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Knowledge Hub – Calf Pneumonia
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Cattle Diseases
Calf Pneumonia
Also known as: Enzootic Pneumonia
Calf pneumonia is a respiratory disease caused by inflammation in the lungs,
primarily the alveoli (air sacs). It is a multifactorial disease caused by a range of
organisms including viruses, bacteria and mycoplasmas. Environmental factors are
also extremely crucial in managing the disease. Calf pneumonia can potentially be a
significant economic burden to a farm, due to the costs of treatment, mortalities,
reduced growth rates, additional labour and housing requirements (Andrews, 2000;
van der Fels-Klerx et al., 2001). Respiratory diseases in young animals were ranked
very low in importance in a survey of British organic beef and dairy farmers (Roderick
and Hovi, 1999). Late weaning, a whole milk diet, the requirement for good housing
standards and a closed herd policy reduce the risk factors for respiratory disease in
calves.
Enzootic pneumonia in young calves is a multifactorial disease that occurs mainly in two
different systems:
1. In housed dairy calves reared for replacement
2. In housed calves reared for beef either in the herd of origin (Assié et al., 2004), or after
sale to a finisher.
What Causes Calf Pneumonia?
Control and Prevention
Risk Factors
Treatment Options
Welfare
Good Practice
Dairy calves are likely to suffer from the disease at any age, with it manifesting itself as a
chronic, coughing pneumonia, or as a more acute, enzootic calf pneumonia. Older dairy
calves are also vulnerable after housing in the autumn. Suckler calves are more likely to
suffer from respiratory disease between two and five months of age, following weaning or
transport from one herd to another. Outdoor reared beef suckler calves can also be severely
affected by pneumonia (Peters, 1986; Scott, 1997).
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In older calves, mainly in weaned suckler calves aged six months to two years, respiratory
disease is likely to occur after transport or other environmental stress and is often called
shipping or transit fever. (see: Pasteurellosis). Similarly, a respiratory disease caused by lung
parasites, (Dictycaulus viviparous, also known as husk), occurs in older calves. However, it
should be remembered that lungworm can occur in young calves, even when housed if
exposed to significant challenge from carrier dams or contaminated bedding (Crawshaw and
Smith, 2003; SAC Veterinary Services, 2006). A viral respiratory disease caused by the
infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus (IBR), is also more significant in older animals.
Enzootic Pneumonia in Calves
Enzootic pneumonia in young calves can be
chronic and be present with very few clinical
signs apart from a dry cough and slightly
increased respiratory rate. The acute form of
the disease usually manifests itself in an
outbreak involving several calves going down
with the disease within a 48-hour period.
Fever, dullness, inappetance and coughing,
often combined with nasal discharge, are the
most common symptoms.
There are very little data available on the Duchy College calves in the calf shed. There
prevalence of enzootic pneumonia in UK cattle should be enough space in the calf pen to
herds, as recording of calf diseases is seldom allow calves to groom themselves, lie down
and stretch their limbs and rise without any
carried out. Respiratory diseases are, however,
difficulty.
considered the second most important cause
of death and ill -thrift in calves. The condition is
farm related, with some farms suffering serious losses due to calf pneumonia, while on
others the disease is either very mild or non-existent. Sporadic outbreaks can, however, be
experienced by farms that normally see very little respiratory disease in calves.
Causes of Calf Pneumonia
Pneumonia in calves is a multifactorial disease. Infectious agents (pathogens), environment,
management and the immune status of the calves are factors in determining the outcome of
an infection.
Pathogens Causing Calf Pneumonia
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A multitude of pathogens, including viruses, bacteria and Mycoplasma spp (M. bovis, M.
dispar and M. canis), are involved in different combinations on different farms (Ayling et al.,
2004; Bryson et al., 1978; Caldow et al., 1988; Dyson and Linklater, 1976; Uttenthal et al.,
1996). It is often suggested that the viruses and mycoplasmas are the primary infections and
the bacteria cause a secondary infection in an animal whose defences have been weakened
by the first infection. The most common viruses isolated from enzootic pneumonia cases are:
Mycoplasmal agents are usually considered to be the most common agents causing the
chronic form of enzootic pneumonia, even though Mycoplasma bovis has been identified as
the causative agent in many acute outbreaks as well.
The most commonly isolated bacterial organisms are:
Mannhaeimia spp.
Pasterurella multocida
Hemophilus (Histophilus) subspecies (H. somnus).
Risk Factors for Calf Pneumonia
Inadequate ventilation of calf barns increases the risk of disease due to the buildup of
humidity, noxious gases, dust and bacteria content (Lorenz et al., 2011). The main
environmental risk factor predisposing calves to respiratory disease is poor ventilation in calf
housing (Pritchard, 1982). Cold, humid conditions, sudden changes in air temperature, stress
due to different causes and change in the environment have also been associated with
outbreaks of pneumonia in young calves (Phillippo et al., 1987; Roe, 1982; Scott, 1995;
Webster et al., 1985).
