face, peered closely at me, and finally signalled to me to
enter.

“Come in,” he said. “We were expecting you. How are you feeling?” I
did not tell him how I was really feeling, but replied cheerily that I
was feeling splendid.

“That’s right,” he said. “You are lucky in having a dark night for it. A
week ago one of our fellows was shot as we put him over the river.
His body fell into the water and we have not yet fished it out.”

This, I suppose, was the Finnish way of cheering me up. “Has

anyone been over since?” I queried, affecting a tone of indifference.
“Only Melnikoff.” “Safely?” The Finn shrugged his shoulders. “We put
him across all right—a dalshe ne zanyu ... what happened to him
after that I don’t know.”

The Finn was a lean, cadaverous-looking fellow. He led me into a

tiny eating-room, where three men sat round a smoky oil lamp. The
window was closely curtained and the room was intolerably stuffy.
The table was covered with a filthy cloth on which a few broken
lumps of black bread, some fish, and a samovar were placed. All four
men were shabbily dressed and very rough in appearance. They
spoke Russian well, but conversed in Finnish amongst themselves.
One of them said something to the cadaverous man and appeared to
be remonstrating with him for telling me of the accident that had
happened to their colleague a week before. The cadaverous Finn
answered with some heat. “Melnikoff is a chuckle-headed scatter-
brain,” persisted the cadaverous man, who appeared to be the leader
of the party. “We told him not to be such a fool as to go into
Petrograd again. The Redskins are searching for him everywhere and
every detail of his appearance is known. But he would go. I suppose
he loves to have his neck in a noose. With you, I suppose, it is
different. Melnikoff says you are somebody important—but that’s
none of our business. But the Redskins don’t like the English. If I
were you I wouldn’t go for anything. But it’s your affair, of course.”
We sat down to the loaves and fishes. The samovar was boiling and
while we swilled copious supplies of weak tea out of dirty glasses the
Finns retailed the latest news from Petrograd. The cost of bread,
they said, had risen to about 800 or 1000 times its former price.
People hacked dead horses to pieces in the streets. All the warm
clothing had been taken and given to the Red army. The
Tchrezvichaika (the Extraordinary Commission) was arresting and
shooting workmen as well as the educated people. Zinoviev
threatened to exterminate all the bourgeoisie if any further attempt
were made to molest the Soviet Government. When the Jewish
Commissar Uritzky was murdered Zinoviev shot more than 500 at a
stroke; nobles, professors, officers, journalists, teachers, men and
women, and a list of a further 500 was published who would be shot
at the next attempt on a Commissar’s life. I listened patiently,
regarding the bulk of these stories as the product of Finnish
imagination. “You will be held up frequently to be examined,” the
cadaverous man warned me, “and do not carry parcels—they will be
taken from you in the street.”

After supper we sat down to discuss the plans of crossing. The

cadaverous Finn took a pencil and paper and drew a rough sketch of
the frontier.

“We will put you over in a boat at the same place as Melnikoff,” he
said. “Here is the river with woods on either bank. Here, about a
mile up, is an open meadow on the Russian side. It is now ten
o’clock. About three we will go out quietly and follow the road that
skirts the river on this side till we get opposite the meadow. That is
where you will cross.”

“Why at the open spot?” I queried, surprised. “Shall I not be seen

there most easily of all? Why not put me across into the woods?”

“Because the woods are patrolled, and the outposts change their
place every night. We cannot follow their movements. Several people
have tried to cross into the woods. A few succeeded, but most were
either caught or had to fight their way back. But this meadow is a
most unlikely place for any one to cross, so the Redskins don’t watch
it. Besides, being open we can see if there is any one on the other
side. We will put you across just here,” he said, indicating a narrow
place in the stream at the middle of the meadow. “At these narrows
the water runs faster, making a noise, so we are less likely to be
heard. When you get over run up the slope slightly to the left. There
is a path which leads up to the road. Be careful of this cottage,
though,” he added, making a cross on the paper at the extreme
northern end of the meadow. “The Red patrol lives in that cottage,
but at three o’clock they will probably be asleep.”

