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LANDES
BIOSCIENCE V ad e me c u m LANDES
BIOSCIENCE V ad e me c u m
V ad eme c um
Table of contents
1. Gastrointestinal
Northwestern
2. Endocrine
3. Surgical Oncology
Handbook
4. Plastic Surgery
5. Cardiothoracic Surgery
of Surgical
Procedures
2nd Edition
The Vademecum series includes subjects generally not covered in other handbook
series, especially many technology-driven topics that reflect the increasing
influence of technology in clinical medicine.
The name chosen for this comprehensive medical handbook series is Vademecum,
a Latin word that roughly means “to carry along”. In the Middle Ages, traveling
clerics carried pocket-sized books, excerpts of the carefully transcribed canons,
known as Vademecum. In the 19th century a medical publisher in Germany, Samuel
Karger, called a series of portable medical books Vademecum.
The Landes Bioscience Vademecum books are intended to be used both in the
training of physicians and the care of patients, by medical students, medical house
staff and practicing physicians. We hope you will find them a valuable resource.
Kaufman
ISBN 978-1-57059-707-7 Soper Nathaniel J. Soper
All titles available at
www.landesbioscience.com Dixon B. Kaufman
9 781 5 70 5 97077
v a d e m e c u m
Northwestern Handbook
of Surgical Procedures
2nd Edition
LANDES
BIOSCIENCE
Austin, Texas
USA
VADEMECUM
Northwestern Handbook of Surgical Procedures, 2nd Edition
LANDES BIOSCIENCE
Austin, Texas USA
ISBN: 978-1-57059-707-7
Soper, Nathaniel J.
Northwestern handbook of surgical procedures / Nathaniel J. Soper, Dixon B. Kaufman ;
Illustrations by Simon Kimm. -- 2nd ed.
p. ; cm. -- (Vademecum)
Handbook of surgical procedures
ISBN 978-1-57059-707-7
1. Surgery, Operative--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Kaufman, Dixon B. II. Northwest-
ern University (Evanston, Ill.) III. Title. IV. Title: Handbook of surgical procedures.
V. Series: Vademecum.
[DNLM: 1. Surgical Procedures, Operative--methods--Handbooks. WO 39]
RD37.B45 2011
617'.91--dc22
2010053771
While the authors, editors, sponsor and publisher believe that drug selection and dosage and
the specifications and usage of equipment and devices, as set forth in this book, are in accord
with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication, they make no warranty,
expressed or implied, with respect to material described in this book. In view of the ongoing
research, equipment development, changes in governmental regulations and the rapid accumula-
tion of information relating to the biomedical sciences, the reader is urged to carefully review and
evaluate the information provided herein.
Dedications
To my wife, Cindy, and my three sons, who have been supportive of my
academic career throughout our lives. Also, to the many surgical trainees who
have enriched my life by allowing me to share my joy of operating and the
teaching of surgical techniques.
—N.J.S.
To all my colleagues that appear on these pages, and to those that do not,
who have advanced the field of operative surgery, making it a more perfect
therapy for those that count on our skills to enhance their well being; and
above all, to Katina.
—D.B.K.
Contents
Foreword .......................................................................................................xiii
STOP! Before You Start: Optimizing Operative Care
of the Surgical Patient ...................................................................................xv
Section 1: Gastrointestinal .................................................... 1
1. Exploratory Laparotomy: Open.................................................................. 2
2. Inguinal Hernia Repair with Mesh: Open ................................................ 6
3. Inguinal Hernia Laparoscopic Repair:
Extraperitoneal Approach ............................................................................ 8
4. Ventral Hernia Repair: Open.....................................................................12
5. Ventral Hernia Repair: Laparoscopic .......................................................14
6. Cholecystectomy with Cholangiography: Open...................................17
7. Cholecystectomy with Cholangiogram: Laparoscopic ........................20
8. Common Bile Duct Exploration: Open..................................................24
9. Common Bile Duct Exploration: Laparoscopic ....................................26
10. Repair Common Bile Duct Injury: Open ...............................................29
11. Hepaticojejunostomy: Roux-en-Y.............................................................33
12. Pancreatic Cystogastrostomy .....................................................................37
13. Pancreatic Necrosis: Debridement............................................................39
14. Transduodenal Sphincteroplasty ...............................................................42
15. Longitudinal Pancreaticojejunostomy: Puestow Procedure ...............45
16. Duodenum-Preserving Subtotal Pancreatic Head Resection:
Frey Procedure...............................................................................................48
17. Distal Pancreatectomy and Splenectomy ................................................52
18. Pancreaticoduodenectomy: Whipple Procedure ...................................54
19. Splenectomy: Open .....................................................................................58
20. Splenectomy: Laparoscopic ........................................................................61
21. Splenorrhaphy: Open ..................................................................................64
22. Antireflux Procedure: Laparoscopic (Nissen) ........................................68
23. Repair of Paraesophageal Hernia: Open .................................................70
24. Repair of Paraesophageal Hernia: Laparoscopic ...................................73
25. Thoracic Esophageal Perforation Repair .................................................76
26. Heller Myotomy: Laparoscopic .................................................................79
27. Esophageal Diverticulectomy: Zenker’s ..................................................82
28. Gastrostomy: Open......................................................................................85
29. Gastrectomy: Subtotal or Partial...............................................................88
30. Gastrectomy: Total.......................................................................................91
31. Perforated Duodenal Ulcer Repair: Omental Patch .............................95
32. Truncal Vagotomy and Pyloroplasty ........................................................96
33. Gastric Bypass: Roux-en-Y: Open .............................................................98
34. Gastric Bypass: Roux-en-Y: Laparoscopic .............................................100
35. Laparoscopic Gastric Banding for Obesity ...........................................104
36. Small Bowel Resection and Anastomosis (Enterectomy): Open .....106
37. Enterolysis for Small Bowel Obstruction: Open .................................109
38. Ileostomy: Open Loop ..............................................................................111
39. Open Feeding Jejunostomy ......................................................................113
40. Appendectomy: Open ...............................................................................115
41. Appendectomy: Laparoscopic .................................................................117
42. Hemicolectomy (Right): Open ...............................................................119
43. Hemicolectomy (Right): Laparoscopic .................................................122
44. Sigmoid Colectomy: Open ......................................................................125
45. Sigmoid Colectomy: Laparoscopic.........................................................127
46. Colostomy: Transverse Loop ...................................................................130
47. Colostomy: End Sigmoid with Hartmann’s Procedure ......................133
48. Colostomy Closure ....................................................................................136
49. Laparoscopic Rectopexy ...........................................................................138
50. (Sub-) Total Colectomy with Ileorectal Anastomosis ........................139
51. Proctocolectomy with Ileal Pouch: Anal Anastomosis ......................142
52. Proctocolectomy: Total with Ileostomy ................................................146
53. Internal Hemorrhoids: Band Ligation ...................................................149
54. Anal Fissure: Lateral Internal Sphincterotomy ....................................151
55. Anorectal Abscess: Drainage Procedure ................................................153
56. Anal Fistulotomy ........................................................................................155
57. Breast Duct Excision..................................................................................158
58. Pilonidal Cystectomy.................................................................................160
59. Major Hepatic Laceration: Open Repair ..............................................162
Section 2: Endocrine ......................................................... 167
60. Adrenalectomy: Laparoscopic .................................................................168
61. Enucleation of Insulinoma .......................................................................172
62. Parathyroidectomy: Four Gland Exploration.......................................175
63. Focused Parathyroidectomy for Primary Hyperparathyroidism ......179
64. Thyroidectomy ............................................................................................181
65. Functional Neck Dissection for Thyroid Cancer.................................185
Section 3: Surgical Oncology ............................................ 189
66. Transanal Excision of Rectal Tumor.......................................................190
67. Abdominoperineal Resection ..................................................................192
68. Right Hepatic Lobectomy ........................................................................195
69. Axillary Lymphadenectomy .....................................................................198
70. Inguinal Lymphadenectomy ....................................................................201
71. Breast Biopsy after Needle Localization ................................................204
72. Lymphatic Mapping and Sentinel Node Biopsy ..................................206
73. Partial Mastectomy and Axillary Dissection ........................................209
74. Modified Radical Mastectomy ................................................................212
