Building Pathology and Rehabilitation

João M. P. Q. Delgado Editor

Concrete
Structures: New
Trends and Old
Pathologies
Building Pathology and Rehabilitation

Volume 27

Series Editors
Vasco Peixoto de Freitas, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
Aníbal Costa, Aveiro, Portugal
João M. P. Q. Delgado , University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
This book series addresses the areas of building pathologies and rehabilitation of
the constructed heritage, strategies, diagnostic and design methodologies, the
appropriately of existing regulations for rehabilitation, energy efficiency, adaptive
rehabilitation, rehabilitation technologies and analysis of case studies. The topics
of Building Pathology and Rehabilitation include but are not limited to - hygrothermal
behaviour - structural pathologies (e.g. stone, wood, mortar, concrete, etc…) - diag-
nostic techniques - costs of pathology - responsibilities, guarantees and insurance -
analysis of case studies - construction code - rehabilitation technologies - architec-
ture and rehabilitation project - materials and their suitability - building performance
simulation and energy efficiency - durability and service life.
João M. P. Q. Delgado
Editor

Concrete Structures: New

Trends and Old Pathologies
Editor
João M. P. Q. Delgado
CONSTRUCT-LFC, Department of Civil
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering
University of Porto
Porto, Portugal

ISSN 2194-9832 ISSN 2194-9840 (electronic)

Building Pathology and Rehabilitation
ISBN 978-3-031-38840-8 ISBN 978-3-031-38841-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38841-5

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2024

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
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does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
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claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Preface

Building rehabilitation is a strategic area that is concerned not only with historic
buildings but also with other buildings that have been in use for some time and need
to be adapted to the demands of the present. The success of a good rehabilitation
project depends on the specific plans for it, so the correct evaluation of the concrete
structures plays a fundamental role in an adequate building rehabilitation. Concrete
is a common building material that is used prolifically in the construction of many
buildings and infrastructure projects. The strength, durability, and flexibility of this
material have added to its popularity.
The main purpose of this book, Concrete Structures: New Trends and Old Patholo-
gies, is to provide a collection of recent research works related to new trends and
pathologies associated with concrete structures, in order to contribute to the system-
atization and dissemination of knowledge related to moisture transport, durability,
construction pathology, diagnostic techniques, and the most recent advances in this
domain.
The book is divided into five chapters that intend to be a resume of the current state
of knowledge for benefit of professional colleagues, scientists, students, practitioners,
lecturers, and other interested parties to network. At the same time, these topics will
be going to the encounter of a variety of scientific and engineering disciplines, such
as civil, mechanical, and materials engineering.

Porto, Portugal João M. P. Q. Delgado

v
Contents

Application of Hazardous Waste Management Model for Sustainable

Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Prafulla Parlewar
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics
with Interfaces of Cementitious Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
L. M. Freitas, F. A. N. Silva, and A. C. Azevedo
Electrical Model of a Bulk Concrete and Analysis of Its
Frequency-Dependent Electrical Resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
C. E. T. Balestra, A. Y. Nakano, G. Savaris, F. W. D. Pfrimer,
and R. Schneider
Studies on Rheological Properties of High-Flowable Concrete . . . . . . . . . . 75
Nagaraj Ajay, S. Girish, Ashwin M. Joshi, and Namratha Bharadwaj
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
M. C. A. Feitosa, S. R. M. Ferreira, J. M. P. Q. Delgado, F. A. N. Silva,
J. T. R. Oliveira, P. E. S. Oliveira, and A. C. Azevedo

vii
Application of Hazardous Waste
Management Model for Sustainable
Cities

Prafulla Parlewar

Abstract Application of hazardous waste management model for cities look into
planning a model for collection, storage and disposal of potentially hazardous waste
for sustainable cities. The model particularly, illustrates an innovative design for
industrial hazardous waste management in a petroleum corporation at Mumbai, India.
It is significant that cities shall handle the hazardous waste effectively for sustainable
environment conservation. Hazardous waste is potential danger for the citizens in
event of disaster. So, what can be effective way to plan a hazardous waste management
in cities? How we can develop an accurate model? Some of these research questions
are discussed in this research. Finally, this research looks into the major methods for
designing a model storage unit for industrial hazardous waste.

Keywords Hazardous waste · Steel structure · Disaster management · Industrial

waste management

1 Introduction

The application of hazardous waste management model looks into a project devel-
oped for a petroleum corporation in Mumbai, India. The model focuses on the system
of waste collection, storage and disposal. It particularly focuses on a project devel-
oped for the storage in a large industrial complex. A hazardous waste is waste with
properties capable of harmful to health and environment. The hazardous waste may
be solid, liquid and gases. Characterises of this waste is classified into ignitibility,
corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity. One such waste which was developed in petroleum
refinery is Sulphur. This is highly toxic waste and harmful to humans. The model
here looks into developing a structure for long span storage of hazardous waste.
This model looks into effective storage mechanism for storing large number of toxic
wastes. Second aspect of design include effective vehicular circulation for storage and
removal of toxic waste. Also, design looks into air movement around the hazardous

P. Parlewar (B)
School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 1

J. M. P. Q. Delgado (ed.), Concrete Structures: New Trends and Old Pathologies,
Building Pathology and Rehabilitation 27, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38841-5_1
2 P. Parlewar

waste. Importantly, the design looks into structure which is cohesive to all type of
the loading conditions such as wind, dead load, seismic load etc. The researches fur-
ther identify how the industrial waster has to be handled for developing safer cities?
What are design criteria for developing structure for storing hazardous waste? How
industrial waste is potentially harmful to citizens? How do we make safer cities from
industrial waste? Some of these questions are discussed in this chapter to investigate
problems of hazardous waste management.
In the United States, generators are required to submit biennial reports of the
generation, management and final disposition of hazardous waste (LaGrega et al.
2010). The day to day generation of hazardous waste in many parts of the world poses
tremendous threats to humans, animals, and the ecosystem at large. The increase in
waste generation can be strictly linked to the rise in the global population, thus leading
to a rapid boost in industrial activities (Olukanni and Oresanya 2018). Hazardous
waste is the most difficult waste to be managed, since in the treatment process,
heavy metal and dioxin among others are obtained. During the last decades, the
Portuguese government has been doing a set of efforts to bet ter manage and handle
the hazardous waste in Portugal. To accomplish these goals, the legislation framework
was modified, network infrastructures such as the Integrated Centers of Recovery
Valuation and Elimination of Hazardous Industrial Waste were created and new
organization and management methods were developed. It is clear that Portugal
has now a more efficient system to handle and mange hazardous wastes. However,
more efficient and environmental friendly energy conversion methods are still needed
(Couto et al. 2013). The developed countries such as USA, Japan and many European
countries are the major hazardous wastes generators, while increasing quantity of
hazardous wastes is being generated by the newly industrialized countries (NICs).
To minimize hazardous waste disposal problems, certain technologies to reduce
waste quantity are recommended. These technologies include; in-plant minimization,
raw material alteration, equipment redesign, improved housekeeping and product
substitution (ChongrakPolprasert and Liyanage 1996).
The key driver of hazardous waste management is involvement of all the stake-
holders including waste generation, regulations, decision makers, waster processor
and informal and formal sectors. The stake holders have a crucial role in proving the
system by ensuring the development and delivery of an effective and efficient haz-
ardous waste management program (Hora 1996). In the Environment Quality Act,
1974 as amended, legislation on hazardous waste management has the main objec-
tive of controlling/regulating waste generation and improving waste management
process and procedure in Malaysia. The legislation describes waste management
process from generation, storage, handling, treatment, and final disposal (Aja et al.
2016). Wang has suggested that China should strengthen the management of haz-
ardous waste sources, improve the technical abilities of sound utilization and disposal
of hazardous waste, push forward the management of hazardous waste from non-
industrial sources, and strengthen the construction of hazardous waste supervision
and technical supporting system (Wang et al. 2013). Manufacturing of many petro-
chemicals and other types of products results in most cases in the generation of
Application of Hazardous Waste Management Model for Sustainable Cities 3

substantial quantities of hazardous/toxic materials. Much of the wastes are gener-

ated by the chemical and petrochemical industries, which produce different types
of chemicals needed by any advanced society (Alidi 1996). The management of
hazardous waste is a process which includes the collection, recycling, treatment,
transportation, disposal, and monitoring of wastes disposal sites. In the current sce-
nario of developing countries, hazardous wastes are often disposed directly into the
environment posing health and environmental risk. On the other hand, governments
and international agencies are taking steps for controlling the growing problem of
hazardous substances in the environment which appears to be a difficult process
because the wastes are from many sources. Toxic and hazardous substances from
these sources contaminate the land, air, and water (Enger and Smith 2004).
The major part of handling hazardous waste is design of storage. Generally, the
design of storage has to be long span structure. The design of long span steel structure
for hazardous waste storage needs accurate considerations for load design, vehicu-
lar circulation, ventilation, safety, storage system and aesthetic. In cities hazardous
waste management is a major issue. To handle industrial waste, it is important to
develop model which will remove the hazard near from human habitation. Cities are
complex mechanism with dynamic patterns of growth and demography. Cities con-
tinuously evolve and decay. In this process, framing sustainable cities, it is important
to identify accurate models for waste management in cities. This is an important inter-
vention to make live-able and sustainable cities. Urban waste management include
residential, commercial, and industrial waste. Residential and commercial waste are
not potentially harmful for citizens. On contrary industrial waste is highly harmful
to citizens due to existence of hazardous materials like Sulphur or radioactive sub-
stance. The research here particularly focuses on hazardous industrial waste contain-
ing sulphurous materials. Furthermore, research here illustrate a model for industrial
hazardous waste management with a project in Mumbai India. Lastly, this chapter
illustrates and discusses future directions and innovative methods and proposals for
industrial waste management.

2 Project Profile

The project is located in a petroleum corporation in Mumbai, India. The total pro-
duction capacity of the plant is 9.5 Million Metric Tonnes Per Annum. The plant is
spread across approximately 400 Acre of land. Perhaps, it is considered as one of the
Asia largest petroleum product suppliers. As a largest producer, the hazardous waste
generated is highest as compared to the other industries in the city. The industry is
located in the city area. Hence, it leads to health threats to the citizens. This indus-
trial waste if not collected, stored and disposed properly, it can lead to environmental
disaster. This affect air quality, pollute water and further affect heath of humans in
the city. City of Mumbai is particularly deteriorated for its environmental condi-
tions. It has high level of environmental pollution. Due to the urbanization city is
facing problems of high level of pollution for air and water. Petrochemical industrial
4 P. Parlewar

waste affects significantly to health of citizens. How such hazardous waste need to
be effectively managed to reduce health hazards? What is effective mechanism for
management of hazardous waste?
Cities like Mumbai have independent development authority for urban develop-
ment. But large petroleum industries owned by federal government are independent
entities for operation and maintenance of waste. In such a situation industrial haz-
ardous waste management are task of industries. Hence, it is important to have a
model which is responsible to urban environmental management without compro-
mising public health. So, a model is needed based on sound mechanism for collection,
storage, movement, management and disposal of waste. These can be achieved by

Fig. 1 Plan at ground level

Application of Hazardous Waste Management Model for Sustainable Cities 5

developing model effective and responsible to environment and provide accurate

solution for collection, storage, maintenance and management of waste.
This model was developed by construction of steel structure in Mumbai. The
purpose of structure was to collect, store, maintain, and effectively manage the store
waste. The size of the structure is 18.30 m .× 23.20 m with height 4.585 m. The
structure is internally column free. It is located near a sulphur storage area. The
structure is designed such that it has easy accessibility form various waste generation
areas in the industrial complex. Six number of steel trusses with span of 6.10 m are
place at 4.521 m centre to centre. Steel columns are rested on Reinforced Cement
Concrete (R.C.C) columns at two metre height. High density concrete floors are
placed for the circulation of forklifts. Building design is made such that a high level
of ventilation is maintained for ventilation of hazardous waste. The surrounding
landscape is integrated for easy circulation. Concrete foundation is made with seismic
loading in the prevailing seismic zone. Aesthetic considerations are taken care to
integrate the building in surrounding (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6).

Fig. 2 Section of storage

Fig. 3 Elevation of storage

6 P. Parlewar

Fig. 4 View of storage

Fig. 5 View of storage

Fig. 6 View of storage

Application of Hazardous Waste Management Model for Sustainable Cities 7

Fig. 7 The model

3 The Model

The model looks into an effective mechanism for collection, storage and manage-
ment. Generally, collection of waste is the first step towards hazardous waste manage-
ment. Collection of the waste is a process in which mechanical methods are involved
to collect the waste and transport it to the storage. In the first stage, it is important to
have a Waste Management Program which looks into a comprehensive program to
develop a Master Plan for the waste management. This looks into a comprehensive
policy for waste management. In India, National Waste Management policies are
National Policy of Hazardous Waste. This looks after prevention and control of the
pollution, The Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rule 1989 controls the
waste management in industries. Hence, it is essential to develop comprehensive poli-
cies towards waste management. The Hazardous Waste Management Plan includes
identification of characteristic of waste, treatment, storage, transfer and disposal and
also, remedial actions for the disposal. Significantly, in these management plans,
emergency actions plan has to be developed for mitigation of any potential disaster.
The hazardous waste management training has following components: (1) identifi-
cation of nature of contamination, (2) environmental legislation for contamination,
(3) contamination problems and waste management issue, (4) hazardous waste and
its consequences on human health, and (5) learning current practices (Fig. 7).
The hazardous audits look into correct violations and identify any undisclosed
violations as per the rules and regulations. It prevents recurrence of any future vio-
lations which can lead to disaster. It is an important step to prevent environmental
damage. Any conscious violations are liable to criminal liability of the companies.
Hence, audits are an important part in stage one of the hazardous waste manage-
ment model. These audits further lead to regulatory inspections which are statutory
mandates.
Second and most important part of model is storage of the hazardous waste mate-
rials. The design of the storage is discussed in detail in the next section. The design
of storage is based on accurate location of storage inventory, circulation, ventilation
and structural design. The structural design is developed as long span steel structure
for easy circulation and movement. The location of the store building is strategic to
8 P. Parlewar

Fig. 8 Waste management system

reduce environmental damages. Final part of the model is disposal of the waste. The
disposal of waste is undertaken by the companies as per the regulatory guidelines
(Fig. 8).

4 Storage Design

The hazardous waste store is designed as long span structure. The structure is
designed as hybrid structure with structure till plinth level in concrete and super-
structure in steel. At 2.5 m concrete columns and beams are cast and above 2.5 m
steel structure is erected for store, The concept of design is based on systematized
inventory or arrangement of hazardous waste containers, environmental conducive
site planning, design of internal and external vehicular movement pattern, natural
ventilation for storage of waste, and sustainable steel structure (Fig. 9).
The site is located near a Sulphur plant. But it is well located for collection of
waste from various locations in the industrial campus. The site planning is designed
such that the building has an access from main road and exit on other end of block.
The site is derived into two parts: a) open storage area and b) covered storage area.
In site planning, the open storage area is connected by vehicular circulation. So,
the road pattern is designed such that it connects the site effectively for vehicular
movement. The building is oriented as per the prevailing wind directions. Due to
this, good ventilation is achieved in building. Because of this, obnoxious gases do
not remain in side the building. The location has particular advantage of accessibility
from all parts of industrial complex.
Application of Hazardous Waste Management Model for Sustainable Cities 9

Fig. 9 Design of storage

The building profile is 23.20 m .× 18.30 m. The span of 18.30 m is kept free for
easy movement of forklift and vehicles. The 18.30 m span is divided into three parts
of 5.675 m each. These 5.675 m bays are used for storage and vehicular circulation.
The central bay of 5.675 m is kept for the movement of forklift and access is allowed
from South of building. Main arterial road is located on West side of the building.
An existing pipeline is located at East side of building (Fig. 10).
The foundation is designed as box R. C. C. foundation with 1000 mm mm thick P.
C. C. bed concrete. The size of foundation bottom reinforcement is 12 mm diameter
torque steel bars at 150 mm center to center. Minimum clearance cover for footing
is 50 mm. All R. C. C works area undertaken in M 20 concrete and FE - 500 steels.
Plain Cement Concrete (PCC) is taken as M-15. The soil bearing capacity considered
for design is 20 Mt/Sq. M. Following two sizes of foundations were constructed in
the building: (1) F1 - 1.9 m .× 2.0 m and (b) F2 - 1.850 m .× 1.85 m. Both foundation
slab reinforcement are torque steel in 12 mm diameter at 150 mm center to center.
Two types of columns are proposed in the building: (a) C1 - 400 mm .× 500 mm
and (b) C2 - 350 mm .× 350 mm. The main bars in columns are: (a) 4 mm .× 16 mm
torque steel, (b) 10 mm .× 12 mm torque steel, and (c) 12 mm .× 12 mm torque. The
links in columns near support are 8 mm diameter torque steel are 125 mm (4 legged)
for C1 type columns. The R. C. C. layout of building for plinth include: (a) PB1 -
250 mm .× 500 mm with bottom reinforcement in 16 diameter (3 No. s) straight bars,
PB2 as 230 mm .× 450 mm with top reinforcement 12 diameter (2 No. s) continuous
bars and 16 diameter (2 No. s) extra top bars. The plinth beams are in rectangular
layout with columns at equal distances. The R. C. C. slab at plinth level is 100 mm
thick with 8 diameter bars at 200 center to center both ways.
10 P. Parlewar

Fig. 10 Foundation layout

5 Design of Truss

A truss includes system of triangulated members to carry loads. Fink truss are most
common type of trusses found in design of steel structures. The roof truss is rested on
the R. C. C. columns with base plate (350 mm .× 450 mm) having 10 mm thickness.
The mild steel columns are designed in two ISMC - 150 with sizes: (a) 150 mm .×
300 mm and 150 mm .× 150 mm. The top cord (TC1) is designed in two mild steel
angles ISA 65 mm .× 65 mm .× 8 mm. Bottom cord (BC1) is designed in two steel
angles ISA 60 mm .× 65 mm .× 5 mm. Three are two types of verticals and diagonals.
B1 consist of two mild steel section of 50 mm.× 50 mm.× 5 mm. Runners are deigned
in ISA 65 mm .× 65 mm .× 5 mm. Purlins are designed in ISMC 100 (P1) at 1.37 m
Application of Hazardous Waste Management Model for Sustainable Cities 11

Fig. 11 Section of truss

center to center and ISMC 100 (P2) at 1.5 m center to center. The bracing is designed
in two ISA 65 mm .× 62 mm .× 5 mm as wind bracing at bottom cord (Fig. 11).

6 The Model: Benefits

The proposed model this provides efficient ways to collect, store and dispose waste.
The storage design in particular has following benefits: (1) The storage as a long span
structure is a cost-effective solution. Also, it has the benefit of faster construction.
(2) The mild steel simply supported triangular truss has the advantage for optimum
design of long span structure. The long span structure provides a larger operational
area for the storage. (3) The use of a composite system of steel and concrete has
wider suitability for the storage of waste. This suitability includes easy movement of
heavy vehicles and mitigating effects of hazardous materials. (4) The high strength
concrete in flooring and concrete columns provides easy and long-term suitability of
waste storage for longer time. (5) The super structure is completely made from steel.
This provides flexibility to erect or de-erect the structure. This also provides speed for
erection of structure. (6) The design also provides ease with moment and vehicular
circulation. Similarly, this model can allow handling large numbers of hazardous
waste. The model can be adapted due to its benefits.

7 Conclusions

The hazardous waste management model for cities is a significant necessity for
sustainable cities. In process of urbanization, it is essential for urban planners to mit-
igate disaster. Hence, it is essential to identify industrial waste management models
suitable for industries within the planning area of cities. The proposed model looks
into effective management and design of structure for waste management. The model
looks into design which responds to circulation, ventilation and steel structure design.
12 P. Parlewar

The proposed model has various benefits. Some of the benefits are as follows: (a)
collection and effective solution to site planning to reduce hazards, (b) the design of
storage based on effective solution to store and manage waste, and (c) the design of
an innovative long span structure provides solution for storage and management of
industrial waste. Furthermore, such approaches can be used in various cities having
industrial areas within the city limits.
The cities across globe have difficulties in achieving sustainability due to waste
generation. This directly affects the environmental pollution leading to disasters and
poor living conditions. Sustainable cities look into reducing and managing the waste
to conserve the natural resources. Thus, the hazardous waste management can provide
effective solution to achieve sustainable goals of cities.

References

LaGrega MD, Buckingham PL, Evans JC (2010) Hazardous waste management. Waveland Press
Olukanni DO, Oresanya, (2018) O.O. progression in waste management processes in Lagos State,
Nigeria. Int J Eng Res Afr 35:11–23
Couto N, Silva V, Monteiro E, Rouboa A (2013) Hazardous waste management in Portugal: an
overview. Energy Procedia 36:607-611. ISSN 1876-6102
Hora SC (1996) Aleatory and epistemic uncertainty in probability elicitation with an example from
hazardous waste management. Reliab Eng Syst Safety 54(2–3):217–223
Aja OC, Al-Kayiem HH, Zewge MG, Joo MS (2016) Overview of hazardous waste management
status in Malaysia. Management of Hazardous wastes
ChongrakPolprasert LRJ, Liyanage (1996) Hazardous waste generation and processing. Resour
Conserv Recycling 16(1–4). ISSN 213–226:0921–3449
Wang Q, Hung QF, Yan, Li DH (2013) Current status and suggestions on hazardous waste manage-
ment in China. J Environ Eng Technol 3(1):1–5
Alidi AS (1996) A multiobjective optimization model for the waste management of the petrochem-
ical industry. Appl Math Model 20(12):925–933
Enger ED, Smith BF (2004) A study of interrelationships. Environmental Science. Edward E.
Bartell, California, USA
Moisture Transport Phenomenon
in Block Masonry Ceramics
with Interfaces of Cementitious Mortar

L. M. Freitas, F. A. N. Silva, and A. C. Azevedo

Abstract In Brazil, buildings use ceramic bricks and Portland cement mortar as
constituent materials of the walls, which act as coatings and delimiting elements for
internal areas. These materials are porous and highly susceptible to degradation due to
the presence of moisture. Water penetrates structures through pores and compromises
the useful life of buildings if not identified and treated early. The region between two
layers of a wall is called the interface, and due to the presence of this region, the
transport of moisture in multilayer elements diverges from those found in monolithic
elements. The change in moisture transport behaviour is proportional to the change
in the nature of the contact and the water properties of the interface, and it is called
as interface resistance. This work sought to obtain information on the storage and
transfer of moisture, throughout the useful life of the system formed by ceramic brick
and Portland cement mortar. For this, the analysis of the performance of standardized
samples was carried out, with different interface configurations, mortar traces, and
base dimensions. Different performances were observed for samples of different
traits, where some absorbed less water than others. When comparing the different
areas of the specimen bases for each trace, in all cases the absorption (moisture
content) of water increases as the area is increased. This work presents and discusses
the current situation, original techniques, and strategies used in the development
of structural reinforcement design of both towers of the Basilica of Penha Church.
Repair techniques were, poorly, designed, and conducted in 1981, along with a lack
of preventive maintenance, leaks and even the growth of bushes embedded in the
masonry led to the instability of the towers of the Basilica of Penha Church. This
paper, which combines integrated solutions in a historic monument reinforcement
project, was initially challenging and became an important case study, possibly one
of the first works using carbon fiber reinforcement in masonry. Another important
contribution is the insertion of visitable galvanic protection that enables monitoring

L. M. Freitas · F. A. N. Silva
Civil and Engineering Department, Catholic University of Pernambuco, Pernambuco Recife,
Brazil
A. C. Azevedo (B)
Instituto Federal de Ciencias de Educacao E Tecnologia de Pernambuco (IFPE), Pernambuco,
Brazil
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 13

J. M. P. Q. Delgado (ed.), Concrete Structures: New Trends and Old Pathologies,
Building Pathology and Rehabilitation 27, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38841-5_2
14 L. M. Freitas et al.

and possible replacement of sacrificial anodic inserts, keeping the protection active
over time.

Keywords Experimental campaign · Moisture transport · Ceramic block ·

Mortar · Masonry

1 Introduction

In Brazil, it is common for buildings to use ceramic bricks and Portland cement mortar
as the main constituent materials of the walls of buildings, which act as coatings and
also as delimiting elements of internal areas.
These materials are porous and therefore highly susceptible to degradation due
to moisture. Water, being one of the most responsible for pathologies in construc-
tions, penetrates the structures through pores, and alone or in association with other
elements or phenomena, it can compromise the useful life of buildings if not identified
and avoided early.
The study of moisture transfer within civil construction materials and elements is
of fundamental importance for the characterization of their behaviour and under-
standing of their influences on durability, watertightness, thermal and aesthetic
performance of buildings in general (Freitas and Peixoto 1992).
The creation of a database on the mechanisms of moisture transport in building
materials is essential for the adequate numerical simulation of this phenomenon.
Previous investigations have treated a masonry wall as a single element in numerical
simulations of moisture and heat transport, but the existence of an interface resistance,
resulting from the interface between different building materials, reveals that this
simulation strategy may not be the most efficient (Freitas and Peixoto 1992).
The study developed in the research is important as it investigates the performance
in service of an important constructive element that is present in all buildings—the
masonry wall of ceramic blocks laid with cement mortar. This theme is in line with
the demands of Brazilian performance standards, NBR 15,575 (ABNT 2013). The
focus of this technical standard, according to NBR 15,575 (ABNT 2013) “is on
the requirements of users for the housing building and its systems, regarding their
behaviour in use and not on the prescription of how the systems are built”.
The motivations of the research carried out are part of the normative demands of
having buildings that, in addition to structural safety in the ultimate limit states, also
offer adequate conditions of use and contribute to the quality of life of their users,
based on sensory limits. Standardized for weather, sound and visual conditions.
Masonry walls are exposed, daily, to incident rain, condensation, and rising damp-
ness. This process of wetting and drying the masonry can result in degradation, such as
volumetric expansion, decrease in mechanical strength, abrasion and impact, thermal
transfer, mold formation, and presence of fungi and bacteria (Fig. 1).
The prevention and correction of damage caused by wall contact with water
requires a deep understanding of the water behaviour of moisture transport (Janssen
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 15

Fig. 1 Masonry wall in contact with external water

et al. 2012). If we consider the economic factors of this phenomenon, its study takes
on more relevance, since the costs of correcting eventual pathologies associated with
the contact of masonry with water increase exponentially when compared to the
initial costs of prevention.
According to Alves et al. (2012), “quality costs are inversely interrelated. That is,
as prevention and evaluation costs increase, the costs of internal and external failures
tend to decrease”.
In addition to this fact, there is also the repair of apparently harmless pathologies.
Turner (2002) reported that a significant amount of financial investment is consumed
in the US to carry out mold/fungal repairs in buildings of various uses.
16 L. M. Freitas et al.

To properly evaluate the performance of masonry walls subjected to moisture

transport inside, it is necessary to understand the interface phenomena (Azevedo
2019). This understanding can lead to more assertive design guidelines.
Although masonry walls are composed of multiple layers of bricks and mortar,
in most numerical simulations of heat, air, and moisture transfer, the actual masonry
composition is often simplified by adopting a strategy of considering a single layer
of masonry. Homogeneous brick. This modelling strategy is justified only when
the cost and associated computational time are constrained, and to obtain global
qualitative information about the investigated phenomenon. On the other hand, when,
for example, one wants to investigate the durability of the wall in more detail, the level
of complexity of the modelling cannot do without a more detailed modelling that
seeks to approach as close as possible to the real conditions of execution (Vereecken
and Roels 2013).
The heterogeneity of a masonry wall makes the analysis of moisture transfer more
complex, requiring knowledge not only of its characteristics individual, but also the
conditions of continuity of the interface that separates the different materials (Rego
2014).
The study of the hygric resistance generated at the interface has been evolving for
decades, as a natural consequence of the process, different approaches have been and
have been taken into account to seek an abstraction model of the physicochemical
phenomenon associated with the subject of study.

1.1 Research Objectives

It seeks to obtain information about the behaviour of moisture transfer and its storage,
throughout the life of the system formed by ceramic brick and Portland cement mortar.
Additionally, we seek to investigate strategies to meet the performance standards that
incorporate more rigorous demands regarding the proper functioning in service of the
constructive elements, as well as their aesthetic and energy efficiency performance.
In this context, the analysis of the moisture content and how it moves inside
masonry walls of ceramic blocks proves to be an important procedure to understand
the effect and influence of the main factors involved, namely: the absorption and
drying of these materials, through tests with standardized samples. As it contributes
to the understanding of the phenomenon of Interface Resistance in the transit of
moisture in porous materials, the research carried out advances in the knowledge and
characterization of important inputs for the civil construction industry—ceramics and
cement mortar. The formation of a database and the appropriate correlation to the
methods of analysis provide a basis for reaching a more concise theory close to the
real phenomenon.
In resume, the main objective of this study is the experimental analysis of the
behaviour of moisture transport in samples composed of ceramic brick and cement
mortar, with different interface configurations, mortar traces and base dimensions.
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 17

The purpose is to understand how these factors influence the absorption and flow of
moisture in these materials.

2 Literature Review

This section presents the fundamentals of the different transports of moisture in

different phases, as well as the types of interfaces between materials and the test
methods for identifying the hygric resistance of the interfaces. Methodological
strategies for estimating hygric resistance values of interfaces are also presented.

2.1 Moisture in Porous Materials

Most building materials used in building are porous and, therefore, are naturally
susceptible to a degradation process due to the constant presence of moisture. Water,
being one of the factors that account for most of the pathologies in constructions,
penetrates the structures through the pores. Alone, or in association with other
elements or phenomena, it can compromise the useful life of buildings if not identified
and treated early.
The presence of moisture can cause several pathological manifestations in
buildings and the most frequent are the following (Straube 2002):
• Corrosion of steel in metallic structures, reinforcement in structural masonry
structures reinforced concrete and pre-stressed concrete;
• Chemical deterioration and dissolution of materials such as plaster coatings,
ceilings, wood products and chemical processes such as carbonation and alkali-
aggregate reaction in structural concrete;
• Efflorescence and leaching;
• Deterioration by freezing and thawing cycles in concrete or masonry elements;
• Discoloration and stains on coatings and finishes;
• Volume changes (swelling, warping and shrinkage) that can cause cracks,
detachment of plates, structural failures, aesthetic problems, etc.
• Growth of biological forms such as mold, plants and mites.
In addition to the pathological manifestations listed above, another recurring
phenomenon in buildings is the thermal discomfort caused by humidity, which, in
some situations, can be agents that cause diseases in users, with respiratory medicine
intercurrences being more frequent.
Straube (2002) explains that for a problem related to humidity to occur, at least
four conditions are necessary to be satisfied:
1. Availability of moisture source;
2. Existence of a route for the movement of moisture;
18 L. M. Freitas et al.