There remained only the preparation of “certificates of identification”

which should serve as passport in Soviet Russia. Melnikoff had told
me I might safely leave this matter to the Finns, who kept
themselves well informed of the kind of papers it was best to carry
to allay the suspicions of Red guards and Bolshevist police officials.
We rose and passed into another of the three tiny rooms which the
villa contained. It was a sort of office, with paper, ink, pens, and a
typewriter on the table.

“What name do you want to have?” asked the cadaverous man.

“Oh, any,” I replied. “Better, perhaps, let it have a slightly non-

Russian smack. My accent——”

“They won’t notice it,” he said, “but if you prefer——”

“Give him an Ukrainian name,” suggested one of the other Finns, “he
talks rather like a Little Russian.” Ukrainia, or Little Russia, is the
south-west district of European Russia, where a dialect with an
admixture of Polish is talked.

The cadaverous man thought for a moment. “‘Afirenko, Joseph

Ilitch,’” he suggested, “that smacks of Ukrainia.”
I agreed. One of the men sat down to the typewriter and carefully
choosing a certain sort of paper began to write. The cadaverous man
went to a small cupboard, unlocked it, and took out a box full of
rubber stamps of various sizes and shapes with black handles.

“Soviet seals,” he said, laughing at my amazement. “We keep

ourselves up to date, you see. Some of them were stolen, some we
made ourselves, and this one,” he pressed it on a sheet of paper
leaving the imprint Commissar of the Frontier Station Bielo’ostrof,
“we bought from over the river for a bottle of vodka.” Bielo’ostrof
was the Russian frontier village just across the stream.

I had had ample experience earlier in the year of the magical effect
upon the rudimentary intelligence of Bolshevist authorities of official
“documents” with prominent seals or stamps. Multitudinous stamped
papers of any description were a great asset in travelling, but a big
coloured seal was a talisman that levelled all obstacles. The wording
and even language of the document were of secondary importance.
A friend of mine once travelled from Petrograd to Moscow with no
other passport than a receipted English tailor’s bill. This “certificate
of identification” had a big printed heading with the name of the
tailor, some English postage stamps attached, and a flourishing
signature in red ink. He flaunted the document in the face of the
officials, assuring them it was a diplomatic passport issued by the
British Embassy! This, however, was in the early days of Bolshevism.
The Bolsheviks gradually removed illiterates from service and in the
course of time restrictions became very severe. But seals were as
essential as ever.
 A Forged Certificate of Identification

When the Finn had finished writing he pulled the paper out of the
typewriter and handed it to me for perusal. In the top left-hand
corner it had this heading:

Extraordinary Commissar of the Central Executive Committee of the

Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ and Red Armymen’s Deputies.

Then followed the text:

 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Joseph Afirenko is in the service of the
Extraordinary Commissar of the Central Executive Committee of the
Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ and Red Armymen’s Deputies in the
capacity of office clerk, as the accompanying signatures and seal
attest.

“In the service of the Extraordinary Commission?” I gasped, taken

aback by the amazing audacity of the thing.

“Why not?” said the cadaverous man coolly, “what could be safer?”

What, indeed? What could be safer than to purport to be in the

service of the institution whose duty it was to hound down all, old or
young, rich or poor, educated or illiterate—who ventured to oppose
and sought to expose the pseudo-proletarian Bolshevist
administration? Nothing, of course, could be safer! S volkami zhitj,
po voltchi vitj, as the Russians say. “If you must live amongst
wolves, then howl, too, as the wolves do!”

“Now for the signatures and seal,” said the Finn. “Tihonov and
Friedmann used to sign these papers, though it don’t matter much,
it’s only the seal that counts.” From some Soviet papers on the table
he selected one with two signatures from which to copy. Choosing a
suitable pen he scrawled beneath the text of my passport in an
almost illegible slanting hand, “Tihonov.” This was the signature of a
proxy of the Extraordinary Commissar. The paper must also be
signed by a secretary, or his proxy. “Sign for your own secretary,”
said the Finn, laughing and pushing the paper to me. “Write upright
this time, like this. Here is the original. ‘Friedmann’ is the name.”
Glancing at the original I made an irregular scrawl, resembling in
some way the signature of the Bolshevist official.
“Have you a photograph?” asked the cadaverous man. I gave him a
photograph I had had taken at Viborg. Cutting it down small he
stuck it at the side of the paper. Then, taking a round rubber seal, he
made two imprints over the photograph. The seal was a red one,
with the same inscription inside the periphery as was at the head of
the paper. The inner space of the seal consisted of the five-pointed
Bolshevist star with a mallet and a plough in the centre.