75. Simple Mastectomy ....................................................................................215
76. Major Excision and Repair/Graft for Skin Neoplasms ......................217
77. Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy for Melanoma .......................................220
78. Radical Excision of Soft Tissue Tumor (Sarcoma) ..............................223
Section 4: Plastic Surgery .................................................. 227
79. Burn Debridement and/or Grafting .......................................................228
80. Split-Thickness Skin Grafts.......................................................................230
81. Debride/Suture Major Peripheral Wounds...........................................232
82. Repairing Minor Wounds .........................................................................234
83. Removal of Moles and Small Skin Tumors ...........................................236
84. Removal of Subcutaneous Small Tumors, Cysts
and Foreign Bodies .....................................................................................238
Section 5: Cardiothoracic Surgery..................................... 241
85. Esophagectomy: Ivor-Lewis .....................................................................242
86. Esophagectomy: Left Transthoracic .......................................................249
87. Esophagectomy: Transhiatal ....................................................................254
88. Mediastinoscopy: Cervical .......................................................................261
89. Lung Biopsy: Thoracoscopic ....................................................................264
90. Pulmonary Lobectomy: Open.................................................................268
91. Pneumonectomy .........................................................................................272
92. Pleurodesis: Thoracoscopic ......................................................................275
93. Tracheostomy ..............................................................................................277
94. Cricothyrotomy ..........................................................................................281
95. Median Sternotomy and Cardiopulmonary Bypass ............................283
Section 6: Transplantation ................................................ 289
96. Arteriovenous Graft (AVG) .....................................................................290
97. Primary Radial Artery-Cephalic Vein Fistula
for Hemodialysis Access............................................................................293
98. Laparoscopic Donor Nephrectomy ........................................................296
99. Kidney Transplantation ............................................................................299
100. Distal Splenorenal (Warren) Shunt ........................................................302
101. H-Interposition Mesocaval Shunt...........................................................305
102. Portacaval Shunts........................................................................................308
103. Liver Transplantation ................................................................................312
104. Pancreas Transplantation ..........................................................................318
Section 7: Vascular Surgery ............................................... 323
105. Carotid Endarterectomy ...........................................................................324
106. Repair Infrarenal Aortic Aneurysm: Elective .......................................327
107. Repair Infrarenal Aortic Aneurysm: Emergent for Rupture .............330
108. Endovascular Repair of Infrarenal Aortic Aneurysm .........................333
109. Aortofemoral Bypass for Obstructive Disease .....................................336
110. Axillofemoral Bypass .................................................................................338
111. Femorofemoral Bypass ..............................................................................344
112. Femoral-Popliteal Bypass with a Vein or Prosthetic Graft .................348
113. Composite Sequential Bypass ..................................................................351
114. Infrapopliteal Bypass: Vein or Prosthetic ..............................................353
115. Lower Extremity Thrombectomy/Embolectomy ................................356
116. Repair Popliteal Aneurysm: Emergent (Thrombosed) ......................358
117. Exploration for Postoperative Thrombosis ...........................................360
118. Fasciotomy: Lower Extremity ..................................................................362
119. Toe Amputation..........................................................................................364
120. Transmetatarsal Amputation ...................................................................366
121. Below Knee Amputation (BKA).............................................................369
122. Above Knee Amputation (AKA) ............................................................372
123. Varicose Veins ..............................................................................................374
Section 8: Pediatric Surgery .............................................. 377
124. Pediatric (Indirect or Congenital) Inguinal Hernia ...........................378
125. Hypertrophic Pyloric Stenosis .................................................................380
126. Operation for Malrotation .......................................................................382
127. Intussusception Reduction: Laparoscopic and Open .........................385
Editors
Indications
Open exploratory laparotomy is indicated where a surgically correctable problem
may exist in the abdomen. The most common indications for open exploratory lapa-
rotomy include conditions of acute intra-abdominal infection and acute traumatic
injuries. Open exploration is particularly useful when questions arise concerning
the integrity or the condition of the bowel. Whereas CT can provide very accurate
anatomic information regarding retroperitoneal and solid organ structures, it is much
less reliable for evaluation of the bowel. Diagnostic laparoscopy may be considered
because it is less invasive; however, it also has lower diagnostic accuracy for evaluating
the intestine. An advantage of open laparotomy is the ability to address the primary
problem, whatever it might be.
Preop
Prior to exploratory laparotomy the patient should have appropriate venous
access and should (if possible) be well-resuscitated. It is advantageous to place a
Foley catheter prior to abdominal exploration. When performing exploratory lapa-
rotomy for blunt trauma have adequate operative suction (two suctions), lighting,
and carefully position the patient such that the chest and/or mediastinum can be
accessed intraoperatively. Antibiotic prophylaxis should be instituted prior to the
incision. Choice of agent should be based on the pathogens likely to be encountered.
Second-generation cephalosporins or other agents that cover aerobic and anaerobic
enteric pathogens are frequently used. General endotracheal anesthesia is required,
along with good muscle relaxation.
Procedure
Step 1. The patient is placed in the supine position. A midline abdominal incision
is made from the xiphoid to the pubis. When rapid abdominal access is required in
traumatic situations, the incision can be made most rapidly with 2-3 scalpel passes.
The first pass cuts through the subcutaneous tissue down to the level of the fascia. A
second pass of the scalpel can be used to incise the fascia in the midline. The perito-
neum can then be entered using a scissors. It is best to complete the fascial incision
prior to incising the peritoneal cavity as any tamponade-effect will be released once
the peritoneal cavity is entered.
Step 2. On entering the abdominal cavity, pay attention to where bleeding or
contamination appears to be arising. It is best not to be distracted by bowel injury/
contamination in the setting of massive hemoperitoneum. The peritoneal cavity is
packed with laparotomy pads in the four quadrants of the abdomen, but packing
should be done first in the quadrant that is most likely to be the source of the bleeding.
Bowel injuries with ongoing enteric leakage can be controlled with temporary mass
ligatures or application of noncrushing clamps.
Step 3. If there is massive bleeding, temporary control of hemorrhage can be
obtained with compression of the aorta at the diaphragmatic hiatus. This can be
performed using digital pressure, pressure from a Richardson retractor (back of one
blade), or with an aortic occluder.
Step 4. Once hemorrhage is stabilized, the surgeon should explore the four corners
of the abdomen while removing the temporary packs (if applicable). It is important
to utilize a systematic approach to ensure that all intra-abdominal structures are
visualized. Particular care should be taken to ensure that relatively inaccessible areas
(diaphragm, lesser sac, pelvis) are carefully evaluated. Warm saline irrigation of the
relevant quadrant should be performed while the exposure is optimized.
Step 5. Exploration is begun in the left upper quadrant. It is important to visual-
ize the diaphragm, spleen, stomach, and gastroesophogeal junction. Appropriate
control measures or repacking should be instituted as applicable if specific injuries
are identified.
Step 6. Attention is next directed to the right upper quadrant, taking care to visual-
ize the diaphragm, the diaphragmatic surface of the liver, the integrity and condition
of the gallbladder, the lateral aspect of the liver, and the undersurface of the liver.
4 Northwestern Handbook of Surgical Procedures
Step 7. The right lower quadrant of the abdomen is visualized next, paying particu-
lar attention for the presence of any bowel or bladder perforation or retroperitoneal
hematoma in the area of the iliac vessels.
Step 8. In examining the left lower quadrant, attention is directed to assessing
the integrity and condition of the sigmoid colon and looking for evidence of retro-
peritoneal injury.
1 Step 9. The integrity of the small bowel is next determined by “running” the
small bowel from the ligament of Treitz to the ileocecal valve. The surgeon should
make a mental note as to whether there is any evidence of a central retroperitoneal
hematoma. Both sides of the small bowel should be examined. The mesentery is
inspected simultaneously.
Step 10. The colon is inspected beginning at the cecum with evaluation of the
appendix and periappendiceal structures. Inspection continues by examining the
cecum and continuing up the right colon carefully examining the hepatic flexure.
