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Also by Tom Cooper:
A@W Great Lakes Holocaust: The First
Congo War, 1966–1997
A@W Great Lakes Conflagration: The
CONTENTS
Second Congo War, 1998–2003
A@W Wings over Ogaden: the Ethiopian–
Somali War, 1978–1979 Glossary 2
A@W Libyan Air Wars: Part 1: 1973–1985
Chapter One Introduction 3
A@W Libyan Air Wars Part 2: 1985–1986
ME@W Syrian Conflagration, 2011–2013 Chapter Two An African Cold War 11
Chapter Three Liberation War 22
Published by
Helion & Company Limited Chapter Four From one War into Another 39
26 Willow Road, Solihull, West Midlands, Chapter Five Conquest of the North 51
B91 1UE, England
Endnotes 60
Tel. 0121 705 3393
Fax 0121 711 4075 Bibliography 63
Email: [email protected] Acknowledgements 64
Website: www.helion.co.uk
Twitter: @helionbooks
Visit our blog http://blog.helion.co.uk/
Nigeria
Data. Sierra Leone
Côte Central South Ethiopia
n
D’Ivoire African
oo
Sudan
A catalogue record for this book is available Republic
er
Benin
Liberia
am
ia
Togo
m
Equatorial So
All rights reserved. No part of this Guinea
Uganda
go
Kenya
Gabon Democratic
C on
za
asc
Zimbabwe o
M
published by Helion & Company Namibia
dag
Botswana
our website: http://www.helion.co.uk.
Swaziland
We always welcome receiving book Lesotho
GLOSSARY
AB air base group in south-western Sudan and northern
AB. Agusta-Bell (Italian helicopter manufacturer) Uganda)
APC armoured personnel carrier Lieutenant Lieutenant
ASCC Air Standardisation Co-ordinating Committee Lieutenant-Colonel lieutenant-colonel
(US, UK, Australian and New Zealand Major major
committee for standardisation of designations Major-Gen major-general
for foreign [primarily Soviet] armament; MANPADS man-portable air defence system(s) – light
its standardisation codenames are usually surface-to-air missiles that can be carried and
known as ‘NATO designations’) deployed in combat by a single soldier
AK Avtomat Kalashnikova (Kalashnikov assault MBT main battle tank
rifle) MHC Member of High Command (colonel in the
ATGM anti-tank guided missile NRA)
Brig Gen brigadier general (military commissioned MiG Mikoyan i Gurevich (the design bureau led by
officer rank) Artem Ivanovich Mikoyan and Mikhail
CAP combat air patrol Iosifovich Gurevich, also known as OKB-155
Captain captain (military commissioned officer rank) or MMZ ‘Zenit’)
C-in-C commander in chief MRLS multiple rocket launcher system
CO commanding officer NRM National Resistance Movement (umbrella
COIN counter-insurgent or counter-insurgency political organisation ruling Uganda
Colonel colonel (military commissioned officer rank) from 1986)
CoS Chief of Staff OAU Organisation of African Unity
DHC de Havilland Canada (Canadian aircraft POW prisoner of war
manufacturer) PSU Public Safety Unit
DMZ De-militarised Zone RCAF Royal Canadian Air Force
DP Democratic Party (of Uganda) SA-3 Goa ASCC codename for S-125 Neva, Soviet SAM
DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo (Congo- system
Kinshasa) SAM surface-to-air missile
FRELIMO Frente de Libertação de Moçambique (Liberation SRB State Research Bureau
Front of Mozambique, armed opposition to TANU Tanganyika African National Union (the only
Portuguese rule in Mozambique, in legal political party in mainland Tanzania of
1960–1975; later the ruling party in the 1960–1980 period)
Mozambique) UA Ugandan Army
FRONASA Front of National Salvation (armed opposition UAAF Ugandan Army Air Force
in Uganda, 1971–1986) UK United Kingdom
Gen general UFF Uganda Freedom Fighters
GSU General Service Unit UFM Uganda Freedom Movement
HQ headquarters UN United Nations
IAP international airport UNC Uganda National Congress
IDF Israeli Defence Force UNLA Uganda National Liberation Army (armed
IDF/AF Israeli Defence Force/Air Force opposition group in Uganda, 1979-1980)
JWTZ Jeshi la Wananchi la Tanzania (Tanzania UNRF Uganda National Rescue Front
People’s Defence Force; sometimes cited UPC Uganda People’s Congress
as the Tanzania People’s Defence Force UPDA Uganda People’s Democratic Army
– TPDF – in Western literature) UPM Uganda Patriotic Movement
KIA killed in action US$ United States Dollar
Km kilometre USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
LAAF Libyan Arab Air Force (or Soviet Union)
LRA Lord’s Resistance Army (armed opposition WIA wounded in action
2
chapter one: introduction
CHAPTER ONE:
INTRODUCTION
This is the first of two works aiming to provide a history of narrative that remains readable and easy to understand.Similarly,
military conflicts in Uganda and Rwanda that raged in these two in order to simplify the use of this book, all names, locations and
countries from the 1960s and well into the 1990s. Parts of the story geographic designations are as provided in The Times World Atlas,
presented here originally came into being as separate overviews or other traditionally accepted major sources of reference.