“That is your certificate of service,” said the Finn; “we will give you a
second one of personal identification.” Another paper was quickly
printed off with the words, “The holder of this is the Soviet
employee, Joseph Ilitch Afirenko, aged 36 years.” This paper was
unnecessary in itself, but two “documents” were always better than
one.

It was now after midnight and the leader of the Finnish patrol
ordered us to lie down for a short rest. He threw himself on a couch
in the eating-room. There were only two beds for the remaining four
of us and I lay down on one of them with one of the Finns. I tried to
sleep but couldn’t. I thought of all sorts of things—of Russia in the
past, of the life of adventure I had elected to lead for the present, of
the morrow, of friends still in Petrograd who must not know of my
return—if I got there. I was nervous, but the dejection that had
overcome me in the train was gone. I saw the essential humour of
my situation. The whole adventure was really one big exclamation
mark! Forsan et haec olim....

The two hours of repose seemed interminable. I was afraid of three

o’clock and yet I wanted it to come quicker, to get it over. At last a
shuffling noise approached from the neighbouring room and the
cadaverous Finn prodded each of us with the butt of his rifle. “Wake
up,” he whispered, “we’ll leave in a quarter of an hour. No noise. The
people in the next cottage mustn’t hear us.”

We were ready in a few minutes. My entire baggage was a small

parcel that went into my pocket, containing a pair of socks, one or
two handkerchiefs, and some dry biscuits. In another pocket I had
the medicine bottle of whisky I had hidden from Melnikoff and some
bread, while I hid my money inside my shirt. One of the four Finns
remained behind. The other three were to accompany me to the
river. It was a raw and frosty November night, and pitch dark. Nature
was still as death. We issued silently from the house, the cadaverous
man leading. One of the men followed up behind, and all carried
their rifles ready for use.

We walked stealthily along the road the Finn had pointed out to me
on paper overnight, bending low where no trees sheltered us from
the Russian bank. A few yards below on the right I heard the
murmur of the river stream. We soon arrived at a ramshackle villa
standing on the river surrounded by trees and thickets. Here we
stood stock-still for a moment to listen for any unexpected sounds.
The silence was absolute. But for the noise of the water there was
not a sound.

We descended to the water under cover of the tumble-down villa

and the bushes. The stream was about twenty paces wide at this
point. Along both banks there was an edging of ice. I looked across
at the opposite side. It was open meadow, but the trees loomed
darkly a hundred paces away on either hand in the background. On
the left I could just see the cottage of the Red patrol against which
the Finns had warned me.

The cadaverous man took up his station at a slight break in the

thickets. A moment later he returned and announced that all was
well. “Remember,” he enjoined me once more in an undertone, “run
slightly to the left, but—keep an eye on that cottage.” He made a
sign to the other two and from the bushes they dragged out a boat.
Working noiselessly they attached a long rope to the stern and laid a
pole in it. Then they slid it down the bank into the water.

“Get into the boat,” whispered the leader, “and push yourself across
with the pole. And good luck!”
I shook hands with my companions, pulled at my little bottle of
whisky, and got into the boat. I started pushing, but with the rope
trailing behind it was no easy task to punt the little bark straight
across the running stream. I was sure I should be heard, and had
amidstream the sort of feeling I should imagine a man has as he
walks his last walk to the gallows. At length I was at the farther side,
but it was impossible to hold the boat steady while I landed. In
jumping ashore I crashed through the thin layer of ice. I scrambled
out and up the bank. And the boat was hastily pulled back to Finland
behind me.

“Run hard!” I heard a low call from over the water.