Inadequate intake of colostrum or poor quality colostrum will affect the calves’ defence
against respiratory agents and make them more susceptible to infection (Virtala et al., 1999).
Rearing systems where calves of different origin are mixed together at a young age suffer
from high levels of respiratory diseases (Gibbs, 2001). Large, shared air spaces, calves from
different age groups and poor sanitation between calf batches often make these systems
even more vulnerable (Losinger and Heinrichs, 1996). The stress associated with
management procedures such as disbudding and castration may also be associated with a
high respiratory disease incidence.
Control and Prevention of Calf Pneumonia
Management of calf pneumonia is reliant on a good understanding of the causes and risk
factors (See table). The incidence and severity of calf pneumonia is closely allied with
management and disease patterns on farms and so the best approach is to implement a
control programme tailored to the individual farm’s needs. (Gibbs, 2001). These approaches
can be divided into three areas:
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1. Maintenance of disease resistance
2. Reduction of stress
3. Minimising exposure of infection
1. Maintenance of Disease Resistance
Passive immunity is the transfer of antibodies
from one individual to another and can be in
the form of maternal antibodies in
utero crossing the placenta, or lactationally in
the colostrum. In order to provide the calf with
passive immunity protection before its own
immune system is fully functional, the calf
needs to receive adequate amounts of
colostrum containing a sufficient quantity of
antibodies (also known as immunoglobulins).
An amount of 3-4 litres of colostrum that Antibodies within good quality colostrum
contains 50-150 g/litre of Immunoglobulin IgG will boost the calf’s immune system and
make them more resistant to infection
within the first 24 hours of life has been
recommended (Besser et al., 1991).
While the transfer of maternal immunity is important, it does not protect the calf well against
respiratory pathogens after two to three months of age because the concentration of
maternal serum antibodies is low and the calf’s own immune system is still not fully functional
(Corbeil et al., 1984). The highest incidence of respiratory disease occurs in many herds
during this period, and prevention should concentrate on reducing stress at this time.
A further factor limiting immune protection against respiratory diseases is that some of the
pathogens are immunosuppressive (Woldehiwet and Sharma, 1992). Mycoplasma bovis,
RSV and BVD belong to this category and, when endemic in a herd, can reduce the calves’
ability to fight off disease. Eradication of M. bovis from a dairy herd has been shown to
improve calf health (Byrne et al., 1998).
Vaccines are widely used to boost the calf’s immunity against many respiratory pathogens.
Vaccines are available in the UK for RSV, PI3, IBR, BVDV and Pasteurella, including several
in combination. The vaccines should be used as a part of a disease prevention programme
that also addresses the environmental and management factors on the farm (Richardson,
2004). Vaccines can also be used to eradicate some respiratory diseases in problem herds
(Pospísil et al., 1996). However, the efficacy of the vaccines varies significantly between
farms, and it is difficult to establish control programmes that work continuously (Van
Donkersgoed et al., 1990; Howard et al., 1987; Straub and Mawhinney, 1988). Some
modified live vaccines can also be used successfully in the face of an outbreak once the first
affected animals have been diagnosed and the agent identified. It is important to check the
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datasheets for all vaccines before use as only some are live and all have different protocols
for administration, requirement for second vaccinations and duration of immunity. Vet advice
should always be sought and vaccination use should be part of the herd health plan.
Prophylactic use of antibiotics has also been successful in calf rearing units, with antibiotics
being administered to all arriving animals. This practice is, however, should not be relied
upon in any system.
In order to reduce stress disbudding and
castration could be timed so they don’t coincide
with weaning or autumn housing
2. Reduction of Stress
Gradual weaning, timing of disbudding (or dehorning) and castration not to coincide with
weaning, minimisation of transport, avoidance of cattle markets and avoidance of cold stress
have all been recommended as ways to reduce stress in young calves. Respiratory diseases
often follow a pattern in a herd. Recording disease incidences and treatments can be helpful
in establishing whether such a pattern exists. If a pattern is identified, potential stressful
events around disease peaks can be recognised and management practices changed to
reduce stress.
Overcrowding, poor ventilation and high humidity all cause respiratory stress in calves and
make them more susceptible to respiratory disease. Reasonable space allowance and good
ventilation will reduce this stress and make pneumonia less likely.
3. Minimising Exposure to Infection
Close contact with other animals allows respiratory pathogens to spread easily. Individual
housing of dairy calves either indoors or outside is generally linked to improved calf health
(Lorenz et al., 2011). There is long-term recognition of the benefit to dairy calf health of
outdoor housing in hutches especially for the prevention of diarrhoea and respiratory disease
(Davis et al., 1954).Similarly, keeping age groups separate and group sizes small has been
shown to reduce respiratory disease (Lorenz et al., 2011).