Examination continues by assessing the transverse colon with the omentum reflected
cephalad. Complete evaluation of the splenic flexure may require division of the
splenocolic ligament. Evaluation continues by inspecting the left colon and sigmoid
colon. Complete evaluation of the right, left, or sigmoid colon may require mobiliza-
tion of these structures by division of the lateral peritoneal attachments (white line
of Toldt) and medial reflection.
Step 11. The anterior surface of the stomach and duodenum should be examined
next. In the process, the surgeon should pay particular attention to whether there
is any evidence of blood or inflammation in the lesser sac by closely examining the
lesser omentum.
Step 12. The pancreas and lesser sac are evaluated next by entering the lesser sac.
This is accomplished by making an incision on the undersurface of the omentum just
cephalad to the transverse colon. This is most easily accomplished to the left side of
the midline. Both the anterior surface of the pancreas as well as the posterior aspect
of the stomach can be inspected through this incision.
Step 13. If duodenal injury is suspected the duodenum can be mobilized by
performing a Kocher maneuver (lateral incision of retroperitoneum and medial
reflection of the duodenum). This also allows visualization of the right renal vein
and inferior vena cava. The third portion of the duodenum can be visualized by
performing a Cattel maneuver (division of the lateral attachment of the cecum and
medio-cephalad cecal reflection).
Step 14. If bowel or solid organ injuries are identified they should be addressed
prior to closure.
Step 15. At the completion of the procedure the abdomen should be irrigated
with warm saline solution (antibiotics are not required in this fluid).
Step 16. The fascia is closed with running 0-monofilament sutures beginning at
the superior and inferior aspects of the incision and meeting in the middle. This skin
is either closed or left open as dictated by the intraoperative findings.
Postop
Careful postoperative management and evaluation of the fluid balance should
be performed. In instances of trauma or infection that require significant resuscita-
tion, abdominal compartment syndrome can occur with severe hemodynamic and
metabolic consequences. The surgical incision should be examined on a daily basis
and opened if there is evidence of infection present.
Gastrointestinal—Exploratory Laparotomy: Open 5
Complications
The most common complication of laparotomy is wound infection. Inadequate
exploration can result in missed injuries. Wound dehiscence can also occur. Hypo-
thermic coagulopathy can complicate prolonged exploratory laparotomy in many
patients. Abdominal compartment syndrome can occur.
Follow-Up 1
The patient should be followed until wounds are healed. Long-term follow-up
depends on the nature of the underlying disease/injury.
Acknowledgment
The editors and author wish to acknowledge Michael A. West for contributing
to the previous version of this chapter.
Chapter 2
Preop
General, spinal, epidural, or monitored local anesthesia with sedation may be
chosen as anesthetic techniques, and the choice should be discussed with the patient.
Intravenous prophylactic antibiotic is given 30 minutes prior to the skin incision.
Deep vein thrombosis prophylaxis should be used in patients with risk factors for
thromboembolism.
Procedure
Step 1. The patient is placed in the supine position. An oblique incision over
the inguinal canal is made, using the pubic tubercle as a guide for the medial end
of the incision.
Step 2. After opening the external oblique fascia, the ilioinguinal nerve is identi-
fied and preserved.
Step 3. Blunt or sharp dissection and a finger are used to surround and isolate
the spermatic cord at the pubic tubercle. A Penrose drain is placed around the cord.
During this dissection, the genitofemoral nerve should be identified and protected.
Step 4. The hernia sac is identified and separated completely from cord structures
back to the level of the internal inguinal ring. In the case of a direct inguinal hernia,
the internal ring should be examined to exclude the possibility of an additional
indirect sac.
Step 5. For an indirect hernia, the sac is ordinarily treated by high ligation and
excision of the sac or inversion into the internal inguinal ring. If the hernia is a slid-
ing hernia, the sac can be inverted back into the internal ring. For direct hernias, the
sac is inverted into the fascial defect. If desired, a mesh plug can be used to maintain
reduction of the sac by placing it over the sac and securing it to the circumference
of the defect
Step 6. Place an onlay patch of mesh over the inguinal canal. The spermatic cord is
brought through a “key hole.” The mesh should be secured with sutures or staples me-
dially at the pubic tubercle, laterally into muscle beyond the external ring, superiorly
to the conjoint tendon, and inferiorly to the shelving edge of the inguinal ligament.
Step 7. The external oblique fascia is closed, taking care not to make the external
ring too tight, which can cause venous outflow obstruction from the testicle. The
skin is closed with subcuticular suture.
Postop
Patients can be discharged within a few hours after surgery if stable. Normal
activities can generally resume in 2-4 weeks, although strenuous activity and heavy
lifting are generally avoided for about 4-6 weeks.
Complications
Injury to the ilioinguinal nerve or genitofemoral nerve can result in chronic groin
pain. Hematoma or seroma may occur. Infections may occur in the wound. If the
mesh becomes exposed or infected, it may need to be removed. Mesh can migrate or
erode. Recurrence occurs in 1-2% of patients operated for the first time.
Follow-Up
Patients may be seen periodically until they return to full activity.
Acknowledgment
The editors and author wish to acknowledge Ermilo Barrera, Jr. for contributing
to the previous version of this chapter.
Chapter 3
Indications
Laparoscopic inguinal hernia repair is particularly indicated for recurrent or bi-
lateral hernias. Its role in the management of first-time unilateral hernias is debatable.
Preop
Preoperative prophylactic antibiotic should be given intravenously 30 minutes
prior to skin incision.
Procedure
Step 1. The patient is placed in the supine position with arms tucked at the sides.
A Foley catheter is inserted into the bladder. The surgeon stands on the side opposite
the hernia. Monitor(s) are placed at the foot of the table. The skin incision is placed
just inferior to the umbilicus and dissection is carried down to the rectus sheath.
Step 2. A small incision is made in the anterior rectus sheath.
Step 3. The rectus abdominis muscle is bluntly dissected to expose the posterior
rectus sheath.
Step 4. Blunt dissection is done to develop the space between the back side of the rectus
muscle and the peritoneum. A finger or small retractor works well for this.
Step 5. A balloon dissector is then placed into the preperitoneal space and
carefully advanced inferiorly to the level of the symphysis pubis. The balloon
is inflated under direct vision of the laparoscope, creating a working area in the
preperitoneal space.
Step 6. The balloon is removed and a 10 mm or 12 mm blunt trocar is placed into
the preperitoneal space and secured. The preperitoneal space is insufflated with CO2.
Step 7. A 30˚ laparoscope is placed into the preperitoneal space.
Step 8. Additional ports are placed. A combination of 2 mm and 5 mm ports can
be use in a variety of configurations. The ports should be placed under direct vision,
taking care to avoid puncturing the thin peritoneum.
Step 9. The preperitoneal space is bluntly dissected, reducing indirect, direct, or
femoral hernias back into the peritoneal cavity.
Step 10. Very large indirect hernia sacs can be divided and the proximal end
secured with a ligature, leaving the distal portion of the sac open and in situ. Care is
taken to preserve all spermatic cord structures in men.
Step 11. A large piece of mesh is then placed into the preperitoneal space and
oriented to cover the direct, indirect, and femoral spaces.
Step 12. The mesh is secured with a tacking or stapling device to prevent mesh
migration. The number of tacks required is variable, but this is done in such a man-
ner as to avoid injuring or incorporating the ilioinguinal, iliohypogastric, lateral
femorocutaneous, or genitofemoral nerves as well as any vascular or cord structures.
Step 13. After the mesh is placed and secured, the preperitoneum is desufflated un-
der direct vision to ensure that the mesh remains flat and in the appropriate position.
Step 14. The skin incisions are closed with subcuticular sutures.
Postop
Postoperative manangement is similar to that of open hernia repair. The Foley
catheter is removed before the patient leaves the operating room. Patients are dis-
charged home when they can tolerate oral intake and void.
10 Northwestern Handbook of Surgical Procedures
Complications
A number of injuries are possible during laparoscopic preperitoneal hernia repair.
These include nerve injury, vascular injury, bladder injury, colon or small bowel
injury, testicular devascularization, and vas deferens injury. Urinary retention and/or
infection may occur.