3. Existence of a force that drives the movement of moisture and

4. The susceptibility to moisture deterioration of the building materials used.
Thus, in order to prevent pathological manifestations caused by moisture, it is
necessary to mitigate at least one of the four conditions necessary for degradation,
listed above. This mitigation may seem like a simple task, but in real situations, it is
practically impossible to exclude all the above conditions.
Most of the time, these conditions occur naturally in various building materials
and depend on the location of the building, the climate, among other factors. An
example of the difficulties of mitigating or eliminating the conditions listed above is
the presence of pores in bricks or concrete, the presence of alkali in the cement or
the presence of moisture due to rain.
However, even though it is almost impossible to eliminate the listed conditions, the
one that plays a more relevant role is the water source and, therefore, should deserve
greater attention from the engineer. For Straube (2002), there are four primary sources
of moisture in buildings, which can be classified as follows:
• Liquid water, from precipitation or leakage from pipes of hydro-sanitary installa-
tions;
• Water vapour, coming from outside or from the processes taking place inside the
building;
• Liquid and vapour water from the ground below the building;
• Moisture present in the building materials themselves.
Therefore, it is essential to have a precise understanding of the behaviour of the
animals when they come into contact with water. This is necessary so that you can
predict and anticipate problems and, thus, reduce risks and understand their conse-
quences on the durability of materials. According to NBR 15,575 (ABNT 2013), the
project life minimum of internal and external sealing systems is 20 and 40 years,
respectively. For this requirement to be met in masonry walls, understanding,
prediction, and risk reduction and unnecessary maintenance are necessary.

2.1.1 Characterization of the Porous Medium

The fixation and transport of moisture depend on the porous matrix of the materials.
The porous matrix of a material consists of the voids within crystalline solids that
can have different dimensions, sizes, shapes and ways of communicating with each
other. The porosity of a material can be defined as the ratio between the volume of
voids and the total apparent volume.
The porous structure of bricks and cement-based mortar comes from their manu-
facturing processes and is therefore unpredictable to some extent. On the other
hand, the quality control of these materials prevents the quality of the materials
and consequently their porous matrices from being compromised.
For moisture to propagate through a material it is necessary that the pores are
connected to each other, although there may be the possibility of isolated pores
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 19

Fig. 2 Scanning electron

microscopy image of a
synthesized ceramic
containing open and closed
pores

without any interconnection. Therefore, pores with connections to each other are
defined as open porosity and isolated pores as closed porosity Freitas et al. (2014).
Figure 2 represents the two types of porosity.
Porosity is open when there is a volume of pores accessible to a given molecule
of fluid and it is said “closed” when there is no minimum volume for the fluid flow.
According to the radius of the constituent pores of a given material, it can be clas-
sified as microporous, mesoporous or macro-porous. Another distinction of materials
is associated with the communications of their pores, which can also be considered
as open or closed. This definition is established by the international institution enti-
tled International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC 1994). The IUPAC
(IUPAC 1994) characterizes crystalline solids based on the internal radii of the pores,
as well as the volume of pores communicable to a fluid, as shown in Table 1.
The appearance of pores occurs during the firing process in the manufacture of
ceramic bricks. The initial step is the extraction of clay, which is then prepared for
moulding, and subsequent drying at a temperature lower than the firing temperature.
This is done so that the water that is inside the raw brick comes out, without the
appearance of cracks due to shrinkage. Only after this process is the brick taken
directly to the oven, at a temperature of approximately 900 °C, for the definitive
firing (Bauer).
Porosity can be higher due to the presence of materials that disappear with the
high firing temperature of the brick, such as organic materials such as wood sawdust
and peat. After burning, the place that was occupied by this organic material is
empty, making the material more porous (Hentges 2014). The quality control of the
manufacture and delivery of ceramic bricks is defined according to the technical
standards NBR 7171 and NBR 8042 (ABNT 1992; ABNT 1992).
20 L. M. Freitas et al.

Table 1 Types and classification of pores in ceramic materials (IUPCA) (IUPAC 1994)
Types/classifications of Definition
porous materials
Microporous They have pore diameters of less than 2 nm. They are the smallest
pores and have no influence on moisture transport because the water
they contain is not free. Due to its very small size, surface tensions
are so high that the water cannot move
Mesoporous They have pore diameters between 2 and 50 nm. They are
intermediate-sized pores and are also called “capillary pores” or
simply “capillaries”. It is through them that liquid water migrates
under the influence of capillary forces. Vapour transport also occurs
in these pores
Macroporous They have pore diameters greater than 50 nm. They are the largest
pores and are very relevant to the transport of steam. In contrast, net
capillary transport is normally not significant in macroporous
because the capillary forces are weaker
With open porosity Pores that have a continuous channel of communication with the
outer surface of the body
With closed porosity Pores that are totally isolated from their neighbours, closed in on
themselves, and not available for a external fluid

2.1.2 Transport of Moisture in Liquid and Vapor Phase

Research on the transport of liquids in multilayer composites can be found and

the values studied, for the most part, are determined based on the moisture profiles
measured during the soaking experiment and are dependent, for example, on the type
of mortar used, the w/c factor (water/cement factor), the use of additives, as well as
the type of brick, the curing conditions, and the thickness of the mortar joint. These
factors can have a potential impact on the interface strength and on the modification
of porous material properties (Azevedo 2019).
Construction materials can present varying degrees of hygroscopicity (Freitas and
Peixoto 1992). Taking this factor into consideration, materials can be classified as:
• Hygroscopic—when the amount of water fixed by absorption is relatively
important. Plain concrete and plaster are examples of hygroscopic materials;
• Non-hygroscopic—when their mass is practically constant regardless of the rela-
tive humidity of the environment in which they are found. Clay is an example of
a non-hygroscopic material.
Water can penetrate a porous material in a liquid or vapour state. In the liquid state,
two mechanisms can usually occur: capillarity and/or infiltration. While capillarity
is a result of the attraction of water and the surface tension of the liquid, infiltra-
tion requires hydrostatic pressure and depends on the permeability of the material
(Charola 2000; Freitas et al. 1996).
Most porous building materials, such as concrete, mortar or brick, are also hygro-
scopic materials that are able to attract water vapour from the environment. In the
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 21

case of building materials, hygroscopicity concerns the adsorption of water from

the air. Specifically for these materials, adsorption is the process by which water
molecules bind with pore surfaces and thus form thin films composed of one or more
layers of molecules. Adsorption arises from weak intermolecular forces (Van der
Waals forces) that act between the surface of the material and the water (Gonçalves
2007).
It is important to understand how water moves after it has penetrated a porous
material. If water moves in a liquid state, it will have the ability to transport salts. If
the water moves in the form of vapour, it can be retained by hygroscopicity. In the
first case, the mechanism depends on capillarity and, in the second case, it depends
on diffusion (Charola 2000).
In porous building materials, liquid water migrates mainly by capillarity. The
capillary mechanism occurs when the attractive forces between the liquid and the
solid are stronger than the cohesive forces in the liquid. The capillary transport
properties of porous building materials are evaluated on the macro scale. Appropriate
experimental parameters are used to express the tendency of the material, under
specific conditions, to absorb a certain amount of water or to transport that water
to a certain height. In porous hygroscopic materials, the transport of liquids can
occur even when there is no contact with the external liquid water, because a (liquid)
diffusion process occurs by which the water migrates from a thicker pore to thinner
layers of adsorbed water present in smaller pores (Gonçalves 2007).
Water vapour transport in porous building materials can be described as a diffusion
process, therefore, caused by a water vapour concentration gradient. The diffusion
processes are essentially due to the existence of temperature gradients (thermal diffu-
sion or Soret effect) and water vapour pressure (gaseous diffusion itself). Thermal
diffusion, which also occurs in the liquid phase, represents only about 0.05% of the
total value of moisture transfer in buildings, and can therefore be neglected (Rego
2014).

2.2 Interface—Hygric Resistance

Building walls are usually made up of multiple layers of construction materials. The
region between one layer and another of a wall is called an interface, and due to the
presence of this contact interface, the transport of moisture in multi-layer elements
diverges from that found in single-layer elements (Vereecken and Roels 2013).
Although masonry walls are composed of brick and mortar, in most heat, air, and
humidity simulations, the actual composition of masonry walls is simplified to a
homogeneous layer of bricks (Vereecken and Roels 2013). However, several studies
prove that the nature of the interface influences the transport of moisture in masonry
walls.
Considering that each material has different porous matrices, when they come
into contact with each other, as in masonry walls, the transport of moisture through
them does not occur constantly. The existence of a discontinuity of pores between
22 L. M. Freitas et al.

the materials can result in a decrease in the moisture transfer rate and/or a decrease
in the total water absorption. This delay that occurs when the wet front reaches the
materials interface has been observed in several studies and has been discussed over
the years.
In the study of moisture transfer in multi-layer elements, the interface can have a
significant influence on the pathological manifestations usually associated with this
phenomenon, since the behavior of moisture in masonry is highly determined by the
interaction of the water characteristics of the two components, and also by the nature
of u. In addition, the curing conditions of the mortar also determine the transport
characteristics (Brocken et al. 1997; Depraetre et al. 2000; Derluyn et al. 2011).
The change in the behaviour of moisture transport proportional to the change
in the nature of the interface and in the water properties of the interface led to the
definition of a new property/quantity—the hygric resistance of the interface.
The concept ‘interface resistance’ (or ‘ hygric resistance’) was primarily used by
Freitas (Freitas and Peixoto 1992), defining it as the greater or lesser diffusion of
water, translated into maximum flow transmitted in the samples studied, expressed
in kg/m2 s. The study identified hygric resistance by observing the lack of continuity
at the interface between porous materials.
The work of Freitas (Freitas and Peixoto 1992) opened space for further research
on the influence of the interface on the transport of moisture in masonry walls,
where different materials, curing conditions, material configurations, and ways of
identifying the moisture behaviour, in addition to other interface strength calculation
methodologies.

2.2.1 Types of Interface Between Materials

According to Freitas (Freitas and Peixoto 1992), there are three types of interface
between porous materials: hydraulic continuity, perfect contact and air space. A
schematic representation of the interface is presented in Fig. 3.
• Hydraulic continuity—occurs when the porous structure of materials interpene-
trates, seen in real work situations, when fresh mortar is inserted between layers
of bricks, with physical adhesion between them;
• Perfect contact—occurs when there is contact between the materials, but without
the interpenetration of the porous matrix;
• Air space—occurs when the materials do not come into physical contact, with
only a few millimeters of air space between them.

Freitas’s research (Freitas and Peixoto 1992) exclusively considered the inter-
face resistance present in the configurations of ‘perfect contact’ and ‘air space’, not
considering the existence of interpenetration of the porous matrix. However, further
research suggests that compared to a monolithic sample, all types of interface between
materials somehow interfere with moisture transfer.
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 23

Fig. 3 Types of interface configurations: hydraulic interface (left), perfect contact (center) and air
gap (right)

In contrast, Depraetre et al. (2000) consider the existence of four types of interface:
perfect hydraulic interface, air space, natural interface and real hydraulic interface.
Perfect hydraulic interface is characterized by the continuity of capillary pressure
and moisture flow across the interface. If the two materials are identical, the moisture
flow is not influenced by the interface. For different porous materials, an influence
is found.
Natural interface is considered when both materials are in perfect physical contact,
while their porous structures do not fit together. However, perfect physical contact
is difficult to achieve. If compared with the configuration by Freitas and Peixoto
(1992), this type of contact is equivalent to perfect contact.
The real hydraulic interface, or just hydraulic interface, is a sum of the ‘hydraulic
interface’ and ‘perfect contact’ configurations, where there is interpenetration of the
pores of the two materials and the presence of hygric resistance. This type of interface
is formed when the mortar is cured between the layers of bricks.
The research investigated two variables of real hydraulic interface: perfect and
imperfect real hydraulic interface. In other words, the dry brick, guaranteeing total
physical adhesion through the pores, and the saturated brick, preventing physical
adhesion through the pores, respectively referred to in the research as hydraulic
interface and perfect contact.

2.2.2 Identification of the Different Interfaces

What characterizes the existence of a hygric resistance at the interface is the delay
in the rise of moisture inside a porous material, which, as a consequence, results
in a decrease in the total content of absorbed water and/or a decrease in the rate of
moisture rise., when compared to a monolithic material. To identify and quantify the
hygric resistance between the layers of a masonry wall, there are some approaches
that can be used to characterize the materials and allow identification.
24 L. M. Freitas et al.

Next, only one of the most used methods for the identification and quantification
of the hygric resistance of the interface will be exposed—the gravimetric method.
Other methods that can also be used for this purpose—nuclear magnetic resonance,
X-ray analysis and gamma-ray attenuation, are outside the scope of this research.
The gravimetric method, also known as imbibition test, is a classic method to
determine the transient moisture content (Rijniers et al. 2005). This method consists
of calculating the moisture content from the mass difference between dry and wet
samples.
According to the current standard ISO 15148 (ISO 2002) the test must be
performed using prismatic samples of the material to be studied, under specific
conditions of temperature, relative humidity and atmospheric pressure. In addition,
the standard recommends that the water flow be unidirectional. To ensure the vertical
transport of water, the sides of the samples must be waterproofed, leaving free only
the base that is in contact with the water slide, and the top, ensuring the potential
difference.
The sample of the material to be analysed must be dry and with constant mass,
being then immersed in a water slide with 5–10 mm in height, for a certain period
of time. The sample must be weighed several times during the water absorption in
order to plot the moisture content versus time.
Despite being straightforward and apparently accurate, the gravimetric method
has the disadvantage of being destructive. Cutting a sample after the test, a process
necessary to observe the moisture front, produces heat and consequently disrupts the
moisture distribution (Azevedo 2019).

2.2.3 Methodology to Calculate the Hygric Resistance of the Interface

Although there are several studies on the hygric resistance of the interface in the
transport of moisture in building materials, few are those that quantify this resistance
in numbers. In the previous section, the gravimetric method was mentioned, which
identifies the existence of a resistance at the interface between two porous materials,
but even this methodology does not lend itself to estimating the value of the resistance
explicitly. This calculation does not yet exist in a standardized way and several
researches have been developed in order to create strategies to estimate this value,
based on existing methodologies.
The existence of a resistance at the interface, as well as its value, can be obtained
in different ways and strongly depend on the case studied. In masonry walls, for
example, the type of mortar, brick, wet or dry curing conditions, the thickness of
the mortar layer, the distance from the moisture source, among other factors, can
influence the properties of the interface and, consequently, in its performance.
It is then possible to correlate the phenomenon of interface resistance in capillary
absorption, the calculation of hygric resistance is then made from the measurement
of moisture flow from the point change of slope of the characteristic curve of the
cumulative flow test (or capillary absorption) (Azevedo 2019).
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 25

Fig. 4 Moisture absorption profile and change of direction of the graphs

The hygric resistance (RH) calculated by the gravimetric method is based on the
following expression: RH = ΔMw/Δt, where the time variation and also the capillary
absorption are measured from the point of change of slope of the characteristic curve
of the capillary absorption test.
Azevedo (2019) suggested a new way of calculating hygric resistance using the
graphs generated by the gravimetric method. The new form of calculation consists of
obtaining the equation of the curve generated after the graph changes direction and
extracting its derivative, generating an equation that depends on the instant in which
the graph changes direction. This methodology considers that the graphs generated by
the absorption test behave differently according to the type of interface between the
brick and the mortar. The method considers that when the interface type is perfect or
air gap, the graph changes direction only once, while the hydraulic interface would
show two changes of direction—this is because there are more interfaces in the
hydraulic interface (see Fig. 4).
Note that in the hydraulic interface there are two changes of direction in the curve,
and for this reason the section considered for calculation is the one after the second
inflection point. In addition, there is also the mathematical difference between the
calculations. In perfect contacts and air space, after changing the direction of the
curve, the best representation of the points obtained was in a linear function, where
the derivative does not depend on the instant in which there is a change in direction.
On the other hand, in hydraulic interface, the function that best represented the points
on the graph was the logarithmic function, whose derivative depends on the instant
in which the graph changes direction.

3 Experimental Program

The experimental work carried out focused on the study of the behaviour of moisture
transfer in samples composed of brick and cement mortar, with different geometric
configurations and mortar traits. The aim was to understand the influence of the
contact area with water, the type of mortar, and the type of contact between the
materials on the hygric resistance of the interface.
26 L. M. Freitas et al.

The samples were made with two types of interface between the bricks and the
mortar—hydraulic interface and perfect contact, with a layer of fresh mortar between
two layers of bricks. To ensure the existence of hydraulic interface, totally dry bricks
were used for greater interpenetration of the mortar in its pores. On the other hand,
in perfect contact, it was decided to use bricks saturated with distilled water, so that
the pores were completely filled and the mortar was prevented from penetrating the
pores of the bricks.
The mortars used were made with Portland cement CP V, hydrated lime, washed
sand and distilled water. The traces were defined in mass of cement, lime and sand
and are as follows: 1:0.5:4 (Trace 1); 1:1:6 (Trace 2); and 1:2:9 (Trace 3). These
proportions were defined based on the work developed by Azevedo (2019), so that
it was possible to compare the results of that researcher with the present research.
In addition to the difference in interface and trace, there is also the difference in
base dimensions. The samples have a square base measuring 5 cm × 5 cm, 7 cm
× 7 cm, and 10 cm × 10 cm, approximately. These measurements were chosen to
observe the behaviour of humidity when the interface area with water is increased.
For each interface configuration, 90 samples were made, 30 for each mortar mix,
i.e., a total of 180 samples. Table 2 shows the data of the samples made and tested.
All samples had a height of approximately 11 cm, with two layers of ceramic
brick of 5 cm in height interspersed with a layer of mortar of 1 cm, as presented in
Fig. 5.

Table 2 Configuration of
Interface Trace Dimensions
samples analysed
Perfect hydraulic interface 1:0.5:4 5 cm × 5 cm
7 cm × 7 cm
10 cm × 10 cm
1:1:6 5 cm × 5 cm
7 cm × 7 cm
10 cm × 10 cm
1:2:9 5 cm × 5 cm
7 cm × 7 cm
10 cm × 10 cm
Imperfect hydraulic interface 1:0.5:4 5 cm × 5 cm
7 cm × 7 cm
10 cm × 10 cm
1:1:6 5 cm × 5 cm
7 cm × 7 cm
10 cm × 10 cm
1:2:9 5 cm × 5 cm
7 cm × 7 cm
10 cm × 10 cm
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 27

Fig. 5 Representation of samples

In all the processes of preparation and execution of the experimental program,

distilled water was used to avoid contamination of the materials by mineral salts
present in natural or filtered water, which could compromise the search results.

3.1 Preparation of the Test Bodies

The materials used in the development of the experimental program, such as cement,
fine aggregate and coarse aggregate, were characterized in the laboratory. The bricks
used to carry out the experiments were solid ceramic pieces with dimensions of
approximately 23 cm × 11 cm × 5 cm. To build the samples used in the tests, it
was necessary to cut the bricks to make them smaller, with a square cross section,
with sides equal to 5 cm, 7 cm and 10 cm. A manual straight cutting machine with a
circular diamond saw was used to make the cuts. For each specimen, two pieces of
bricks were used, totaling 360 pieces of bricks, 120 for each base area.
To ensure perfect contact, it was decided to saturate the bricks so that there is no
interpenetration of the fresh mortar in the pores of the bricks. For this, the bricks
were immersed in distilled water for 72 h before applying the mortar.
In the case of hydraulic interface, the opposite had to be done. Before placing
the fresh mortar, the bricks were placed in an oven for 24 h at 100 °C, in order to
remove all the water present in the capillary pores. In this way, it was possible to
provide physical and chemical adhesions between the materials, ensuring the greatest
possible interpenetration of the mortar in the pores of the bricks.
Once the drying and saturation process of the bricks was completed, the process
of making the samples began. The study was carried out with three different mortar
mixes, composed of fine sand, coarse sand, hydrated lime, Portland cement CP V
and distilled water. The characterization of the mortar is explained in more detail in
Sect. 3.3.
The construction was carried out from the base brick layer, adding a thick layer of
fresh mortar to the upper face of the brick and supporting the second layer of brick
on top of it. In order to guarantee the mortar laying on the entire face of the bricks,
28 L. M. Freitas et al.

Fig. 6 Prepared samples

light blows were performed on the upper face of the sample until it reached 1 cm of
thickness. The samples ready after curing for seven days can be seen in Fig. 6.
To ensure the occurrence of moisture flow in only one direction, the side faces of
the samples were waterproofed after the mortar curing period of 28 days. The material
used for waterproofing was the Silver Tape type, which was applied transversally to
the samples. First in the central part, where the interface between the bricks and the
mortar occurs, and later in the rest of the specimen, taking care to avoid air spaces
between the materials and the tape. Figure 7 shows the samples waterproofed.
After waterproofing, the samples were kept in a place with ambient temperature
until the time of the absorption test. Due to the hygroscopicity of the ceramic bricks,
the samples were placed in an oven for 48 h at 50 °C and then placed in a room at
room temperature for cooling for 72 h, before each test.

Fig. 7 Waterproofed samples

Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 29

3.2 Capillary Absorption

To carry out this test, parameters from the European standard ISO 15148 (ISO 2002)
were used, which directs the terms for determining the coefficient of water absorption
by partial immersion of building materials in general. This standard establishes that
the samples have a minimum area of 50 cm2 , but recommends that they be 100 cm2
for better accuracy of the results. In addition, it also requires the waterproofing of
the side faces and the use of at least six samples when the areas are smaller than 100
cm2 .
However, most of the samples in this study have an area smaller than 50 cm2
and for this reason, the procedure of Rilem TC 127-MS (RILEM, Rilem Technical
Committees 1998) was also adapted, which indicates the use of samples with a square
base measuring 5 cm × 5 cm and waterproofed sides.
The two standards have practically identical procedures, with the objective of
determining the capillary absorption coefficient. That said, the present work carried
out an adaptation/junction of the two procedures, seeking a greater number of
measurements for analysis.
ISO 15148 (ISO 2002) provides for at least seven weighings during the entire test,
five of them in the first 24 h, one at 24 h and one at the researcher’s choice. In this
work, 40 weighings were carried out, 28 of them in the first 24 h, in all samples.
The containers used to carry out the experiment were made of transparent plastic
with a flat-surface bottom, in order to facilitate the maintenance of the water level.
At the bottom of the container, a rubber band of about 5 mm thick was fixed with
glue for plastic and rubber, perforated with nails and/or stainless screws.
The tips of the nails and/or screws, facing upwards, were intended to support and
keep the lower surface of the samples always in contact with water, as can be seen
in Fig. 8.
A marking was made on the side of the container to identify and control the height
of the water depth in which the samples were partially immersed, with heights of
5–10 mm above the base of the samples.
1 Related to the waterproofing of samples, the sequence used for the tests was as
follows:
1. Identification of samples;
2. Storage of the samples in an oven for 48 h;
3. Cooling of the samples for 72 h at room temperature;
4. Printing of measurement annotation tables;
5. Preparation and positioning of properly clean and dry containers;
6. Calibration of the scale to be used;
7. Timer preparation for all measurements of the day;
8. Placement of distilled water in the containers up to the established height
marking;
9. Weighing, measuring the dimensions of the samples, and recording the values.
The process of carrying out the tests itself followed the following steps:
30 L. M. Freitas et al.

Fig. 8 Test container

1. Storage of samples immersed in water—five per container, at the established start

time;
2. Weighing of samples at the predicted times;
i. Removal of the specimen from the water;
ii. Remove excess water with a damp cloth;
iii. Carrying outweighing and recording of values;
iv. Replacement of the specimen in the container;
3. Checking the water level of the reservoir and levelling it, when necessary;
4. Repetition of the process in the foreseen times.

3.3 Physical and Hygroscopic Characteristics

of the Materials

For the proper accomplishment of this study, the characterization of the materials is
necessary, so that the reference parameters can be obtained and with them to make
the correlations between the results obtained in the tests, and, with that, to arrive at
a correct interpretation of the phenomenon.
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 31

3.3.1 Ceramic Brick

The tests carried out to characterize the bricks used were density, water absorption
index and capillary absorption coefficient.
• Density
To calculate the density, the bricks were dried in an oven at 100 °C until reaching
a constant mass, according to NBR 15,270–3 (ABNT 2005b). After the bricks had
cooled, they were weighed, then the three dimensions were measured and the values
recorded in five different samples.
• Water Absorption Index
To calculate the water absorption index, the standard NBR 15,270–3 (ABNT 2005b)
was used, which indicates that the bricks must be submerged for a period of at least
24 h in water at room temperature until the mass is stabilized. The tests were carried
out on three samples of bricks.
• Capillary Absorption Coefficient
The capillary absorption coefficient was calculated according to ISO 15148 (ISO
2002), using five samples of bricks partially immersed in distilled water, following
the same procedures described above. Measurements were performed at the following
test times: 5 min, 20 min, 1 h, 2 h, 4 h, 8 h, 10 h, and 24 h. The capillary absorption
coefficient (Aw ) is calculated by:

Mw mt − m0
Aw = √ = √ (1)
A t A t

where Aw is the capillary absorption coefficient (kg/m2 s0.5 ), mt is the mass measured
after time (kg), m0 is the initial mass of the sample, A is the area of the base (m2 )
and t is the time (s).

3.3.2 Mortar

Mortar is a common building material used for wall construction, and its dosage is
one of the most important factors for the workability of this material (Guimarães
et al. 2018). The dosages used in this work are in accordance with the Brazilian
standard NBR 7200 (ABNT 1998).
Laying mortar is the main material used for joining bricks in masonry walls. It
contributes to the uniform distribution of loads in a building and to the absorption of
deformations resulting from the active forces.
In order for the mortar to perform its functions correctly, it is necessary to guar-
antee, through the proportions of the materials used in its manufacture, that it has
the necessary characteristics compatible with the intended function. One of the main
32 L. M. Freitas et al.

Table 3 Proportions of the traces of the mortars used

Trace Cement Lime Fine sand Coarse sand w/c w/m
1 1 1 2 2 1.15 0.17
2 1 0.5 3 3 1.68 0.17
4 1 2 4.5 4.5 2.51 0.17

characteristics of mortars, regarding the execution, is the workability, which can be

defined as the greater or lesser ease of handling it in the fresh state.
The mortars used in this study were composed of Portland cement CP V, hydrated
lime, washed sand, and distilled water. By way of comparison, three different propor-
tions of materials were used, in order to maintain the water/dry materials ratio, thus
ensuring good workability. The volume proportions, the water/cement ratios (w/c)
and the water/dry materials ratio (w/m) are described in Table 3.
The mortars were prepared according to NBR 13,276 (ABNT 2016), which also
prescribes the calculation of the consistency index in the fresh state. Also at this stage,
the content of incorporated air and the density in the fresh state were calculated, both
according to NBR 13,278 (ABNT 2005).
The tests performed to characterize the mortars in the hardened state were the
following: density, water absorption index, and capillary absorption coefficient. For
all mortar characterization tests, prismatic samples with dimensions equal to 4 cm
× 4 cm base, and 16 cm in height were used.
• Density
The densities of the mortars were calculated according to NBR 13,278 (ABNT 2005),
and similarly to the procedures performed with the bricks. Five samples of each
mortar mix were tested.
• Water Absorption Index
To calculate the water absorption index, we chose to use the same method used in
the bricks, which indicates that the samples must be submerged for at least 24 h in
water at room temperature, until the mass is stabilized. The tests were carried out on
three samples of each mortar mix.
• Absorption Coefficient
As for the bricks, the capillary absorption coefficients were calculated by Eq. (1) and
following the procedures determined by the ISO 15148 standard (ISO 2002).

3.4 Hygric Resistance Measurement

The hygric resistance calculation was developed from the models described by
Azevedo (Azevedo 2019). The first methodology (previous methodology—PM) of
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 33

calculation is based on the capillary moisture absorption rate of the ceramic specimen
as a function of time, regardless of the type of interface between the samples. The
second (new methodology—NM) in the new method proposed by Azevedo (2019).
For the development of PM methodology, one must start from the point of change
in the slope of the capillary absorption curve as a function of time. However, as the
curve is a polynomial function, some processes had to be adapted for the analysis to
be carried out.
Based on the information from the tests, an initial time of 25,200 s (7 h) was
specified because it is a common point among the nine configurations and is located
in the region closest to what most resembles a sudden change in the slope of the
curves. As an endpoint, a time equal to 259,200 s was stipulated, which corresponds
to 72 h. The exception was for the small specimen of trace 3 which, as it did not have
the record for this period, the final time of 255,600 s (71 h) was used.
Making use of Eq. (1) and having Mw for the respective cumulative flow values
of capillary moisture absorption recorded for the times of t0 and t of 25,200 s and
259,200 s, respectively. The hygric resistance values of the nine sample configura-
tions were calculated from the ratio between the variations in capillary absorption as
a function of time.
For the calculation of the NM methodology, some adaptations were necessary
so that the calculation could be carried out. Unlike what was proposed by Azevedo
(2019), the perfect contact in this study presents two inflection points in the curves
generated by the absorption test, as well as the hydraulic interface. In this way, both
configurations obtained logarithmic functions in their hygric resistance calculations.
The time t used for all perfect contact configurations was 86,400 s (24 h). In the
hydraulic interface settings, there was a variation in the time in which the graph
changes direction, with 79,200 s (22 h) being stipulated for the 5 cm samples with
lines 1 and 2, and the 7 cm samples with lines 1 and 3. Other configurations followed
with a time equal to 86,400 s.
The hygric resistance calculations were performed for the two types of interface
and the two methodologies studied in this work, and the respective observed results
will be presented in Sect. 4.5.

4 Results and Discussions

In this section, the different results obtained in the tests proposed in the experi-
mental program will be analysed in order to achieve the objectives of this work.
For the proper analysis of the observed values and understanding of the parameters
influencing the recorded performances, it is essential to characterize the samples in
advance. Therefore, the first part of this section will serve to expose the results of
complementary laboratory tests for characterization of absorption and saturation of
samples in the appropriate cases.
In the second part, the results obtained for the interface of the hydraulic type will
be exposed, considering the nine configurations of preparation of the samples and
34 L. M. Freitas et al.

Fig. 9 Bricks detached from

the mortar layer

analysed under the aspects of cumulative flow and also the moisture content, at the
end of the analysis period of 74 h. This analysis is first seen as a function of time,
both for the cumulative flow and for the moisture content, and then specific figures
are exposed for a better visualization of the values to be compared, both in terms of
the three types of proposed trace and in terms of in relation to the areas of the bases.
For samples under hydraulic interface, due to logistical issues, not all samples
were tested during the same time. For the analysis of the results, it was established
that it was 74 h, as it covered most of the samples and exceeded the minimum time
of 72 h (3 days).
Four samples from the T1M sample families (Trace 1 and medium size) and T2P
(Trace 2 and small base area) did not have measurements at 74 h, for this reason a
logarithmic regression was performed to predict the missing results for the analysis.
During the curing of the mortar between the bricks that were previously saturated,
the physical adhesion was compromised due to the filling of the pores by water, as
was already expected for perfect contact. This phenomenon was evidenced when,
after seven days of curing, it was possible to observe that the mortar layer came off
the bricks in some samples, as shown in Fig. 9.

4.1 Material Results

The results obtained provide information that helps to understand in more detail how
the transfer of moisture by capillary rise occurs in multilayer materials, such as a
masonry wall.