Damn it, the noise of my splash had reached the Red patrol! I was
already running hard when I saw a light emerge from the cottage on
the left. I forgot the injunctions as to direction and simply bolted
away from that lantern. Halfway across the sloping meadow I
dropped and lay still. The light moved rapidly along the river bank.
There was shouting, and then suddenly shots, but there was no
reply from the Finnish side. Then the light began to move slowly
back towards the cottage of the Red patrol, and finally all was silent
again.

I lay motionless for some time, then rose and proceeded cautiously.
Having missed the right direction I found I had to negotiate another
small stream that ran obliquely down the slope of the meadow.
Being already wet I did not suffer by wading through it. Then I
reached some garden fences over which I climbed and found myself
in the road.

Convincing myself that the road was deserted, I crossed it and came
out on to the moors where I found a half-built house. Here I sat
down to await the dawn—blessing the man who invented whisky, for
I was very cold. It began to snow, and half-frozen I got up to walk
about and study the locality as well as I could in the dark. At the
cross-roads near the station I discovered some soldiers sitting round
a bivouac fire, so I retreated quickly to my half-built house and
waited till it was light. Then I approached the station with other
passengers. At the gate a soldier was examining passports. I was not
a little nervous when showing mine for the first time, but the
examination was a very cursory one. The soldier seemed only to be
assuring himself the paper had a proper seal. He passed me through
and I went to the ticket office and demanded a ticket.

“One first class to Petrograd,” I said, boldly.

“There is no first class by this train, only second and third.”

“No first? Then give me a second.” I had asked the Finns what class
I ought to travel, expecting them to say, third. But they replied,
“First, of course,” for it would be strange to see an employee of the
Extraordinary Commission travelling other than first class. Third class
was for workers and peasants.

The journey to Petrograd was about twenty-five miles, and stopping

at every station the train took nearly two hours. As we approached
the city the coaches filled up until people were standing in the aisles
and on the platforms. There was a crush on the Finland Station at
which we arrived. The examination of papers was again merely
cursory. I pushed out with the throng, and looking around me on the
dirty, rubbish-strewn station I felt a curious mixture of relief and
apprehension. A flood of strange thoughts and recollections rushed
through my mind. I saw my whole life in a new and hitherto
undreamt-of perspective. Days of wandering Europe, student days in
Russia, life amongst the Russian peasantry, and three years of
apparently aimless war work all at once assumed symmetrical
proportions and appeared like the sides of a prism leading to a
common apex at which I stood. Yes, my life, I suddenly realized, had
had an aim—it was to stand here on the threshold of the city that
was my home, homeless, helpless, and friendless, one of the
common crowd. That was it—one of the common crowd! I wanted
not the theories of theorists, nor the doctrines of doctrinaires, but to
see what the greatest social experiment the world has ever
witnessed did for the common crowd. And, strangely buoyant, I
stepped lightly out of the station into the familiar streets.
 CHAPTER II
FIVE DAYS

One of the first things that caught my eye as I emerged from the
station was an old man, standing with his face to the wall of a
house, leaning against a protruding gutter-pipe. As I passed him I
noticed he was sobbing. I stopped to speak to him.

“What is the matter, little uncle?” I said.

“I am cold and hungry,” he whimpered without looking up and still

leaning against the pipe. “For three days I have eaten nothing.” I
pushed a twenty-rouble note into his hand. “Here, take this,” I said.

He took the money but looked at me, puzzled. “Thank you,” he

mumbled, “but what is the good of money? Where shall I get
bread?” So I gave him a piece of mine and passed on.

There was plenty of life and movement in the streets, though only of
foot-passengers. The roadway was dirty and strewn with litter.
Strung across the street from house to house were the shreds of
washed-out red flags, with inscriptions that showed they had been
hung out a few weeks earlier to celebrate the anniversary of the
Bolshevist coup d’état. Occasionally one came across small groups of
people, evidently of the educated class, ladies and elderly gentlemen
in worn-out clothes, shovelling away the early snow and slush under
the supervision of a workman, who as taskmaster stood still and did
nothing.