of selected African air forces, assembled during years of often
troublesome research. Some of these chapters were published on Geography of Uganda
the former ACIG.org, now ACIG.info website, others in printed Uganda lies at the heart of the Great Lakes region of East Africa,
media like the two-volume book African MiGs (see Bibliography the fertile, often humid region centred on Lake Victoria. It is a
for details). An additional impetus for this project came from the country of remarkable physical contrasts on a plateau declining
work on books Great Lakes Holocast (Africa@War Volume 13) gradually from 1,300m (4,300ft) in the south to 750m (2,460ft) in
and Great Lakes Conflagration (Africa@War Volume 14), when it the north. The southern portion is covered by dense forests. Much
became obvious how narrowly inter-related were several wars of the north is open savannah with sparse trees and shrubs, and
fought in Africa since the early 1990s and that there is a need for some semi-desert. The western part of the country is dominated
closer study of relevant military experiences and relations between by the Western Rift of the Great Rift Valley – a series of uplifts of
specific personalities in Uganda, Rwanda and Zaire/Democratic the Earth’s crust more than 5,000km (3,000 miles) in length. The
Republic of the Congo. As usual in the case of works of this area is dominated by high mountains of volcanic origin, with the
kind, our research is based on a wide range of sources, including Ruwenzori Range having seven peaks that are covered with snow
numerous reputable publications, but also some interviews with year-round. Most Ugandan lakes and rivers form a drainage basin
participants and eyewitnesses. Sadly, with the exception of some for the Nile River, whose principal source is Lake Victoria in the
European archives, original documentation remains practically south-east of the country. Other large lakes include Lake Albert,
inaccessible. Most of what is available are fragments from official Lake Edward and Lake Kyoga.
archives released by various participants, and even many of these Although most of Uganda has distinct dry and wet seasons
are sometimes fiercely disputed. Through our research and (the rainy seasons are March to May and October to November),
travels, the authors are uncomfortably familiar with the many its climate is moderate throughout the year, with average daily
bloody wars fought in Africa over the last 50 years. We consider temperatures ranging from 18–28°C in January and 17–25°C in
any source to be relevant until it can be proven beyond doubt to be July. The area usually receives sufficient rain to permit crops to
without merit. It is a matter of fact that governments, national and grow once, often twice a year. The country is situated in an area of
private organisations, private companies and certain individuals rich biodiversity. Plants range from mvuli trees and elephant grass
face harsh ramifications when their influence and/or participation on the plateau to dry thorn scrubs, acacia trees and euphorbia
in such conflicts becomes public. The authors therefore carefully shrubs in the north-east, while papyrus grows in the swamps
collected all the available information, cross-examined various that surround most of the lakes. Wildlife can only be described as
sources, correcting and updating their findings with the aim of ‘spectacular’, as Uganda provides habitats for 992 bird species and
offering the most detailed and dependable
insight possible, with the objective of
providing a comprehensive set of answers
to questions like who, when, where, how
and why. We have gone to great lengths
in order to ‘depoliticise’ the manuscript.
This meant avoiding the use of terms such
as ‘regime’, ‘rebels’, ‘terror’ or ‘terrorist’.