4.1.1 Ceramic Brick

To calculate the water absorption index, the standard NBR 15,270–3 (ABNT 2005b)
was used, which indicates submersion of the bricks for 24 h in water at room temper-
ature, until the mass is stabilized. To obtain a better statistical result, the test was
performed in triplicate of the brick samples.
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 35

• Water absorption index, saturation and density of ceramic bricks

Figure 10 shows the variation of mass measurements as a function of the square
root of time. The capillary absorption coefficient obtained was 0.13 kg/m2 .s0.5 . This
value is in agreement with other values of this experiment and found in the literature,
which vary between 0.05 and 0.29 kg/m2 .s0.5 .
Brick saturation was measured for 96 h, and recorded every 24 h. The information
collected from the three samples prepared for this test are described in Table 4.
The density value obtained by the ceramic bricks was 1615.10 kg/m3 . The result
for the water absorption index was 20%. The results of the tests carried out to
characterize the bricks are summarized in Table 5.

Fig. 10 Capillary absorption curve (kg/m2 ) of brick samples as a function of the square root of
time (t0.5 )

Table 4 Average saturation

Time Mass (mg) Moisture content (%)
of bricks
Starter (dry weight) 2222.8 0
24 h 2666.4 20
48 h 2670.5 20
72 h 2671.9 20
96 h 2672.0 20

Table 5 Physical–chemical
Property ceramic brick
properties of bricks
Density (kg/m3 ) 1615.1
Water Absorption Index (%) 20
Capillary Absorption Coefficient (kg/m2 s0.5 ) 0.13
36 L. M. Freitas et al.

4.1.2 Mortar

The mortars were composed of Portland cement CP V, hydrated lime, washed sand
and distilled water, and three different proportions of materials were used, in order
to maintain the water/dry materials ratio.
• Water absorption index, saturation and density of mortars
Figure 11 shows the results of the Trace 1 capillary absorption test for the five samples
as explained in the experimental program.
Table 6 shows the results for the saturation test of the mortar samples from Trace
1, as well as the observed moisture content.
Figure 12 shows different results from those observed for Trace 1. The values for
the average capillary absorption of the samples, observed for trace 2, are higher than
those recorded in Trace 1. Table 7 has the results of the complementary saturation
test performed on the mortar samples with trace 2.

Fig. 11 Capillary absorption curve (kg/m2 ) of Trace 1 samples as a function of the square root of
time (t0.5 )

Table 6 Average saturation

Time Mass (mg) Moisture content (%)
of Trace 1 samples
Starter (dry weight) 484.9 0
24 h 532.4 10
48 h 533.3 10
72 h 533.8 10
96 h 534.0 10
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 37

Fig. 12 Capillary absorption curve (kg/m2 ) of Trace 2 samples as a function of the square root of
time (t0.5 )

Table 7 Average saturation

Time Mass (mg) Moisture content (%)
of Trace 2 samples
Starter (dry weight) 484.0 0
24 h 535.6 11
48 h 536.6 11
72 h 536.8 11
96 h 537.1 11

Figure 13 shows that the values obtained with Trace 3 are higher than those
recorded for Trace 1. However, there is also a greater range of results among the
samples analysed for this proportion of the mixture in relation to the with Trace 2.
Table 8 presents the average saturation values of samples prepared with Trace
3 and tested for 4 days. The percentages of observed moisture contents are also
reported.
In summary, the mortars exhibited capillary absorption values for Traces 1, 2 and
3 were 0.10 kg/m2 s0.5 , 0.11 kg/m2 s0.5 and 0.12 kg/m2 s0.5 , respectively. The registered
densities were 1888.6 kg/m3 , 1892.3 kg/m3 and 1870.3 kg/m3 , for traces 1, 2, and 3,
respectively. The water absorption index values were 9.8%, 10.7%, and 11.2% for
Traces 1, 2 and 3, respectively. The results of the tests performed to characterize the
three types of traits are shown in Table 9.
38 L. M. Freitas et al.

Fig. 13 Capillary absorption curve (kg/m2 ) of Trace 3 samples as a function of the square root of
time (t0.5 )

Table 8 Average saturation

Time Mass (mg) Moisture content (%)
of Trace 3 samples
Starter (dry weight) 483.5 0
24 h 537.5 11
48 h 538.5 11
72 h 538.7 11
96 h 539.1 12

Table 9 Properties of the

Property Trace 1 Trace 2 Trace 3
tested mortars
Consistency (mm) 126.68 128.93 127.62
Fresh density (kg/m3 ) 2056 2080 2096
Hardened density (kg/m3 ) 1888.6 1892.3 1870.3
Water absorption index (%) 9.8 10.7 11.2
Capillary coefficient (kg/m2 s0.5 ) 0.10 0.11 0.12

4.2 Hydraulic Interface

Comparing the results obtained between the three types of traces, for samples with
5 cm × 5 cm bases, it is possible to verify that Trace 3 presents higher moisture flow
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 39

Fig. 14 Cumulative flow of moisture (kg/m2 ) as a function of the time (t), for the three different
traces using samples with dimensions of 5 cm × 5 cm base

values than the others. Trace 2 has the lowest results, with Trace 1 being intermediate
between the other two curves, as presented in Fig. 14.
Analysing the results for the three types of traces, and comparing the values of
cumulative flow of moisture as a function of time, for the samples with a base of
7 cm x 7 cm, similar behaviours are observed. However, with the addition of the base
area, the difference between the results for the three traces is reduced, reaching at a
certain moment they overlap, obtaining the same or close values, as can be seen in
Fig. 15. The overlap of values occurs between the curves representing Traces 1 and
3.
Among the samples with larger base dimensions, of 10 cm × 1 cm, the results
observed for the cumulative flow of moisture for the hydraulic interface showed
a trend more similar to the smaller samples, of 5 cm × 5 cm. Thus, the samples
with Trace 2 were the ones that presented the lowest results for the accumulation of
moisture as a function of the characteristic exposure time. This is more obvious from
Fig. 16.
Comparing all the configurations of traces and dimensions of the bases present
in the different samples for the interface with hydraulic interface, it is possible to
observe that Trace 3 has the highest results of the cumulative flow of moisture as a
function of time, for the small specimen.
On the other hand, the samples with Trace 2, in the three dimensions studied, are
the ones with the lowest cumulative flow of moisture at three days. Trace 1, with
a lower proportion of fine aggregates in relation to cement, has lower results for
smaller samples, as can be seen in Fig. 17.
40 L. M. Freitas et al.

Fig. 15 Cumulative flow of moisture (kg/m2 ) as a function of the time (t), for the three different
traces using samples with dimensions of 7 cm × 7 cm base

Fig. 16 Cumulative flow of moisture (kg/m2 ) as a function of the time (t), for the three different
traces using samples with dimensions of 10 cm × 10 cm base
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 41

Fig. 17 Cumulative flow of moisture (kg/m2 ) as a function of the time (t), for all experiments

Carrying out the comparative analysis between the three different areas for the
same type of trace in the hydraulic interface, it is possible to observe from another
perspective the variation of the cumulative flow of moisture as a function of time
and, from that, to conjecture about the influencing parameters.
For Trace 1, it can be observed that despite the results close to the medium and
large samples, the smaller samples showed lower values than the others, indicating
less accumulation of moisture, as can be seen in Fig. 18.

Fig. 18 Comparison of the cumulative flow of moisture (kg/m2 ) as a function of the time (t),
between the areas of Trace 1
42 L. M. Freitas et al.

Fig. 19 Comparison of the cumulative flow of moisture (kg/m2 ) as a function of the time (t),
between the areas of Trace 2

The results obtained for Trace 2 are interesting when compared with the others,
because for this proportion of the mortar mixture, values very close to the cumulative
flow of moisture as a function of time can be visualized. This occurs for the three
different dimensions of the bases, indicating that there may be an ideal value for the
proportions of the mixtures in the mortar composition, which would not depend on
the area exposed to moisture. This trend can be seen in Fig. 19, and it is important to
note that the values per se reach 25 kg/m2 at approximately three days (72 h), which
can be considered low in relation to those observed in the other traits.
Unlike an intuitively expected linear result, when compared to the other traces,
the proportions of the mixture called Trace 3 have a greater similarity of the results
in relation to Trace 1 than Trace 2. The values obtained are greater than 25 kg/
m2 , reaching to be close to the 35 kg/m2 observed in samples with smaller base
dimensions, mainly 5 cm × 5 cm. On the other hand, samples with larger base
dimensions, 10 cm × 10 cm, showed lower cumulative moisture flow, being less
than 30 kg/m2 observed after three days. The curves shown in Fig. 20 provide a
better visualization of this physical behaviour of the analysed ceramic material.
It is important to analyse the moisture contents between the different traits so that
a better correlation can be obtained on which are the determining parameters that
contribute to the transport of moisture, and thus to be able to establish the criteria
related to the resistance of the interface.
Figure 21 presents the results of the moisture contents for Trace 1 considering the
samples in the three base dimensions studied. The smaller volume samples had the
highest moisture content value compared to the intermediate samples, which in turn
were larger than the wider-based samples. This can lead to the understanding that
there is a direct relationship between the area of the base exposed to moisture and the
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 43

Fig. 20 Comparison of the cumulative flow of moisture (kg/m2 ) as a function of the time (t),
between the areas of Trace 3

moisture content that the sample will present under specific conditions. The minimum
moisture content was 2070.30 kg/m3 for the large samples, and the maximum was
2321.54 kg/m3 for those with a smaller base area.
The moisture content observed for the samples made with Trace 2 had similar
relationships between the different areas of the bases, presenting higher results for

Fig. 21 Moisture content (kg/m3 ) between samples with Trace 1

44 L. M. Freitas et al.

Fig. 22 Moisture content (kg/m3 ) between samples with Trace 2

the small samples in relation to the intermediate ones, which in turn also showed
higher values than those observed in the large samples. The larger samples showed
moisture content values on average of 1959.9 kg/m3 , and these results are lower than
those presented by the samples of the same dimensions, but prepared with the mortar
of Trace 1. Figure 22 shows moisture content data for Trace 2.
For Trace 3 the results can be considered better than those obtained by Traces 1
and 2, when small and medium samples are observed. However, the large samples
of Trace 3 showed higher results of moisture content compared to the samples made
with the mortar of Trace 2. The large samples showed an average value of moisture
content equal to 1976.8 kg/m3 , which is superior to the same samples with Trace 2.
The average results obtained by the samples of Trace 3 in the hydraulic interface for
the moisture contents are shown in Fig. 23.
It facilitates the visualization of the moisture contents from an analysis of the
different traces in comparison using the same area of the base for the samples. This
type of analysis allows the results to be seen for the same trace in different samples,
observing the variations in the data. It is also possible to compare the data among
the three graphs that will address these results.
Figure 24 presents the average values obtained with the samples with a base area
equal to 5 cm × 5 cm prepared with the three types of trace. It is possible to see
that Trace 1 was the one that obtained the highest average value of moisture content
among the analysed samples, having been equal to 2321.5 kg/m3 . The small samples
with Trace 2 obtained an average value of moisture content equal to 2248.9 kg/m3 .
In turn, the samples made with Trace 3, for these proposed dimensions, were the
ones that showed the lowest average value, being equal to 2196.2 kg/m3 .
The samples with average dimensions, 7 cm × 7 cm, showed lower values than
the others with smaller areas, specially if proportionally compared between the three
traces for the results obtained among themselves. The medium samples cast with
Traces 2 and 3 showed lower moisture content results than the values of the small
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 45

Fig. 23 Moisture content (kg/m3 ) between samples with Trace 3

Fig. 24 Moisture content (kg/m3 ) between 5 cm × 5 cm CP’s

samples. The average sample results for Traces 1, 2, and 3 are shown in Fig. 25 and
are equal to 2206 kg/m3 , 2115 kg/m3 , and 2092.1 kg/m3 , respectively.
The data obtained by the large samples in relation to the average moisture content
were the lowest among the three dimensions of analysed areas, and can be seen in
the Fig. 26. The moisture content of 2070.3 kg/m3 observed for these samples when
made with Trace 1 was lower than the lowest result presented by the small samples
with Trace 3. On the other hand, in this analysis it is possible to visualise that Trace 2
has a lower moisture content value when compared to Trace 3. This behaviour differs
from the other two analyses observed in small and medium samples.
46 L. M. Freitas et al.

Fig. 25 Moisture content (kg/m3 ) between 7 cm × 7 cm CP’s

Fig. 26 Moisture content (kg/m3 ) between 10 cm × 10 cm CP’s

The results for the hydraulic interface showed that the samples with Trace 2 have
a lower cumulative flow of moisture, and showed lower moisture contents after three
days.

4.3 Perfect Contact

In addition to the contact interface with previous saturation called hydraulic interface,
samples whose faces were dry were also analysed, allowing the flow of water of
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 47

Fig. 27 Comparison of the cumulative flow of moisture (kg/m2 ) as a function of the time (t), for
different traces with dimensions 5 cm × 5 cm

hydration of the mortar along with the fines, percolating through the open pores
of the ceramic material. Figure 27 shows the results of cumulative moisture flow
as a function of time for samples with base dimensions equal to 5 cm x 5 cm for
perfect contact. At the end of the three-day period (74 h), Trace 3 showed the highest
readings, approximately 35 kg/m2 . Traces 1 and 2 showed similar performance with
experimental results of approximately 30 kg/m2 .
The performance of the average samples, with base dimensions equal to 7 cm by
7 cm, showed very similar results for the three different types of trace studied, with
the values of the curves shown in Fig. 28 being in line. The results were slightly
higher with a value of 30 kg/m2 . The large samples, with base dimensions equal
to 10 cm × 10 cm, showed a very similar performance to the other samples, and
presented values between 30 kg/m2 and 35 kg/m2 , as can be seen in Fig. 29.
When comparing all the samples configurations, which are made by grouping
the three types of trace and the three different base dimensions of the samples, it is
possible to better visualize the performances. It is then possible to verify that the T3P-
type samples, that is, prepared with Trace 3 and with smaller base dimensions, are the
ones that presented the highest values of cumulative moisture flow as a function of
time. It is also possible to observe that the samples made with Trace 1 were the ones
that obtained the lowest values of this transport of accumulated moisture. Figure 30
shows the nine sample configurations and the respective cumulative moisture flux
values as a function of time.
In this section, an analysis of the three types of traces in comparison of the
different areas of the bases was also carried out for the perfect contact, as well as for
the hydraulic interface. For Trace 1, it is possible to see in Fig. 31 that the smaller
48 L. M. Freitas et al.

Fig. 28 Comparison of the cumulative flow of moisture (kg/m2 ) as a function of the time (t), for
different traces with dimensions 7 cm × 7 cm

Fig. 29 Comparison of the cumulative flow of moisture (kg/m2 ) as a function of the time (t), for
different traces with dimensions 10 cm × 10 cm

samples obtained lower cumulative flow values as a function of time than the large
base samples.
For Trace 2, Fig. 32 shows that the performances of the smaller samples were
better at the end of the 72 h study period, however the samples with the lowest base
showed an atypical behaviour when compared to the other graphs. Although at the
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 49

Fig. 30 Cumulative flow of moisture (kg/m2 ) as a function of the time (t), for all experiments

Fig. 31 Cumulative flow of moisture (kg/m2 ) as a function of the time (t), of samples from different
areas with Trace 1

end of the three days the results obtained between the medium and small samples
were close, in the first 24 h the cumulative flow of moisture in the samples was much
higher than that presented by the medium samples.
For Trace 3, it is possible to see in Fig. 33 that the larger samples were the ones
that showed the lowest values of cumulative moisture flow as a function of time.
These results lower than those obtained by the smaller specimen, of approximately
35 kg/m2 at the end of the analysis period.
50 L. M. Freitas et al.

Fig. 32 Cumulative flow of moisture (kg/m2 ) as a function of the time (t), of samples from different
areas with Trace 2

Fig. 33 Cumulative flow of moisture (kg/m2 ) as a function of the time (t), of samples from different
areas with Trace 3

In order to better visualize the performance of the samples, analyses of the average
moisture contents were also carried out for each type of trace as a function of the
dimensions of the sample bases. In Fig. 34 it is possible to visualize the results
obtained by the samples of Trace 1 in the three configurations of the bases. It is
possible to observe that the average samples had lower moisture content results than
the other two, with the small base sample the one that presented the highest value
among the three analysed, equal to 2023.5 kg/m3 .
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 51

Fig. 34 Moisture content (kg/m3 ) between samples with Trace 1

The results observed for Trace 2 showed that the samples with the largest base
dimension were the ones that had the lowest moisture content among the three
different areas analysed, being equal to 1929.6 kg/m3 . Figure 35 also shows that
the samples with the smallest area of the base were the ones that obtained the highest
value of moisture content at the end of the analysis period, being equal to 2072.6 kg/
m3 .
Figure 36 shows the results obtained for the samples with the perfect contact in
the three base dimensions studied, and using the mixture of Trace 3. It is possible to
verify that for this trace the results obtained by the medium and large samples had
values very close to 1903.4 kg/m3 and 1905.7 kg/m3 , respectively. The small base
area sample obtained moisture content results for Trace 3 equal to 1977.9 kg/m3 .

Fig. 35 Moisture content (kg/m3 ) between samples with Trace 2

52 L. M. Freitas et al.

Fig. 36 Moisture content (kg/m3 ) between samples with Trace 3

Another point of view can be adopted by comparing the three types of trace in
relation to a single area of the base, so that it is possible to have a visualization of
the moisture content of the samples as a function of their dimensions for the same
mixture.
Figure 37 presents an analysis for the samples with base dimensions equal to
5 cm × 5 cm, with the three studied traits, and under the type of perfect contact. It
is possible to verify that Trace 3 obtained the lowest result for the moisture content
at the end of 72 h, equal to 1977.9 kg/m3 . Trace 2 had a result equal to 2072.6 kg/
m3 , which is the highest value among the three traces analysed for the same base
dimension.

Fig. 37 Moisture content (kg/m3 ) between 5 cm × 5 cm CP’s

Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 53

A different behaviour was observed in the analysis of the average samples, with
base dimensions equal to 7 cm x 7 cm. Trace 1 showed the lowest moisture content
value in the period, equal to 1888.2 kg/m3 , this result being lower than the 1903.4 kg/
m3 recorded for trace 3. The highest value observed for the average samples under
this analysis was of the samples with Trace 2, being equal to 1976.3 kg/m3 , as can
be seen in Fig. 38.
The moisture content observed for the large samples, with base dimensions equal
to 10 cm x 10 cm, is shown in Fig. 39, and allows the visualization of the results for
these samples of larger base area in relation to the three types of traces and under
perfect contact. It is then verified that Trace 3 obtained the lowest result of moisture
content equal to 1905.7 kg/m3 , on the other hand, the highest value observed was for
Trace 1 equal to 1939.4 kg/m3 .

Fig. 38 Moisture content (kg/m3 ) between 7 cm × 7 cm CP’s

Fig. 39 Moisture content (kg/m3 ) between 10 cm × 10 cm CP’s

54 L. M. Freitas et al.

Unlike the last two analyses demonstrated for the medium and small samples, in
the case of large samples it was found that Trace 2 did not obtain a higher moisture
content, recording 1926.6 kg/m3 .

4.4 Comparison Between Hydraulic Interface and Perfect

Contact

A summary of the results obtained in the analyses of the cumulative flow of moisture
of the samples with hydraulic interface, for the three different traces and dimensions
of the areas of the bases, is shown in Fig. 40. It is possible to verify that the highest
value of humidity per cumulative flow was 40.3 kg/m2 and it was observed for the
samples of Trace 3 and with small area, of dimensions 5 cm × 5 cm.
It is demonstrated that the lowest value was obtained by the samples of Trace 2 and
also with the smallest area of the base, being equal to 23.4 kg/m2 , which corresponds
to a little more than half of what was verified by the small specimen and trace 3.
Trace 1 showed lower cumulative moisture flux results than compared to the values
observed in Trace 3.
Analysing the average moisture content for each base dimension of the samples
and the three types of traces, it is possible to observe that the highest value obtained
was for the samples with Trace 1 and with a small base area. For this sample, the
average moisture content was 2321.5 kg/m3 . The lowest value observed was for Trace
2 with the largest area of the base, 10 cm × 10 cm, being approximately equal to
1960 kg/m3 .
The results obtained by Trace 3 also presented significant relatively low data,
mainly for the larger samples of the base, as can be seen in Fig. 41.

Fig. 40 Cumulative flow of moisture (kg/m2 ) as a function of the time (t), for all configurations
for hydraulic interface
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 55

Fig. 41 Moisture content (kg/m3 ) of all configurations for hydraulic interface

Analysing all nine sample configurations under the aspect of perfect contact, it
is possible to visualize which ones had the highest and lowest values as results.
Figure 42 allows us to verify that the small sample with Trace 2 was the one that
obtained the highest moisture content result among the study, equal to 2072.6 kg/
m3 . The lowest result was verified for the average specimen made with Trace 1 being
equal to 1888.2 kg/m3 .
The cumulative flow of moisture in the studied period of 72 h for the nine sample
configurations can be seen in Fig. 43 and allows to observe similar performances for
some cases of the same trait, and also opposites or inverses between two others. It is
possible to verify that the samples with Trace 1 obtained low and very approximate

Fig. 42 Moisture content (kg/m3 ) of all configurations for perfect contact

56 L. M. Freitas et al.

Fig. 43 Cumulative flow of moisture (kg/m2 ) of all configurations for perfect contact

values for the small and medium samples, being equal to 30.9 kg/m3 and 30.8 kg/
m3 , respectively.
In Trace 2, it can be seen that the lowest result of moisture content was observed
in the specimen with a smaller area, equal to 30.7 kg/m3 , which is also the lowest
value among the nine configurations of samples analysed under perfect contact. Trace
3, contrary to the aforementioned one, showed lower results for the large models,
however, still superior to those seen in the other two traces.

4.5 Resistance Values

Using the methodologies described in Sect. 3.4, hygric resistance values were calcu-
lated for all samples configurations, using both methodologies. Table 10 and Fig. 44
bring the results of the calculations development, both for the hydraulic interface
and for the perfect contact.
Among the values calculated for the hygric resistances of the nine configurations
of the samples, and for both types of interface contact, the smallest and greatest
results can be highlighted. T3M sample, with Trace 3 and average dimensions of
7 cm x 7 cm, under the type of hydraulic interface, was the one that obtained the
highest result of hygric resistance in the two calculation methodologies, being equal
to 7.46 × 10–5 kg/m2 s with the previous methodology and 3.74 × 10–5 kg/m2 s with
the new methodology. The lowest value observed was from the T2P sample, with
Trace 2 and small dimensions of the base area equal to 5 cm × 5 cm. However, when
using the previous calculation methodology, the lowest value was recorded under the
type of hydraulic interface, and when using the new methodology, perfect contact
Moisture Transport Phenomenon in Block Masonry Ceramics … 57

Table 10 Hygric resistance for the nine configurations of the samples in relation to the dimensions
of the bases and traces used, and also the type of interface contact
Interface Dimensions Trace Hygric Hygric
resistance—PM resistance—NM
Hydraulic interface 5 cm × 5 cm 1 4.60 × 10–5 2.02 × 10–5
2 4.39 × 10–5 1.98 × 10–5
3 5.35 × 10–5 1.74 × 10–5
7 cm × 7 cm 1 6.63 × 10–5 2.85 × 10–5
2 4.86 × 10–5 1.77 × 10–5
3 7.46 × 10–5 3.74 × 10–5
10 cm × 10 cm 1 7.19 × 10–5 3.11 × 10–5
2 5.16 × 10–5 2.41 × 10–5
3 6.61 × 10–5 2.66 × 10–5
Perfect contact 5 cm x 5 cm 1 6.79 × 10–5 2.65 × 10–5
2 6.02 × 10–5 1.10 × 10–5
3 7.36 × 10–5 2.66 × 10–5
7 cm × 7 cm 1 7.28 × 10–5 2.52 × 10–5
2 6.30 × 10–5 2.39 × 10–5
3 6.63 × 10–5 2.92 × 10–5
10 cm × 10 cm 1 7.00 × 10–5 3.00 × 10–5
2 7.28 × 10–5 3.11 × 10–5
3 6.64 × 10–5 2.62 × 10–5

Fig. 44 Comparison between the values of hygric resistance, a hydraulic interface PM; b; hydraulic
interface NM c perfect contact PM and d perfect contact NM
58 L. M. Freitas et al.

got the lowest result. This specimen recorded a hygric resistance equal to 4.39 ×
10–5 kg/m2 s (PM) and 1.10 × 10–5 kg/m2 s (NM).
Furthermore, it is possible to notice that using the new methodology the resistance
values are 2–3 times smaller than the values calculated with the previous method-
ology. However, in the case of very small values, they maintain the same order of
magnitude and therefore are mathematically close values.

5 Conclusions

This research work provided the visualization of the effect of the interface resistance
in masonry samples of ceramic brick and mortar, for the transport of capillary mois-
ture. From the analysis of the results obtained with the experimental program, it is
possible to show that for both cases analysed, i.e., perfect and hydraulic interface,
the hygric resistance has very close values, ranging from 4.0 × 10–5 kg/m2 s and 8.0
× 10–5 kg/m2 s in the first calculation methodology and between 1.0 × 10–5 kg/m2 s
and 4.0 × 10–5 kg/m2 s in the second calculation methodology.
When comparing the traces in relation to the areas of the bases, there is a decrease
in the moisture content and the flow from Trace 1 to Trace 2, suggesting that the
samples with Trace 1 absorb more water than those with Trace 2. However, comparing
samples with traces 2 and 3, it is possible to observe an increase in the moisture
content and in the cumulative flow of the samples, indicating that Trace 3 absorbs
more water than Trace 2. It was expected that the higher the proportions for the trace
of the mortar, the greater would be the transport of moisture and the amount of water
absorbed.
Under the analysis of only the hydraulic interface, that is, in which there is an
interpenetration of the pores, the samples of smaller areas of the base, of 5 cm ×
5 cm, as well as those of area equal to 7 cm x 7 cm, having the bodies of proof with
trace 3 were the ones that most absorbed water. Different performance from that
observed for samples with a base equal to 10 cm × 10 cm. In samples with a greater
base area, the weak trace (Trace 3) absorbs less water than the strong trace (Trace 1)
but transports more water than the medium trace (Trace 2).
When comparing the different areas of the specimen bases for each trace, in all
cases the absorption (moisture content) of water increases as the area is increased.
In all cases, the average trace (Trace 2) is the one with the lowest absorption and
lowest fluxes.

References

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shapes and dimensions. Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro
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ABNT (1998) Brazilian association of technical standards. NBR 7200: execução de revestimento
de paredes e tetos de argamassas inorgânicas—procedimento. Rio de Janeiro
ABNT (2013) Brazilian association of technical standards. NBR 15575: residential buildings—
performance. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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ABNT (2005) Brazilian association of technical standards. NBR 13278: Mortar for laying and
coating walls and ceilings—determination of mass density and incorporated air content. Rio de
Janeiro, RJ
ABNT (2005b) Brazilian association of technical standards. NBR 15270–3: Ceramic components.
Part 3: ceramic blocks for structural and sealing masonry—test methods. Rio de Janeiro, RJ: .
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coating walls and ceilings—determination of consistency index. Rio de Janeiro, RJ
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dos custos da qualidade. [S. l.: s. n.]
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Charola AE (2000) Salts in the deterioration of porous materials: an overview. J Am Inst Conserv
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rising humidity. Alegrete/RS
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immersion, Geneva. https://standards.iteh.ai/catalog/standards/sist/5ab182e2-a7ad-428c-87e1-
40fe97b42300/iso-15148-2002
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multiple layers. MSc. Thesis, FEUP, Porto, Portugal. Available in: http://www.fe.up.pt
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joints influence the moisture flux? Constr Build Mater 41:697–707
Electrical Model of a Bulk Concrete
and Analysis of Its Frequency-Dependent
Electrical Resistivity

C. E. T. Balestra, A. Y. Nakano, G. Savaris, F. W. D. Pfrimer,

and R. Schneider

Abstract Electrical resistivity (ER) becomes an essential tool for decision- making
by managers responsible for plans and strategies for concrete structures mainte-
nance. ER is a non-destructive technique for evaluating reinforced concrete struc-
tures, mainly regarding reinforcement corrosion risk due to its easy operation, reli-
ability, and quick and low-cost results. Although ER is a widely used technique,
little clear information is discussed in the literature regarding the concrete role as an
electrical circuit component. Thus, this chapter presents concepts about circuit types
applied to understand electrical resistivity and a comprehensive analysis regarding
the concrete role in different electrical circuit types. The main parameters that most
influence concrete resistivity are discussed.

Keywords Electrical resistivity · Reinforced concrete structures · Reinforcement

corrosion · Non-destructive tests · Service life · Durability

C. E. T. Balestra (B) · A. Y. Nakano · G. Savaris · F. W. D. Pfrimer · R. Schneider

Federal University of Technology—Paraná, Toledo, Brazil
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Y. Nakano
e-mail: [email protected]
G. Savaris
e-mail: [email protected]
F. W. D. Pfrimer
e-mail: [email protected]
R. Schneider
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 61

J. M. P. Q. Delgado (ed.), Concrete Structures: New Trends and Old Pathologies,
Building Pathology and Rehabilitation 27, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38841-5_3
62 C. E. T. Balestra et al.

1 Introduction

The adoption of less invasive techniques to structures, known as non-destructive

tests (NDT), has been one of the main lines of research regarding the service life
of concrete structures since these techniques allow obtaining quick, reliable, and
easy results to evaluate and help the decision makers about the maintenance or
rehabilitation actions. Thus, concrete’s electrical (ionic) resistivity and its correlation
with probable reinforcement corrosion risk is one of the main used non-destructive
techniques to evaluate field structures (Mehta and Monteiro 2006; Balestra et al.
2019; Akhtar and Sarmah 2018; Neville and Brooks 2010; Nguyen et al. 2017, 2018;
Chen et al. 2014; Sengul 2014).
Electrical resistivity (or, in this case, of concrete, ionic resistivity) is an intrinsic
characteristic of the material, related to its ability to oppose the passage of elec-
trical current, governed by Ohm’s law. When the material is subjected to a potential
difference, an electric current characterized by the free flow of electrical charges
is established. In this way, free electrons collide with each other and against atoms
of the conductor, making the passage of electric current difficult, called electrical
resistance (Nguyen et al. 2017, 2018; Chen et al. 2014; Sengul 2014).
Concrete can present different electrical resistivity values depending on the degree
of pores saturation, cement type, water/binder ratio, reinforcement characteristics,
and others. However, the moisture present in the pores is one of the main parameters
since it can act as a complex material, with electrical resistivity of the order of up
to 102 Ω m, whereas, when dried in a kiln, the electrical resistivity can be of the
order of 109 Ω m (Neville and Brooks 2010). Although concrete electrical resistivity
has been used as NDT to evaluate field structures, little clear information regarding
circuit concepts and concrete’s role are presented in the literature. In this sense, this
chapter fits in this gap, aiming to analyse and elucidate the concrete’s role in different
electrical circuits in a comprehensive way.