Seromas or hematomas may form in the dissected preperitoneal space. Pubic/
pelvic osteitis may occur.
Wound infections are relatively rare. Mesh complications include infection,
migration, and erosion. Finally, there is about a 2-5% chance of hernia recurrence.
Gastrointestinal—Inguinal Hernia Laparoscopic Repair: Extraperitoneal 11
Follow-Up
Patients are followed in the office approximately 2 weeks after their operation.
Patients are instructed to avoid heavy lifting and straining for approximately 4-6
weeks after the operation.
Chapter 4
Indications
4 In general, ventral hernias should be repaired in patients who are good opera-
tive risks to avoid the possibility of strangulation. Repair is definitely indicated
in the presence of symptoms (pain, nausea, vomiting, etc.) or if the hernia cannot
be reduced.
Preop
Patients should be given a preoperative systemic antibiotic for wound infection
prophylaxis 30 minutes before operation. In cases where there is likely to be colon
in the hernia sac or adhesions to the colon, a mechanical and pharmacologic bowel
prep is indicated. Patients should be treated with sequential compression devices or
subcutaneous heparin according to their preoperative risk factors for thromboem-
bolism. Most procedures should be done under general anesthesia.
Procedure
Step 1. A skin incision should be made that will expose the full length of the
hernia defect. In cases where a hernia has occurred in a portion of a previous incision,
it is important to have adequate exposure to examine the remainder of the previous
incision for possible defects.
Step 2. The subcutaneous tissue is dissected down to the hernia sac, at which
point subutaneous flaps are raised all around the hernia until normal fascia can be
identified on all sides of the hernia. The peritoneal sac is then opened. Often, there
is redundant peritoneum that can be excised back to expose the fascial edges of the
defect. It is critical to definitively identify fascia at all margins of the defect.
Step 3. An assessment is made of the amount of tension that would be created
with a primary repair of the defect. In general, defects more than 2-3 cm in diameter
will not be amenable to primary closure.
Step 4. If primary closure is entertained, relaxation incisions can be made in
the anterior rectus sheath or other anterior layers of abdominal fascia to decrease
closure tension.
Step 5. Primary closure can be performed with direct approximation or a
pants-over-vest method.
Step 6. If mesh is to be placed, the mesh should be cut in the shape of the defect
but about 2-3 cm larger in all dimensions. The mesh is sewn to the underside of the
fascial edges of the defect using interrupted vertical mattress sutures of a monofila-
ment suture. It is critical that mesh is secured to overlying fascia and that there is
sufficient overlap of mesh over the edges of the fascial defect.
Step 7. If the subcutaneous fat can be closed over the repair without tension, this
should be done with absorbable sutures. Often, this is not possible, If there will be a
subcutaneous cavity over the repair, it is best to place a closed suction drain over the
repair and bring it out through a separate stab wound in the skin.
Step 8. The skin is closed with staples or suture.
Postop
If an extensive lysis of adhesions has been performed, it may be appropriate to
leave a nasogastric tube in place until bowel activity has returned. Ordinarily, how-
ever, early feeding can be initiated. The patient should be able to ambulate on the
day following surgery in most cases.
4
Complications
The most important early complication of ventral hernia repair is wound infec-
tion, which can present a major problem if mesh is exposed or involved. The most
significant late complication is hernia recurrence.
Follow-Up
The patient should be followed until healing is complete and normal activity
resumed. The patient should be instructed about the risk and signs of recurrence
and asked to return as needed should symptoms develop.
Acknowledgment
The editors and author wish to acknowledge John J. Coyle for contributing to
the previous version of this chapter.
Chapter 5
Indications
In general, ventral hernias should be repaired in patients who are good opera-
5 tive risks to avoid the possibility of strangulation. Repair is definitely indicated in
the presence of symptoms (pain, nausea, vomiting, etc.) or if the hernia cannot be
reduced.
Preop
The alternative of open ventral hernia repair should be discussed with the patient.
If the patient chooses laparoscopic surgery, a careful review of previous operations
and examination of the abdomen is carried out to help plan potential access sites.
On the day of surgery, patients should be given a preoperative systemic antibiotic
for wound infection prophylaxis 30 minutes before operation. In cases where there
is likely to be colon in the hernia sac or adhesions to the colon, a mechanical and
pharmacologic bowel prep prior to surgery is indicated. Patients should be treated
with sequential compression devices or subcutaneous heparin according to their
preoperative risk factors for thromboembolism. A Foley catheter and nasogastric
tube are placed immediately after the induction of anesthesia.
Procedure
Step 1. The entire abdomen is prepped and draped in sterile fashion. A sterile
plastic barrier is utilized to avoid contact of the prosthetic material with exposed
skin.
Step 2. Access is first obtained away from prior surgical sites, on the side opposite
previously dissected areas. For example, if a patient has had a low anterior resection
and has an incisional hernia, access should first be obtained on the right side of the
abdomen to avoid placement of the initial operating port through adhesions.
Either a Veress needle or open technique can be used for initial access to the
peritoneal cavity. Veress needle access can be difficult away from the midline. If Veress
needle access is initially unsuccessful, the surgeon should have a low threshold for
converting to an open access technique (e.g., Hasson cannula).
Step 3. An angled laparoscope is used to permit the surgeon to see around the
edges of adhesions. The abdomen is explored and adhesions are assessed. Sites are
selected for subsequent port placement. In general, two ports are placed on the same
side as the first trocar, and at least one other port is placed on the contralateral side
to facilitate the later securing of the mesh.
Step 4. Adhesions are divided using either sharp dissection with electrosurgical
cautery (staying away from bowel) or ultrasonic shears. Traction is the key to facili-
tate division of adhesions, and using two hands to dissect helps in manipulation of
bowel and tissues. Occasionally, initial adhesiolysis must be done through one port
to “clear” space for placement of subsequent ports. Special care must be taken to
avoid injury to bowel.
Step 5. Once all hernia contents have been reduced and the edges of the defect
are well-exposed, the defect is transilluminated from the abdomen and the defect
margins are marked with a pen on the plastic barrier drape.
Step 6. An appropriately sized piece of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) mesh
is selected. It must overlap the edges of the defect by at least 2-3 cm circumferen-
tially when the abdomen is insufflated. When the mesh is laid on the plastic barrier 5
drape (“nonadhesion-forming” side of the mesh against the plastic barrier drape),
the previously made ink marks identifying the defect edges are transferred to the
prosthetic material. This aids in trimming of the mesh to 2-3 cm beyond the edges
of the defect.
Step 7. At least four, but preferably six or eight, nonabsorbable stay sutures are
placed circumferentially around the edges of the mesh, spaced equidistantly. The
sites of suture placement are marked on the abdominal wall for future passage of
the sutures.
Step 8. The mesh with the sutures is passed through the largest port (generally
a 12 mm port except for the smallest mesh which can be placed through a 10 mm
port) by rolling the mesh as tightly as possible.
Step 9. The mesh is oriented properly and unfurled in this orientation.
Step 10. The suture passer (disposable or reusable) is passed through the previ-
ously marked skin sites and each of the suture ends is grasped. For each suture site,
the suture passer must be passed twice through the same skin puncture, but different
fascial sites (1 cm apart) so that the suture ends can be tied external to the fascia.
Step 11. Once this is completed, the mesh is secured circumferentially using a
laparoscopic tacking device. Tacks are placed 1-1.5 cm apart. Special care should be
taken to avoid plication of the mesh.
Step 12. The abdomen is inspected for hemostasis and any bowel that was dis-
sected is examined for leakage or injury. If there are no problems, all ports are removed
under direct visualization to assure that there is no port site bleeding.
Step 13. The fascia is closed at port sites larger than 5 mm. Skin is closed at all port
sites with absorbable subcuticular suture and/or sterile tapes. Drains are not used.
Postop
In general, pain is fairly significant in the first 24-48 hours and ileus is not uncom-
mon. Patients are generally hospitalized for one or two nights. Seroma formation in
the previous hernia soft tissue defect is common. While this can be alarming to the
patient, nothing should be done unless the seroma is symptomatic or signs of infection
appear. In general, seromas and hematomas will resolve in 3-4 weeks. If drainage is
required, this can be done percutaneously, but should be avoided if possible. Vigor-
ous physical activity should be limited for 2 weeks while tissue ingrowth occurs, but
there is no limitation necessary thereafter.