Clearly, one man’s ‘freedom fighter’ is
another’s ‘terrorist’. The reason is that this
book does not aim to judge the politics of
certain countries. Having no political axe
to grind, the authors instead concentrated
on recording and describing the military
history of the region, and have thus made A serene scene with buffalo taking a swim in the Nile River near Murchison Falls. (Public-
all efforts to maintain a non-partisan Relations Office of Uganda, via Mark Lepko)
3
AFRICA@WAR VOLUME 23: wars and insurgencies of uganda, 1971–1993
Population of Uganda
A view of Kampala in 1906. (Rouger. V. Pbas, via Mark Lepko)
The population of Uganda is primarily
concentrated in the south, particularly in
the crescent at the edge of Lake Victoria
and in the south-west. Migration and
intermarriage has resulted in most
Ugandans having ancestors from a variety
of 34 ethnic groups. Many presently used
languages are not mutually intelligible:
about two-thirds of the population speak
Bantu languages. These include the largest
and wealthiest ethnic group, the Ganda, as
well as the Nyankole, Kiga and Soga. About
one-sixth are people of Western Nilotic
origin, primarily in the north, such as
the Langi and Acholi, speaking languages
from the Bantu group. Another one-sixth
A view of Entebbe with Lake Victoria in the background, in 1910. speak an Eastern Nilotic language and live
(Couthino & Sons, via Mark Lepko)
in the north-east, including the Iteso and
Karimojong. In the extreme north-west are
338 mammal species, including not only elephants and gorillas but speakers of Sudanic languages, including the Lugbara and Madi.
also antelope, chimpanzees, crocodiles, giraffes, lions, leopards, English is the official language, Swahili is more widely spoken and
rhinoceroses, zebras and many other species. used as a lingua franca, but Luganda – the language of the Ganda –
Uganda has small amounts of mineral resources, mainly copper, is the most frequently used indigenous tongue. The 1991 census
cobalt, nickel, gold, tin, tungsten, beryllium, iron ore, limestone, counted 16,671,705 people, primarily black Africans, with less
phosphates and apatite. Oil was discovered only recently and is than four percent foreign residents – mostly from neighbouring
still not efficiently exploited. Soil and agriculture are therefore the countries.
country’s most important resources, primarily used for permanent The area nowadays within Ugandan borders was originally
crops such as coffee and bananas. Traditionally, the Ugandan populated by foragers, possibly Khoisan speakers, until about AD
economy has been based on small, African-owned farms since 1000, when Bantu-speaking people moved in. The latter settled
pre-colonial days. Although nearly 10 percent of the land is primarily in the lower half of the area, before moving east, into the
protected in parks or reserves, demands for farmland, firewood savannah zones around the Great Lakes. There they encountered
and charcoal are destroying local forests at an alarming rate. pastoralists who spoke languages from the Nilo-Saharan family
Road networks connect the major urban centres of southern and taught them to cultivate crops. The highly-decentralised
Uganda with the capital Kampala, but more than 90 percent of nature of northern societies precluded the establishment of
the roads are dirt or gravel. Railroads link Uganda with Nairobi states in that area. By comparison, the introduction of plantain
and Mombasa in Kenya, but, badly neglected for decades, all are as a stable crop permitted dense populations in the area north
in need of upgrade. There are a number of lake ports, including of Lake Victoria. Over the following centuries, an increasingly
Port Bell (serving Kampala) and Jinja, but steamer traffic on centralised political system evolved in this area, giving rise to a
Lake Victoria has been curtailed by the spread of hyacinth weed, number of kingdoms, most of which had an economy based on
which blocks harbours and clogs motors. The Nile is partially banana cultivation. One of the early powerful states to emerge
4
chapter one: introduction
was Bunyoro, although even this proved structurally weak due to control over the area. The British and their Buganda ally
continual civil wars and royal succession disputes. Legends have engaged in a bloody, five-year long conflict with Bunyoro, then
it that a refugee from one of many internal Bunyoro conflicts, with the Acholi and other people of the north. This forced the
Kimera, became kabaka (king) of the first modern-day kingdom Ankole kingdom and chiefdoms of Busonga to also sign treaties
in this area, Bunyoro-Kitara, which developed after pastoralists with London. Thus came into being the general outline of the
known as the Tembuzi began establishing cattle-clientship over modern state of Uganda: a single political entity where none had
the region’s agriculturists, around AD 1200. The kingdom previously existed, and a state including many ethnically diverse
of Bunyoro-Kitara expanded its borders when pastoral Binto and economically stratified societies at odds with each other long
rulers established themselves in control over numerous smaller before the advent of European colonialism.
agricultural polities, including Buganda, Ankole and Toro, in the Despite continuous tensions between different ethnic groups,
16th Century. Buganda in particular began to play a central role the Uganda Protectorate was generally stable and prosperous,
in this history of this area. Its governance was based on a stable ruled by the British through manipulation of indigenous leaders.