2 Resistor–Capacitor Circuit

Figure 1 presents a resistor–capacitor (RC) circuit with a power supply v(t) with a
small internal resistance (rs) connected to a discharged capacitor (C). A capacitor
is an element that stores energy in the electric field between its conductive plates
(Nguyen et al. 2018; Chen et al. 2014; Sengul 2014; Andrade and Alonso 1996;
Cabeza et al. 2002; Hu et al. 2019; Liu et al. 2015; Wang et al. 2022; Xie et al. 1993).
The output v(t) can be modelled by a first-order linear differential equation whose
solution is given by Eq. (1).
 
vo (t) = 1 − e− r vs (t)
t
(1)
Electrical Model of a Bulk Concrete and Analysis of Its … 63

Fig. 1 RC circuit

in volts (V ) where r = rsC is the time constant. The lower r, the faster the capac-
itor’s charging or discharging. For t = r, v(τ ) ≈ 0.632vs (τ ), which means that the
capacitor is 63.2% charged, and after 5r, the capacitor is almost fully charged.
Focusing on DC analysis, assuming v(t) = u(t), the Heaviside step function define
by
{
0, t < 0
u(t) = ,
1, t > 0

Figure 2 presents charging curves considering rs = 100 Ω and some arbitrary

capacitance values. As can be seen, the intersection of each curve with 0.632 V level
gives the r, and the capacitance can be experimentally estimated by the charging
curve by Eq. (2).
c
C= (2)
rs

in faradays (F). The capacitor current (t) can be determined by Eq. (3)

d vs (t) − t
i (t) = C vo (t) = e r (3)
dt rs

in amperes (A) which tends to zero as the capacitor charges, as seen in Fig. 3. It is
important to note that the same current flows in all circuit elements. However, in rs
current is observed due to free charges, and inside the capacitor, the actual current is
modelled by the displacement current. As long as the electric field varies inside the
capacitor, there will be displacement current. Once the capacitor is fully charged, the
internal electric field no longer varies, and the circuit reaches its steady state with no
more current.
This brief discussion helps to understand the RC circuit and voltage and current
characteristics of a capacitor in DC analysis. On AC analysis, the same circuit models
64 C. E. T. Balestra et al.

Fig. 2 Capacitor charging

curves considering rs = 100
Ω

Fig. 3 Capacitor
displacement current curves
considering rs = 100 Ω

a low-pass filter showing frequency-dependent features. Thus, this simple electrical

model with some considerations will be used to understand how the electrical bulk
resistivity of concrete changes over frequency in a two-plate measurement setup.

3 Electrical Model of a Two-Plate Configuration

The configuration to measure the concrete bulk resistivity is illustrated in Fig. 4a,
where two conductive plates are attached to the extremities of the concrete specimen.
The resistance between the plates is estimated by the ratio of the voltage at the
voltmeter and the current at the ammeter. Figure 4b presents an initial electrical
Electrical Model of a Bulk Concrete and Analysis of Its … 65

Fig. 4 Resistivity measurement. a setup; b concrete basic electrical model; c concrete electrical
model considering polarization; d concrete model considering polarization in DC analysis after
reaching steady-state; e concrete model considering measurement in high frequency

model based only on the electrical resistance of the specimen Rsp and the electrode
ohmic resistance r.
It is reasonable to consider rx « Rsp, so the ratio of vo at the voltmeter by i at
the ammeter in a cylindrical specimen with cross-section S and height h is given by
Eq. (4).

vo h
= ρ ≈ Rsp (4)
i s
where Rsp is given in ohms (Ω), and resistivity (ρ) is given by Eq. (5).

vo S
ρ= (5)
i h
in Ω m is the bulk electrical resistivity of the concrete. Note that the polarization
effect in the specimen and the conductive plates are not considered.
The accumulation of charges on the surface of the conductive plates due to the
power supply generates an electric field between them, inducing bound charges in
the specimen and causing the polarization of the concrete in the same way as occurs
in the capacitor dielectric. Additionally, concrete is a mixture of several elements,
66 C. E. T. Balestra et al.

and it has ions and free charges in its composition, which are responsible for some
conduction or convection currents. Thus, at the setup, the specimen can be seen
as a dielectric with permittivity ε due to polarization and a material with electrical
resistivity ρ due to the flow of charges. Therefore, the electric model of the concrete
can be described by the polarization effect modelled by a capacitance C and by an
electrical resistivity modelled by the resistance Rsp, as seen in Fig. 4c. It is worth
noting that the ρ is due to Rsp, but its experimental determination can be compromised
by the dielectric polarization where the displacement current is observed. Then, DC
and AC theoretical analyses were performed to understand the polarization effect
in determining electrical resistivity. In this study, the impact of the polarization is
separated from the resistivity in a linear electrical model, as illustrated in Fig. 4c.

3.1 DC Analysis

In the model in Fig. 4c, C is unknown, so it needs to be estimated. Taking

only C as the load in the circuit, Fig. 5 presents the Thévenin equivalent model.
The Thévenin-equivalent resistance and Thévenin-equivalent voltage source are
presented, respectively, in Eqs. (6) and (7).

(rs + r x )Rsp
RT H = (r S + r x )//Rsp = (6)
(rs + r x ) + Rsp
Rsp
VT H =   vs (7)
rs + r p + Rsp

The Thevénin equivalent model is similar to the RC circuit presented in Sect. 3,

but vC is given by Eq. (8).
 
vc(t) = 1 − e− r VT H
t
(8)

Fig. 5 Thevénin model

Electrical Model of a Bulk Concrete and Analysis of Its … 67

which tends to VTH as t tends to ∞. Considering rx « rs < (rs + r) « Rsp, RTH in

Eq. (6) can be simplified to RTH ≈ r s .
By Fig. 4c, VTH is the open-circuit voltage, and considering rx « Rsp, it is
approximately the measured voltage by the voltmeter after the circuit reaches steady-
state, as presented in Fig. 4d. Therefore, the capacitance can be estimated by Eq. (9).
c
C= (9)
RT H

where r can be determined by the charging curve vC(t) (or vo(t) in Fig. 4c). The
capacitance or, equivalently, the permittivity ε describes the level of polarization and
for parallel conductive plates of area S separated by h (considering the height of the
concrete specimen), the capacitance is given by Eq. (10).

S
C =ε (10)
h
which shows that the stronger the dielectric polarization, the greater the capacitance,
which can affect the resistivity estimation. Equation (10) is a reasonable estimate
when h is much less than the diameter of S or when the electric field is wholly
confined between the parallel plates.
In DC analysis, the dielectric polarization causes the capacitor to be modelled
by an open circuit in steady-state, as seen in Fig. 4d, so all charges flow to Rsp and
none to C. In this case, i = iR and vo/iR leads to Eq. (4), and the resistivity can be
estimated by Eq. (11).

vo S
ρ= (11)
iR h

3.2 AC Analysis

In AC analysis, frequency-dependent characteristics are observed. The specimen

impedance (s) in the electrical model presented in Fig. 4c, considering the joint
effect of polarization and resistivity using a sinusoidal input signal, is modelled in
the s-domain by Laplace transform as Eq. (12).

1 Rsp
Z (s) = Rsp // = (12)
sC Rsp Cs + 1

Where 1/ sC represents the capacitive impedance, and W (s) = Z(s) + r x , considers

the electrodes’ contribution to the impedance. A voltage divider can describe the
output voltage as Eq. (13).
68 C. E. T. Balestra et al.

W (s)
Vo (s) = Vs (s) (13)
W (s) + Rs

where Vs (s) and Vo (s) are, respectively, the representation of vs(t) and vo(t) in s-
domain. The transfer function is given by Eq. (14).

v0 (s) W (s)
H (s) = = (14)
vs (s) W (s) + rs

that will lead to Eq. (15).

 
r x Cs + 1 + Rrspx
H (s) =   (15)
(rs + r x )Cs + 1 + (rsR+rsp
x)

Ordinarily, rx « (r + rx) « Rsp, so Eq. (15) can be approximated by Eq. (16).

r x Cs + 1
H (s) = (16)
(rs + r x )C S + 1

Substituting s = jω the frequency response, which describes the ratio of the output
voltage by the input source in the frequency domain, will be given by Eq. (17).

j ωr x C + 1
H (ω) = (17)
j ω(rs + r x )C + 1

where ω = 2πf is the angular frequency whose cut-off frequency fc is given by

Eq. (18) in hertz (Hz).

1
fc = / (18)
2π C (rs + r x )2 − 2r x2

Figure 6 presents the low-pass characteristic of |(ω)| considering rs = 100 Ω,

rx = 1 Ω, and arbitrary capacitance values. The higher the polarization, the higher
the capacitance and the lower the cut-off frequency. Additionally, the higher the
frequency for a given polarization case, the higher the possibility that the polarization
can influence (s) and, consequently, affect the resistivity estimation.
By the electrical model presented in Fig. 4c, it is easy to show that the ratio of V0
(s) and I(s) is given by Eq. (19).

V0 (s)
= W (s) (19)
I (s)

where Vo (s) and I(s) are s-domain representation of vo(t) and i(t), respectively. To
check the frequency dependency, we substitute s = jω obtaining Eq. (20) and, finally,
Electrical Model of a Bulk Concrete and Analysis of Its … 69

Fig. 6 Frequency responses

considering rs = 100 Ω and
rx = 1 Ω

the resistivity can be determined by Eq. (21).

Vo(ω) R Sp
W (ω) = = rx + (20)
I (ω) j ω Rsp C + 1
| |
| Vo (ω) | S
ρ(ω) = || | (21)
I (ω) | h
| |
| (ω) |
where | VIo(ω) | is the ratio of the values measured by the voltmeter and ammeter in
AC scale.
In Eq. (20), as the frequency increases, the second term on the right- hand side
decreases, (ω) tends to zero, and W (ω) converges to rx. This effect can be noted in
Fig. 4e, where the capacitance is equivalent to a short circuit in parallel with Rsp.
Figure 7 presents the magnitude of (ω) given by Eq. (20) considering Rsp = 104
Ω, rx = 1 Ω, and arbitrary capacitance values. As expected, the electrical resistance
Rsp is dominant in low frequencies observed in the plateau in Fig. 7. However, as
frequency increases, the capacitive reactance decreases, reducing the total impedance
(ω). Thus, the lower the polarization or, the lower the capacitance, the lower the error
in the resistivity estimation.
Considering an actual cylindrical concrete specimen dimension (height of 20 cm
and radius of 5 cm), Fig. 8 presents the electrical resistivity variation given by Eq. (21)
considering Rsp = 104 Ω, rx = 1 Ω, and arbitrary capacitance values. The higher
the polarization effect, the lower it will be (ω) so the measured frequency must be
defined to consider it. For comparison purposes, a parallel plate capacitor with a
height of 20 cm and radius of 5 cm with air as dielectric, εair ≈ ε0 , has a capacitance
given by Eq. (22).

C0 = εair πr 2 / h ≈ 0.34 p F (22)

70 C. E. T. Balestra et al.

Fig. 7 ||W (ω)| versus

frequency considering Rsp =
104 Ω and rx = 1 Ω

which is the theoretical lower bound presented in Figs. 7 and 8. In the same conditions,
the theoretical resistivity considering Rsp = 104 Ω should be given by Eq. (23)

ρ = Rsp πr 2 / h ≈ 392.5 Ω m (23)

which is the value indicated in the plateau in Fig. 8. On the one hand, if an operator
uses a 10 Hz sinusoidal source to estimate the resistivity using Eq. (21), the specimen
should have at most 1 μF to get a reliable result. On the other hand, in low-frequency
measurement, for instance, at 0.01 Hz, the operator does not need to focus on the
polarization effect to obtain a reasonable estimate of the resistivity.

Fig. 8 Resistivity versus

frequency considering Rsp =
104 and rx = 1 Ω
Electrical Model of a Bulk Concrete and Analysis of Its … 71

4 Discussion

This study used a simplified model based on electromagnetic and electric circuit
theory to explain the frequency dependency of the concrete bulk resistivity. The
study was not focused on the solid interface, pore (liquid) interface, or solid- liquid
interfaces of the concrete system but assumed that the overall system was a material
where an electric current can be observed under the effect of an electro- magnetic field
created by a power supply. Based on the experimental setup, the material between
two conductive plates can be viewed as a dielectric with some resistivity that takes
us to the model with parameters {r, Rsp, C} illustrated in Fig. 4c. The component
Rsp indirectly models the resistivity, the component rx models the conductive plates,
and the capacitance component C models the dielectric. Hence, the objective was to
estimate Rsp and, consequently, the resistivity ρ.
The internal resistance rs of the power supply can influence the measurement of
v(t). Figure 6 shows that the system has a low-pass characteristic, and the cut- off
frequency defined in Eq. (18) is dependent of r. So, it is essential that, rx « rs «
Rsp, to guarantee that v(t) has a measurable value within the measurement scale.
Note that with increasing frequency, more attenuated will be v(t), so measurements
at higher frequencies should be avoided.
In the setup, the current (t) from the power supply can be measured by an ammeter
and the voltage vo(t) on the material and conductive plates by a voltmeter. Note that
the voltage on the material is not directly accessible, so the impact of rx needs to be
evaluated. In DC analysis, the effect of rx is negligible. Thus Eq. (4) is a reasonable
estimation of Rsp, and the resistivity can be estimated by Eq. (5). In AC analysis,
due to frequency dependency, rx will be the lower bound of the total impedance |(ω)|
on W (ω) = Z(ω) + rx as frequency in- creases. So, in very-low frequencies, rx is
negligible, and as the frequency increases rx becomes significant. This behaviour
can be observed in Fig. 7, wherein very-low frequencies |(ω)| is approximately Rsp,
and Eq. (21) can give a good estimation. As frequency increases |(ω)| tends to rx,
and Eq. (21) cannot be used to estimate the resistivity.
The bulk resistivity will be strong or weak related to the dielectric characteristics
modelled by the capacitance C. The larger the C value, the stronger the resistivity
frequency dependency, and vice versa. In Fig. 7, it is worth noting that for each curve,
as frequency increases, the total impedance decreases from Rsp to- wards rx, and as C
decreases, curves are shifted to the right, that is, moved to higher frequencies. It means
that if C has a small value, the frequency will have a weaker relation to the resistivity
estimation, and the ratio of v(t) and i(t) will still give a reasonable estimate of Rsp.
Conversely, if C increases significantly, the ratio can give a misleading estimate of
Rsp. So, the lower the frequency, the better the Rsp estimation and the weaker the
influence of C.
Analyses show that measurement frequency is essential in obtaining an accurate
estimate of resistivity. Measurements must be performed at low frequencies; however,
different commercially available resistivity meters operate at different frequencies,
such as the Giatec RCONTM Resistivity Meter that runs from 1 to 30 kHz, the
72 C. E. T. Balestra et al.

Merlin Bulk Resistivity Meter that runs at 325 Hz, CNS FARNELL Resistivity
Meter that runs at 13 Hz, the Proceq Resipod Resistivity Meter that runs at 40 Hz,
and Giatec SurfTM Resistivity Meter that runs from 10 to 100 Hz, have different
operating frequencies. If measurements were made with the same instrument on
different specimens, a fair comparison could be made between the measures. If
different instruments were used, looking for a scale factor is necessary to make a
fair comparison. Thus, different results are expected to be obtained using different
instruments for the same concrete specimen. However, if the operating frequency
could be adjusted to a lower frequency, the results would con- verge to the same
value.
The dependency of the concrete bulk resistivity over the frequency can be
studied by another technique called AC Impedance Spectroscopy (ACIS), where
the frequency is swept from very low (millihertz) to high frequencies (Megahertz).
This technique allows the study of hydration properties, the interfacial properties of
the cement, and the characterization of the material’s microstructure. Usually, simple
or complex electric circuits represent the material. Still, no consensus exists on asso-
ciating each electric component with the bulk. The ACIS is a promising technique
for understanding cement-based material, but it is beyond the scope of this work.

5 Conclusion

A simple electric circuit modelled the concrete bulk, and theoretical analyses were
performed on a two-plate configuration setup. In the model, solid interface, pore
(liquid) interface, solid–liquid interfaces, hydration, crossing pores, occluded pores,
and electrode contacts are concentrated in two aspects: the polarization related to the
permittivity of capacitance dielectric, and the resistivity related to resistance. Resis-
tivity is associated with the motion of charges under the effect of an electromagnetic
field, and permittivity is associated with how the electromagnetic field polarizes the
material so that the bulk can be studied by a linear model separating the resistivity
and the polarization effect. The low-pass characteristics of the setup indicate that
the material under test undergoes polarization so that resistivity measurement can
be affected by the chosen operating frequency. Simulations show that a low polar-
izable material is weakly affected by the frequency, while the frequency strongly
influences a highly polarizable material in resistivity estimation. However, the polar-
ization does not affect the resistivity estimation at a very low frequency. Finally, a
misleading estimate can be obtained if the measurement frequency is not correctly
defined.
Electrical Model of a Bulk Concrete and Analysis of Its … 73

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Studies on Rheological Properties
of High-Flowable Concrete

Nagaraj Ajay, S. Girish, Ashwin M. Joshi, and Namratha Bharadwaj

Abstract Self-compacting concrete (SCC) has considerably lower yield stress as

compared to the conventional vibrated concrete (CVC) in their fresh condition and
this forms one of their primary differences. To place CVC and SCC via pumping,
the latter would require a lower pumping pressure to pump and place as it requires
lower yield stress in comparison. Pumping is one of the most preferred methods of
conveying and placing concrete due to the field requirements of reaching heights and
less accessible places. It is obvious that the intensity of pumping pressure might affect
the state of fresh properties of concrete, while being pumped and/or placed. Currently,
Rheometers are available to measure the fresh properties of pumped concrete under
dynamic condition, i.e., while the mixes are being agitated and pumped; similar
instruments are not extensively available or used after pumping and placing concrete
i.e., when concrete is at rest when supported on a formwork post pumping and
placing. It is necessary to study the fresh properties of placement of concrete at
rest i.e., under static condition to understand the actual phenomenon under said
condition. The current experimental study attempts to determine the fresh properties
of concrete under rest i.e., static condition using shear box test. The concrete mixes
were proportioned using volume fraction technique and their characteristics were
evaluated using both empirical and material science approach.
The results show the uniqueness of the approach for determining the rheological
properties of CVC and SCC mixes under static conditions. The study exhibits an

N. Ajay
Civil - Structural Consultant, Advaitha Consultants, Bengaluru 560098, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Girish
Department of Civil Engineering, BMS College of Engineering, Bengaluru 560019, India
e-mail: [email protected]
A. M. Joshi (B)
Gleeds Consulting (I) Pvt. Ltd., Bengaluru 560005, India
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
N. Bharadwaj
BMS College of Architecture, Bengaluru 560019, India
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 75

J. M. P. Q. Delgado (ed.), Concrete Structures: New Trends and Old Pathologies,
Building Pathology and Rehabilitation 27, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38841-5_4
76 N. Ajay et al.

interesting finding, which is the invalidation of the use of Bingham model for SCC
with a flow value of 800 mm and beyond.

Keywords Bingham parameters · Shear box · Plastic viscosity · Rheology of

concrete · Yield stress · Volume fraction method

1 Introduction

Concrete is a vital construction material and plays a most important role in the quality
of buildings and/or structures. With the availability of advanced equipment, mixing
concrete may be easy but it’s not enough. It is important that a concrete mixture is
properly designed, batched, mixed, and transported to the site. It is also equally impor-
tant to properly place the concrete. Concrete placement is an important operation
because it determines its quality and durability. Hence concrete placement must be
done systematically and efficiently to give the best results desired. It is a challenging
task to place the concrete for modern-day constructions as it’s demanding.
The high-rise construction specifically requires pumping of the concrete to greater
heights. In these construction sites, pumped concrete is preferred since it is fluid in
nature and highly workable, allowing for more effective pumping through pipes and/
or flexible pipes. In high-rise building construction, it is challenging to attain uniform
mix design, placement, and curing. Especially placing of the pumping concrete into
slender column, deep beams and concrete walls, in fact aggravate the tendency of
mixes to bleed and produce laitance. Without proper placing procedures, even the
designed concrete mixes will segregate and bleed improperly, leading to honey-
combing, poor bond to steel, and other problems. Figure 1 demonstrates that it is
more difficult to maintain constant mix workability when pouring concrete before
and after pumping.
Concrete is a composite material, and its hardened property is influenced by its
fresh property, and workability remains a crucial property of concrete. The diverse
requirements of mobility, compactability and stability of fresh concrete are collec-
tively referred to as “workability” of concrete. Workability is mainly governed by
mix proportion, process, and quality control. Workability not only depends on the
ingredients of concrete, but also on the nature of the applications. The fresh proper-
ties of concrete influence the quality, constructional cost, strength, and durability of
structure. For better understanding, it is interesting to note there are little more than
60 test methods available to measure workability of CVC (Koehler and Fowler 2003)
and some tests are approved by American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM),
British Standards (BS) and Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). Slump test, compaction
test, Vee-bee test are some of the popular tests used in practice for fresh concrete.
Among the test methods, the slump test in more commonly used and accepted test
method (Koehler and Fowler 2003). Figure 2 shows the slump test apparatus and test
methodology (IS 1199).
Studies on Rheological Properties of High-Flowable Concrete 77

Fig. 1 Placing of concrete

Unfortunately, the slump test does not indicate any small variations in mix propor-
tioning, that can lead to issues related to workability of concrete mixes, which can
affect the workability, strength and durability. Concretes with the same slump can
exhibit different behavior when tapped with a tamping rod (Girish and Ajay 2017).
Now slump test is less relevant for newer advanced concrete mixes than for more
conventional mixes. The slump test is now viewed as incapable of providing an
adequate characterization of the workability of today’s much more advanced concrete
mixtures. In 1983, Tattersall was carried out systematic studies have been summa-
rized in a book (Koehler and Fowler 2003) and continually argued all existing test
methods are empirical and indicate single value with respect to either time or distance.
In fact, concrete with the same slump may flow differently and may have different
workability and as such concrete flow cannot be described by a single parameter.
In 2008, ACI: 238-01R (ACI Committee 238 2008) recommended the material
science approach for better understanding and measuring the workability of fresh
concrete. In this method there are many approaches available, but most popular and
widely using is rheological technique.

2 Rheology of Fluids

Rheology is a branch of science which deals with “Study of flow and deformation
of complex materials” (Tattersall and Banfill 1983). The term ‘rheology’ was coined
by Prof. Bingham and is based on the theory of continuum mechanics. “Rheo” is
derived from the Greek words “pantarhei”, meaning ‘everything is in flow’, so the
name rheology means the theory of deformation and flow of matter.
78 N. Ajay et al.

Fig. 2 Slump test apparatus

Studies on Rheological Properties of High-Flowable Concrete 79

Fig. 3 Behavior of Newtonian and Non-newtonian fluids

Rheology’s primary goal is to forecast the flow that would result from applied
forces in a complex fluid. Rheology has broad applications in a variety of industries,
including those that make ceramics, paint, polymers, food, medicine, lubricants, and
concrete, particularly to study the flow of fresh concrete. It is most frequently used to
characterize the fluid’s flow characteristics in relation to shear stress and shear rate. In
Fig. 3, the fundamental fluid behaviour is classified as Newtonian or Non-Newtonian
fluid. The viscosity law of Newton is observed by Newtonian fluids. According to
Newton’s law of viscosity, the relationship between shear rate and shear stress is
linear. If there is a relationship between shear rate and shear stress are non-linear and
it does not obey the New-ton’s law of viscosity such fluid is called as non-Newtonian
fluids (Tattersall and Banfill 1983).
These non-Newtonian fluids are highly viscous, and viscosity is no longer constant
for all shear rates and difficult to describe the viscosity by using simple Newtonian
equation. Therefore, for such complex fluids, constitute equations or mathematical
models are used for better characterizations of flow and it describes the viscosity of
fluids (Tattersall and Banfill 1983).

3 Rheology of Fresh Concrete

The concrete in its fresh state is assumed as a non-Newtonian fluid. It can be consid-
ered as a complex behaviour material, where concentrated suspension of aggregates
in cement paste. However, the characterization of its rheology is too complicated.
The flow of concrete from its constituents cannot be predicted with any certainty
due to this complexity. Therefore, a better understanding of the flow properties of
concrete is needed to be able to predict the flow of concrete from the properties of
the components. There are six flow curves, and the Bingham model is the one that is
most frequently used for describing how fresh concrete flows (Tattersall and Banfill
1983). Figure 4 illustrates the general structure of the Bingham model graphically.
80 N. Ajay et al.

Fig. 4 Behavior of Bingham

Non-newtonian fluids

The Bingham model provides two parameters namely yield stress (τ0 ) and plastic
viscosity (μ). The plastic viscosity is correlated to the time of concrete placing and
the yield stress is correlated to concrete slump (Tattersall and Banfill 1983). The
minimal force necessary to disassemble a structure and start a flow is defined as the
yield stress, and it is associated with concrete slump (Tattersall and Banfill 1983).
Static and dynamic yield stress are dependent on the flow operation. Concrete must
experience shear stress when it is “at rest” in order for flow to begin. Static yield
stress increases resistance to segregation while lowering formwork pressure. For
ease of pumping, placement, and self-consolidation, a low dynamic yield stress is
necessary. Another parameter plastic viscosity describes the resistance to flow once
the concrete is flowing and it is related to the time of concrete slumping (speed of
the flow) during the testing.
In 1962 Ritchie (Girish et al. 2021) applied rheology concept for the first time to
the fresh concrete and divided under three fundamental properties, namely: stability,
compatibility, and mobility. The stability is represented in-terms of bleeding and
segregation. Compatibility is represented by relative density. Similarly, the mobility is
represented in terms of internal friction angle, bonding force, and viscosity. Ritchie’s
work was innovative, but it had one major drawback, that is, the parameters associated
with the rheology of fresh concrete had been identified but, there was no apparent
relationship among them.
In 1976, Tattersall (Girish et al. 2021) for the first time carried out systematic
study on rheological studies on fresh concrete. He considered fresh concrete as a
non-Newtonian Bingham fluid and suggested the Bingham model for the flow char-
acterization of fresh concrete, as fresh concrete appropriately behaved like Bingham
fluid that exhibited yield stress and plastic viscosity. The yield stress is related to
Studies on Rheological Properties of High-Flowable Concrete 81

the slump of concrete, and the resistance to flow or flow rate represents the plastic
viscosity of fresh concrete and these parameters were determined by experimentally
using two-point rheometer.
Later, many researchers carried out systematic studies towards measuring the
rheological properties of fresh concrete using rheometers and other test methods.
However, compared to empirical methods, rheological method is providing better
characterization of the flow properties of fresh concrete.

4 Measurement of Rheological Properties

There are two types of measurements for concrete rheology: the flow curve test and
the stress growth test. In general, concrete rheology is measured by flow curve test
using rheometers (Girish et al. 2021). Rheometers are typically used to conduct flow
curve tests to determine the rheology of concrete (Girish et al. 2021). Rheometers
detect the shear stress of concrete at different shear rates. These measured values
are then fitted into flow curves to establish the mix’s rheological characteristics (see
Fig. 5).
For concrete, rotational rheometers are used especially for concentrated suspen-
sions like gels, cement paste and concrete. Concrete rheometers fall into three
different configurations—coaxial cylinders, parallel plate, and impeller-type and are
shown in Fig. 6 (Tattersall and Banfill 1983).
Majority of rheometers measure the dynamic yield stress, and few rheometers
measure the static yield stress. There are various rheometers are available and each
having its own advantages and limitations (Ajay and Girish 2021). Researchers
attempted various studies on rheological properties using different approaches

Fig. 5 Schematic representation of determining the rheological properties by flow curve method
82 N. Ajay et al.

Fig. 6 Different configuration of rotational rheometers (Tattersall and Banfill 1983)

like numerical simulation, analytical finite element models, correlations between

empirical and rheological properties, etc., to overcome the limitation of rheometers.
The result of study conducted by Ferraris (Ajay and Girish 2021), by considering
the same material using different rheometers is shown in Table 1. As can be seen
from values there is no concurrence on yield strength & plastic viscosity and no
agreement of the measured values among the different types of rheometers.
During pumping of concrete, it is subjected to dynamic condition i.e. dynamic
yield stress is measured. Whereas, placing of concrete in the formwork, it is subjected
to static condition i.e. static yield stress is measured. There is a need to study the

Table 1 Yield stress and plastic viscosity values obtained with different rheometers (Ajay and
Girish 2021)
Mix BML BTRHEOM Two-point
Yield Plastic viscosity Yield Plastic viscosity Yield Plastic viscosity
stress (Pas) stress (Pas) stress (Pas)
(Pa) (Pa) (Pa)
1 738 114 1619 181 10.84 14.72
2 76 17.4 406 18 0.34 5.34
3 408 82.4 771 136 3.67 13.20
4 840 72 2139 51 7.44 11.65
5 910 108 1753 94 3.91 14.61
6 139 45 505 78 1.80 10.31
7 90 32.7 549 54 0.86 9.31
8 717 29 1662 67 5.71 8.84
9 125 15 624 25 0.95 6.06
10 248 35.9 740 50 1.98 8.88
11 442 29 1189 27 3.97 6.57
12 584 39 1503 38 6.23 9.07
Studies on Rheological Properties of High-Flowable Concrete 83

flow properties of fresh concrete by static condition to correlate its behavior for field
applications.

4.1 Shear Box Test

The shear box instrument (see Fig. 7) used to study the rheological studies of concrete
mixes under static condition (Girish et al. 2021).
In brief, the shear box consists of a bed, on which Strain Linear Variable Differen-
tial Transformer (LVDT), load cell for applying the displacement rate and pneumatic
actuator for normal stress application, are mounted. A thrust piece having threads
for load cell, which has ring at one end and spherical end at the other end passes
through the guide. Screw adapter is fixed at one end of load cell and the load cell is
held between the thrust piece and the end of lead screw. The advancement of the lead

Fig. 7 Shear box test apparatus

84 N. Ajay et al.

Fig. 8 Working principle and schematic representation of shear box

screw applies the shear force on the specimen. The servo controlled motor and normal
stress regulator are mounted on the right end of the frame. The normal stress and
shear force (in terms of displacement rate) are applied through a pneumatic actuator
and stress regulator. A strain LVDT and S-type load cell measures the displacement
(mm) and shear resistance (kN) respectively and the same is captured by the data
acquisition system (Girish et al. 2021).
The shear box (see Fig. 8) was employed to assess the rheological properties
of fresh concrete mixtures at rest condition. The operation idea of a shear box is
straightforward. Applying normal stresses and displacement rate to a 150 mm × 150
mm × 150 mm concrete sample and measuring the shear resistance force (kN) and
displacement (mm).

5 Case Study on Shear Box Test Method

In this work, the rheological properties of low workable and high flowing concrete
(SCC) were determined systematically using a shear box under static condition using
Bingham model for different flow values.