16 Northwestern Handbook of Surgical Procedures
Complications
Occult bowel injury is a serious potential complication. Patients who do not
seem to be recovering appropriately within 24-48 hours or who demonstrate signs
of peritonitis (fever, elevated white blood cell count) should have an abdominal CT
scan and possible urgent return to surgery.
Follow-Up
The patient should be followed until healing is complete and normal activity
resumed. The patient should be instructed about the risk and signs of recurrence
and asked to return as needed should symptoms develop.
5 Acknowledgment
The editors and author wish to acknowledge Kenric M. Murayama for contribut-
ing to the previous version of this chapter.
Chapter 6
Indications
The indications for open cholecystectomy are the same as for laparoscopic
cholecystectomy AND inability to perform laparoscopic cholecystectomy (which,
in general, is the procedure of choice). Indications for cholecystectomy include
symptomatic cholelithiasis (acute or chronic cholecystitis), gallstone pancreatitis, 6
acalculous cholecystitis, or choledocholithiasis.
Preop
Antibiotics are administered in cases of acute disease, choledocholithiasis, or
age >65 years.
Procedure
Step 1. A right subcostal incision is performed.
Step 2. The costal margin is retracted cephalad; the hepatic flexure of the colon
and the duodenum are retracted inferiorly.
Step 3. Grasping the fundus of the gallbladder with a clamp, it is lifted anteriorly
and away from the liver.
Step 4. The peritoneum overlying the gallbladder is incised with cautery within
a few millimeters of the liver.
Step 5. Progressively retracting it away from the liver, the gallbladder is dissected
from Glisson’s capsule in the gallbladder fossa, moving downward towards the porta
hepatis. It is important to dissect close to the wall of the gallbladder.
Step 6. The cystic artery and cystic duct are identified.
Step 7. The cystic duct is dissected down to its junction with the common duct.
Step 8. The common duct immediately proximal and distal to the entrance of the
cystic duct is identified to verify anatomy.
Steps 9-15. describe intraoperative cholangiography, which may be performed
in selected cases. Indications for cholangiography generally include: elevated liver
enzymes, stone in common bile duct either documented preoperatively or discovered
by palpation intraoperatively, dilated common bile duct, recent gallstone pancreatitis,
or difficulty dissecting or identifying biliary anatomy.
Step 9. To prepare for cholangiography, a ligature is placed proximally at the
junction of the cystic duct and gallbladder.
Step 10. A small opening is made in the cystic duct and a cholangiocatheter (4-5
F) is passed into the duct for about 1-2 cm.
Step 11. The catheter is secured with a ligature or clip. Two 30 ml syringes are attached
to the catheter with a three-way stopcock and extension tubing. One is filled with saline,
the other with contrast diluted 50%. Saline is injected to confirm there are no leaks at
the site of catheter entrance into the cystic duct. It should be possible to aspirate
bile if the catheter is properly positioned. Before injecting dye, air bubbles should
be eliminated from the catheter and tubing.
Step 12. The patient is then placed in the Trendelenburg position and tilted to
the right (to bring the common duct “off ” the spinal column).
Step 13. Contrast is injected under fluoroscopic guidance.
Step 14. Easy flow of contrast distally into the duodenum and proximally into
the right and left biliary radicals along with absence of filling defects constitutes a
normal exam.
Step 15. The catheter is withdrawn and the cystic duct is ligated distal to the
catheter entrance site. The cystic duct may then be transected.
Step 16. The cystic artery is ligated with nonabsorbable suture and transected
between ligatures. The gallbladder is removed.
Step 17. The abdominal wall is closed in layers.
Postop
Diet may usually be instituted within 24 hours. Parenteral narcotics for pain are
switched to oral prior to discharge.
Complications
Major complications include injury to the common bile duct and bile leak from
the cystic duct stump; other surgical complications include wound infection and
postoperative bleeding.
Follow-Up
Patients should be seen at 1-2 weeks and again at approximately 6 weeks. Most
patients experience excellent relief of pain; 5% of patients will continue to have
discomfort as they experienced preoperatively (postcholecystectomy syndrome).
Gastrointestinal—Cholecystectomy with Cholangiography: Open 19
Indications
The indications for laparoscopic cholecystectomy include symptomatic gallstone
disease (chronic cholecystitis or acute cholecystitis) or acute acalculous cholecysti-
7 tis. Cholangiography may be done in selective cases. In general, the indications for
cholangiography include choledocholithiasis, dilated common bile duct, recent
gallstone pancreatitis without preoperative ERCP, or confusion about the anatomical
orientation intraoperatively.
Preop
A first- or second-generation cephalosporin or an antibiotic of equivalent cover-
age is given 30 minutes prior to surgery. An orogastric tube is placed to decompress
the stomach.
Procedure
Step 1. The entire abdomen is prepped and draped in standard sterile fashion.
Access is gained at the umbilicus by either the Veress needle technique (closed tech-
nique) or open technique. We prefer the Hasson technique, using a 10 mm port.
Step 2. A 5- or 10-mm angled (usually, 30˚) laparoscope is inserted and an ex-
ploratory laparoscopy is performed.
Step 3. The patient is placed in reverse Trendelenburg position and the other
trocars are placed under direct visualization. A 10 mm trocar is placed in the subxi-
phoid epigastric region; a 5 mm trocar is placed in the right subcostal, midclavicular
line; and a 5 mm trocar is placed in the right subcostal, anterior axillary line location.
Step 4. If the patient has had acute cholecystitis, there may be adhesions to the
gallbladder. These adhesions can usually be swept away bluntly. The duodenum and/
or colon may be adherent to the surface of the gallbladder. Therefore, while electro-
surgical cautery can generally be used to facilitate the dissection of adhesions, cautery
should be avoided if the duodenum or hepatic flexure of the colon is in proximity.
Step 5. The fundus of the gallbladder is grasped with an instrument placed through
the right anterior axillary line port, and the tip of the gallbladder is retracted cephalad.
The infundibulum of the gallbladder is retracted caudad and to the patient’s right with
a second grasper that is placed through the midclavicular port.
Step 6. A Maryland dissector placed through the epigastric port is used to clear
the peritoneum over the infundibulum and hepatocystic triangle. The L-hook cautery
also works well to dissect the neck of the gallbladder away from its bed. Dissection is
undertaken both from the medial aspect, as well as from the lateral aspect while utilizing
countertraction on the infundibulum using a grasper manipulated with the surgeon’s left
hand. Using this technique, the lower part of the gallbladder is dissected away from the
liver and a ‘window’, through which can be seen the liver, is created. There should be two,
and only two, structures crossing this window; the cystic duct and cystic artery. This is the
‘critical view of safety’, which should be displayed prior to cutting or clipping any structures.
Step 7. Prior to dividing the cystic duct, a decision must be made regarding the
need for a cholangiogram. If a cholangiogram is to be performed, a clip is placed
across the cystic duct near the infundibulum. A transverse opening is created in the
cystic duct. A “flash” of bile confirms that the opening is in the cystic duct. A cholan-
giocatheter is placed into the cystic duct and threaded distally toward the common
bile duct. The catheter options include a balloon or straight catheter, and either a
cholangiocatheter clamp or clips can be used to secure the catheter.
Two 30 ml syringes are attached to the catheter with a three-way stopcock and
extension tubing. One is filled with saline, the other with contrast diluted 50%.
Saline is injected to confirm there are no leaks at the site of catheter entrance into
the cystic duct. It should be possible to aspirate bile if the catheter is properly posi-
tioned. Before injecting dye, air bubbles should be aspirated from the catheter and
any extension tubing. Fluoroscopy or multiple static films can be used to verify the
presence or absence of common bile duct stones and to display the biliary anatomy.
If there are no stones, the operation can proceed. If there are common duct stones,
there are four options:
22 Northwestern Handbook of Surgical Procedures
Step 11. The 10 mm incisions are closed at the fascial level. All skin incisions are
closed with absorbable subcuticular sutures.