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Introduction of animals from other herds carries a risk of disease transfer, even in virtually
closed herds, where only occasional replacement animals are brought in. Keeping recent
purchases separate from the herd for 2-3 weeks to ensure that they are not incubating a
respiratory disease is an adequate control measure.
Treating Calf Pneumonia
In the face of an outbreak of enzootic pneumonia in a closed herd or when a chronic problem
is recognised, it is important to attempt to identify the causative agents and management and
environmental factors in order to target preventive measures in the future. There are a
number of investigative techniques that can be used in the face of a pneumonia outbreak.
These include:
Taking nasal swabs and / or bronchioalveolar lavage (BAL) samples for bacterial
culture and virus isolation
Paired blood samples can be taken to assess serological immune response to
respiratory pathogens. However, reliance on paired serological testing must be done
with caution as false negatives (failure to seroconvert) can occur in young calves less
than 3 months old (Virtala et al., 1999).
For the acute form of enzootic pneumonia, nursing and isolation of affected calves is
important in all treatment regimes. Vitamins can be administered as a supportive therapy,
and a multitude of treatments from antihistamines to expectorants have been found effective
in alleviating the condition. Antimicrobials and both steroid and non-steroid anti-inflammatory
drugs are usually the main line of treatment. Antibiotics can be used in in-contact animals
(metaphylaxis) as well as in the affected ones. Vaccines can occasionally be used for the in-
contact animals, and have been shown to provide protection when the causative agent is
identified fast enough (Gourlay et al., 1989; Laven and Andrews, 1991).
In all cases antimicrobial treatment should be under veterinary guidance and should be
outlined in the farms’ herd health plan.
The chronic form of calf pneumonia is normally not treated unless the calf has a severe
cough. Antibiotics, when chosen carefully, may be effective, although severe lung damage
may not resolve. It should, however, be noted that chronic enzootic pneumonia in calves is a
herd problem. When the condition becomes severe enough to require treatment, it is
necessary to attempt to identify the causes of the condition. Improvement of the
management and environment or eradication of the causative agent/agents with the help of a
comprehensive disease control plan is required.
Calf Pneumonia and Welfare
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Prior to weaning, single suckled beef calves
reared in outdoor systems are at lowest risk of
pneumonia (Lorenz, 2011). For suckler calves
born and reared indoors the incidence of
pneumonia can be considerable (Assié et al.,
2004). Therefore, the isolation of affected
calves, effective treatment with antibiotics and
supportive therapy and provision of dry and
warm conditions are vital in the treatment, in
order to avoid further suffering. The fact that
many respiratory problems can be avoided by
good management adds to the need to tackle Single suckled calves reared in outdoor
calf pneumonia problems if they exist in herds. systems are at lowest risk of pneumonia
Good Practice Based on Current Knowledge
Prevention and control of calf pneumonia should be an important part of a farm’s herd health
plan. Good practice to control and prevent enzootic pneumonia in young calves can be
divided into three areas of action
1. Building immunity:
Do not separate the dam until 24 hours after calving
Provide adequate bedding to allow the calf to stand without difficulty
Ensure early colostrum feeding; assist if needed, and monitor the intake as closely as
possible and record it (“maximum supervision, minimum interference”). Calves should
consume approximately 10% bodyweight in colostrums in the first 6 hours of life (i.e.
approximately 4-5 litres for an average calf, or, a minimum of “6 pints in 6 hours”)
Keep a supply of frozen colostrum in case the dam leaks colostrum before calving
Avoid stress and exposure to new disease agents during “poor immune capacity” at 2-4
months of age
If immunosuppressive respiratory pathogens are a known herd problem (i.e. BVDV),
consider eradication or vaccination
Vaccinate strategically as a part of a comprehensive disease control plan
2. Minimisation of exposure:
Provide adequate numbers of calving pens and clean and disinfect them between
batches
House calves of different ages in different rooms or with adequate separation
Quarantine bought-in animals for 2-3 weeks before introduction to the rest of the herd
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Provide good ventilation in the calf housing (a minimum of 6m³ airspace for calves up
to 6 weeks old; 10m³ for calves up to 12 weeks and 15m³ for calves up to 16 weeks
old)
There should not be excessive humidity in the calf house
In difficult circumstances, consider calf hutches (tethering not acceptable under UK
organic standards).
3. Reducing stress:
Avoid overcrowding in calf pens
Provide good ventilation (There should be 6 air changes per hour)
Make sure that calves are well bedded during cold weather and do not suffer from
draught (the minimum critical temperature for new-born calves in a straw bedded pen is
6ºC)
Provide shelter during prolonged cold and wet conditions on pasture
Avoid transport and introduction to new environment between 2 and 4 weeks of age
Time castration and disbudding away from weaning
Time autumn housing away from castration and disbudding
Introduce diet changes gradually, particularly when housing calves
Calf Pneumonia References
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