5.1 Materials

The characteristics of the materials used are shown in Table 2. The physical test
properties of materials are conducted as per the provisions of code of practices
recommended by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). The gradation curves for
fine and coarse aggregate is shown in Fig. 9.
Studies on Rheological Properties of High-Flowable Concrete 85

Table 2 Material properties

Materials Specific Specific Water
gravity surface absorption
Ordinary portland cement—53 grade 3.13 280 m2 /kg –
Fine aggregate—natural river sand 2.60 – 2.0%
Coarse aggregate—crushed granite angular coarse 2.60 – 0.9%
aggregate (max. size 20 mm)
Ground granulated blast slag (GGBS) 2.90 425 m2 /kg –
Superplasticizer (SP)—PCE based 1.08 – –

Fig. 9 Grading curves for aggregates

86 N. Ajay et al.

Fig. 10 Mix design parameters—CVC and SCC

5.2 Mix Design

In the current experimental program, about 12 different CVC mixes and 27 different
SCC mixes were proportioned and developed. The CVC and SCC mixes with
different ingredients were developed based on absolute volume fraction method
(Girish et al. 2010). The mix design parameters are given in Fig. 10.
The marsh cone test was carried out to optimize the dosage of super plasticizer
(SP) and the dosage was kept constant throughout the experimental program. The
mix proportion details for CVC and SCC mixes are presented in Table 3. A modified
mixing procedure was adopted in the present work based on the previous studies
carried out by Girish et al. (2010).
Test methodology to conduct the experimental work on CVC and SCC mixes is
shown in Fig. 11.

5.3 Test Methodology

The methodology followed to determine the Bingham parameters of SCC mixes

using shear box was based on previous studies. Figure 12 shows the procedure for
finding the rheological properties of fresh concrete mixes.
Studies on Rheological Properties of High-Flowable Concrete 87

Table 3 Details of mix proportions of CVC and SCC mixes

Mix Cement GGBS Water (l/ SP (%) w/c Vp Fine Coarse
(kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 ) m3 ) aggregate aggregate
(kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 )
CVC mixes
M1 300 – 115 – 0.38 0.21 710 1310
M2 375 – – 0.30 0.23 685 1271
M3 450 – – 0.25 0.26 663 1230
M4 300 – 130 – 0.43 0.22 695 1284
M5 375 – – 0.34 0.25 675 1243
M6 450 – – 0.28 0.27 650 1203
M7 300 – 145 – 0.48 0.24 682 1258
M8 375 – – 0.39 0.26 660 1219
M9 450 – – 0.32 0.29 635 1180
M10 300 – 160 – 0.53 0.25 667 1235
M11 375 – – 0.43 0.28 647 1193
M12 450 – – 0.35 0.30 625 1152
SCC mixes
M13 300 279 175 0.75 0.58 0.37 945 655
M14 300 337 175 0.75 0.58 0.39 915 634
M15 300 395 175 0.75 0.58 0.41 885 613
M16 300 250 185 0.60 0.61 0.37 945 655
M17 300 308 185 0.65 0.61 0.39 915 634
M18 300 366 185 0.95 0.61 0.41 885 613
M19 300 221 195 0.45 0.65 0.37 945 655
M20 300 279 195 0.50 0.65 0.39 915 634
M21 300 337 195 0.55 0.65 0.41 885 613
M22 375 207 175 0.50 0.46 0.37 945 655
M23 375 265 175 0.55 0.46 0.39 915 634
M24 375 323 175 0.57 0.46 0.41 885 613
M25 375 178 185 0.40 0.49 0.37 945 655
M26 375 236 185 0.50 0.49 0.39 915 634
M27 375 294 185 0.65 0.49 0.41 885 613
M28 375 149 195 0.40 0.52 0.37 945 655
M29 375 207 195 0.55 0.52 0.39 915 634
M30 375 265 195 0.60 0.52 0.41 885 613
M31 450 136 175 0.65 0.38 0.37 945 655
M32 450 194 175 0.85 0.38 0.39 915 634
M33 450 252 175 0.95 0.38 0.41 885 613
(continued)
88 N. Ajay et al.

Table 3 (continued)
Mix Cement GGBS Water (l/ SP (%) w/c Vp Fine Coarse
(kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 ) m3 ) aggregate aggregate
(kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 )
M34 450 107 185 0.45 0.41 0.37 945 655
M35 450 165 185 0.60 0.41 0.39 915 634
M36 450 223 185 0.65 0.41 0.41 885 613
M37 450 78 195 0.40 0.43 0.37 945 655
M38 450 136 195 0.40 0.43 0.39 915 634
M39 450 194 195 0.55 0.43 0.41 885 613

Fig. 11 Testing methods: fresh properties of concrete mixes

6 Experimental Results and Discussion

Table 4 shows the rheological properties of the CVC and SCC mixtures with their
empirical values.
It can be observed from the results presented in Table 4, for different mixture
compositions, the slump test has not shown any difference in workability values. But
it is considerable to note that the rheological values of these mixtures obtained from
the shear box test show a clear difference among the mixtures. Further, it is interesting
to note that the slump test has failed to differentiate these mixtures when compared to
the shear box test. The same observation also with the SCC mixtures. Whereas M22,
M23, M26, and M30 have the same slump flow even though the mixture ingredients
are different, whereas the shear box test results clearly differentiate the mixtures. This
demonstrates the importance of the scientific method of assessment to overcome the
shortfall of empirical tests.
Studies on Rheological Properties of High-Flowable Concrete 89

Fig. 12 Procedure for finding the Bingham parameters of fresh concrete (Girish et al. 2021)

In addition to the above for SCC, the slump flow of 800 mm and above show
a negative trend beyond that. This is physically not possible and brings out the
limitations in using the Bingham model at a higher flowability for the materials
used in this study. Results from the concrete shear test have clearly demonstrated
the limitations of the Bingham model for a higher flow of 800 mm and above. The
validation of the Bingham model up to a flow of 800 mm is a new finding, hitherto
not mentioned explicitly by other researchers. The findings are for the type of the
materials used in this study.
Figure 13 illustrates a power law-based generalized relationship between yield
stress and slump flow with a regression coefficient R2 = 0.92. When the slump
flow is lower, the yield stress is higher, and vice versa. Several researchers that used
various rheometers and found a similar association (Ajay 2019; Szecsy 1997). At
various Vp, the plastic viscosity falls as the slump flow rises. Plastic viscosity and
slump flow exhibit an association (R2 = 0.65) based on the generalized relation.
With slump flow, the plastic viscosity generally falls, with only a few isolated places
exhibiting the opposite trend. Similar findings were found in the writings of Murata,
Kikukawa, and Wallevick (Ajay 2019; Szecsy 1997). The outcomes are based on
test results obtained with rheometers. Typically, the relationship between plastic and
slump flow is poor (Ajay 2019; Szecsy 1997) and results are based on the test values
using rheometers.
The rheological studies using shear box test shows the average correlation between
plastic viscosity and slump flow (R2 = 0.65), which is good, considering the actual
correlation of plastic viscosity with slump flow from the published literature. The
90 N. Ajay et al.

Table 4 Rheological properties of CVC and SCC with empirical test results
Mix Cement GGBS Water SP w/c Vp Slump/ T50 (s) Yield Plastic
(kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 ) (l/m3 ) (%) Slump stress viscosity
flow Pa × (MPas)
(mm) 103
CVC mixes
M1 300 – 115 – 0.38 0.21 0 – 88.50 15.3
M2 375 – – 0.30 0.23 0 – 75.10 6.3
M3 450 – – 0.25 0.26 0 – 60.40 14.4
M4 300 – 130 – 0.43 0.22 0 – 81.50 4.50
M5 375 – – 0.34 0.25 0 – 79.20 22.5
M6 450 – – 0.28 0.27 0 – 76.90 39.6
M7 300 – 145 – 0.48 0.24 5 – 71.20 40.5
M8 375 – – 0.39 0.26 3 – 67.50 31.5
M9 450 – – 0.32 0.29 0 – 66.70 54.0
M10 300 – 160 – 0.53 0.25 18 – 54.70 12.6
M11 375 – – 0.43 0.28 20 – 51.30 37.8
M12 450 – – 0.35 0.30 25 – 47.30 44.1
SCC mixes
M13 300 279 175 0.75 0.58 0.37 750 4.7 6.40 9.90
M14 300 337 175 0.75 0.58 0.39 750 3.8 6.00 8.10
M15 300 395 175 0.75 0.58 0.41 850 3.5 −5.50 34.2
M16 300 250 185 0.60 0.61 0.37 700 4.3 12.30 3.60
M17 300 308 185 0.65 0.61 0.39 750 3.0 5.40 4.50
M18 300 366 185 0.95 0.61 0.41 780 2.6 4.80 7.20
M19 300 221 195 0.45 0.65 0.37 700 2.0 12.20 3.60
M20 300 279 195 0.50 0.65 0.39 730 2.2 8.20 14.40
M21 300 337 195 0.55 0.65 0.41 750 2.5 6.60 20.70
M22 375 207 175 0.50 0.46 0.37 680 3.2 24.30 13.50
M23 375 265 175 0.55 0.46 0.39 730 3.6 8.30 37.60
M24 375 323 175 0.57 0.46 0.41 780 3.0 3.10 5.40
M25 375 178 185 0.40 0.49 0.37 650 2.85 39.30 16.20
M26 375 236 185 0.50 0.49 0.39 710 2.1 9.20 6.30
M27 375 294 185 0.65 0.49 0.41 740 2.0 7.40 2.70
M28 375 149 195 0.40 0.52 0.37 660 2.4 34.40 7.20
M29 375 207 195 0.55 0.52 0.39 750 2.2 6.50 10.80
M30 375 265 195 0.60 0.52 0.41 780 2.0 3.10 0.30
M31 450 136 175 0.65 0.38 0.37 700 3.2 12.40 1.80
M32 450 194 175 0.85 0.38 0.39 800 3.0 −7.20 6.30
M33 450 252 175 0.95 0.38 0.41 850 2.8 −6.90 6.00
(continued)
Studies on Rheological Properties of High-Flowable Concrete 91

Table 4 (continued)
Mix Cement GGBS Water SP w/c Vp Slump/ T50 (s) Yield Plastic
(kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 ) (l/m3 ) (%) Slump stress viscosity
flow Pa × (MPas)
(mm) 103
M34 450 107 185 0.45 0.41 0.37 710 2.4 10.70 2.70
M35 450 165 185 0.60 0.41 0.39 740 2.7 7.70 23.4
M36 450 223 185 0.65 0.41 0.41 780 2.2 3.50 0.90
M37 450 78 195 0.40 0.43 0.37 680 2.7 26.90 3.60
M38 450 136 195 0.40 0.43 0.39 700 2.3 13.30 6.30
M39 450 194 195 0.55 0.43 0.41 730 2.4 8.70 14.40

shear box test results thoroughly demonstrate the instrument’s efficiency, which is
further supported by the findings of the study for various parameters.

7 Concluding Remarks

This study has demonstrated the flaws or restrictions of the slump test or, more
generally, the empirical test by clearly highlighting the yield stress value derived
from the shear box test. Also, it demonstrates how the Bingham model can be used
effectively to determine the rheological characteristics of fresh concrete (stiff to
flowable mixes). The study also highlights the drawbacks of applying the Bingham
model at higher flowabilities. The findings have clearly demonstrated that slump flow
and yield stress are correlated.
92 N. Ajay et al.

Fig. 13 Relationship between slump flow and yield stress and plastic viscosity of SCC mixes

References

ACI Committee 238 (2008) Report on measurements of workability and rheology of fresh concrete
Ajay N (2019) Feasibility studies on the use of concrete shear box for measurement of rheological
properties of SCC mixes. Ph.D. Thesis, Visvesvaraya Technological University, Karnataka, India
Studies on Rheological Properties of High-Flowable Concrete 93

Ajay N, Girish S (2021) Rheology of fresh concrete—a review. J Rehab Civ Eng 9(3):122–132.
https://doi.org/10.22075/jrce.2021.20557.1425
Girish S, Ranganath RV, Jagadish V (2010) Influence of powder and paste on flow properties of
SCC. Constr Build Mater 24:2481–2488
Girish S, Ajay N, Achutha A (2021) Concrete shear box: new instrument to assess stiff to flowing
concrete using Bingham model. ACI Mater J 118(6):227–240. https://doi.org/10.14359/517
34148
Girish S, Ajay N (2017) Importance of rheological properties of fresh concrete—A review. Indian
Concr J 91(9)
IS 1199 (1999) Methods of sampling and analysis of concrete, no. Reaffirmed
Koehler EP, Fowler DW (2003) Summary of concrete workability test methods
Szecsy R (1997) Concrete rheology. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Illinois
Tattersall GH, Banfill PFG (1983) The rheology of fresh concrete, 1st edn. Pitman, Boston, London,
Melbourne
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications
in Civil Engineering

M. C. A. Feitosa, S. R. M. Ferreira, J. M. P. Q. Delgado, F. A. N. Silva,

J. T. R. Oliveira, P. E. S. Oliveira, and A. C. Azevedo

Abstract The use of civil construction waste has been consolidated as a way to
achieve sustainability in civil construction, as well as reduce the environmental
impacts resulting from the improper disposal of this material. Due to the specificities
of its products, civil construction has a large field where this waste can be used as
raw material. The objective of this work is to contribute to studies on the possibilities
of using sewage sludge as a way to improve the characteristics of the soil in collapse
and as small concrete aggregates. Sewage sludge with 25, 50 and 75 mg/ha from the
Mangueira and Curado treatment stations was used with an addition of about 5%,
10%, and 15%. In order to characterize the properties of sewage sludge and analyze
its interaction with the soil and concrete specimens, several tests were carried out,
such as: physical and chemical tests, scanning electron microscopy tests, hydraulic
conductivity tests, chemical mobility tests, compressive strength tests, sclerometric

M. C. A. Feitosa · F. A. N. Silva · J. T. R. Oliveira

Civil and Engineering Department, Catholic University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco,
Brazil
e-mail: [email protected]
F. A. N. Silva
e-mail: [email protected]
J. T. R. Oliveira
e-mail: [email protected]
S. R. M. Ferreira · P. E. S. Oliveira
Departamento de Engenharia Civil, UFPE, Av. Acadêmico Hélio Ramos, s/n. Cidade
Universitária, Recife, Brazil
e-mail: [email protected]
P. E. S. Oliveira
e-mail: [email protected]
J. M. P. Q. Delgado
Construct, Departamento de Engenharia Civil, Universidade do Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s/n,
4200-465 Porto, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
A. C. Azevedo (B)
Instituto Federal de Ciências de Educação e Tecnologia de Pernambuco (IFPE), Recife, Brazil
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 95

J. M. P. Q. Delgado (ed.), Concrete Structures: New Trends and Old Pathologies,
Building Pathology and Rehabilitation 27, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38841-5_5
96 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

tests, and ultrasonic pulse velocity tests. The results obtained allowed us to conclude
that the addition of sewage sludge to the soil contributed to reduce its collapsibility,
showing that this procedure can be useful for improve the performance of collapsible
soils. It was also observed that when the proportion of sewage sludge was increased
in substitution for small-size concrete aggregates, the compressive strength and water
absorption decreased when compared to a concrete block made with usual aggre-
gates. The behavior obtained indicates that the use of sewage sludge to replace the
small-sized concrete aggregate part should be used with caution, even in small-sized
buildings, requiring advanced studies to explore its use as a material building.

Keywords Sewage sludge · Soil-sludge mixture · Concrete · Civil engineering ·

Building industry

1 Introduction

One of the biggest environmental problems to be faced by humanity in this century is

the large amount of waste generated in urban centers. Solid and liquid waste (garbage,
STP waste, and industrial treatment), often accumulated in the environment without
adequate treatment or use that allows recycling, have become and among others,
agents that cause pollution in large urban areas (Geyer 2001). No having destiny
right, parts of this waste ends being forwarded to the landfills Sanitary urban when
these landfills has capacity.
As sustainable development is the only alternative to conceive the survival of
the planet, taking into account the technological development and the conditions
necessary for the continuity of life. The authorities made several laws to protect the
environment with a relationship between the management of slime and waste. In
large cities, environmental legislation increasingly restricts the disposal of sludge
in landfills, as well as the scarcity of adequate locations tall costs. Then necessary,
the development and implementation of alternatives that replace efficient the simple
disposal of this waste in landfills (Santos 2003).
Agenda 21 at the World Environment Conference—Rio 92, according to
Fernandes (1999), on the topic “Environmentally sound management of waste and
issues related to sewage”, recognizes the importance of the waste destination. The
Agenda defines four programs as priorities: the reduction of waste production, the
maximum reuse and recycling, the promotion of environmentally healthy deposits
and treatment, and the expansion of the reach of services that was occupied with
waste.
In Brazil, the Ministry of the Environment estimates that around 10% of urban
sewage is treated in sewage treatment plants (STPs) before being released into rivers.
This treatment results in the production of a sludge rich in organic matter and nutri-
ents, called sewage sludge, whose final disposal is problematic, even representing
60% of the operation cost of the treatment plants (Camargo and Bettiol 2000).
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 97

The inadequate final disposal of this waste partially nullifies the benefits of
collecting and effluent treatment. Therefore, an adequate destination must be given
to this residue and, in order to solve this problem several studies have been carried
out in order to recycle this residue as a material for the production of other materials.
The search for economically and environmentally advantageous solutions for the
different types of solid waste generated continues to be a challenge, and among
them is the final disposal of sludge from sewage. It is in this context that this work
seeks alternatives capable of assisting in the discussion of the management of the
final disposal of sewage sludge through its recycling and use in the manufacture, in
materials in construction civil as lightweight aggregate, and in the improvement of
soils.

2 Literature Review

2.1 Sewage Water Classification

Demographic expansion and technological development bring as an immediate

consequence the increase in water consumption and the constant increase in the
volume of wastewater. These waters, together with surface runoff and possible under-
ground drainage, will form sewage flows or simply sewage. According to its origin,
sewage can be classified into sanitary or domestic sewage, which originates from the
flow corresponding to the performance of domestic activities, industrial sewage that
is generated through industrial activities and storm sewage that has its flow generated
from the collection of surface runoff water from rainfall and, in some cases, washing
of streets and underground drains (Azevedo Netto 1977).

2.2 Sewage Systems

According to Pera (1977), what is called a sewage system is a structural set that
includes collecting pipes functioning by gravity, treatment and discharge units when
essential, transport and final discharge works, in addition to a series of accessory
organs indispensable for the system works and is operated efficiently, quickly and
safely. A collection network is a set of conduits and works designed to collect
and transport flows to a given location, that is, the collection network is just one
component of the sewage system.
98 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

2.3 Evolution of the Sewage Systems

According to Azevedo Netto (1984), the collection of wastewater was already a

concern of ancient civilizations. In 3750 BC, sewers were built in Nipur (India) and
Babylon. And, in 3100 BC there were already bathrooms with sewers channeled in
ceramic shackles grouted with plaster.
At the end of the twelfth century, the construction of public drainage systems
for surface runoff water and underground plumbing for wastewater were resumed,
initially for domestic septic tanks and later for rainwater channels; and from the
fourteenth century, the first public laws on the installation, control, and use of these
services originated (Metcalf and Eddy 1977).
The destination of sewage and urban waste was already considered a problem from
the sixteenth century onwards, with the increasing pollution of water sources. The
development of water supply, the pumping system with steam-powered machines
and the use of iron pipes to repress the water began to be used (Azevedo Netto 1984).
At the end of the seventeenth century, agricultural transformations and the indus-
trial revolution caused profound changes in city life and, consequently, in sanitary
facilities. The distribution of water and water discharges to evacuate sewage caused
soil saturation, contaminating the streets and the water. First, some cities tried to
use individual septic tanks, which without proper maintenance became sources of
disease generation (Azevedo Netto 1984).
The decades from 1830 to 1840 can be highlighted as the most important in the
history of Sanitary Engineering. In 1847, it became compulsory to discharge all
wastewater into public galleries. This is how the unitary exhaustion system came
about. The absolute separator system was invented later, in 1879, and applied for the
first time in the city of Memphis, Tennessee, United States (Gherghel et al. 2019).
In Brazil, thanks to the work developed by Saturnino de Brito and other engineers,
from 1912 the absolute separator system became general.
The scientific and technological development of humanity has made man aware of
the need to create effective sanitation systems where the supply of drinking water and
collection of wastewater are guaranteed, as well as favorable conditions for recycling
in nature.

2.4 Sewage Sludge

In Brazil, the sewage collection and collective transport system does not include
rainwater, as the absolute sewage system is used. Constituent parts of this system are
the collection and transport of sewage, treatment, and final disposal.
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 99

2.4.1 Sewage

The collected sewage is conducted through pipes to the Sewage Treatment Plants
(STP). Normally, these pipes function as free conduits, and may also function as
forced conduits in some stretches. Sewage is collected and transported from the
buildings that lead the effluent to the collection network through building branches.
Through secondary collectors, these sewages are released into the collection network
that forwards them to the trunk collector that receives these contributions and
transports them to an interceptor or outfall (Fontes 2003).

2.4.2 Sewage Treatment

According to Pergorini et al. (2003), approximately 40% of the Brazilian population

has sewage collection, and only about 10% of the collected sewage undergoes some
treatment process. Sanitary sewage consists of 99.9% water and 0.1% total solids
(organic and inorganic, suspended and dissolved), in addition to microorganisms.
Due to this 0.1% of solids present in the sewage, it is necessary to treat it (Tsutiya
and Hirata 2001; Sperling 1996).
Sewage treatment can be divided into two phases: liquid phase and solid phase.
The liquid phase can be composed of domestic sewage, industrial sewage, and storm
sewage. The solid phase is composed of by-products generated during the treatment
of the liquid phase (Fontes 2003).
The levels of treatment, as well as their efficiency, limit the removal of pollutants
in order to adjust the release to a desired quality.

Treatment of the Liquid Phase

The treatment levels in the liquid phase, according to Von Sperling (Sperling 1996),
are: preliminary, primary, secondary, and, eventually, tertiary. These treatment levels
are summarized below:
1. Preliminary: constitutes the removal of coarse suspended solids (larger materials
and sand). The removal of coarse solids is usually done by means of grates and
the sand is removed through units called sandbox or desander;
2. Primary: removes part of the sedimentable suspended solids and part of the
organic matter, using physical options such as sieving and sedimentation,
reducing the organic matter in the effluent. The sewage flows slowly through the
decanters, allowing the higher-density solids to gradually settle to the bottom,
forming the raw primary sludge with floating materials such as greases and oils,
of lower density.
3. Secondary: mainly removes suspended and dissolved solids and sedimentable
organic matter and, eventually, nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. Mainly
100 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

used are treatment processes such as stabilization pond systems, activated sludge
systems and aerobic systems with biofilms.
The main sewage treatment systems at secondary levels stand out:
(a) Stabilization of pond systems
It is a sewage treatment system widely used in Brazil due to its low cost, operational
simplicity and climatic conditions; and it can be done in five different ways:
• Facultative Pond: In this type of system, the soluble and finely particulate BOD
(biochemical oxygen demand) is anaerobically stabilized by bacteria dispersed
in the liquid medium, while the suspended BOD is stabilized by bacteria at the
bottom of the pond.
• Anaerobic Lagoon: BOD is around 50% stabilized in this lagoon, which is deeper
and with greater volume, while the remaining BOD is removed by the facultative
lagoon. The anaerobic lagoon has a depth of around 4.5 m and a reduced surface
area.
• Facultative Aerated Pond: The BOD removal mechanisms are similar to those
of a facultative pond. In this system oxygen is provided by mechanical aerators
rather than photosynthesis.
• Complex mixture aerated lagoon—Facultative lagoon: The energy introduced per
unit volume of the lagoon is high, which causes the solids, mainly the biomass,
to remain dispersed in the liquid medium, or in complete mixture. The resulting
higher concentration of bacteria in the liquid medium increases the efficiency of
the BOD removal system, which allows the pond to have a smaller volume than
that of a facultative pond.
• Complex mixture aerated lagoon—Aerated lagoon: Lagoon similar to the previous
system, with the difference that the decantation unit consists of a smaller lagoon,
where the sludge must be removed in periods not exceeding 5 years.

(b) Activated sludge systems

It is a type of sewage treatment system using activated sludge that has been increas-
ingly used, especially in large urban centers, as it allows for treating large amounts
of sewage in small areas. It can be performed in three different ways (Andreoli et al.
1999), namely:
• Conventional activated sludge: It comprises a primary decanter, aeration tank,
secondary decanter, sludge densifier, anaerobic digester and sludge dewatering.
The biomass concentration in the reactor is quite high, due to the recirculation
of solids (bacteria) settled at the bottom of the secondary decanter. The biomass
remains in the system longer than the liquid, which ensures high BOD removal
efficiency.
• Sludge activated by prolonged aeration: Similar to the conventional system, with
the difference that the biomass remains longer in the system, requiring larger
aeration. With this, there is less BOD available for the bacteria, which causes
them to use organic matter from the cellular material itself for their maintenance.
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 101

• Intermittent flow-activated sludge: The system operation is intermittent. The reac-

tion and sedimentation steps take place in the same tank, in different phases, where
the aerators are turned on and off, respectively. When the reactors are turned-off,
the solids settle when the effluent (supernatant) is removed. When the aerators are
reconnected, the sedimented solids return to the liquid mass, which eliminates the
need for recirculation pumps. In this method, there are no secondary decanters.
(c) Biological filter systems
The stabilization of organic matter is carried out by bacteria that are adhered to the
support of stones or synthetic materials. The elimination of pathogens is between 60
and 90% (Lessa 2005).
(d) Simplified anaerobic system
It consists of a system similar to the anaerobic filter.
(e) Land disposal system
It is a simplified system that requires large areas. This method is not used due to
the great environmental implications, contamination of surface and groundwater,
vegetation, etc.
4. Tertiary: This level of treatment is little applied mainly due to its high imple-
mentation cost, although it has already been used in some developed coun-
tries. It consists of greater efficiency in the removal of nutrients, pathogens,
non-biodegradable compounds, heavy metals, dissolved inorganic solids and
remaining suspended solids.

Treatment of the Solid Phase

The sludge generated in the sewage treatment plant, despite not being the only by-
product, is the most important one, as it is a waste that is difficult to treat and dispose
of, given the large amounts that are generated, the difficulty in finding suitable places
for its final disposal, transport distance, and environmental impacts, among others
(Jordão and Pessôa 1995). Despite having more than 95% water, by convention, the
sludge is called the solid phase (Andreoli et al. 2001a).
The main steps for the treatment of the solid phase are densification, stabilization,
conditioning, dewatering, cleaning, and final disposal. Should be mentioned that
what determines which steps that will be implemented or not, are the characteristics
of the sludge to be generated and the product end wants to obtain, in addition to
the costs. The costs represent around 20–60% of the total spent on the operation
of a sewage treatment plant (Fontes 2003; Tsutiya and Hirata 2001; Andreoli et al.
2001a).
Sludge is composed by water and solids. Solids are divided into suspended solids
and dissolved solids, most of them being the former. As for the organic matter,
solids divide into fixed or inorganic solids and volatile or organic solids. The solids
content is considered by several authors to be the total solids content or solids content
102 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

Fig. 1 Decanter existing in

the STP of Curado

dried (Andreoli et al. 2001a). Being the volatile solids/total solids ratio, a good
recommendation of the organic matter content in the sludge.
(a) Consolidation of the sludge
Densification or thickening is a physical process of concentration of solids that has
with the objective of reducing moisture and consequently the volume of the sludge,
which in turn time facilitates the following units, as sludge become more compact
due to the reduction of the volume. The most used types of sludge densifiers are
gravity densifiers and the flotation thickeners (Tsutiya and Hirata 2001).
• Densifiers per gravity
The efficiency of these units is greater when the units use sludge from treatment
primary. These are units similar to a primary decanter, in which the sludge settles
and it is dense at the bottom of the tank, being removed by scrapers and sent to the
stabilization unit (see Fig. 1).
• Densifiers per flotation

This process consists of injecting air bubbles into the liquid medium. These bubbles
adhere to solid particles, causing their density to decrease and the same to be dragged
to the surface, where are removed by scrapers (Jordão and Pessôa 1995).
(b) Sludge stabilization
Stabilization aims to remove pathogens, facilitate dehydration and prevent the emana-
tion of bad odors at the process in treatment of sludge, through from the matter organic
biodegradable. It can be done through three processes: biological stabilization, chem-
ical stabilization and thermal stabilization. The most used currently is the biological
stabilization (Andreoli et al. 2001a).
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 103

Fig. 2 Drying bed of the

STP of Curado

(c) Conditioning and dehydration of the sludge

Conditioning is a preparatory process in which chemicals (coagulants) are added to
the sludge, aiming to increase the capture of solids in the dehydration processes. O
sludge conditioning can be performed through the use of organic polymers, products
inorganic chemicals or of heat treatment (Andreoli et al. 2001a).
Dewatering sludge is a physical process through which the sludge content sludge
moisture is reduced. The main processes used for sludge dewatering sludge are by
drying natural or by drying mechanics.
• Drying Natural—the drying bed and the sludge drying ponds are part of the
dewatering process by natural drying (see Fig. 2).
• Mechanized drying—it is used in medium and large sewage treatment stations
size depending on the amount of sludge generated. This system is capable of
producing a sludge called the “sludge pie”, where the concentration of total solids
is around 20–30%. The most frequently used equipment is a filter press, filter mat,
and centrifuges (Jordão and Pessôa 1995).