succession arrangement, allowing the kingdom to expand its Indeed, Uganda can be considered one of the prime examples
borders and become the dominant power in the region. Bagandan of their policy of indirect rule in Africa: through a strategy of
rulers traded ivory and slaves for cloth and firearms brought by ‘divide-and-rule’, the British installed Baganda leaders as local
merchants from Egypt and Zanzibar, and this trade transformed administrators and tax collectors throughout the protectorate –
the kingdom into a wealthy and well-armed country by the time and particularly in areas dominated by other ethnic groups. In
the first European explorers – such as John Hanning Speke and turn, they would manipulate traditional local leaders by dividing
Henry Milton Stanley – passed through the region, in the mid- the lands at their own discretion. Indeed, when resentment
19th Century, while searching for the source of the Nile River. towards Baganda sparked in the early 20th Century, the British
The wealth of Buganda enabled it to establish an infantry force of manipulated various ethnic groups – especially the Bunyoros –
up to 125,000 troops and then a navy of up to 230 large outrigger against each other and were able to suppress even armed rebellions
canoes, with the help of which it raided along the shore of Lake relatively quickly. Nevertheless, these conflicts persisted for
Victoria.1 decades and eventually transformed into the core reasons for most
The explorers’ accounts raised the interest of missionary societies wars in Uganda since its independence.
in Europe, and these began establishing missions in the region.
British authorities followed hard on their heels: when Britain took Modern Political History
control of Egypt, in 1882, it decided to conquer Buganda too and Anti-colonial agitation in Uganda began in the 1950s, when
for this purpose signed an agreement with Germany, in 1890, several youth associations became active, along with more overtly
the latter ceding control over the area of present-day Uganda nationalist political parties. Nearly all of these were organised
in exchange for British concessions elsewhere in East Africa. along ethnic lines: even the Uganda National Congress (UNC),
Eventually, the influence of foreign missionaries and the struggle formed in 1952 as a countrywide political party, attracted primarily
between Catholic and Protestant missionaries and converts led to Baganda members. While preparing the colony for independence,
the collapse of royal rule in Buganda. When kabaka Mwanga II Britain granted the Protestant Buganda king, Edward Mutesa
attempted to outlaw foreign ideologies, he was deposed by armed II (nicknamed ‘Freddie’), real political power. This prompted
converts in 1888. This caused a four-year civil war that ended with many other political organisations to start jockeying themselves
victory for Muslim forces, which in turn were defeated by an alliance into position to take power upon independence: the UNC split
of Christian groups. War and various epidemics, meanwhile, in 1959, with Apollo Milton Obote forming the Uganda People’s
halved the population and further weakened Buganda, enabling Congress (UPC). Another major organisation became the
the Protestant missionaries – supported by Nubian mercenaries Democratic Party (DP), formed by Roman Catholic Baganda who
– to put the area under British control: on 18 June 1894, Uganda were intent on preventing Kabaka Freddie from dominating post-
was declared a British protectorate. European missionary activity colonial Uganda. During pre-independence elections in 1961, the
in the 19th Century led to widespread conversion to Christianity. kabaka’s supporters – who called themselves the ‘King’s Friends’
About 41 percent of Ugandans are Roman Catholics and 40 – called for a boycott. Consequently, most Baganda did not vote
percent are Protestants (mostly belonging to the Anglican Church and the ethnically and geographically diverse DP won a majority
of Uganda). Protestants developed greater political influence over of seats in the first national assembly. Uganda was granted
time, largely during British colonial rule, while Moslems (less independence on 9 October 1962, as a parliamentary democracy
than five percent of the population) have less social status. with the Queen of England and, later, the King of Buganda as
Despite the declaration of a protectorate and the king of ceremonial head of state. In subsequent elections, Obote’s UPC
Buganda signing a treaty with agents of the British East Africa allied with the Baganda separatist party, Kabaka Yekka, and this
Company, allowing the latter to protect the kingdom while the alliance triumphed. Obote became prime minister while Kabaka
kingdom was not to enter into trade agreements with any other Freddie was made president. Together, they established Uganda
nation, it took Britain several years longer to establish complete as a federal republic of four semi-autonomous regions: Ankole,
5
AFRICA@WAR VOLUME 23: wars and insurgencies of uganda, 1971–1993
Buganda, Bunyoro and Toro. However, when Obote moved to Mengo Hill, after which the king barely managed to escape into
eliminate Buganda’s ‘special status’ and to return the ‘lost countries’
exile. Remaining reliant on Amin and the military to maintain
to the Bunyoro, his relationship with Freddie began to deteriorate. order, Obote further consolidated his power by expanding the
In order to bolster his political power, Obote began expanding military and security apparatus, and nationalising businesses.