Additional Steps. Conversion to open should occur if the anatomy is unclear,
there is excessive bleeding, or if a complication such as common duct injury occurs.
If the gallbladder is perforated during dissection, additional care should be taken to
remove all of the spilled stones and clean up any spilled bile.
Postop
Patients are started on clear liquids on the evening of surgery and may have their
diet advance ad libitum. Patients are either sent home the day of surgery or in 23 hours.
Complications
Major complications include bleeding, common duct injury, leakage of bile from
the cystic duct stump, duodenal injury, or other bowel injury.
Follow-Up
The patient should be seen in 1-2 weeks to examine wounds and be seen later
by either the surgeon or referring physician to confirm resolution of preoperative
symptoms.
Acknowledgment
The editors and author wish to acknowledge Kenric M. Murayama for contribut-
ing to the previous version of this chapter.
Chapter 8
Indications
In general, open common duct exploration is indicated when stones are discovered
by cholangiography during open cholecystectomy. It may be indicated when stones
are discovered during laparoscopic cholecystectomy, and the surgeon is not familiar
with the technique of laparoscopic duct exploration. Palpable stones in the common
bile duct at the time of open cholecystectomy are another indication. An alternative
8 therapy for stones in the common bile duct is postoperative endoscopic extraction
via ERCP. Common duct exploration should be strongly considered when stones are
large or multiple or there are anatomic considerations that would make the stones
not amenable to endoscopic extraction.
Preop
Antibiotic prophylaxis is indicated. The early steps of the operation are described
under open cholecystectomy with cholangiography.
Procedure
Step 1. Once the common duct has been identified, its anterior wall should be
exposed for about 2.5-3 cm; care should be taken to avoid dissection along its lateral
walls since that is where its blood supply exists.
Step 2. A #15 blade is used to create a small rent in the anterior wall of the duct,
and Potts scissors are used to enlarge the rent in a longitudinal fashion for about 2
cm; stay sutures are placed on either side of the common bile duct incision to keep
the aperture open.
Step 3. Randall stone forceps are passed distally and then proximally to clear the
duct of stones by directly grasping them.
Step 4. A choledochoscope is useful to identify residual stones and assist in their
extraction.
Step 5. An appropriately sized T-tube is placed into the common duct, and
the common duct closed over the tube with a series of interrupted 4-0 absorbable
sutures.
Step 6. A cholangiogram is performed to ascertain that the duct is clear of
stones.
Step 7. A drain is placed near the common bile duct opening and brought out
through a separate stab incision.
The remainder of the case proceeds as for open cholecystectomy.
Postop
The peritoneal drain can be removed in 24-48 hours if there is no bile leakage.
The T-tube is initially placed to gravity drainage. Before discharge, a cholangiogram
through the tube should be performed. If negative, the tube can be capped and the
patient discharged.
Complications
Complications related to the T-tube are predominantly dislodgement or kink-
ing. Retained stones may be present on follow-up cholangiogram and may require
removal endoscopically or through the T-tube tract.
Follow-Up
About 2 weeks after surgery, the T-tube may be removed.
Chapter 9
Indications
Laparoscopic common bile duct exploration is indicated for the presence of
common bile duct stone(s) during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Usually stones are
detected after an intraoperative cholangiogram (see Chapter 7).
Preop
Preoperative preparation is the same as for laparoscopic cholecystectomy with
cholangiogram. The patient should be on a fluoroscopy-capable operating room
9 table. A choledochoscope should be available. The initial steps of the operation are
described in the chapter on laparoscopic cholecystectomy with cholangiogram. Two
options for laparoscopic common bile duct exploration are possible: transcystic duct
exploration of the common bile duct or choledochotomy (similar to open common
bile duct exploration).
Procedure
Laparoscopic Transcystic Duct Exploration of the Common Bile Duct
Step 1. After the intraoperative cholangiogram reveals presence of common bile
duct stones, transcystic duct exploration can be undertaken via the same hole in the
cystic duct created for the cholangiogram. However, a larger hole with dilation of
the cystic duct may be necessary to remove stones.
Step 2. A balloon catheter setup is utilized to dilate the cystic duct. The cystic
duct should be gradually dilated over a period of 3-5 minutes. The cystic duct should
never be dilated to a diameter larger than the common bile duct. The cystic duct
needs to be dilated so that it is at least as large as the largest stone to be removed.
Step 3. Choledochoscopy can be performed through the cystic duct incision to
visualize and localize the common duct stone(s). A choledochoscope is used that
has a working channel of at least 1.2 mm. Body-temperature saline is used to irrigate
the common bile duct to aid in visualization. If a stone is encountered, it should be
removed before looking for more stones since failure to do so can result in stones
first visualized floating up into the proximal bile ducts in the liver.
Step 4. To remove stones, a straight #4 wire basket (2.4 F) is preferable and
should be threaded through the working channel of the choledochoscope. The wire
basket is passed beyond the stone and opened. The stone is entrapped when the
basket is withdrawn. Once entrapped, the stone should be gently grasped and the
basket pulled snugly up against the end of the choledochoscope. Both the basket and
choledochoscope are withdrawn completely as a unit. This process is repeated until
all stones are completely removed.
Laparoscopic Choledochotomy
This procedure is performed much as an open common duct exploration is
performed. It requires the surgeon to have the capability to perform intracorporeal
suturing and knot-tying. It is best to perform the common duct exploration before
removal of the gallbladder since the clamps on the gallbladder can be used to retract
the liver and to place traction on the common bile duct.
Step 1. Side-by-side stay sutures of 5-0 monofilament are placed about 2 mm apart
in the wall of the common bile duct, just below the cystic duct-common bile duct
junction. A longitudinal choledochotomy approximately 1 cm in length is created
using microdissection laparoscopic shears. Any bile leakage is aspirated.
Step 2. The common bile duct is irrigated with body-temperature sterile saline
to try to “float” any gallstones out via the choledochotomy.
Step 3. The choledochoscope is placed through the choledochotomy, and the
method for stone retrieval/removal is similar to that described above.
Step 4. Once all stones have been removed, a T-tube of appropriate size is fashioned
and passed into the abdominal cavity. The T-tube is placed into the choledochotomy
and the common duct closed around the tube with a series of interrupted 4-0 absorb-
able sutures. In either procedure, a suction drain is placed to monitor for leakage of
bile from the cystic duct closure or the choledochotomy.
28 Northwestern Handbook of Surgical Procedures
Postop
In general, care is similar to that described for laparoscopic cholecystectomy.
The peritoneal drain can be removed in 24-48 hours if there is no evidence of bile
leakage. The T-tube or cystic duct drain is left in place for approximately 2 weeks
before obtaining a tube cholangiogram. If there are no retained stones, the tube can
be removed in the outpatient office.
Complications
Retained common duct stones may require endoscopic removal. Injury to the
common bile duct may occur during common bile duct exploration if it is not care-
fully done. Bile duct stricture can be a long-term complication.
Follow-Up
Patients should be followed short-term at intervals until tubes are removed and
liver function tests are normal. Long-term follow-up is described under laparoscopic
cholecystectomy.
Acknowledgment
The editors and author wish to acknowledge Kenric M. Murayama for contribut-
ing to the previous version of this chapter.
Chapter 10
Indications
Injuries to the common bile duct (CBD) or more proximal branches of the biliary
tract occur most commonly as a consequence of surgical misadventure. The most com-
mon operation associated with biliary tract injury is a laparoscopic cholecystectomy.
The diagnosis is typically made based on clinical findings (jaundice, abnormal liver
function tests, bile leak) and defined by radiologic studies (magnetic resonance chol-
angiopancreatography [MRCP], computerized tomographic (CT) cholangiography,
HIDA scan) and/or endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). Some
simple biliary tract injuries (i.e., cystic duct stump leak) are amenable to repair using
interventional ERCP or percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography (PTC) techniques 10
such as stenting and/or dilatation. Few common bile duct injuries are amenable to
repair using laparoscopic surgical techniques. The indications for open surgical repair
are: injury of the biliary tract with (i) suspicion of a thermal, ischemic or occlusive
injury and (ii) greater than 50% circumferential disruption of the bile duct. Because
the exact etiology of the injury is often not clear after a laparoscopic cholecystectomy
or other surgical procedure, an open surgical exploration and common bile duct repair
is frequently required.