(d) Disinfection or cleaning and final disposal of sludge

Disinfection is a necessary operation if the destination of the sludge is agriculture,

seeking complement aerobic or anaerobic digestion in reducing the level of pathogens
to levels acceptable.
The final destination of sewage sludge is a serious economic and environmental
problem worldwide, for presenting in its composition pathogenic germs, heavy
metals, and other compounds toxic, even after the treatment process. This residue,
when disposed of inadequately, can cause damage to the environment and human
health. The knowledge of production, physical and chemical constitution, as well as
other characteristics of waste collected solids, constitutes a fundamental factor for
the orientation and planning of a discard safe it’s adequate for these waste (Jonh and
Ângulo 2003).
104 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

Currently, there are many possibilities for the use or final disposal of sludge from
sewage, through disposal or beneficial use. Some ways of final disposal of sewage
sludge will be discussed, such as sanitary landfill, landfarming, agricultural use,
recovery of degraded areas, and incineration.
• Sanitary landfill—The inadequate planning of a sanitary landfill can cause several
environmental impacts, such as the pollution of groundwater and surface water due
to the leaching and runoff of percolated liquids that may contain toxic substances,
air pollution through the production of gases in landfills and the soil. These impacts
can be avoided through well-designed projects, choice of suitable sites, monitoring
of the landfill even after its closure, and elements of environmental protection
(Tsutiya and Hirata 2001; Andreoli et al. 2001a).
There are two types of sludge disposal in landfills: the exclusive sanitary landfill,
which only receives sludge, whose solids content must be greater than 30% or even
thermally dry; and co-disposal with solid urban waste, where the sludge is mixed
with solid urban waste. According to Andreoli et al. (2001a) the solids content must
be at least 20%, as the sludge with very high moisture (above 80%) increases the
production of leachate in the landfill, reducing the stability of the slopes, in addition
to making it difficult to compact the garbage.
• Landfarming—According to Santos (2003), this type of sludge disposal in the
soil is also known as soil treatment. It aims to biodegrade organic waste and
retain heavy metals in the surface layer of the soil. In this type of system, the
soil is used as a mere support, with no use of nutrients and organic matter for
agricultural purposes, which allows applications of high amounts, accompanied
by technological intervention in environmental control.
• Agricultural use—According to Andreoli et al. (2001b), to use the term biosolids,
it is necessary that the biological or secondary sludge is composed mainly of
biological solids, in addition to having a chemical and biological composition
compatible with some productive use.
Biosolid is treated or processed sludge, with characteristics that allow its recycling
in a rational and environmentally correct way (Andreoli et al. 2001b). Therefore,
to use it safely, it is necessary to evaluate its quality, in addition to the environ-
mental characteristics of the places in order to avoid possible contamination of the
environment.
According to Pergorini et al. (2003), agricultural recycling has stood out world-
wide, for reducing the pressure of exploitation of natural resources and reducing
the amount of waste with environmental restrictions. The use of sewage sludge in
agriculture has been much studied and in Brazil there are already advances in the
states of São Paulo, Paraná, and Brasília (Santos 2003).
The most recommended crops are cereals, as cereals go through industrial
processes before reaching the consumer, and those that pose the most risks are those
in which the product has direct contact with the soil and which can be consumed
raw, such as lettuce, carrots, beets, onions, turnips (Andreoli et al. 2001b).
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 105

Several studies have been carried out with sewage sludge in agriculture in the
state of Pernambuco. The research carried out by Silva (2008) evaluated the influ-
ence of sewage sludge on the dosage of nutrients in plant cultivation soil, in the state
of Pernambuco. The verification of the influence of sewage sludge on the fertility
attributes of soil cultivated with radish and açaí by Ferreira (2008) and in the develop-
ment of Cowpea according to Barboza (2007) and, the soil-sewer sludge interaction:
physics, chemistry, microstructural and hydraulic conductivity (Ferreira 2008).
• Recovery of degraded areas—ETE sludge can also be used in the recovery of
degraded areas, since it contains organic matter and nutrients that contribute to
various aspects, such as the formation of aggregates, air and water circulation
that promote soil aeration, favoring the recovery and reappearance of vegetation
(Tsutiya and Hirata 2001; Andreoli et al. 1999).
In São Paulo, in the city of Franca, it was registered by Tsutiya and Hirata (2001),
experience with the practice of this alternative where the sludge produced in the STP
of Franca was used in the urban perimeter of the city, to control 14 large eroded
areas.
• Incineration—During the incineration process, volatile solids are converted to
carbon dioxide and water in the presence of oxygen and fixed solids are turned
into ash. Incineration has the main advantage of reducing the volume of sludge,
which reaches approximately 10–20% of the total volume of sludge (Fontes 2003;
Garcia-Lodeiro et al. 2016).
According to Tsutiya and Hirata (2001), during the decomposition process, despite
the elimination of pathogenic organisms and toxic organic compounds, heavy metals
are still present in the ashes and, therefore, an adequate final disposal is necessary.
According to Andreoli et al. (2001a), the ashes of the sludge must be disposed of
in sanitary landfills, or be used as co-incinerators in cement kilns or thermoelectric
plants, or also in mixtures with cement that are currently being carried out in Japan and
Europe. Studies have also been carried out with the objective of taking advantage of
the ashes and partially substituting cement for the production of mortars and concrete
(Geyer 2001; Fontes 2003).
The emission of pollutants into the atmosphere is the main impact of incineration
according to Andreoli et al. (2001b), which can be controlled by improving the
combustion process and using filter systems before the gases are released into the
atmosphere.

2.5 Current Legislation

According to Duarte (2008), there is no legislation in Brazil that regulates the use of
sludge as a material in civil construction. However, NBR 10004 (2024) can provide
parameters for the analysis of the environmental risk of this type of destination,
106 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

considering that the construction materials, after their use and subsequent demolition,
constitute waste.
NBR 10004 (2024) establishes the criteria for classifying solid waste according
to its dangerousness. This characteristic is a function of the physical, chemical or
infectious-contagious properties of the waste, and results in:
• risk to public health, causing mortality, incidence of diseases or increasing their
rates;
• risks to the environment, when the waste is managed improperly.
According to NBR 10004, waste is classified as:
• Class I Waste: Hazardous.
These are wastes that, due to their physical, chemical or infectious-contagious prop-
erties, may pose risks to public health, causing an increase in mortality or incidence of
diseases (hazardousness) and/or risks to the environment when the waste is handled
or disposed of in an appropriate manner inadequate, or when the residue has one
of the following characteristics: flammability, corrosivity, reactivity, toxicity and
pathogenicity.
• Class II Waste: Non-Hazardous. Non-hazardous waste can be divided into:
– Class II A Waste: Non-inert: those that do not fit the characteristics of either
class I or class II B. This type of waste may have characteristics such as:
combustibility, biodegradability or solubility in water.
– Class II B: Inert: waste that, when placed in contact with distilled or deionized
water, at room temperature, none of its constituents are solubilized at concen-
trations higher than the standards for potable water, except for appearance,
color, turbidity, hardness and flavor. Sewage sludge, according to this stan-
dard, fits into class II, not inert, and according to Santos (2003) the leaching,
solubilization and gross mass analyzes of various sludge’s showed that sludge’s
in general are not hazardous waste.

2.6 Treatment Process in the STP Mangueira and STP

Curado

The STP of Mangueira shown schematically in Fig. 3 is composed of a pumping

station, which has the function of raising, by means of pumps, the sewage from
the network to the ETE: Bar Grade, which is the equipment used to retain coarse
material, not retained in the pumping station and harmful to the treatment process.
A sandbox (desander) is also part of the system, which is intended for the retention
of sand carried from the sewers, in addition to the anaerobic reactor of upward flow
and sludge blanket (UASB) and polishing pond, with natural dehydration of the
excess sludge UASB and drying beds, with a production of approximately 10 ton/
month (dry mass with 60% moisture) of sewage sludge. The sludge formed in the
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 107

UASB reactor results from the treatment of typically domestic sewage. According to
Faustino (2007), for an urban region, with basically domestic sewage sludge, the use
of sewage sludge in the production of seedlings for afforestation is more viable for
the sludge produced in this STP. Thus, in order to meet environmental and technical
restrictions, a sludge management plan at the STP of Mangueira was prepared with
the aim of enabling its safe and controlled agricultural recycling, compatible with
human, financial and technological resources.
In the chemical mobility test carried out by Silva (2008), using the sludge from
the STP of Mangueira and soil-sludge mixtures in the proportions of 25, 50, and
75 mg/ha. The author obtained the results shown in Tables 1 and 2.
In the soil-sludge mixture, the pH variation has the opposite behavior to that
observed between EC, Cu2+ , Zn2+ , Fe2+ and Cd2+ . The pH decreases with increasing

Fig. 3 STP of Mangueira

108 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

Table 1 Values of pH, electric conductivity and cations of the soil and mixtures soil-sludge
Determination Soil initial Soil final Soil-sludge mix (mg/ha)
25 50 75
pH water 1:2.5 Top 6.3 5.85 6.05 5.09 5.09
Base 6.13 6.30 5.61 5.31
EC (μS/cm) Top – 9.80 33.9 52.97 77.23
Base 10.43 25.37 45.57 69.77
Cu2+ (mg/ml) Top 1.5 0.15 0.31 0.28 0.30
Base 0.22 0.10 0.22 0.23
Fe2+ (mg/ml) Top 1.8 0.83 0.90 1.50 1.58
Base 0.52 0.37 0.49 0.45
Fe2+ (mg/ml) Top 160 26.63 28.75 28.96 37.23
Base 30.44 24.56 23.74 23.76
Cd2+ (mg/ml) Top – 0.18 0.02 0.08 0.18
Base 0.01 0.02 0.10 0.02

dose; however, the other attributes increase when the levels used increase. It should
be noted that for the macroelements (K+ , Na+ , Mg2+ , Ca2+ , Al3+ , P, N), as well
as for cadmium—Cd and EC, there is also an increase in the values obtained with
the increase in doses, in relation to raw soil, the opposite occurring for pH. The
highest concentrations of tested elements were found at the top of the samples, with
a retention of the same in the first centimeters of the soil, in concentrations of 25, 50
and 75 mg/ha in relation to the natural soil. There is a contrast between samples with
higher concentrations. There is also a contrast between pH and EC variables and a
direct correlation between EC and element concentration. This shows that the lower
the pH, the greater the availability of the studied element.

2.6.1 STP of Curado

At the STP of Curado, the sanitary effluent undergoes preliminary treatment,

consisting of a grid of bars and a sandbox. Then it goes to the maturation vat, whose
detention time is approximately 3 days. It then passes through the up-flow anaerobic
filter from where it goes to the decanter. After decantation, the decanted effluent
goes to the drying bed. The sludge is the result of secondary decantation after the
anaerobic filter of ascending flow, being mixed in the composting unit with solid
residues. This station treats organic waste from sewage sludge and industrial sludge.
The chemical, physical, mineralogical and microbiological characterization of
the sewage sludge must be carried out so that the sewage sludge can be classified
according to ABNT 10004 and so that no risk occurs with the handling and use of
this material. For comparison purposes, the limits for heavy metals in sewage are
verified according to CONAMA 375/06, and values obtained at STP of Mangueira
and Curado, and shown in Table 3.
Table 2 Average values of the chemical analysis of the effluents collected with 15, 30, 45 and 60 days in leaching
1st 15 days in leaching (day 15) 2nd 15 days in leaching (day 30)
0 (mg/ha) 25 (mg/ha) 50 (mg/ha) 75 (mg/ha) 0 (mg/ha) 25 (mg/ha) 50 (mg/ha) 75 (mg/ha)
pH water (1:2.5) 8.05 7.45 7.84 7.74 7.22 6.92 6.32 6.82
EC (μS/cm) 2.40 741.0 760.0 620.0 407.0 774.33 1311.0 1626.0
P (mg/kg) 27.7 26 24.3 26.67 18.33 21.33 24.00 21.22
Na+ (mg/kg) 138.7 137 119.33 119.67 30.00 35.00 41.33 45.00
Cu2+ (mg/ml) 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.16 0.13 0.05 0.08 0.32
Zn2+ (mg/ml) 0.05 0.16 0.03 0.03 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.15
Fe2+ (mg/ml) 1.65 1.17 1.57 2.53 9.45 0.53 1.72 1.68
Cd2+ (mg/ml) 0.21 0.11 0.99 0.01 0.09 0.13 0.07 0.03
3th 15 days in leaching (day 30) 4th 15 days in leaching (day 45)
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering

0 (mg/ha) 25 (mg/ha) 50 (mg/ha) 75 (mg/ha) 0 (mg/ha) 25 (mg/ha) 50 (mg/ha) 75 (mg/ha)

pH water (1:2.5) 6.69 6.61 6.70 6.67 6.66 6.68 6.67 6.67
EC (μS/cm) 353.33 1466.00 2233.3 3213.3 149.11 324.67 732.00 1206.67
P (mg/kg) 22.19 22.47 21.96 22.20 22.21 22.12 22.18 22.17
Na+ (mg/kg) 37.26 38.01 36.91 37.39 37.44 37.24 37.36 37.35
Cu2+ (mg/ml) 0.03 0.11 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.04 0.08
Zn2+ (mg/ml) 0.08 0.14 0.07 0.13 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.22
Fe2+ (mg/ml) 7.65 0.88 0.72 0.73 1.68 0.08 0.60 0.27
Cd2+ (mg/ml) 0.25 0.06 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.04
109
110 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

Table 3 Chemical analysis

Concentration maximum allowed (mg/kg mass dry)
of the content of the metals in
the sludge Metals CONAMA 375/06 STP Mangueira STP Curado
As 41 – 0.41
Ba 1300 – 242.45
Cd 39 – 1.86
Pb 300 – 9.66
Cu 1500 155 20.89
Cr 1000 – 10.49
Hg 17 – 0.157
Mo 50 – 23.21
Ni 420 – 8.73
Se 100 – 0.22
Zn 2800 548 86.54

2.7 Applications of Sewage Sludge in the Civil Construction

Industry

The use of waste has been shown to be a technically promising possibility as a

constituent material in the manufacture of products in the civil construction sector.
Durante-Inguza et al. (2006) defend the use of waste as an environmentally correct
practice, with a view to reducing the consumption of natural resources—both in the
form of raw material and in the form of energy—and the reduction of costs and
environmental damage resulting from inadequate final disposal methods (Garcia-
Lodeiro et al. 2016; Durante-Inguza et al. 2006).
According to Santos (2003), different ways of recycling sewage sludge as building
materials are being suggested internationally as safe alternatives for encapsulating
heavy metals, reducing polluting atmospheric emissions, reducing the volumes
required in landfills and consequently reducing of costs, in addition to being a way
of making beneficial use of available raw materials and energy, causing savings in
the extraction of these resources from the environment, even if in small quantities,
and thus adapting to the model of sustainable development.
In order to investigate the options for managing sewage treatment residues, Santos
(2003) made a comparative analysis of the market aspects which are involved in each
technically viable recycling system. Competition with other markets, technological
innovations, incentives for recycling products/systems, demand for recycled products
and aspects of the production system were evaluated. As a result, the most favorable
market for the use of sewage sludge samples was the Ceramic Industry, followed
by the Civil Construction market (light aggregate) and finally the cement market.
Some applications of sewage sludge will be presented below. It is worth noting that
no studies were found in the literature using sewage sludge to improve collapsible
soils.
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 111

2.7.1 Manufacture of Lightweight Aggregates

Brosch et al. (1976) produced the first lightweight aggregates using sewage sludge.
The sewage sludge in this study was first used in its raw state and then digested
and dehydrated at the STP of Pinheiros, in the city of São Paulo. The process used
was sintering, which consisted of the following steps: sludge drying; pelletization
and transformation into light aggregates through sintering, where the agglomerates
are calcined by self-combustion. The quality of these aggregates was considered
satisfactory in terms of abrasion resistance and mechanical resistance to crushing.
The sewage sludge produced in the city of Londrina was used to produce
lightweight aggregate. From the studies carried out, it can be concluded that the final
product presented characteristics compatible with the requirements and criteria estab-
lished by the Brazilian specifications regarding the production of concrete elements
for masonry, production of structural concrete or for thermal insulation (Morales and
Agopyan 1992).
The researchers from the Technological Research Institute—IPT, carried out an
experimental research on the use of digested sludge from the STP of Pinheiros—
São Paulo. This team obtained a material that, after crushing, was classified within
the specifications of lightweight aggregate for civil construction purposes, with uses
in concrete structures, thermal insulation, filling voids, prefabrication of buildings
and blocks for masonry and floors. A semi-industrial installation, whose project was
developed by Brazilian companies, was implanted next to the station of Leopoldina
(Water Quality Recovery Station, with mechanical and electrical components of
national manufacture, and was in operation from June 1979 until the end of 1982
(Santos 2003).
The light aggregate production process, based on digested sewage sludge, went
through the following unit operations: sludge dehydration; post-drying of centrifuged
sludge; dosing and mixing of components; pelletizing; drying the pellets by fluidized
bed; sintering; sinter breaking and crushing and sinter stabilization and classification
(Brosch et al. 1976).
The quality control of ALL—(Light Sludge Aggregate), was carried out by the
concrete laboratories of Sabesp—Secretariat of Basic Sanitation of the State of São
Paulo. Concretes made with ALL, compared with concretes of the same mix using
Cinasita expanded clay, the only competitor in the national market at the time, showed
better workability. As for the resistance to axial compression, they obtained maximum
values of 29 MPa, only 12% below the concrete produced with expanded clay. ALL
was used in works by Sabesp itself, in the concrete of the footbridges on the Anchieta
Highway, and as filler in the lowered slabs of Shopping Ibirapuera (Santos 2003).
According to Santos (2003), among several works in the manufacture of
lightweight aggregates, internationally it is possible to highlight the one developed
by Dr. George Harrison for the San Diego Region Water Reclamation Agency. He
started to produce a lightweight aggregate from sewage sludge through a process
called CCBA (Coordinate Chemical Bonding Adsorption). The process consisted
of the following stages: mixing the sewage with clay, aluminum and polyacrylic
acid; coagulation and flocculation; decantation (sludge with 45% solids); mixing
112 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

with clay; extrusion; cut to form pellets about 6 mm in diameter; and burns between
1070 to 1095 °C. The lightweight aggregate complied with ASTM standards. From
this aggregate, concretes with resistance above 35 MPa and blocks with more than
6.5 MPa were obtained (George 1986).
For Fontes (2003), the reduction in compressive strength is small for a replace-
ment of up to 30% of sludge, in relation to the mixture made only with Portland
cement; in addition, the absorption capacity of the specimens added with sludge
was reduced, resulting in a more durable structure. This phenomenon is explained
by the granulometry of the sludge being finer than that of cement. According to
Geyer (2001) the possibilities of using ash in concrete are restricted to low strength
concrete.

2.7.2 Raw Material for Manufacturing Portland Cement and Pozzolans

A laboratory-scale study sought to develop a Portland cement from sewage sludge

(Tay and Show 1997). Portland cement has limestone and clay as raw materials, the
latter being replaced in the study by dehydrated sludge. The properties of cement
produced in this way, as well as conventional Portland cement, were analyzed.
The first step was the drying of the sludge sample, a necessary condition for
grinding and adequate mixing with the limestone. Dehydrated sludge samples were
dried at 105 °C, soil and mixed with limestone powder in different proportions. These
mixtures were soil between 250 and 350 μm, incinerated at different temperatures
and detention times.
The final product was milled to a granulometry smaller than 80 μm. The properties
of cement produced in this way, as well as conventional Portland cement, were
analyzed. The best cement produced was the one resulting from the mixture of 50%
dry sludge and 50% limestone, by mass, with a firing temperature of 1000 °C and a
kiln resistance time of 4 h.
Tests revealed that there were no expansion issues. The setting time was fast,
which can be attributed to the lack of gypsum addition normally incorporated in
conventional cements, and the pozzolanic reactivity was very low. The compressive
strength after 28 days reached 6.28 MPa—about 27% of the value obtained for a
common Portland cement. Despite the study’s inherent shortcomings, it reveals a
potential application.
Onaka (2000) tested sludge processing for nine consecutive months in a cement
factory, with good results. The process began with drying the sludge, transforming
it into pellets, while conserving its organic matter and energy content. These pellets,
from 2 to 10 mm in diameter, were thrown into the kiln along with the rest of the
cement raw material. The organic matter was used as a complementary source of heat
and the inorganic part was integrated into the clinker. Traces of heavy metals were
fixed at even more diluted levels in the cement mass. Gas monitoring and product
quality control did not indicate any change in relation to the values without the use of
sludge. The results reveal that the incorporation of 2% of dry sludge as raw material
in clinker kilns would allow consuming all the sludge generated in Japan.
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 113

Another application is the use of calcined sludge ash in a controlled manner in the
production of pozzolans that can partially replace cement clinker. The pozzolanic
reactivity in calcined sludge between 750 and 800 °C, due to the presence of mont-
morillonite, was confirmed by Morales (1994), who concluded that it was possible
to replace up to 35% of Portland cement consumption.

2.7.3 Raw Material for Ceramic Manufacturing

The oldest information found on the industrial scale production of bricks using
sewage treatment waste refers to the Fishwater Flats WWTP, Port Elizabeth, South
Africa. Since 1979, a brickyard located 15 km from the ETE has produced more
than 120 million bricks from a mixture by volume of 30% sludge with 70% clay, for
common bricks, and 5–8% of sludge for bricks finishing (Slim and Wakefield 1991;
Werther and Ogada 1999).
The sludge sample mixed with clay are soil into a dough; this homogeneous mass
receives water and its moisture is adjusted to 20%, the mass is extruded and the bricks
are cut. The next stage is drying in a covered environment at room temperature for
two weeks, or in ovens for two days, at a temperature between 60 and 65 °C; proceed
to burning, cooling and storage.
In a continuous kiln, the bricks molded from the mixture of sludge and clay are
heated until the samples reach a temperature of around 150 °C. At this point, the
sludge begins to pyrolyze and the combustion of volatiles begins, rapidly increasing
the temperature of the blocks to 800 °C. point in the kiln where the sludge is
completely burned and the thermal gradient decreases, an external fuel is burned
to raise the temperature to 960 °C. The use of sludge in this factory is responsible
for a saving of 55 L of fuel oil for every 1000 bricks produced (Werther and Ogada
1999).
Such bricks are recognized for their excellent quality; uniform color and texture,
absence of cracks and are indistinguishable in appearance and odor. Compressive
strength values for exposed and non-exposed bricks are respectively 40.7 and 38.3
MPa—values that are extremely superior to local standards, which are 17.0 and 14.0
MPa. The water absorption in 24 h was 13%, 30% higher than the bricks manufactured
in the region, which added advantage to the product, as it increased its adherence to
mortars and increased thermal and acoustic comfort.
The advantages of the process are water savings, production of lighter bricks,
reduction of transport costs, fuel savings in the kiln and the use of burning gases to
dry the sludge sample (Werther and Ogada 1999).
Herek et al. (2005) analyzed ceramic blocks of a six-hole brick, on a reduced
scale, made with dry sludge from a textile industry ETE. It has been demonstrated
that the manufacture of blocks can be a viable alternative, since the presence of textile
fibers in the sludge must have contributed to the increase in the compressive strength
of the specimens manufactured with 10% sludge.
Many other studies of incorporation of dehydrated sludge and sludge ash have been
carried out. According to Onaka (2000) in Japan about 70% of sludge samples are
114 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

incinerated, and part of the ashes is used in the production of bricks and interlocking
floor blocks.
According to Fontes (2003), one way to reduce the volume of sewage sludge
generated is incineration, with a volume reduction of around 85%. A smaller area
is required for disposal and a possible use of ash in civil construction due to the
elimination of organic matter and the possibility of generating energy, despite the
high cost.

3 Materials and Methods

In this work, one soil and two types of sludge were used. The soil was collected
from Itapirema Experimental Station of the Pernambuco Agronomic Institute (IPA),
Goiana/PE, and the sludge’s were collected at the STP of Mangueira and STP of
Curado, all STPS located in Region metropolitan of Recife, Pernambuco.

3.1 Experimental Program: Soil, Sludge and Soil-Sludge

Mixture

The experimental program was carried out with samples of soil, sludge and soil-
sludge mixtures, and the experimental campaign is presented in Table 4.
In order to analyze the physical, chemical, microstructural characterization and
hydraulic conductivity, the sludge from the STP of Mangueira was used in the soil—
sludge interaction and for the physical, chemical, compressibility, collapse and as
an aggregate in concrete characterization it was used the sludge from the STP of
Curado.

3.2 Preparation of the Samples of Soil and Soil-Sludge

Mixture

For the joint granulometry test by sieving and sedimentation, as well as for deter-
mining consistency limits, the materials were air-dried and manually crushed. The
preparation of soil samples for the physical characterization tests followed the ABNT
standards.
The sludge sample collected from the STP of Mangueira was air-dried, crushed
and passed through a 4 mm mesh sieve according to Silva (2008) and supplied to the
Laboratory of Geotechnics already dry and in lumps.
The sludge from the STP of Curado came from the STP drying bed and then
packed in plastic bags to be transported to the laboratory of the Catholic University
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 115

Table 4 Description of the experimental campaign

Tests Description Qt. STP sludge
STP STP
Mangueira Curado
Physical description of Granulometry tests with deflocculant, 20 X X
soil, sludge, and consistency limits, real specific weight of
soil-sludge the grains and compaction
Edometric simple test Edometrics tests were performed with 56 – X
different vertical tensions of inundation,
with samples compressed and flooded with
distilled water
Edometric double test Edometrics tests were performed with 16 – X
samples compressed. The moisture constant
was previously flooded with distilled water
Electronic microscopy Microstructural analysis of the soil, sludge 10 X –
and soil-sludge mixture
Hydraulic conductivity Determination of the hydraulic conductivity 08 X –
of the soil and soil-sludge mixture
Chemical mobility Test to evaluate the mobility of the chemical 12 X –
elements
Chemical pH in water, in KCl, and in CaCl2 ; Organic 29 X X
description carbon, aluminum exchangeable (Al3+ ),
calcium exchangeable (Ca2+ ), magnesium
exchangeable (Mg2+ ), sodium exchangeable
(Na+ ), potassium exchangeable (K+ ),
saturation percentage of sodium (Na+ Al3+ ),
attack sulfuric, percentage of iron at the
extract sulfuric (Fe2 O3 ), silica at the extract
sulfuric (SiO2 ), percentage of aluminum in
the sulfuric extract (Al2 O3 ), electrical
conductivity in the saturation extract
Mechanical tests Resistance to compression, sclerometric 72 – X
index, ultrasonic velocity and capillary
absorption

of Pernambuco and placed to dry in the air and after drying it was crushed and passed
through the sieve with 4 mm mesh opening (see Fig. 4).
The soil-sludge mixture using sewage sludge from the STP of Mangueira was
carried out in proportions equivalent to 25, 50 and 75 mg/ha, these concentrations
from the FIUC research whose purpose was the use of sewage sludge in the soil
for of agriculture (Ferreira 2008). As these proportions are extremely small for civil
engineering purposes, the proportions of dry weight of 5%%, 10% and 15% of sludge
from the STP of Curado were chosen, to be used in partial replacement of the fine
aggregate weight.
The granulometry of the sewage sludge from the STP of Mangueira and the STP of
Curado was evaluated following the ABNT recommendations and the moisture was
116 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

Fig. 4 a Dry sludge—STP of Curado, and b Sieved sludge—STP of cured

evaluated at a temperature of 45 °C to constant weight, with consecutive weighing

of 24 h.

3.3 Methods

3.3.1 Physical Description

After the preparation of the mixture, the physical characterization tests were carried
out according to the Brazilian standards: Sample preparation [NBR 6467 (2009)],
Granulometric analysis [NBR 7181 (2018)], Soil grain specific mass [NBR 6458
(2016)], Liquid limit [NBR 6459 (2017)], Plasticity limit [NBR 7180 (2020)],
Compression test [NBR 7182 (2020)], by simple edometric test and double edometric
[NBR 16853 (2020)]. Figure 5 shows the natural soil used in the experimental
campaign.

Fig. 5 Natural soil (sand

silty)
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 117

Fig. 6 PVC columns with

natural soil samples and with
soil-sludge mixtures
equivalent to 25, 50,
75 mg/ha

3.3.2 Chemical Mobility

In these experimental tests, the experimental results were carried out by Silva (Silva
2008), which used the same soil and the sludge from STP of Mangueira.
The mobility of the chemical elements was evaluated using 0.10 m PVC tubes
diameter, using up to 0.21 m high samples of natural soil and soil-sludge mixtures
with an equivalent of 25, 50, and 75 mg/ha. The experimental tests were done with
3 of each sample, totaling 12 columns (see Fig. 6). The sludge was mixed with the
soil in the first 50 mm, simulating the disposal of the residue on the surface. In
each column, daily and for 60 days, deionized water was applied relative to the field
capacity of the soil, and the effluents were collected fortnightly under the base of the
column for complete chemical analysis, according to Teixeira et al. (2017).
After 60 days and for 5 consecutive days, the same amount of water was placed
and the total amount of effluents was measured in a graduated cylinder. After the
end of the tests, the moisture of the natural soil and of the soil-sludge mixtures at
the top (0–0.10 m) and at the base (0.10–0.20 m) of each column were determined,
the dimensions, height and diameters, at eight different points of each sample in the
columns for volume evaluation, as well as determination of the wet weight of the
samples.

3.3.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy Test

The microstructure of the soil and soil-sludge mixtures of the STP of Mangueira
were observed from the samples collected at the top and bottom of the columns. The
samples were carefully removed and placed to dry in the air, where three prismatic
specimens with a base of 9.8 mm and a height of 8 mm were prepared. The specimens
were molded so that no sharp or pointed instrument touched the observation surface,
using the same technique described by Ferreira (2008). The specimens were fixed
118 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

in an aluminum cylinder with a diameter of 9.8 mm and a height of 11 mm using

3 M tape and reinforced with a small amount of glue in contact. The specimens were
placed in a vacuum bell type Fine Coat Ion Sputter JfC 1100 for metallization, where
the specimens received a thin gold film whose purpose was electrostatic charging,
providing good conduction of the electron beam. In some specimens it was necessary
to carry out a second metallization, because the first one did not completely cover
the sample and a higher resolution could not be obtained. After the metallization
process, the surfaces of the samples were observed and photographed in the JSM
LV1600 Sconning Microscope equipment by Joel from UNICAP, operating at 15 kV.

3.3.4 Hydraulic Conductivity Test

The hydraulic conductivity was determined in the laboratory using the permeameter
of flexible walls, in samples of natural soil and soil-sludge mixture under the same
conditions of average relative moisture and average dry specific weight of the samples
of the columns. The permeameter system comprises a main control panel and is
capable of testing one sample while functioning as a controller for other samples. The
panel increases system capacity without duplicating key functions. The equipment
can perform up to three tests simultaneously, with different pressures, as presented
in Fig. 7.
Samples of natural soil and soil-sludge mixtures were statically compacted at
average moisture content and average dry specific weights obtained from tests on
the experiment’s columns. The specimens had an average height of 109 mm and an
average diameter of 98 mm. In the cell, the specimen was placed in contact with
filter paper and porous stone at the top and bottom and coated with a protective latex

Fig. 7 Permeameter of flexible walls to obtain hydraulic conductivity

Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 119

membrane. Care was taken during the lining of the specimen, using rubber alloy to
improve the fixation and offer security to its side, avoiding contact with water on this
face.
After assembling and connecting the cell to the control panel, it began to fill with
water, applying lateral pressure to remove air from the porous stones and pipe lines,
draining a little water from the set, with the purpose of remove air bubbles from
the surface. The saturation of the samples was practically immediate, being verified
through the parameter B = Δu/Δσ3 , where Δu is the increased pore-water pressure
and Δσ3 is the increased and confining tension), using a transducer with external
reading of pore-pressure. After saturation, a confining voltage Δσ3 , from 0, 15, 25,
50, 75, 100, 150, and 200 kPa, in stages. Between each step, and after consolidation,
the hydraulic conductivity was determined. To establish the water flow in the sample,
a tension difference between the base and the top of 5 kPa was applied, when, then,
the time necessary for a volume of 5000 mm3 of water crossed the specimen, a
process repeated until three equal time intervals were obtained.