the military and using that expansion as a source of patronage. He survived two assassination attempts (in 1969 and 1971) but
For this endeavour he built a close relationship with his personal became suspicious of Amin after the mysterious murder of Acap
protégé, Idi Amin (who called himself ‘Dada’, for ‘Big Daddy’), Okoya, the sole rival to Amin among senior military officers, in
one of a small number of African officers in the Ugandan military early 1970. Being completely reliant upon the military to keep him
at the time of independence.In 1966, Obote and Amin faced an in power, Obote could take no immediate action against Amin.
official investigation into allegations that they had smuggled Instead, he began searching for ways to curb the general’s power
gold and ivory out of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (in through placing allies in senior military posts and increasing
exchange for provision of arms to one of the secessionist groups). recruitment of ethnic Acholi and Langi to counter Amin’s soldiers
Instead of stepping down, Obote quickly moved to eliminate from the West Nile region. It was thus only in early 1971 that
his opposition: in what was effectively a coup d’état, Amin and Obote tried to rid himself of the perceived threat. While leaving
the military arrested dissident UPC ministers, enabling Obote for a trip abroad, he ordered the arrest Amin and his closest aides.
to declare himself head of state, suspend the constitution and However, the plot was revealed before it could be carried out and
dissolve the Buganda monarchy. When the Baganda protested, prompted Amin to launch a pre-emptive coup.Idi Amin Dada
Army units attacked the kabaka’s palace, resulting in the Battle of proved a particularly brutal ruler. Supported by members of the
Nubian ethnic group within
the military (these staffed the
Army’s sole tank battalion
and much of the military
police), he directed his forces
to begin a purge. His first
target were ethnic Acholi and
Langi soldiers, about 5,000
of whom were massacred or
disappeared by early 1972.
Imposing military law, Amin
then launched a massive purge
that resulted in the murder
of between 300,000 and
500,000 Ugandans over the
following years. Attracting
Libyan support, Amin expelled
A column of US-made, but Israeli-delivered M4 Shermans of the 5th Mechanised Regiment UA, during a
parade in Kampala in the late 1960s. (Albert Grandolini Collection) all Israeli advisers in early
1972. To gain the favour of
Saudi Arabia, he embraced his
Islamic heritage and deployed
soldiers to aid Egypt during
the October 1973 Arab–Israeli
War. Meanwhile, in August
1972, he expelled the country’s
Asian population of about
50,000, which controlled
most of the commerce, and
distributed their businesses
and property to corrupt and
incompetent managers.
Amin’s bold strokes initially
made him popular but because
he, like many of the officers
he was promoting, was
An OT-64 APC of Czechoslovak origin, during a parade in Kampala in the late 1960s. (US DoD)
6
chapter one: introduction
7
Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
qu'un peu d'esprit conciliant, de modération, de loyauté de la part
des ministres des deux pays pour ramener les deux peuples, qui ne
demandent qu'à revenir à de meilleurs sentiments. Quelques
instants de paix suffiront pour produire ce résultat. (Écoutez!)
Mylords, j'espère avoir exprimé, en parlant de l'alliance entre
l'Angleterre et la France, l'opinion du parlement et du pays, et j'ai la
satisfaction bien douce à mon cœur de savoir que les mots que j'ai
dits ne seront pas sans utilité[176].» (Bruyants applaudissements.)
