KUGWETSA TARGET IN CHEMISTRY THEORY

Revised approved 90% MSCE kugwetsa Chem

A good start breeds enduring trust

Edited by Nyoze 0990638340

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2025 KUGWETSA CHEMISTRY ONLY TARGET ON MANEB
Using the equation describe the process of soap making (saponification)
➢ Firstly, have fats e.g., glycerl stearate [3C12H33COOH]
➢ Mix the fats with strong alkaline solution like sodium hydroxide [3NaOH]
✓ The equation is as follow
➢ 3C12H33COOH + 3NaOH→ 3C12H33COONa+ + 3NaO
➢ Then place the mixture in a proper beaker and put it in evaporating dish and boil it
➢ Add some salts into the beaker, salt like sodium chloride [NaCl2] reason for adding salt is to
solidify the soap
➢ After boiling the mixture filter it and late it to cool
➢ Add dye to the soap and perfume according to market demand
Discuss the ways of preparing salts
➢ Precipitation method
• This method is used to prepare an insoluble salt.
• Solution of the two chosen soluble solution is mixed e.g.
✓ Barium chloride + sodium sulphate → barium sulphate + sodium chloride
✓ BaCl2 (aq) + NaSO4 (aq) → BaSO4 (aq) + 2NaCl (aq)
➢ Reaction of an acid with metal
• This method can only be used with less reactive metal such as magnesium, aluminum,
zinc, iron and tin. ( MAZIT)
• Excess metal is added to dilute acid
• The metal dissolves in then acid forming a salt solution
• Then the salt solution is evaporated slowly to form saturated solution of salt.
✓ Magnesium + nitric acid → magnesium nitrate + hydrogen gas
✓ Mg(g) +2HNO3(aq)→Mg(NO3)2 (aq) +H2 (g)
➢ Reaction of an acid with soluble base (alkalis)
• This method is used to prepare salts of very reactive metals such as potassium or sodium.
• Titration is used in this reaction because both reactants are in a solution for example
✓ Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + water
✓ HCl (aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
Importance Of Water

▪ as a coolant. In car engines it is used to maintain low temperature while in simple

distillation it is facilitates liquefaction process.
▪ as a solvent. It is considered as universal solvent because it dissolves many things.
▪ as a chemical reactant. It is use in many chemical reactions which occur in aqueous
media.
▪ in hydroelectric power generation. Moving water is used to generate electricity.
▪ for recreational purposes such as in swimming pools.

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 ▪ as a transport medium for ships, ferries, boats and canoes when transporting people
and goods.

Types Of Water Hardness

a. Temporary hardness

▪ Temporary hardness is caused by the presence of dissolved calcium or magnesium

hydrogen carbonates. Temporary hardness can easily be removed by boiling.

b. Permanent hardness

▪ Temporary harness is caused by the presence of calcium or magnesium sulphates.

Permanent hardness is difficult to remove and cannot be removed by boiling. It can be
removed by distillation or chemical treatment.

Advantages Of Hard Water

▪ Calcium ions present in hard water are required by the body for bones and teeth.
▪ Coates lead pipes with a thin layer of lead sulphate or lead carbonate and prevents the
lead from dissolving in water.
▪ It is good for the formation of shells in animals.
▪ Calcium and magnesium present in hard water are necessary for growth of both plants
and animals.

Disadvantages Of Hard Water

▪ It wastes soap due to scum formation.

▪ Causes electrical appliances such as kettles and boilers to fur hence making them
inefficient.
▪ Can cause hot water pipes to block.
▪ Spoils the finish of some fabrics.

Define soft water.

▪ Is the water that contains low mineral content and produce soapy bubbles easily

Hard water

▪ Is the water that has high mineral content and does not produce soapy bubbles easily

Describe how the following methods helps to remove water hardness.

Permutit Process

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 ▪ The Permutit process is an ion exchange method that removes water hardness by
exchanging sodium ions for calcium and magnesium ions in the water.
▪ Hard water passes through a resin bed containing sodium ions.
▪ Calcium and magnesium ions are exchanged for sodium ions, softening the water.
▪ The resin is regenerated with sodium chloride (common salt) when exhausted.