3.3.5 Double and Single Edometric Tests

Preparation of Samples

The natural soil sample was placed to dry in the open air, crushed and passed through
a No. 10 sieve. To determine the hygroscopic moisture, a sample of approximately
1 kg was separated from the natural soil and the sludge. After determining the natural
soil hygroscopic moisture of 1.60 and 2.48% of the sludge, water was added to the
natural soil sample and to the three mixtures with 5%, 10% and 15% so that it reached
the value of moisture of 5.0%. The samples were placed in the capsules and taken to
a humid chamber for 24 h and after that time the moisture was checked.
With the samples of soil and soil-sludge at the desired moisture content, the
volumes of soil necessary for compaction of the test specimens with specific dry
weights of 15.00 kN/m3 and 17.00 kN/m3 with degrees of compaction of 82% and
94%, respectively, were calculated, at 5% moisture, corresponding to an optimal
moisture deviation of 3.66%. As it is sand, to minimize moisture and soil losses
due to mold handling, the specimens were compacted in the rings of the edometer
cells, which had an average height of approximately 20.00 mm and a diameter of
76.25 mm.
The compaction was carried out statically in a manual CBR type press with a
capacity of 40 kN. The previously calculated volume of soil was placed in the ring
and fitted into the compaction mold. The mold has 2.5 times the value of the height
of the test specimens, for placing the soil that has not yet been compacted. The shape
of the mold ensures that the soil is not compacted beyond what is necessary, due to
the safety system at the top, where the piston contacts the top of the mold, preventing
the piston from compacting the soil further (see Fig. 8).
120 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

(a) (b)

Fig. 8 Compression mold at the beginning and after static compaction. a Mold in the press at the
beginning of compaction; b Mold after compaction

Procedures

Edometric tests, single and double, were carried out to determine the compressibility
and collapsibility parameters of natural soil samples and soil-sludge mixtures in the
proportions of 5, 10 and 15%, with moisture of approximately 5.0% and weights
specific 15.00 and 17.00 kN/m3 . Samples were confined laterally, and distilled water
was used for flooding. Fifty-six specimens were used for use in single edometric
tests and sixteen specimens for double edometric tests.
The tests were carried out in the Geotechnics laboratory of the Catholic University
of Pernambuco, in conventional Bishop type presses, with a loading system using
weights and a strut, with a ratio of 1:10, and fixed ring-type edometric cells. The
strain readings were monitored using an extensometer, with a sensitivity of 0.01 mm.
The assembly procedures were the same for all tests. The specimen compacted
in the ring was placed on the filter paper (see Fig. 9), placed on the porous stone
(air-dried) and the assembly mounted on the edometric cell. After assembly, the top
of the cell was wrapped in plastic affixed with rubber bands to prevent moisture
loss; this procedure was initially adopted by Jennings and Knight (1957), and used
until today by several authors (Guimarães Neto 1997; Motta 2006; Souza Neto 1998;
Futai 1997). Only in the double tests, with the sample previously flooded, it was not
necessary to protect the top of the cell.
At the beginning of the tests, single or double, a minimum tension of 3.75 kPa
was applied to the system for settlement and for the initial reading of the defor-
mation process. The settlement resulting from this tension was attributed to the
accommodation of the system, not being considered in the calculation of the
deformations.
Vertical stresses (σvi ) were applied incrementally (Δσ/σ = 1). Different specimens
were flooded at tensions of 10, 20, 40, 80, 160, 320 and 640 kPa. The duration of each
stress stage was such that the deformation between two consecutive time intervals
(Δt/t = 1) was less than 5% of the total soil deformation occurred up to the previous
time, according to Ferreira (2008). When that time was less than one hour, at least
one hour was allowed. Flooding was done from the base to the top of the cell. The
deformations due to flooding were monitored until stabilization and the readings
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 121

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 9 Edometer cells assembly procedure: a specimen in the edometer cell; b edometer cell after
assembly; c cell with protection for avoid loss of moisture; d press where will be placed the edometer
cell

were taken during 24 h, in times of 0.6; 0.25; 0.50; 1; two; 4; 8;15; 30; 60; 120; 240;
480 and 1440 min.
At the end of the test, 24 h after the start of flooding under different stresses, the
cells were drained and disassembled and the specimens removed and weighed to
determine the moisture content of the soil and soil-sludge mixtures.
In the double edometric tests, two loading conditions were tested: in natural mois-
ture (constant moisture), and with the specimen previously flooded. The first condi-
tion follows the entire sequence described for the simple edometric test, but without
flooding, with loading up to 640 kPa and then unloading to 320 kPa, 80 kPa and
20 kPa, then it was disassembled to remove the specimen and determine the content
of soil moisture and soil-sludge mixtures. In the second condition, the specimen,
under a minimum tension of 3.75 kPa, was flooded and its deformations were moni-
tored until stabilization. Only 24 h after the flooding were the loading stages started,
with the objective of the soil reaching saturation. The vertical tensions were applied
in the same incremental way as in the simple edometric tests (Δσ/σ = 1), starting
with 10 kPa up to the tension of 640 kPa and unloading to 320 kPa, 80 kPa and
20 kPa. With the same duration time for each voltage stage of the previous item.
122 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

3.3.6 Chemical Characterization of Soil, Sludge and Soil-Sludge

Mixture

The chemical tests of the soil, sludge and soil-sludge mixture were carried out at
the Chemical Analysis laboratory of the Catholic University of Pernambuco and
the methods used are in accordance with the soil analysis methodology adopted
by the National Service for Soil Survey and Conservation, in accordance with the
Soil Analysis Methods Manual of the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation
(Teixeira et al. 2017). These tests were carried out on the soil and soil-sludge mixtures
of the STP of Curado.
The sample preparation procedure was the same for both soil and sludge. The
collected samples were spread on trays to dry and crumbled with the aid of a mortar
grade hand. After identification, the samples were sent to the Chemical Analysis
laboratory to carry out the tests. Assays were performed in triplicate and the difference
between results did not exceed 0.1% of the value in relation to the titers. Some tests
are described according to Paiva (2008).

Hydrogenionic Potential—pH

In the test, a Marconi brand equipment (model MOD 2006) with combined electrode
was used. The pH in soil and sludge samples serves to determine the presence of
exchangeable aluminum and also the predominance of clay in weathering process
which is verified by changing the pH in water and the pH in KCl. It also verifies the
tendency of systems with high concentrations of H+ and Al3+ to flocculate.

Organic Carbon and Organic Matter

In determining this test, a digester block was used to carry out the reaction of potas-
sium dichromate (K2 Cr2 O7 ) with the organic matter in a strongly acidic medium
(H2 SO4 ) to then be titrated with ammoniac ferrous sulfate. As the amount of organic
matter in the soil defines the formation of a greater or lesser amount of aggregate in
the structure, aggregates formed by an organic matter content > 3.5% are considered
unstable. And the organic carbon content varies with the clay content in the mineral
fraction, the organic matter calculation is always 1.724 times greater than the organic
carbon.

Exchangeable Acidity

The exchangeable acidity (H+ + Al3+ ) corresponds to the acidity released by the
reaction with an unbuffered potassium chloride solution, also defined as the actual
acidity that is used in the determination of the effective cation exchange capacity
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 123

(ECC), also defined as the sum of bases (Teixeira et al. 2017). It was determined by
titration with NaOH and phenolphthalein as an indicator.

Electrical Conductivity and Percentage of Water in the Saturation Extract

The electrical conductivity in the saturation extract is used to predict the number
of salts ions (cations and anions). The test was carried out by conductivity tract
determined by volumetric.

Specific Surface and Methylene Blue Adsorption

The aqueous methylene blue solution in contact with the clay minerals forms a
layer around the surface, involving every particle, making it possible, through this
technique, to calculate the specific surface (SE) and the adsorption of methylene blue.
Thus, the greater the specific surface of the clay mineral, the greater the amount of
methylene blue adsorbed and the smaller the particle size. The test was carried out
through volumetric absorption (Santos 2003; Paiva 2008).
It is a quick and simple technique where a methylene blue solution is used to
determine the specific surface and the adsorption of methylene blue where the cations
that are adsorbed on clay minerals are replaced by methylene blue (Paiva 2008).

3.4 Use of Sewage Sludge as Fine Aggregate in Concrete

In this work, the feasibility of using sewage sludge as a partial substitute for sand
to produce concrete was studied. In order to evaluate the potential of this residue,
physical and mechanical tests were carried out on all mixtures, in the Materials
laboratory of the Catholic University of Pernambuco.
The experimental procedure was carried out in three stages: characterization of
the raw materials (sand, gravel, cement, and sewage sludge), dosage studies for the
qualification and selection of four concrete mixes, three of which with different
proportions of sludge in relation to the dry weight of sand and a standard mix (refer-
ence concrete), without the addition of sludge and, finally, the evaluation of the
mixtures in the fresh state and the performance of the concrete in the hardened state.
Two mixes were chosen 1:0.54:1.54 for water-cement ratio (w/c = 0.57) and
1:2.5:2.34 and water-cement ratio (w/c = 0.65), in order to compare the results of
the present research with other studies using sewage sludge as the Evaluation of the
compressive strength of concrete with the use of Construction and Demolition Waste
aggregate (1:0.54:1.54:0.57) (Oliveira et al. 2007), and the Study of the Potentiality
of sludge ash from Sewage Treatment Plants as a supplementary material for the
production of concrete with Portland cement (1:2.5: 2.34:0.65) (Fontes 2003).
The components used in the manufacture of concrete were:
124 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

Table 5 Trace and consume of the concrete by m3 (w/c = 0.57)

Mixture Trace (1: a:l:b) Cement Sand (a) Sludge (l) Gravel (b) Water
(Kg) (Kg) (Kg) (Kg) (Kg)
Sand 1: 1.50: 2.50 423.10 634.65 – 1057.75 241.17
Sand + 5% 1: 1.51: 0.08: 2.59 371.28 560.63 29.70 961.62 211.63
sludge
Sand + 10% 1: 1.32: 0.15: 2.47 388.75 513.5 58.31 960.21 221.59
sludge
Sand + 15% 1: 0.80: 0.14 1.57 395.69 316.55 55.40 621.23 225.54
sludge
a—sand; b—gravel; l—sludge

• CP II Z 32 RS sulphate-resistant composite Portland cement, manufactured in

accordance with Brazilian standards.
• The aggregates used in making concrete were washed quartz sand and 25 mm
crushed stone. The main physical parameters of fine and coarse aggregates were
analyzed according to NM 1987 recommendations.
• The water used for the production of concrete came from the water supply
company in the city of Recife.

3.4.1 Concrete Doses

For mixing the concrete, a concrete mixer was used, with a capacity of 110 L, aiming
at a compressive strength of 25 MPa at 28 days. First, coarse aggregates were added,
followed by fine aggregates and half of the predicted water. The concrete mixer was
then activated for 1 min, in order to promote the mixture between the sand and the
gravel. Then, the cement and the rest of the water were added. Four traits were made,
the first being a reference (without adding sewage sludge), and the other three with
sludge in the proportions of dry weight 5%, 10% and 15% in partial replacement of
sand. The traces referring to the mixtures as well as the consumption per m3 with a
w/c ratio of 0.57 and 0.65 are shown in Tables 5 and 6. For comparison purposes, the
same reference trait of the research carried out with concrete using construction and
demolition waste (Oliveira et al. 2007) and sewage sludge ashes was chosen (Fontes
2003).

3.4.2 Molding of the Specimens

The casting of the concrete was carried out in accordance with Brazilian standards.
For each manufactured concrete, 09 cylindrical specimens of 0.10 m in diameter and
0.20 m in height were molded. Concrete consistency, expressed by measuring the
slump of the truncated cone—NM 67/98. The slump was kept constant (90 ± 10
mm), shown in Fig. 10. Then, after a period of 24 h, the specimens were de-molded
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 125

Table 6 Trace and consume of the concrete by m3 (w/c = 0.65)

Mixture Trace (1: a:l:b) Cement Sand (a) Sludge (l) Gravel (b) Water
(Kg) (Kg) (Kg) (Kg) (Kg)
Sand 1: 2.33: 2.85 342.85 798.84 – 977.12 222.85
Sand + 5% 1: 2.21: 0.12: 2.18 343.88 759.97 41.26 749.66 223.52
sludge
Sand + 10% 1: 1.44: 0.16: 2.53 384.91 554.27 61.58 973.82 250.19
sludge
Sand + 15% 1: 1.08:0.19: 2.14 419.63 453.20 79.73 898.01 272.76
sludge

Fig. 10 Trunk cone slump

test

and immersed in a tank with water until the test age was completed, 7, 14, and 28
days.

3.4.3 Carrying Out the Tests

To carry out the tests, 72 specimens were molded, with 0.10 m in diameter and
0.20 m in height. Of the total number of specimens, 48 were used for compressive
strength, sclerometry and ultrasonic velocity tests and the remaining 24 for capillary
absorption tests. For each execution of the tests, two specimens of each mix and
composition were used, except for the absorption test where three specimens were
used. Their purpose is to evaluate the performance of concrete in terms of mechanical
tests, as described in Table 7. The tests were carried out at the Materials Laboratory
of the Catholic University of Pernambuco in accordance with the ABNT standards:
Determination of compressive strength (NBR 7222 2011), sclerometry (NBR 7584
2012), ultrasonic propagation velocity (NBR 8802 2019), and water absorption by
capillarity (NBR 9779 2020).
126 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

Table 7 Program experimental of concrete for relationship w/c = 0.57 and w/c = 0.65
Mixtures Physical and Samples Test time Number of
mechanical tests dimensions (days) samples
(cm) per age
Sand Axial compression 10 × 20 7, 14 and 28 02
resistance
Sclerometric index 10 × 20 7, 14 and 28 02
Ultrasound velocity 10 × 20 7, 14 and 28 02
Absorption by 10 × 20 7, 14 and 28 03
capillarity
Sand + 5% sludge Axial compression 10 × 20 7, 14 and 28 02
resistance
Sclerometric index 10 × 20 7, 14 and 28 02
Ultrasound velocity 10 × 20 7, 14 and 28 02
Absorption by 10 × 20 7, 14 and 28 03
capillarity
Sand + 10% Axial compression 10 × 20 7, 14 and 28 02
sludge resistance
Sclerometric index 10 × 20 7, 14 and 28 02
Ultrasound velocity 10 × 20 7, 14 and 28 02
Absorption by 10 × 20 7, 14 and 28 03
capillarity
Sand + 15% Axial compression 10 × 20 7, 14 and 28 02
sludge resistance
Sclerometric index 10 × 20 7, 14 and 28 02
Ultrasound velocity 10 × 20 7, 14 and 28 02
Absorption by 10 × 20 7, 14 and 28 03
capillarity

Compressive Strength Test

It was observed that the specimens had some irregularities on the top surface which
caused a non-uniform distribution of the compressive stress at certain points, which
could interfere with the resistance results. In order to achieve better surface unifor-
mity, that is, to make them as flat as possible, corrections were made on the top and
bottom of the specimens.
Once the specimens were rectified, the tests were carried out using a Universal
Testing Machine, digital with a capacity of 1000 kN. The specimen was placed
directly on the bottom plate of the press, so that it was centered in relation to the
loading axis. The specimens were broken in compression at the ages of 7, 4 and
28 days, counted from the time of molding. Compressive strength is obtained by
dividing the applied load by the cross-sectional area of the specimen. Figure 11
illustrates this test.
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 127

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 11 Compressive strength test: a specimen in the press; b ruptured specimen; c break of
specimen

Sclerometry Test

To carry out this test, an area of the specimen without irregularities is chosen, where
a grid is drawn for the application of the reflection hammer on the surface in a
perpendicular position, indicating the readings in which the impact has broken or
cracked the surface of the concrete. Nine readings were performed for each spec-
imen. Calculating the arithmetic mean of the reflection values, then determining the
sclerometric index, through which information about the surface hardness of the
concrete is obtained.

Ultrasonic Velocity Test

After preparing the specimens, a thin layer of couplant (vaseline) is applied to the
faces of the transducers or to the specimen, with the transducers on opposite faces
of the material, if the transmission is direct. The time reading is done in a PUNDIT
device, equipment that provides the time elapsed between the emission of the wave
and its reception (t) in μs, and knowing the distance between the coupling points of
the transducers (L), the wave propagation velocity (V) can be calculated, according
to Eq. (1). Figure 12 illustrates the procedure for this test.

V = L/t (1)

where V is the propagation of wave velocity (m/s), L is the distance between the
coupling points of the centers of the transducer faces (m), and t is the elapsed time
from the emission of the wave until its reception(s).
128 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

Fig. 12 Ultrasonic velocity

test

Capillarity Absorption Test

After the curing time of 28 days, the specimens were weighed and placed in an oven
at a temperature of 105 ± 5 °C for 24 h, and then weighed again until reaching
constant mass, according to the standard criteria. Then, the samples were placed in
a closed container with a water depth of 5 ± 1 mm, constant, determining the mass
of the specimens with 3, 6, 24, 48 and 72 h counted from them in contact with the
water. The samples are then broken by diametric compression in order to allow the
annotation of the water distribution inside. Figure 13 shows some steps of this test
procedure.
The water absorption by capillarity was calculated with the following equation:

W = (A − B)/s (2)

where W is the water absorption by capillarity, in g/cm2 , A is the mass of the specimen
that remains with one side in contact with the water during one specified period of
time, in g; B is the mass of the dry specimen, as soon as it reaches a temperature of
(23 ± 2) °C, in g; and s is the area of cross section, in cm2 .

4 Results and Discussions

In this section, the experimental results obtained in the tests for the physical, chemical,
microstructural characterization of the soil and soil-sludge mixtures are presented
and discussed, as well as the mechanical tests in different percentages of sludge, in
order to study the use of sludge in soil improvement and in partial replacement of
fine aggregate on concrete.
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 129

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 13 Capillarity absorption test: a specimen immersed in water; b manual press; c ruptured
specimen; d absorption by the specimen

4.1 Physical Characterization of Soil, Sludge

and Soil-Sludge Mixtures

The results of the physical characterization tests of the soil, sludge and soil-sludge
mixtures are presented in Tables 8 and 9 and in Figs. 14, 15 and 16.
In the Pedological classification the soil used is a Spodosol. A sample of the same
soil was separated for tests with sludge from the STP of Mangueira and another
with sludge from the STP of Curado. The two soil samples used present practically
the same granulometry. The first sample has 92% sand, 4% silt and 4% clay. It is a
Silt Sand (SM) in the Unified Classification, non-liquid and non-plastic and in the
TRB Classification System it is classified as Gravels and Silt or Clay Sands (A-2-
4). The actual specific weight of the grains is equal to 26 kN/m3 , has an optimum
moisture content of 11.90% and maximum apparent dry specific weight of 17.60
kN/m3 , presented in Table 8 and Fig. 14a and used in experiments with sludge from
the STP of Curado. The second sample has 88% sand, 3% silt and 9% clay. It is a
Silt Sand (SM) in the Unified Classification, non-liquid and non-plastic and in the
TRB Classification System it is classified as Gravels and Silt or Clay Sands (A-2-4).
The actual specific weight of the grains is equal to 26.16 kN/m3 , has an optimum
moisture content of 8.66% and maximum dry apparent specific weight of 18.18 kN/
m3 , shown in Table 8 and Fig. 14b and were used with sludge from STP of Curado.
130 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

Table 8 Dry unit weight (γd ), percentage of sand, silt, and clay in the materials analyzed and
physical indexes (ideal moisture. wopt , and maximum apparent dry specific weight, γdmax )
Material γd (kN/m3 ) Sand Silt Clay Classification wopt (%) γdmax (kN/m3 )
(%) (%) (%) Unified TRB
STP Mangueira
Soil 26.00 92 4 4 SM A-2-4 26.00 92
Sludge – 88 12 0 – – – 88
Soil + 25.00 65 9 26 SM A-2-4 25.00 65
sludge
(25mg/ha)
Soil + 25.00 71 4 25 SM A-2-4 25.00 71
sludge
(50mg/ha)
Soil + 25.00 66 4 30 SM A-2-4 25.00 66
sludge
(75mg/ha)
STP Curado
Soil 26.16 88 3 9 SM A-2-4 8.66 18.18
Sludge 16.27 96 4 0 – – – –
Soil + 5% 23.99 90 3 7 SM A-2-4 12.34 17.66
sludge
Soil + 23.54 92 4 4 SM A-3 13.28 18.14
10%
sludge
Soil + 22.84 92 4 4 SM-SP A-2-4 12.46 15.85
15%
sludge

Table 9 Physical indexes of soil, sludge and soil-sludge mixture

Material Moisture excellent (%) Weight-specific apparent dry maximum
(kN/m3 )
STP Mangueira
Natural soil 11.90 17.60
Soil + sludge (25 mg/ha) 11.80 17.10
Soil + sludge (25 mg/ha) 11.60 17.50
Soil + sludge (75 mg/ha) 12.90 17.50
STP Curado
Natural soil 8.66 18.18
Sand + 5% sludge 12.34 17.66
Sand + 10% sludge 13.38 18.14
Sand + 15% sludge 12.46 15.85
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 131

Clay Silt Sand Gravel

100
Sand
90 Sludge
Cumulative percentage (%) 80 Sand +5% Sludge
Sand+10% Sludge
70 Sand+15% Sludge
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)

Fig. 14 Example of the particle size curves—STP of Curado

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

Fig. 15 Electron microscopy of: a natural soil, b sludge, c soil-sludge (25 mg/ha), d soil-sludge
(50 mg/ha), and e soil-sludge (75 mg/ha)
132 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

0.75 0.75
(a) (b)
0.70 0.70
0.65 0.65
0.60 0.60
Void index (-)

Void index (-)

0.55 0.55
10 kPa
0.50 20 kPa 0.50 10 kPa
40 kPa 20 Kpa
0.45 0.45 40 kPa
80 kPa
0.40 0.40 80 kPa
160 kPa 160 kPa
0.35 320 kPa 0.35 320 kPa
640 kPa γd=15 kN/m3 - Sand 640 kPa γd=15 kN/m3 - Sand+5% sludge
0.30 0.30
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa) Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa)

0.75 0.75
(c) 10 kPa 20 Kpa (d)
0.70 0.70 40 kPa 80 kPa
160 kPa 320 kPa
0.65 0.65
640 kPa
0.60 0.60
Void index (-)

Void index (-)

0.55 0.55
0.50 10 kPa 0.50
20 Kpa
0.45 40 kPa 0.45
0.40 80 kPa 0.40
160 kPa
0.35 320 kPa 0.35
640 kPa γd=15 kN/m3 - Sand+10% sludge γd=15 kN/m3 - Sand+15% sludge
0.30 0.30
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa) Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa)

Fig. 16 Void index versus vertical consolidation stress in simple edometric tests for apparent dry
specific weight 15.00 kN/m3 : a sand b sand + 5% sludge, c sand + 10% sludge, d sand + 15%
sludge

The granulometric composition of the sludge from the ETE Mangueira consists of
88% of granules (with dimensions between 4.8 and 0.1 mm) and 12% with dimen-
sions smaller than 0.1 mm. The sludge from the STP of Curado is composed of
96% granules (with dimensions between 4.8 and 0.05 mm) and 4% with dimensions
smaller than 0.05 mm, with a real specific weight of the grains equal to 16.70 kN/m3 .
Soil mixtures with sewage sludge from STP of Mangueira are also classified as
Silt Sand (SM), non-liquid, non-plastic. However, the addition of sewage sludge
to the natural soil significantly increased the percentage of the clay fraction of the
material, changing from 4% in the natural soil to values between 25 and 30% in
the sludge-soil. The actual specific weight of the grains in the soil-sludge decreased
a little (25 kN/m3 ), see Table 8. Soil mixtures with sewage sludge from the STP
of Curado in the proportions of 5 and 10% are also classified as Silt Sand (SM),
non-liquid, non-plastic. In the proportion of 15% it is classified as poorly graded Silt
Sand (SM-SP), not liquid, not plastic. In the TRB Classification System, mixtures
in the proportions of 5 and 15% are classified as Boulders and Silt or Clay Sands
(A-2-4). And the mixture in the proportion of 10% is a Fine Sand (A-3). The real
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 133

specific weights of the grains decreased (23.99 kN/m3 , 23.54 kN/m3 and 22.84 kN/
m3 ) in relation to the soil, see Table 8 and Fig. 14.
Table 9 shows the values of the optimum moisture content and the maximum
apparent dry weight of the soil and soil-sludge mixtures. It can be seen in that the
optimum moisture ranged from 11.60% to 12.90% and the maximum dry apparent
specific weight was between 17.10 and 17.60 kN/m3 . There is a small influence of
the mixture of sewage sludge with the soil in these indices, in relation to the natural
soil, because the amount of sludge placed is small. Observing Fig. 16b, we verify that
there is a decrease in the maximum apparent specific weight with the increase in the
percentage of sludge, except for the proportion of 10% and that the optimal humidity
increases with the increase of sludge up to 10% and subsequent decrease. Adding
sludge to the soil decreases the maximum specific weight (γdmax ) and increases the
optimum moisture content (Wot ). The influence of sludge addition is significantly
higher.

4.2 Chemical Mobility Test of Soil and Soil-Sludge

Mixtures—STP of Mangueira

Analyzing the physical effects in chemical mobility assays. It is observed that in the
natural soil, the humidity at the base of the experimental column is higher than at the
top. The water used is not retained in the first 0.10 m of the soil. With the addition of
sludge to the soil, water is stored more on the surface (top), in increasing amounts,
as the sludge dose is increased, Table 10. The sludge gives the soil a greater capacity
to retain water on the surface, according to Melo and Marques (Melo and Marques
2000), increases the degree of saturation, increases the voids index and porosity and
decrease specific wet and dry apparent weights, aspects of fundamental importance
for the development of plant roots, and to preserve a higher degree of saturation in
the soil on the surface.

Table 10 Physical indices of natural soil and soil-sludge mixtures

Material Moisture (%) Sr (%) e n (%) γh γd
Base Top (kN/m3 ) (kN/m3 )

Natural soil 22.68 19.49 64.28 0.86 46.07 16.98 14.02

Soil + sludge 22.08 22.17 64.60 0.93 48.14 16.45 13.48
(25 mg/ha)
Soil + sludge 27.20 31.86 65.30 1.02 50.39 16.41 12.90
(25 mg/ha)
Soil + sludge 25.73 33.54 65.72 1.18 54.07 15.49 11.95
(75 mg/ha)
Sr —Degree of saturation; e—Index of voids; n—Porosity; γh and γd —Wet and dry apparent specific
gravity, respectively
134 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

Analyzing the physical effects in chemical mobility assays. It is observed that in

the soil natural, the moisture at the base of the experimental column is higher than
at the top. The water used it is not retained in the first 0.10 m of the soil. With the
addition of sludge to the soil, the water becomes stored more on the surface (top), in
increasing amounts, as the dose of sludge is increased, Table 10. The sludge gives the
soil a greater capacity to retain water in the surface, according to Melo and Marques
(2000), increases the degree of saturation, increases the void ratio and porosity and
decreases the weights specific humid It is apparent dry, aspects those in fundamental
importance for the development of plant roots, and to preserve a greater degree of
saturation at the soil in surface.

4.3 Microstructural Analysis of Soil and Soil-Sludge

Mixture—STP of Mangueira

The soil matrix consists of an intense amount of sand grains and little clay. The sand
grains are almost entirely quartz, with varying sizes and predominantly rounded
shapes with lesser intensity of angular shapes (Fig. 15a). There is a small amount
of plasma, predominantly mineral (clay) partially coating the skeletal grains (sand),
often not extending or forming bridges between them. This type of porosity is called
Simple Packing Pores, i.e., the empty spaces are the result of the joining of particles of
different sizes and shapes. The sludge consists of granulates of different shapes that
connect directly or through fibers (Fig. 15b). As the amount of sludge in the natural
soil increases, the sand grains are progressively coated by the LE reducing direct
contact between the quartz grains, the sludge occupies the empty spaces (Fig. 15c,
d, and e), taking up the volume of air.

4.4 Hydraulic Conductivity

In the natural soil, the hydraulic conductivity decreases with the increase of the
confining stress of values that varied from 4.8 × 10–4 m/s to 1.7 × 10–4 m/s. The
addition of sewage sludge to natural soil causes a reduction in hydraulic conductivity.
The reduction is 60% for a dose equivalent to 75 mg/ha. The effect of adding sludge to
the natural soil causes a reduction in hydraulic conductivity equivalent to an increase
of 50 kPa of confining stress.
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 135

4.5 Chemical Characterization of the Soil, Sludge

and Soil-Sludge Mixture

4.5.1 Sludge from the STP of Mangueira

The chemical characterization of soil, sludge from STP of Mangueira and soil-sludge
mixtures at doses equivalent to zero, 25, 50 and 75 mg/ha, carried out after the
chemical mobilization tests by Silva (2008) and collected after 60 days of leaching,
divided into top (layer from 0 to 0.10 m) and base (layer from 0.10 to 0.20 m from
the soil), and presented in Table 11. The pH determined in water is acidic (pH < 7).
In natural soil, soil cation exchange capacity is low (CEC = 5.7 cmolcdm−3 ) with
low activity (Tb), typical of clay-mineral kaolinite. When adding sludge to the soil,
there is an increase in phosphorus, potassium and sodium levels; being larger at the
top than at the bottom. The phosphorus content found in the soil is considered low,
being observed its increase with the addition of sewage sludge. According to Tomé
Júnior (2001), regardless of the type of soil, phosphorus contents will be low, below
3 mg/kg and phosphorus contents above 30 mg/kg will be high.

4.5.2 Sludge from the STP of Curado

The chemical characterization of the soil, sludge from STP of Curado and soil-sludge
mixtures in the weight proportions of 5, 10 and 15%, where the determinations were
carried out as described in Sect. 3, is presented in Table 12.
Natural soil is acidic (pH < 7). The pH of a soil is not a constant and characteristic
value as in aqueous solutions. The pH value in Potassium Chloride (pHKCl ) is lower
than the pH value in water (pHH2O ) and the pH variation (ΔpH = pHKCl –pHH2O )
is negative, indicating the presence of silicate clays. The amount of organic matter
obtained from organic carbon is low (less than 1.0%). The cation exchange capacity
is low (Tvalue = CTC < 27 cmolc/kg), also indicating the predominance of the clay
mineral kaolinite. The saturation per base expressed as a percentage (value of V)
is less than 50% in the case of a Dystrophic soil. The percentage of sodium in
the exchangeable complex (100 Na+ T−1 ) of 2.3% is low (2.3%) less than 6%. The
electrical conductivity of the saturation extract is high (10 mS/cm/25 °C) greater than
4 mS/cm/25 °C.
As sludge is added to the soil from 5 to 15%, the mixtures thus formed have a
practically neutral pH (approximately 7), the organic matter content grows but is
still low, the cation exchange capacity grows and from the proportion of 10% the
mixture has a high CEC (Tvalue = CTC > 27cmolc/kg). The aluminum saturation
decreases and the sodium saturation, the amount of water in the saturated extract
and the electrical conductivity of the saturation layer increase when the proportion
of sludge to the soil is increased.
 136

Table 11 Chemical characterization of soil, sludge and soil-sludge mixture—STP Mangueira

Sample Chemical characterization
K+ (cmolc /l) Na+ (cmolc /l) Mg2+ (cmolc /l) Ca2+ (cmolc /l) Al2+ (cmolc /l) P (mg/kg) N (mg/kg)
Soil (initial) 0.15 0.08 0.55 3.4 0.00 20.00 –
Soil Top 2.67 67.67 1.14 3.01 1.84 3.05 1.12
Base 3.33 67.67 0.97 3.16 1.58 2.87 1.91
Soil-sludge 2100 300 1200 9400 – 45,000 –
25 Top 2.33 68.00 0.13 3.08 1.81 5.53 0.53
mg/ha Base 2.33 60.00 0.13 3.28 0.90 3.26 0.76
50 Top 12.33 72.67 0.20 3.31 1.41 7.33 1.02
mg/ha Base 2.33 69.00 0.13 3.18 1.37 4.19 1.32
75 Top 12.00 67.33 0.67 3.14 1.51 9.05 1.09
mg/h Base 3.33 66.67 0.54 3.24 1.48 2.99 1.12
M. C. A. Feitosa et al.
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 137

Table 12 Chemical characterization of soil, sludge, and soil–sludge mixture from STP Curado
Properties Soil Sludge Soil—sludge mixture
5% 10% 15%
pH in water 6.08 7.22 6.9 7.01 7.13
pH in KCl 6.00 7.30 7.06 7.15 7.18
Organic carbon (g/kg) 1.07 14.29 8.60 9.67 11.46
Organic matter (g/kg) 1.85 24.64 14.82 16.67 19.76
Mg2+ exchangeable (cmol/kg) 3.30 11.00 3.00 0.20 1.50
Na+ exchangeable (cmol/kg) 0.30 185.80 10.40 22.30 26.90
K+ exchangeable (cmol/kg) 0.20 18.40 1.30 1.90 2.20
H+ + Al3+ extracted (cmol/kg) 8.10 8.90 6.01 6.67 7.37
H+ exchangeable (cmol/kg) 7.70 8.80 5.71 6.27 6.95
Value of V (% Sat. of Base) 0.38 0.97 0.76 0.83 0.86
% Fe2 O3 in Ext. Sulfuric (g/kg) 0.50 2.25 0.63 0.75 0.88
% Al2 O3 in Ext. Sulfuric (g/kg) 1.50 3.30 1.50 3.20 3.40
Electrical conductivity (mS/cm at 25 °C) 10 9769 2708 3670 5940
Specific surface (m2 /g) 18.40 14.70 3.70 11.00 11.00

4.6 Compressibility Analysis

The values of void ratios, volumetric deformations and potential collapses obtained
by conventional edometric tests are shown in this item. The results of the edometric
tests are represented with typical graphs, which relate void ratio (e) and specific volu-
metric strain (εv ), on a linear scale, with the vertical consolidation stress (σv ), on a
logarithmic scale. Also presented are the curves of the variation of the collapse poten-
tial (εc ), in percentage, with the vertical consolidation stress (σv ), in a logarithmic
scale for the simple edometric tests.