VII
Cette question du droit de visite n'était pas la seule qui soulevât
alors des difficultés entre la France et l'Angleterre. Ces deux nations
avaient de nombreux points de contact; et telle était l'influence
d'une tradition séculaire d'antagonisme, de la divergence des
intérêts et de l'antipathie des caractères, que ces contacts risquaient
toujours d'amener des chocs ou au moins des froissements. Déjà
nous avons eu sujet de faire cette observation à l'époque où les
deux puissances se proclamaient alliées. À plus forte raison devait-il
en être de même après le refroidissement qui s'était produit depuis
1836 et le conflit qui avait éclaté en 1840. Aussi, au commencement
de 1843, malgré les intentions conciliantes des hommes qui
dirigeaient les affaires de chaque côté du détroit, les heurts étaient-
ils, pour ainsi dire, de tous les instants. Des deux parts, on croyait
avoir droit à se plaindre: tandis que sir Robert Peel exprimait
rudement ses défiances, et que lord Aberdeen lui-même reprochait
au gouvernement français de «témoigner, sous toutes les formes,
son hostilité envers l'Angleterre[183]», M. Guizot constatait ce qu'il
appelait «le vice anglais, l'orgueil ambitieux, la préoccupation
constante et passionnée de soi-même, le besoin ardent et exclusif de
se faire partout sa part et sa place la plus grande possible, n'importe
aux dépens de quoi et de qui»; et le roi Louis-Philippe, attristé et
offensé des soupçons dont il se voyait constamment l'objet, écrivait
à son ministre: «La difficulté de détruire chez les Anglais ces
illusions, ces défiances, ces misconceptions de nos intérêts, après
quarante ans de contact avec eux, aussi bien, j'ose le dire, qu'après
mes treize années de règne, me cause un grand ébranlement dans
la confiance que j'avais eue de parvenir à établir, entre Paris et
Londres, cet accord cordial et sincère qui est, à la fois, selon moi,
l'intérêt réel des deux pays et le véritable alcazar de la paix de
l'Europe[184].»
Cet antagonisme, visible alors sur tous les théâtres où les deux
politiques, française et anglaise, avaient accoutumé de rivaliser
d'influence,—en Syrie, en Grèce, dans les vastes régions ouvertes à
l'extension coloniale,—était particulièrement aigu et menaçant en
Espagne. Il y avait près de dix ans que le déplorable état de la
Péninsule était l'une des plus graves et des plus ennuyeuses
préoccupations de notre diplomatie[185]. Le danger avait d'abord
semblé venir des carlistes, danger tel qu'en 1835 et 1836, il avait été
question d'une intervention militaire française. Depuis lors, la
situation avait changé, sans devenir meilleure. L'insurrection carliste
avait subitement pris fin, dans les derniers mois de 1839, par la
trahison de Maroto; et don Carlos, réduit à se réfugier en France,
avait été interné à Bourges, par ordre du gouvernement du roi Louis-
Philippe. Mais à peine avait-on eu le temps de se féliciter, à Paris,
d'événements qui semblaient un grand succès pour notre
politique[186], qu'au mois de septembre 1840, une révolution
chassait en Espagne les modérés du pouvoir, obligeait la reine mère
Christine à fuir en France après avoir abdiqué la régence, et lui
donnait pour successeur le chef militaire de la faction progressiste, le
général Espartero. C'était la défaite du parti français et le triomphe
du parti anglais. Lord Palmerston, alors encore au Foreign office,
s'empressa de prendre sous sa protection le nouveau régent, tandis
que l'ambassadeur de France à Madrid quittait l'Espagne, ne laissant
derrière lui qu'un chargé d'affaires.
Cette ouverture n'eut pas tout d'abord grand succès auprès des
membres du nouveau cabinet anglais. Il y avait longtemps que M. de
Metternich disait et répétait à nos ambassadeurs: «Vous ne vous
mettrez jamais d'accord avec l'Angleterre sur l'Espagne[188].» Tous
les souvenirs lointains ou proches,—guerre de la Succession et traité
d'Utrecht sous Louis XIV, pacte de famille sous Louis XV, part prise
par le cabinet de Madrid de concert avec celui de Louis XVI à
l'émancipation des colonies américaines, guerre d'Espagne sous
Napoléon, intervention armée du gouvernement de Louis XVIII en
faveur de Ferdinand VII,—avaient fait de la crainte de la
prépondérance française au delà des Pyrénées et de la nécessité de
lutter contre cette prépondérance, une des traditions indiscutées de
la diplomatie anglaise. Celle-ci s'y obstinait, sans tenir compte des
changements accomplis en Espagne, en France, en Europe. Aussi,
au premier moment, le chef du cabinet tory, sir Robert Peel, ne
parut-il pas avoir sur cette question une autre politique que lord
Palmerston. «Résister à l'établissement de l'influence française en
Espagne, disait-il, tel doit être notre principal et constant effort.»
Pour atteindre ce but, il n'hésitait pas à rechercher contre nous
l'appui des puissances continentales, qui n'avaient cependant pas
reconnu la reine Isabelle. Lord Aberdeen, avec plus de douceur dans
les formes, n'avait pas à l'origine un autre sentiment, et il
maintenait, comme représentant de l'Angleterre à Madrid, M. Aston,
qui y avait été l'agent passionné de la politique de lord
Palmerston[189].
VIII
IX
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