Additional of calcium carbonate.

▪ Calcium hydroxide reacts with bicarbonates in hard water.

▪ Insoluble calcium carbonate precipitates, removing hardness.
▪ Calcium carbonate itself isn't typically added to remove hardness; instead, it's often a product of
the reaction.

With the aid of well labelled diagram, explain how water hardness can be removed by ion-
exchange method. In your explanation include how the materials can be reactivated.

➢ The hard water is passed through a container filled with suitable resin containing sodium ions.
➢ The calcium or magnesium ions causing water hardness are exchanged for the sodium ions in the
resin
➢ Sodium ions do not cause water hardness
➢ Sodium ions become part of the soften water and the calcium ions become part of the resin
Give two Health Benefits of Hard Water
▪ Provides essential minerals: Hard water contains minerals like calcium and magnesium, which are
important for bone health.
▪ May support cardiovascular health: Some studies suggest that moderate consumption of hard
water may help lower blood pressure and reduce the risk of heart disease.
Water Pollution

It is defined as the addition of harmful substances into water as result of human

activities.
The harmful substances include toxic metals, plastics, pesticides, and fertilizers.

Sources Of Water Pollution

a. Domestic sources.

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 ▪ This involves the release of human faeces and sewage into water bodies such as lakes
and rivers.

b. Industrial wastes

▪ These include effluents (liquid wastes) originate from breweries, tanneries, textiles
and paper industries. The effluents contain toxic chemicals.

c. Agricultural wastes

▪ These include excessive pesticides, herbicides, weedicides, and fertilizers. These may
enter into rivers and lakes through run off after rains.

Effects Of Water Pollution

▪ It can cause diseases such as cholera, typhoid and hepatitis.

▪ It leads to destruction of ecosystems.
▪ It can severely affect aquatic life by decreasing amount of oxygen in water bodies.
▪ It can cause disruptions in food chains. This happens when toxins and pollutants in the
water are consumed by aquatic animals which are then consumed by humans.

Ways Of Controlling Water Pollution

▪ Avoiding excessive use of chemicals.

▪ Treatment of sewage before releasing it into water bodies. It ensures that the pollutants
and disease-causing micro-organisms are destroyed.
▪ Encouraging farmers to use farmyard manure instead of chemical fertilizers.
▪ Constructing pit latrines away from water sources such as wells to avoid contamination
of the water source. The slope of the land should also be considered in putting up a
latrine.
▪ Proper legislation should be put by government to reduce improper damping of
industrial and domestic wastes.
▪ Petroleum companies should put measures in place to avoid unnecessary accidents
resulting from spillage of oils into water bodies.

Define allotropy

➢ Is the existence of an element in more than one form in the same state
Define the term allotropes
➢ Are different forms of the same element which exist in the same physical state.

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Allotropes of carbon

Identify the allotropes P and Q

➢ P Graphite
➢ Q diamond

Explain why allotrope Q can be used as lubricant

➢ Have weak intermolecular force so that the layers can easily slide over each other
Identify the allotrope that is soft and slippery.
▪ Graphite
Give areason for your answer
▪ due to its layered structure with weak intermolecular forces between layers.
High Melting Point Allotrope
▪ Diamond
Which allotrope has high melting point. Give a reason for your answer.
▪ Diamond has a high melting point due to its strong covalent bonds in a tetrahedral structure,
requiring significant energy to break

Explain any each of the following,

Graphite conduct electricity while diamond does not conduct electricity.

▪ Graphite: In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to only three other carbon atoms in a flat
hexagonal layer. This leaves one free electron per carbon atom (called a delocalized electron).
These free electrons move easily between the layers, allowing graphite to conduct electricity.
▪ Diamond: In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms in a very strong
three-dimensional network. All the outer electrons are used in bonding, so there are no free
electrons available. Thus, diamond cannot conduct electricity.

Aluminium react with oxygen to form Aluminium oxide. Draw cross and dot diagram for
Aluminium oxide.

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Draw a diagram to show how molecules are arranged in rhombic sulphur.

Give two chemical properties of sulphur

▪ Reacts with metals to form metal sulphide

▪ Burns in oxygen to form sulphur dioxide

State the property that enable metals to be drawn into wires

▪ ductility

Give any two properties of alloy.