Preop
Patients with suspected biliary tract injury must be assessed for hemodynamic
instability due to sepsis and/or bleeding and resuscitated as needed. In addition to
bile (if available) and blood cultures, CBC, INR, amylase, lipase, liver function tests
(LFTs) should be obtained to support the diagnosis of biliary injury. Broad spectrum
antibiotics with effective biliary penetration should be initiated. Evidence of bile leak
should be sought by evaluating for bile in drains or signs of bile peritonitis and/or
by reviewing imaging studies for intra-abdominal fluid collections consistent with
bile leakage. Biliary imaging studies (MRCP, ERCP, PTC, CT cholangiography) are
required to better define the nature and location of the injury to aid in planning the
necessary intervention(s). Once the diagnosis of a bile leak is confirmed, it must be
determined whether the bile collections have been drained adequately. If not they
need to be adequately drained as soon as possible and contents sent for culture.
Patients with prolonged bile leakage are at risk for malabsorption of fat-soluble
vitamins, and therefore administration of vitamin K should be considered, especially
if the INR is elevated. If surgery is planned, blood products should be made available
for the OR. The patient’s cardiopulmonary status and other risk factors for surgical
procedure should be evaluated as patients with prohibitive co-morbidities may be
best served by nonsurgical strategies.
It is also important to evaluate the hepatic arterial system via a standard angiogram,
magnetic resonance angiogram (MRA) or a CT angiogram (CTA) to determine
whether an associated arterial injury was sustained at the time of the bile duct injury.
This is important as concomitant vascular injuries are not uncommon (10%), and
resultant ischemia may significantly impede healing of any bile duct repair required.
Procedure
Step 1. The patient should be placed in the supine position. Adequate venous
access should be secured, and an NG tube and Foley catheter should be placed to
facilitate management in the perioperative and postoperative periods. The abdomen
should be prepped and draped in a standard fashion.
Step 2. The procedure should be approached either by a right subcostal incision
or by an upper midline incision. Upon entry into the abdominal cavity, adequate
exposure should be obtained using retraction.
Step 3. If the gallbladder has not yet been removed, it should be dissected free
from the liver cautiously using a fundus-to-duct approach. If the cystic duct is
identifiable, it may be useful for obtaining intraopertive cholangiographic studies
10 which may aid in defining the residual biliary tract anatomy, but should otherwise
be ligated and divided.
Step 4. The boundaries of the porta hepatis should be defined between the first
part of the duodenum and the liver. The superficial layer of peritoneum overlying the
porta hepatis should be divided left to right to provide exposure to the underlying
structures. Care should be taken to identify and preserve the hepatic arteries as their
typical orientation may be distorted by previous surgical efforts.
Step 5. The common bile duct should be identified by visual inspection and
dissection using imaging studies as a guide. When identified, the common bile duct
should be encircled carefully so as not to injure surrounding structures or the blood
supply to the common bile duct.
Step 6. The exact location of the biliary tract injury, based on a preoperative
radiologic finding, should be determined intraoperatively. The extent and nature
of the common bile duct injury should be determined based on history, imaging
studies and careful visual inspection of the biliary tree. If the injury is related to a
sharp injury only, the status of the tissue proximal and distal to the injury should
be carefully evaluated to determine if a primary closure is possible. If a thermal,
ischemic, or occlusive injury is identified or suspected, all areas of the biliary tree
believed to be involved in the injury should be resected. If the injury is related to
ligation from a suture or clip, an attempt may be made to remove the clip or the
suture. An extremely high level of suspicion should be held that the bile duct has
been permanently injured at this location. Once the bile duct injury has been defined
and all devitalized tissue has been dissected, a decision will need to be made about
how to repair the bile duct.
Step 7. If a direct duct-to-duct anastomosis can be performed between two healthy
ducts without tension, this method of closure could be considered. A duct-to-duct
biliary anastomosis should be performed via microsurgical techniques, using 5-0 or
6-0 absorbable suture material in interrupted fashion.
Step 8. To prevent bleeding during the performance of anastomosis, the bile duct
arteries should be carefully ligated with fine 6-0 Prolene. These Prolene sutures will
be located at the 3 o’clock and 9 o’clock positions and can be used to align the bile
ducts for anastomosis.
Gastrointestinal—Repair Common Bile Duct Injury: Open 31
Step 9. The first suture of the anastomosis should be performed in the middle of
the back wall with the suture being tied outside of the bile duct. The back wall will
be completed by placing and tying two or three additional, interrupted “back wall”
sutures on either side of the initial stitch, leaving the final sutures placed on either
side long, to function as corner stitches.
Step 10. After completion of back wall stitches, the front wall stitches can be
placed serially and held with rubber-shod forceps to keep them in alignment. After the
interrupted front wall sutures have been placed, they can be tied serially, emphasizing
the precision of their placement.
Step 11. Depending on the nature of the injury, the preference of the surgeon,
and the underlying status of the patient, it may be preferred to place a T-tube in the
common bile duct after completion of the bile duct repair. A T-tube should be placed,
preferably at a site distal to the bile duct repair.
Step 12. A transverse incision for placement of the T-tube is preferred to avoid
narrowing of the bile duct. The T-tube should be fashioned in such a way that the
one arm of the “T”-d portion of the tube is passed proximally across the anastomosis
and the other arm passed distally to the T-tube insertion site to facilitate drainage
of bile during the healing of the bile duct injury. The bile duct should be repaired 10
securely around the T-tube to prevent leakage. This repair should be performed using
interrupted absorbable suture such as Maxon.
Step 13. After securing a T-tube in the bile duct, it should be brought out through
a lateral percutaneous stab incision and secured at the skin level to avoid inadvertent
dislodgement. The T-tube should be left in place for a minimum of 3 weeks, at which
point a T-tube cholangiogram should be performed to confirm healing of the bile
duct repair. The T-tube can be removed safely once a fibrous tract has formed around
the tube thereby preventing leakage of bile from the T-tube insertional site into the
peritoneal cavity.
Step 14. If after removing all devitalized tissue and demonstrating adequate
vascularity of both ends of the bile duct, it appears that an end-to-end anastomosis
cannot be performed safely without tension, a Roux-en-Y choledochojejunostomy
should be performed.
Step 15. This is accomplished by identifying a segment of jejunum immediately
distal to the ligament of Treitz that will reach without tension to the porta hepatis.
The jejunum should be transected at this location and the distal segment of the trans-
action (i.e., Roux loop) brought to the porta. The proximal segment of the jejunal
transaction should be anastomosed end-to-side to a site approximately 40 cm from
the end of the distal segment of the jejunal transaction (i.e., entero-enterostomy).
Step 16. The proximal (i.e., liver side) segment of the biliary tree is then anasto-
mosed end-to-side to the most proximal segment of the Roux loop. A small defect is
created in the serosal surface of the proximal Roux loop. The mucosa is grasped with
small forceps and cauterized to create a small mucosal defect in the same location.
Step 17. The proximal segment of biliary tree is then anastomosed to this trans-
mural defect in the proximal Roux limb, using the same interrupted technique as
described above for a duct-to-duct anastomosis.
Step 18. After completion of the bile duct repair, the abdominal cavity should
be extensively irrigated to remove and dilute any spillage created from opening the
bile duct. It is recommended that a Jackson-Pratt drain should be placed posterior to
the bile duct repair and brought out through a lateral stab wound to facilitate early
diagnosis of a bile leak should one occur.
32 Northwestern Handbook of Surgical Procedures
Step 19. A heavy monofilament suture material is used to close the fascia. The
skin can be closed with subcuticular stitches or staples.
Postop
Postoperatively, patients should be monitored for sepsis and bleeding. LFTs
should be monitored to ensure no injury to the liver, obstruction of the bile duct
repair, or leakage of bile. The JP should be closely inspected for evidence of bile
leaks. Because of manipulation of the common bile duct, amylase and lipase should
also be checked postoperatively. Patients requiring a direct common bile duct repair
will likely be started on clear fluids within 24 hours of their operation and their
diet quickly advanced. Patients who underwent a Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy
will need to be kept NPO for additional days to protect the entero-enterostomy.