4.6.1 Edometric Tests

Simple Edometric Tests

Simple edometric tests were carried out aiming to determine the collapse strains (εc )
under different flood stresses (σvi ). The compaction process and the moisture control
allowed to obtain specimens, with apparent dry specific weights and moisture very
close to the desired ones, as well as the repeatability of the results.
The figures, void ratio versus vertical consolidation stress, specific volumetric
strain versus vertical consolidation stress, of the soil and soil-sludge mixtures flooded
with distilled water with dry apparent specific weights of 15.00 kN/m3 and 17.00
kN/m3 are shown in Figs. 16, 17, 18 and 19.
138 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

0 0
(a) (b)
Specific volumetric deformation (-%)

Specific volumetric deformation (-%)

2 2

4 4

6 6
10 kPa 10 kPa
8 20 kPa 8 20 kPa
40 kPa 40 kPa
10 80 kPa 10 80 kPa
160 kPa 160 kPa
12 320 kPa 12 320 kPa
640 kPa γd=15 kN/m3 - Sand 640 kPa γd=15 kN/m3 - Sand+5% sludge
14 14
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa) Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa)
0 0
(c) (d)
Specific volumetric deformation (-%)

Specific volumetric deformation (-%)

2 2

4 4

6 6
10 kPa 10 kPa
8 20 kPa 8 20 kPa
40 kPa 40 kPa
10 80 kPa 10 80 kPa
160 kPa 160 kPa
12 320 kPa 12 320 kPa
640 kPa γd=15 kN/m3 - Sand+10% sludge 640 kPa γd=15 kN/m3 - Sand+15% sludge
14 14
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa) Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa)

Fig. 17 Specific volumetric deformation versus vertical consolidation stress in edometric tests
simple for apparent dry specific weight of 15.00 kN/m3 : a sand b sand + 5% sludge, c sand + 10%
sludge, d sand + 15% of sludge

The collapse potential values were calculated using Eq. (3), for vertical flood
stresses of 10, 20, 40, 80,160, 320 and 640 kPa, from simple edometric tests,
with compacted samples for specific weights of 15.00 kN/m3 and 17.00 kN/m3
are presented in Table 13. The variation of the collapse potential with the vertical
consolidation stress of the flooded soil with different silt proportions is shown in
Fig. 20.

C P(%) = 100%. ΔH/Hi (3)

where: ΔH is the variation in height of the specimen due to flooding (mm) and Hi is
the height of the specimen before flooding
In the soil without sludge addition for the dry specific weight of 15.00 kN/m3 ,
the collapse increases reaching a maximum value of 6.61% at the stress of 320 kPa
and then decreases. This is the critical stress for maximum collapse. Soil compaction
to a specific weight of 17.00 kN/m3 significantly reduced the collapse potentials to
maximum values of 1.64% for a stress of 640 kPa.
Adding silt to the soil decreases the potential for collapse. For the dry specific
weight of 15.00 kN/m3 and tension of 10 kPa, the addition of 10% and 15% of sludge
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 139

0.55 0.55
(a) (b)
0.50 0.50

0.45 0.45
Void index (-)

Void index (-)

0.40 0.40
10 kPa
0.35 20 kPa 0.35 10 kPa
40 kPa 20 Kpa
0.30 80 kPa 0.30 40 kPa
160 kPa 80 kPa
160 kPa
0.25 320 kPa 0.25
320 kPa
640 kPa γd=17 kN/m3 - Sand 640 kPa γd=17 kN/m3 - Sand+5% sludge
0.20 0.20
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa) Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa)
0.55 0.55
10 kPa (c) 10 kPa (d)
20 Kpa 20 Kpa
0.50 40 kPa 0.50 40 kPa
80 kPa 80 kPa
0.45 160 kPa 0.45 160 kPa
Void index (-)

320 kPa Void index (-) 320 kPa

0.40 640 kPa 0.40 640 kPa

0.35 0.35

0.30 0.30

0.25 0.25
γd=17 kN/m3 - Sand+10% sludge γd=17 kN/m3 - Sand+15% sludge
0.20 0.20
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa) Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa)

Fig. 18 Void index versus vertical consolidation stress in simple edometric tests for apparent dry
specific weight 17.00 kN/m3 : a sand b sand + 5% sludge, c sand + 10% sludge, d sand + 15%
sludge

to the soil caused a small expansion. A similar behavior was observed for the dry
specific weight of 17.00 kN/m3 at tensions of 10 kPa, 20 kPa with sludge addition
of 10% and 15%.
The average of the initial physical indices of the eight soil specimens of each
soil-sludge mixture and each apparent dry specific weight was calculated. From the
average values of the physical indices, the percentage of volume of each component
of the mixture was calculated in percentage corresponding to soil, sludge, water and
air. The experimental values are shown in Table 14 and Fig. 21.
Adding sludge works efficiently to reduce collapse, similar to increasing specific
gravity. For the specific weight of 15.00 kN/m3 the reduction of natural soil collapse
in relation to the addition of sludge in 5%, 10% and 15% were 6.2%, 51.6% and
56.4%, respectively.
For the same dry apparent specific weight, the addition of sludge increases the
volume of solid particles and reduces the volume of voids. As the volume of water
had small variations, the reduction that occurs in the volume of voids is due to the
reduction in the volume of air. On the other hand, the volume increase that occurs of
solid particles in the mixture in relation to the natural soil is significantly influenced
by the difference in the actual specific weight of the soil grains (26.16 kN/m3 ) when
140 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

0 0
(a) (b)
Specific volumetric deformation (-%)

Specific volumetric deformation (-%)

2 2

4 4

6 6
10 kPa 10 kPa
8 20 kPa 8 20 kPa
40 kPa 40 kPa
10 80 kPa 10 80 kPa
160 kPa 160 kPa
12 320 kPa 12 320 kPa
640 kPa γd=17 kN/m3 - Sand 640 kPa γd=17 kN/m3 - Sand+5% sludge
14 14
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa) Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa)
0 0
(c) (d)

Specific volumetric deformation (-%)

Specific volumetric deformation (-%)

2 2

4 4

6 6
10 kPa 10 kPa
8 20 kPa 8 20 kPa
40 kPa 40 kPa
10 80 kPa 10 80 kPa
160 kPa 160 kPa
12 320 kPa 12 320 kPa
640 kPa γd=17 kN/m3 - Sand+10% sludge 640 kPa d=17 kN/m3 - Sand+15% sludge
14 14
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa) Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa)

Fig. 19 Specific volumetric deformation versus vertical consolidation stress in edometric tests
simple for apparent dry specific weight of 17.00 kN/m3 : a sand b sand + 5% sludge, c sand + 10%
sludge, d sand + 15% of sludge

Table 13 Collapse potential of simple oedometer tests

Vertical Collapse potential—CP (%)
flood stress Dry specific weight—15.0 kN/m3 Dry specific weight—17.0 kN/m3
(kPa)
0% 5% 10% 15% 0% 5% 10% 15%
Sludge Sludge Sludge Sludge Sludge Sludge Sludge Sludge
10 0.11 0.13 −0.49 −0.92 0.11 −0.11 −0.37 −1.12
20 0.50 0.16 −0.06 −0.04 0.41 −0.05 −0.29 −0.60
40 1.30 0.40 0.52 0.05 0.45 0.32 0.02 −0.31
80 3.75 1.30 1.03 0.29 0.61 0.49 0.76 0.65
160 4.99 2.15 1.30 0.80 0.63 0.63 0.78 1.26
320 6.61 4.50 1.96 1.67 0.88 0.53 0.79 1.61
640 5.81 5.45 2.81 2.53 1.64 0.41 1.08 2.21
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 141

-2 -2
(a) γd = 15.0 KN/m3
(b) γd = 17.0 KN/m3

-1 -1
Swell

Potential for Collapse or Swell (%)

Swell
Potential for Collapse or Swell (%)

0 0
Collapse
1 1
Collapse

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5
Sand Sand
Sand + 5 % Sludge Sand + 5 % Sludge
6 Sand + 10 % Sludge 6
Sand + 10 % Sludge
Sand + 15 % Sludge Sand + 15 % Sludge
7 7
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Consolidation Vertical Tension (kPa) Consolidation Vertical Tension (kPa)

Fig. 20 Collapse potential versus vertical consolidation stress in simple edometric tests for specific
dry apparent weight of: a 15.00 kN/m3 and b 17.00 kN/m3

Table 14 Percentage in volume of each component from the mixture

Sample Percentage in volume
Specific dry apparent weight Specific dry apparent weight
15 kN/m3 17 kN/m3
Solid Sludge Water Air Solid Sludge Water Air
Sand 57.44 0.00 7.46 35.10 65.23 0.00 8.18 26.59
Sand + 48.45 14.42 7.41 29.71 54.85 16.33 8.61 20.21
5% sludge
Sand + 46.26 17.72 7.61 28.40 52.47 20.10 8.61 18.82
10%
sludge
Sand + 42.84 23.17 7.39 26.61 48.55 26.25 8.60 16.60
15%
sludge

compared to the sludge (16.27 kN/m3 ). Therefore, for the same dry apparent specific
weight, the addition of sludge to the soil increases the number of particles in the
contacts between the grains, reducing the pores and providing greater stability to
the soil structure, reducing collapse. This was shown through the scanning electron
microscopy test described in Sect. 4.3.
142 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

Fig. 21 Percentage in volume of each component from the mixture

Double Edometry Tests

The double edometry tests were carried out with the soil and soil-sludge mixtures
compacted with dry specific weight of 15.00 and 17.00 kN/m3 . The following figures
show the relations between void ratio and vertical consolidation stress, and defor-
mation specific volumetric and vertical consolidation stress obtained in tests on soil
samples in natural moisture (constant), and flooded, are shown in Figs. 22, 23, 24
and 25 (using distilled water as flood liquid).
From the results of the double edometric tests, the compression index (Cc ), the
expansion index (Cs ), and the pre-consolidation stress of the soil and soil-sludge
mixtures were determined, presented in Tables 15 and 16. It is observed that the
parameters obtained from the tests in natural moisture were lower than those obtained
from the flooded tests. For the dry specific weight of 15.00 kN/m3 , the compressibility
in the natural and flooded condition increases with the addition of sludge up to 5%
and decreases later with the increase of the sludge percentage.
For the dry apparent specific weight of 15 kN/m3 , the pre-consolidation stress in
the non-flooded soil increases with the addition of sludge to the soil up to 5% and
then decreases. In the flooded soil, however, the pre-consolidation stress increases
with the addition of sludge to the soil up to 10% and then decreases.
For the apparent dry specific weight of 15.00 kN/m3 in the natural condition, the
addition of sludge to the soil in the proportion of 5% increases the pre-consolidation
stress by 30% and subsequently decreases. Showing similar behavior when flooded,
with an increase in the Pre-consolidation stress of 70% for the addition of 5% of
sludge, decreasing with the proportions of 10% and 15% of the sludge.
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 143

0.75 0.75
(a) (b)
0.70 0.70

0.65 0.65
0.60

Void index (-)

Void index (-)

0.60
0.55
0.55
0.50
0.50
0.45
0.45
0.40
0.40 0.35
Natural soil Natural soil
0.35 0.30
Flooded soil γd=15 kN/m3 - Sand Flooded soil γd=15 kN/m3 - Sand+5% sludge
0.30 0.25
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa) Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa)
0.75 0.75
(c) Natural soil (d)
0.70 0.70
Flooded soil
0.65 0.65
0.60 0.60
Void index (-)

0.55
Void index (-) 0.55
0.50 0.50
0.45 0.45
0.40 0.40
0.35 0.35
Natural soil
0.30 0.30
Flooded soil γd=15 kN/m3 - Sand+10% sludge γd=15 kN/m3 - Sand+15% sludge
0.25 0.25
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa) Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa)

Fig. 22 Variation of the void index with the vertical stress of consolidation obtained through double
oedometer tests, for dry apparent specific weight of 15.0 kN/m3 : a sand, b sand plus 5% sewage
sludge, c sand plus 10% sludge, d sand plus 15% sludge

It can also be observed that with the dry specific weight of 17.00 kN/m3 the param-
eters obtained from the tests in natural moisture were lower than those obtained from
the flooded tests. With a dry specific weight of 17.00 kN/m3 , compressibility increases
with the increase in the percentage of sludge both in natural and flooded conditions.
The addition of sludge in the natural condition decreases the Pre-consolidation stress
by 13%, 20% and 14% in proportions of 5%, 10% and 15%, respectively, in relation
to the Pre-consolidation stress of the natural soil. In the flooded condition it reduced
the Pre-consolidation stresses by 10%, 76% and 71% in the proportions of 5%, 10%
and 15%, respectively. In order to maintain the same dry specific weight in the soil,
the increase in the percentage of sludge causes a reduction in the soil voids index,
justifying a lower compressibility due to the addition of sludge.
144 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

0 0
(a) (b)
Specific volumetric deformation (-%)

Specific volumetric deformation (-%)

2 2

4 4

6 6

8 8

10 10

12 12

14 Natural soil 14 Natural soil

γd=15 kN/m3 - Sand
Flooded soil Flooded soil γd=15 kN/m3 - Sand+5% sludge
16 16
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa) Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa)

0 0
(c) (d)

Specific volumetric deformation (-%)

Specific volumetric deformation (-%)

2 2

4 4

6 6

8 8

10 10

12 12

14 Natural soil 14 Natural soil

Flooded soil γd=15 kN/m3 - Sand+10% sludge Flooded soil γd=15 kN/m3 - Sand+15% sludge
16 16
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa) Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa)

Fig. 23 Variation of the void index with the vertical stress of consolidation obtained through double
oedometer tests, for dry apparent specific weight of 17.0 kN/m3 : a sand, b sand plus 5% sewage
sludge, c sand plus 10% sludge, d sand plus 15% sludge

5 Application of Sludge for the Substitution of Fine

Aggregates for Concrete

5.1 Physical Characterization of Fine and Coarse Aggregate

The granulometric curves referring to the fine aggregate used in this study and the
sludge that will partially replace the sand and the coarse aggregate are shown in
Fig. 26. The fine aggregate has a fineness modulus of 2.57 and specific mass of
2.65 g/cm3 and the coarse aggregate has a fineness modulus of 7.28.

5.2 Ultrasonic Velocity

The velocity values for traces with respect to w/c = 0.57 and w/c = 0.65 are shown
in Table 17. The graphs of ultrasonic velocity versus age, obtained in the tests, are
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 145

0.55 0.55
(a) (b)
0.50 0.50
0.45 0.45
Void index (-)

Void index (-)

0.40 0.40
0.35 0.35
0.30 0.30
0.25 0.25
0.20 0.20
Natural soil
0.15 0.15 Natural soil
Flooded soil γd=17 kN/m3 - Sand Flooded soil γd=17 kN/m3 - Sand+5% sludge
0.10 0.10
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa) Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa)
0.55 0.55
(c) (d)
0.50 0.50
0.45 0.45
Void index (-)

Void index (-)

0.40 0.40
0.35 0.35
0.30 0.30
0.25 0.25
0.20 0.20
0.15 Natural soil 0.15 Natural soil
Flooded soil γd=17 kN/m3 - Sand+10% sludge Flooded soil γd=17 kN/m3 - Sand+15% sludge
0.10 0.10
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa) Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa)

Fig. 24 Variation of specific volumetric deformation with the vertical consolidation stress obtained
through double oedometer tests, for dry apparent specific weight of 15.0 kN/m3 : a sand, b sand
plus 5% sewage sludge, c sand plus 10% sludge, d sand plus 15% sludge

shown in Fig. 27. Also included are results of Oliveira et al. (2007) with CDW, for
comparison purposes.
Adding a percentage of sludge to concrete as an aggregate decreases the ultrasonic
velocity, although it is higher than in concrete using CDW. The values of the ultrasonic
speeds for the two concretes were within the values that characterize the concretes as
of good quality, according to Table 18, which shows the classification of the quality
of the concrete according to the ultrasonic speed.

5.3 Sclerometer Index

The mean values of the sclerometric index are presented in Table 19. The values of
the sclerometric index versus age, obtained in the tests, are shown in Fig. 27 with
the results of Oliveira et al. (2007) for comparison.
146 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

0 0
(a) (b)
Specific volumetric deformation (-%)

Specific volumetric deformation (-%)

2 2

4 4

6 6

8 8

10 10

12 12
Natural soil
14 14 Natural soil
Flooded soil γd=17 kN/m3 - Sand Flooded soil γd=17 kN/m3 - Sand+5% sludge
16 16
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa) Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa)
0 0
(c) (d)
Specific volumetric deformation (-%)

Specific volumetric deformation (-%)

2 2

4 4

6 6

8 8

10 10

12 12

14 Natural soil 14 Natural soil

Flooded soil γd=17 kN/m3 - Sand+10% sludge Flooded soil γd=17 kN/m3 - Sand+15% sludge
16 16
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa) Vertical stress of consolidation (kPa)

Fig. 25 Variation of specific volumetric deformation with the vertical consolidation stress obtained
through double oedometer tests, for dry apparent specific weight of 17.0 kN/m3 : a sand, b sand
plus 5% sewage sludge, c sand plus 10% sludge, d sand plus 15% sludge

It is possible to observe that the sclerometric indices decrease with the increase in
the percentage of sludge both for the factor w/c = 0.57 and for the factor w/c = 0.65.
These values are compared with the concrete CDW by Oliveira et al. (2007), and it is
possible to observe that these results higher values. Adding a percentage of sludge to
concrete as an aggregate decreases the sclerometric index for the same curing date.
The water/cement factor was not sensitive to the soil-sludge mixture (Fig. 28).

5.4 Compressive Strength

Resistance values are shown in Table 20. The graphs of resistance to compression
versus age, obtained in the tests, are shown in Fig. 29, and also the results refer to
the CDW (Oliveira et al. 2007).
Adding a percentage of sludge to concrete as an aggregate decreases the compres-
sive strength and presents values close to those obtained in concrete with CDW*
aggregate, Fig. 29a.
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 147

Table 15 Coefficients and parameters of the double oedometer tests with soil samples and soil–
sludge mixtures with a dry specific weight of 15.0 kN/m3
Samples Test type Coefficients and parameters
Compression Vertical stress Expansion Compression
index range (kpa) index index
Sand + 0% Natural 0.046 10–80 0.015 115.61
sludge 0.055 160–640
Flooded 0.111 10–80 0.021 73.96
0.129 160–640
Sand + 5% Natural 0.044 10–80 0.016 150.31
sludge 0.090 160–640
Flooded 0.111 10–80 0.021 125.89
0.165 160–640
Sand + 10% Natural 0.040 10–80 0.018 81.85
sludge 0.078 160–640
Flooded 0.091 10–80 0.021 64.82
0.165 160–640
Sand + 15% Natural 0.038 10–80 0.015 80
sludge 0.071 160–640
Flooded 0.096 10–80 0.021 40
0.109 160–640

According to Metha and Monteiro (2013) the most used resistance in structures is
moderate, in which the compressive strength varies between 20 and 40 MPa. Helene
and Terziani (1995) confirm that the strength to guarantee the viability of the concrete
must be greater than 20 MPa, a limit reached after 28 days for a proportion of 5% (w/
c = 0.57). The resistances in the proportions of 10 to 15% resulted below this value.
For w/c = 0.65, the resistance has not reached this limit. With regard to compressive
strength, we observed that it decreases with the increase in the percentage of sludge
up to 10% and then increases for w/c = 0.57, which is slightly higher compared to
the results of the CDW* (Oliveira et al. 2007). For w/c = 0.65, with an increase in
the percentage of sludge, resistance decreases, and in relation to CDW* (Oliveira
et al. 2007) it is lower.

5.5 Absorption by Capillarity

The results of the water absorption values by capillarity after 72 h and the absorption
by capillarity considering a time of 3 to 72 h, according to the norm, is shown in
Table 21 and the results of absorption by capillarity versus time, illustrated in Fig. 30.
148 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

Table 16 Coefficients and parameters of the double oedometer tests with soil samples and soil–
sludge mixtures with a dry specific weight of 17.0 kN/m3
Samples Test type Coefficients and parameters
Compression Vertical stress Expansion Compression
index range (kPa) index index
Sand + 0% Natural 0.023 10–80 0.014 147.23
sludge 0.042 160–640
Flooded 0.049 10–80 0.017 231.06
0.079 160–640
Sand + 5% Natural 0.035 10–80 0.015 128.33
sludge 0.057 160–640
Flooded 0.070 10–80 0.018 207.49
0.089 160–640
Sand + 10% Natural 0.039 10–80 0.016 118.23
sludge 0.066 160–640
Flooded 0.052 10–80 0.018 54.50
0.092 160–640
Sand + 15% Natural 0.039 10–80 0.021 126.64
sludge 0.069 160–640
Flooded 0.076 10–80 0.025 66.15
0.110 160–640

Clay Silt Sand Gravel

100
90
80
Cumulative porcentage (%)

Sludge
70 Sand
Gravel
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)

Fig. 26 Granulometric curves of the aggregates

Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 149

Table 17 Values of the ultrasonic velocity

Healing time (days) Ultrasonic velocity (km/s)
w/c = 0.57 w/c = 0.65
0% 5% 10% 15% 0% 5% 10% 15%
sludge sludge sludge sludge sludge sludge sludge sludge
7 4.51 4.22 3.92 3.54 4.53 4.06 3.84 3.73
14 4.62 4.20 4.04 3.80 4.64 4.08 3.94 3.90
28 4.68 4.54 4.26 3.90 4.77 4.07 4.01 3.94
Note that the ultrasonic velocity values decrease with increasing sludge percentage. However, these
values are higher than the values obtained by Oliveira et al. (2007)

5000 5000
(a) w/c= 0.57 (b) w/c= 0.65
Ultrasonic Velocity (m/s)
Ultrasonic Velocity (m/s)

4000 4000

3000 3000
Sand
Sand+5 % Sludge Sand
Sand+10% Sludge Sand+5 % Sludge
Sand+15% Sludge Sand+10% Sludge
Concrete with CDW [51] Sand+15% Sludge
2000 2000
0 7 14 21 28 0 7 14 21 28
Healing time (day) Healing time (day)

Fig. 27 Ultrasonic velocity versus healing time for: a conventional concrete, concrete with sewage
sludge, and with CDW (Durante-Inguza et al. 2006) for w/c = 0.57; and for b conventional concrete
and concrete with sewage sludge for w/c = 0.65

Table 18 Classification of
Ultrasonic velocity (m/s) Concrete quality
concrete quality according to
the ultrasonic velocity values V > 4500 Great
3500 < V < 4500 Good
3000 < V < 3500 Regular (dubious)
2000 < V < 3000 Generally bad
Bottom < V < 2000 Bad

Note that there is a reduction in the values obtained with an increase in the
percentage of sludge around 63% for the factor w/c = 0.57 and for the factor w/
c = 0.65 around 52%. The values found for concrete in the proportions of 5%, 10%
and 15% are of the same order of magnitude. Adding a percentage of sludge to
concrete as an aggregate decreases absorption regardless of the percentage of sludge
added.
150 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

Table 19 Values of the sclerometry index

Healing time (days) Sclerometry index values (average)
w/c = 0.57 w/c = 0.65
0% 5% 10% 15% 0% 5% 10% 15%
sludge sludge sludge sludge sludge sludge sludge sludge
7 26.50 24.50 18.50 20.00 23.00 17.00 19.50 19.00
14 28.50 25.00 20.50 19.50 25.50 19.50 19.00 19.00
28 30.00 25.00 20.50 20.50 26.00 22.00 21.00 20.00

35 35
Sand Sand
Sand+5% Sludge Sand+5% Sludge
Sand+10% Sludge
Sand+15% Sludge Sand+10% Sludge
Concrete with CDW [51] Sand+15% Sludge
30 30
Sclerometer Index
Sclerometer Index

25 25

20 20

(a) w/c= 0.57 (b) w/c= 0.65

15 15
0 7 14 21 28 0 7 14 21 28
Healing time (day) Healing time (day)

Fig. 28 Sclerometer index versus healing time: a conventional concrete, with sewage sludge and
with CDW (Oliveira et al. 2007), w/c = 0.57 and b conventional concrete with sewage sludge, w/c
= 0.65

Table 20 Compressive strength values

Healing time (days) Compressive strength (MPa)
w/c = 0.57 w/c = 0.65
0% 5% 10% 15% 0% 5% 10% 15%
sludge sludge sludge sludge sludge sludge sludge sludge
7 20.04 16.08 12.20 11.50 19.30 14.64 11.75 10.76
14 25.86 19.99 14.50 13.60 21.50 16.18 12.60 11.69
28 27.84 22.83 16.36 17.60 23.06 14.95 12.69 12.80

According to Neville (2015), absorption is not considered a measure of concrete

quality, however, it is observed that good quality concrete presents absorption below
10%, as a good quality concrete.
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 151

30
(a) w/c= 0.57 30
(b) w/c= 0.65
25
25
Compressive Strenght (MPa)

Compressive Strenght (MPa)

20
20

15
15

10
10
Sand
Sand+5% Sludge Sand
5 Sand+10% Sludge Sand+5% Sludge
5
Sand+15% Sludge Sand+10% Sludge
Concrete with CDW [51]
0 Sand+15% Sludge
0
0 7 14 21 28
0 7 14 21 28
Healing time (day)
Healing time (day)
30
(c) w/c= 0.65
25
Compressive Strenght (MPa)

20

15

10

5 Concrete with SSA [61]

Concrete with SS
0
0 5 10 15 20
Percentage of SSA and SS (%)

Fig. 29 Compressive strength versus healing time: a conventional concrete, with sewage sludge
and with CDW (Oliveira et al. 2007), w/c = 0.57; b conventional concrete with sewage sludge, w/c
= 0.65.; and c concrete with sewage sludge (SS) and sewage sludge ash (SSA) (Silva et al. 2021),
w/c = 0.65

Table 21 Capillary
Samples Capillary water absorption (%)
absorption test result after
72 h w/c = 0.57 w/c = 0.65
Sand 2.78 2.09
Sand + 5% sludge 2.12 1.33
Sand + 10% sludge 1.87 1.57
Sand + 15% sludge 2.41 1.49
152 M. C. A. Feitosa et al.

1.6
1.6
(a) w/c= 0.57 (b) w/c= 0.65
1.4

Capillary Pressure (KPa)

1.4
Capillary Pressure (KPa)

1.2 1.2

1.0 1.0

0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 Sand 0.4 Sand
Sand+5% Sludge Sand+5% Sludge
0.2 Sand+10% Sludge 0.2 Sand+10% Sludge
Sand+15% Sludge Sand+15% Sludge
0.0 0.0
0 12 24 36 48 60 72 0 12 24 36 48 60 72
Time (h) Time (h)

Fig. 30 Absorption by capillarity versus time, with conventional concrete, and concrete with
sludge: a w/c = 0.57 and b for factor w/c = 0.65

6 Conclusions

The conclusions presented should not be taken in an absolute way, as these conclu-
sions refer only to the data obtained in the analysis of the sludge generated in the
STPs of Mangueira and Curado, Pernambuco (Brazil), and which constitutes data
and information in the execution of new researches that present results that can
complement and/or confirm the data obtained in this study.
• The sludge cannot be considered as a single waste, as it constitutes a family of
different sludge’s from different STPs, and consequently, each STP sludge must
be treated as unique, in a process of reuse or recycling.
• There are physical, chemical, and microstructural changes in the soil with the
addition of sewage sludge to the natural soil.
• The hydraulic conductivity of the soil decreases with the addition of sludge,
reaching 60% when a dose equivalent to 75 Mg/ha of sludge is added to the
natural soil, equivalent to an increase in the confining tension of 50 kPa to the
soil.
• In order to maintain the same apparent dry weight of the soil-sludge mixture, the
addition of the sludge percentage provides a reduction in the soil voids index,
justifying a lower compressibility due to the addition of sludge. Proving to be
suitable for improving collapsible soils.
• The compressive strength of concrete decreases with increasing sludge content,
the effect being more expressive for the addition of 10% of sludge, when compared
to the reference concrete of 25 MPa.
• Concretes with the addition of sludge above 5% restrict their application, mainly
because these samples do not have mechanical properties for their use, which is
less than 15 MPa.
• It was found that the addition of STP sludge in concrete can be a viable and
environmentally correct alternative, as it promotes the reduction of considerable
amounts of this material to be disposed of in landfills or returned to watercourses,
Sewage Sludge: Some Applications in Civil Engineering 153

as well as significant reductions in the consumption of natural aggregates. It can

be used in small works.
• Finally, some suggestions for future research are listed in order to increase the
knowledge in this field:
• Detailed studies of the physical, chemical and mineralogical characteristics of the
sludge from the ETEs and study.
• Continuation of research in order to study the use of sludge in a concrete way,
that is: in the manufacture of floors, walls, sidewalks and others.
• It is recommended that other tests be carried out to verify the concrete’s other
properties, including: tensile strength by flexion and diametral compression, static
deformation modulus and leaching.
• The results obtained in the research, with regard to the environmental aspect,
that is, regarding the ability to safely retain the harmful compounds present in
the sludge, should be analyzed, through tests of solubilization, leaching, X-Ray
diffraction, and others.

Acknowledgements This work was supported by: Base Funding—UIDB/04708/2020 and

Programmatic Funding—UIDP/04708/2020 of the CONSTRUCT—Instituto de I&D em Estruturas
e Construções—funded by national funds through the FCT/MCTES (PIDDAC) and by FCT—
Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia through the individual Scientific Employment Stimulus
2020.00828.CEECIND.

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