▪ Alloys are usually stronger and more resistant to corrosion than pure metals.
▪ They often have improved hardness and better durability

The diagram below shows the allotropes of sulphur. Use them to answer the question that follows

Identify the allotropes of Sulphur

▪ A) Rhombic Sulphur
▪ B) Monoclinic Sulphur

Which of the allotropes is allowed to cool to a temperature 96C0 and why?

B, Monoclinic

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 ▪ This is because it is gradually changing back to rhombic Sulphur
Give the difference between polar covalent bonding and dative covalent bonding
▪ A polar covalent bond is formed when electrons are not shared equally between atoms while
dative covalent bond is formed when only one atom contribute all the shared pair of electrons.
Give any one example of a compound that have a dative bond.
➢ Hydronium ion/ H3O+
➢ Ammonium
Why is sugar able to dissolve in water but not in oil?

▪ Sugar is polar hence will dissolve in water since water is also polar while it does not dissolve in
oil because oil is nonpolar.

Why is graphite used as a lubricant unlike diamond

▪ Graphite is slippery due to weak van der Waals’ forces between its layers while diamond is hard

With the aid of diagrams, distinguish between pure covalent and dative bond.

▪ A pure covalent bond is formed when each non-metal atom contributes electron (s) while a dative
covalent bond is formed when only one atom contributes all the two electrons in a bond

Complete the dative bond below

What the term alloys mean

➢ An Alloy is a mixture of two or more elements where by at least one of them is a metal.

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Give two examples of alloys
➢ Stainless steal ( combination of iron metal and chromium metal )
➢ Brass ( mixture of copper metal and zinc metal)
State two properties of brass
➢ It is hard than pure copper
➢ Is gold colored
State two uses of stainless steal
➢ Used to make surgical instruments
➢ Used when making kitchen sinks
Give two similar properties of diamond and silicon dioxide
➢ Both does not conduct electricity
➢ Both are hardest substance
Why graphite is used as electrode in electric circuit
➢ This is because its fourth electron is free to move through the graphite carrying charge to conduct
electricity
Give two uses of graphite
➢ It is mixed with clay to make pencil lead
➢ It is used as electrode in electric circuit

Mention an alloy that are used for the following.

making surgical instruments

▪ stainless steel

making aircraft bodies

▪ duralumin

Define a base according to Bronsted – Lowry theory.

According to the Bronsted-Lowry theory, a base is a substance that accepts a proton (H⁺ ion) in a
chemical reaction.
Table below shows some oxides and results of their reaction with an acid and base.

Oxide Reaction with acid Reaction with base

A Water + salt No reaction

B No reaction Water + salt

C Water + salt Water + salt

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Identify oxides as
Non-metallic oxide
▪ Oxide B
Metallic oxide
▪ Oxide A
Describe how the strength of an oxide A be determined using universal indicator paper
▪ Dissolve the oxide in water to form a solution.
▪ Dip the universal indicator paper into the solution.
▪ Observe the color change and compare it to the standard color chart.
▪ The resulting color indicates the pH of the solution, which can determine if the oxide is:
✓ Strongly basic (high pH)
✓ Weakly basic (slightly high pH)
✓ Neutral (pH around 7)
✓ Acidic (low pH)
Define the term Bronsted acid
➢ An acid is a proton donor
Give the difference between weak acid and strong acid
➢ Weak acid ionizes partially in water to produce few hydrogen ions while strong acid ionizes
completely in water to give all its hydrogen ions.
Give the difference between concentration of an acid and strength of an acid
➢ Strength of an acid tells us how easily it ionizes to produce hydrogen ions while concentration of
an acid indicates the proportion of water and acid present in aqueous solution.
State two ways of determining the strength of an acid
➢ Using conductivity
➢ Using universal indicator

Acetic acid ionize partially in water. The ionization is reversible and can be represented by
following equation
▪
CH3COOH + H2O ↔ CH3COO- +H3O+
what is reversible reaction
▪ Are reversible reaction is chemical reaction in which the products can be converted back to
reactants under suitable condition.
List down examples of reversible reaction
▪ Haber process
▪ Ammonia reaction with water
Write the conjugate acid-base pairs in the equation