Patients should be covered perioperatively with antibiotics, although if concerns
about sepsis are high due to massive spillage or inadequately-drained segments of
the biliary tree, antibiotics may need to be continued for longer periods. Patients
who are at immobile should be administered prophylactic anticoagulation to prevent
DVT and/or should be placed in pneumatic compression devices. Providing the
10 patient is stable, a Foley catheter should be removed at 24 hours of the operation. As
mentioned previously, if a T-tube has been placed a T-tube cholangiogram should
be performed approximately three weeks postoperatively. Based on the findings of
the T-tube cholangiogram, plans can be made to remove the T-tube. If no T-tube is
in place and the LFTs normalize, it may not be necessary to obtain additional imag-
ing of the biliary tree. If there are abnormalities in the LFTs, an ERCP or MRCP is
indicated to better define the anatomy of the biliary tree and intervene if necessary.
Complications
Potential complications specific to bile duct injury are sepsis, bleeding, bile duct
leak, bile duct stricture, bile leak from the T-tube placement site, hepatic artery injury,
portal vein injury and pancreatitis. Patients undergoing surgical repair of a bile duct
injury are at risk of complications associated with any general surgery procedure
including deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolus, pneumonia, wound infection
and complications specific to administration general anesthesia.
Follow-Up
Patients who have undergone a common bile duct repair without a T-tube should
be followed up postoperatively to monitor for wound infection, intra-abdominal
abscess, biliary sepsis, bile leak, pancreatitis, jaundice or persistent LFT abnormalities.
If concerns regarding the status of the biliary tree are prompted by these findings, it
will be necessary to restudy the biliary tree with MRCP or ERCP.
Chapter 11
Hepaticojejunostomy: Roux-en-Y
David Bentrem and Eric Cheon
Indications
Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy is indicated for reconstruction following
resection for carcinoma of the proximal bile duct and hepatic duct bifurcation
(Klatskin’s tumors). When tumors of the distal third of the bile duct or head of the
pancreas are not resectable, a bypass between the hepatic duct and a Roux-en-Y limb
of jejunum may be done to relieve distal biliary obstruction. Benign indications for
Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy include: extrahepatic biliary stricture secondary
to previous surgical injury, common bile duct obstruction secondary to recurrent
stones, and distal common bile duct stricture secondary to chronic pancreatitis.
Contraindications to resection and reconstruction for malignancy include distant
metastases or extensive, bilateral liver involvement. Lymph node metastases outside 11
the region of the porta hepatis are usually considered a contraindication to resection.
Local extension of the tumor to include the main portal vein with thrombosis of the
vein and encasement of the main common hepatic artery are also contraindications
to resection. Unilateral involvement of the proximal bile duct, portal vein, or hepatic
artery branch may necessitate combined hepatic resection with biliary resection
and reconstruction.
Preop
In cancer patients, a triphasic helical CT scan of the liver and porta hepatis is done
for assessment of local tumor extension. Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography
(PTC) and/or endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) are done
to demonstrate the extent and location of tumors or strictures of the biliary system
and for preoperative relief of biliary obstruction. Placement of the percutaneous
stent through the hepatic duct stricture or tumor into the duodenum will facilitate
identification and dissection at surgery. Magnetic resonance imaging may be required
to delineate the relation of a tumor to the main vascular structures within the porta
hepatis. On the morning of surgery, patients receive preoperative antibiotics and an
epidural catheter for intraoperative and postoperative analgesia. Deep vein throm-
bosis (DVT) prophylaxis with subcutaneous heparin and/or sequential compression
devices is used according to the patient’s risk factors for thromboembolus.
Procedure
Step 1. The patient is placed in the supine position. General anesthesia is induced
and the abdomen is prepared for exploration. An upper midline incision is suitable
for most patients. If a right subcostal incision was used for a previous operation, the
abdomen may be entered through the prior incision.
Language: German
von
Hermann Hesse
1921
S . F i s c h e r, V e r l a g , B e r l i n
27.—36. Auflage
Alle Rechte, insbesondere das der Übersetzung, vorbehalten
Copyright 1919 S. Fischer, Verlag, Berlin
Ich wollte ja nichts als das zu leben
versuchen, was von selber aus mir
heraus wollte. Warum war das so sehr
schwer?
U m meine Geschichte zu erzählen, muß ich weit vorn anfangen.
Ich müßte, wäre es mir möglich, noch viel weiter zurück gehen,
bis in die allerersten Jahre meiner Kindheit und noch über sie
hinaus in die Ferne meiner Herkunft zurück.
Die Dichter, wenn sie Romane schreiben, pflegen so zu tun, als
seien sie Gott und könnten irgendeine Menschengeschichte ganz und
gar überblicken und begreifen und sie so darstellen, wie wenn Gott
sie sich selber erzählte, ohne alle Schleier, überall wesentlich. Das
kann ich nicht, so wenig wie die Dichter es können. Meine
Geschichte aber ist mir wichtiger als irgendeinem Dichter die seinige;
denn sie ist meine eigene, und sie ist die Geschichte eines Menschen
— nicht eines erfundenen, eines möglichen, eines idealen oder
sonstwie nicht vorhandenen, sondern eines wirklichen, einmaligen,
lebenden Menschen. Was das ist, ein wirklicher lebender Mensch,
das weiß man heute allerdings weniger als jemals, und man schießt
denn auch die Menschen, deren jeder ein kostbarer, einmaliger
Versuch der Natur ist, zu Mengen tot. Wären wir nicht noch mehr als
einmalige Menschen, könnte man jeden von uns wirklich mit einer
Flintenkugel ganz und gar aus der Welt schaffen, so hätte es keinen
Sinn mehr, Geschichten zu erzählen. Jeder Mensch aber ist nicht nur
er selber, er ist auch der einmalige, ganz besondere, in jedem Fall
wichtige und merkwürdige Punkt, wo die Erscheinungen der Welt
sich kreuzen, nur einmal so und nie wieder. Darum ist jedes
Menschen Geschichte wichtig, ewig, göttlich, darum ist jeder
Mensch, solange er irgend lebt und den Willen der Natur erfüllt,
wunderbar und jeder Aufmerksamkeit würdig. In jedem ist der Geist
Gestalt geworden, in jedem leidet die Kreatur, in jedem wird ein
Erlöser gekreuzigt.
Wenige wissen heute, was der Mensch ist. Viele fühlen es, und
sterben darum leichter, wie ich leichter sterben werde, wenn ich
diese Geschichte fertiggeschrieben habe.
Einen Wissenden darf ich mich nicht nennen. Ich war ein
Suchender und bin es noch, aber ich suche nicht mehr auf den
Sternen und in den Büchern, ich beginne die Lehren zu hören, die
mein Blut in mir rauscht. Meine Geschichte ist nicht angenehm, sie
ist nicht süß und harmonisch wie die erfundenen Geschichten, sie
schmeckt nach Unsinn und Verwirrung, nach Wahnsinn und Traum
wie das Leben aller Menschen, die sich nicht mehr belügen wollen.
Das Leben jedes Menschen ist ein Weg zu sich selber hin, der
Versuch eines Weges, die Andeutung eines Pfades. Kein Mensch ist
jemals ganz und gar er selbst gewesen; jeder strebt dennoch, es zu
werden, einer dumpf, einer lichter, jeder wie er kann. Jeder trägt
Reste von seiner Geburt, Schleim und Eischalen einer Urwelt, bis
zum Ende mit sich hin. Mancher wird niemals Mensch, bleibt Frosch,
bleibt Eidechse, bleibt Ameise. Mancher ist oben Mensch und unten
Fisch. Aber jeder ist ein Wurf der Natur nach dem Menschen hin.
Uns allen sind die Herkünfte gemeinsam, die Mütter, wir alle
kommen aus demselben Schlunde; aber jeder strebt, ein Versuch
und Wurf aus den Tiefen, seinem eigenen Ziele zu. Wir können
einander verstehen; aber deuten kann jeder nur sich selbst.
Erstes Kapitel
Zwei Welten
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