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 CH3COOH/ CH3COO- and H3O+ / H2O
The conjugate acid-base for the reaction between water and molecules are H2O/H3O+ and H2O/OH-
write an equation
▪
H2O + H2O ↔ OH- + H3O+
Describe how the hydronium ions were formed
▪ The hydronium ions are formed when an acid dissolves in water and the water gains hydrogen
ions which are donated by the acid for example the equation as follow
▪
HCl + H2O → H3O+ + Cl-
Explain how anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride can be used to test for water

▪ dip the blue anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride into the substance to be tested
▪ If the blue anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride changes to pink then the substance contains water
▪ If it does not change the it does not contain water.

Define standard electrode potential (Eθ)

▪ Refers to the measure electromotive force value between electrode of enterest and standard
hydrogen electrode at standard condition

Figure below show a voltaic cell of zinc and copper

Write the standard cell notation for the voltaic cell above

▪ Zn/Zn2+n // Cu2+/Cu

What the purpose of salt bridge

▪ It completes the circuit by allowing carrying charge to move from house cell to another

Write the half equation for the reaction that occurs in the cathode

▪ Cu2+ +2e → Cu

Calculate the electromotive force of the cell above given

Eθ (Zn/ Zn2+) = -0.76v and Eθ (Cu2+/Cu)= +0.34v

Solution

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 -0.76 0.00 +0.34

Cu is on the RHS and Zn is on the LHS of the number therefore emf of the cell

= Eθ Cu – EθZn

= +0.34 – ( -0.76v)

= + 1.10v
The diagram shows an electrochemical cell of lead and silver in their respective ions.

Name the substance used in part x.

▪ Salt solution e.g. potassium nitrate

The EO values of lead and silver are shown.

▪ 𝑃𝑏 2+ + (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑒 − → 𝑃𝑏(𝑠) − 0.13𝑣

▪ 𝐴𝑔+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑒 − → 𝐴𝑔(𝑠) + 0.80𝑣

Write the line notation of the cell.

Calculate the EO of the cell.

𝐸°𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝐸°𝑐𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒 − 𝐸°𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒

𝐸°𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 0.80𝑣 − (−0.13𝑣)

𝐸°𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = +0.93𝑣

What will happen to the concentration of silver ions while the cell is in use?

▪ Concentration of silver ions decreases

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Define oxidation number.

▪ Is a measure of the number of electrons an atom has gained or lost in a chemical reaction?

Calculate the oxidation number of chromium (Cr) in chromate ion (Cr2O72-).

• 2𝐶𝑟 + 7(−2) = −2
• 2𝐶𝑟 − 14 = −2
• 2𝐶𝑟 = −2 + 14
• 2𝐶𝑟 = +12
12
• 𝐶𝑟 = + = +6
2

𝐶𝑟 = +6

What is the difference between oxidation and reduction in terms of electron transfers?

▪ Oxidation is the loss of electrons by a substance while reduction is the gaining of electrons by
substance

Balance the following redox equation

Al + Ag Al3+ + Ag

Solution

Aluminium is oxidized and silver is reduced

Oxidation half equation

Al Al3+ + 3e

Reduction half equation

Ag +e Ag

Multiply the reduction equation by 3 to get

3Ag + 3e 3Ag

Add equation then cancel any identical species that appears on both sides of the equation to get
balanced redox equation

Al Al3+ + 3e
3Ag + 3e 3Ag

⸫ Al + 3Ag + 3e → Al3+ + 3e + 3Ag

Al + 3Ag + 3e → Al3+ + 3e + 3Ag

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 = Al + 3Ag Al3+ + 3Ag

Find the oxidation number of Cl atom in ClO3- given that the oxidation of oxygen is -2

Solution

▪ ClO3- is a polyatomic ion with charge of -1. The oxidation number of each oxygen atom O= -2
▪ ⸫Let oxidation number of Cl be Y
▪ Y + 3(o) = -2 ( rule number 6)
▪ Y + 3 ( -2) = -1
▪ Y – 6= -1
▪ Y = -1+6
▪ Y = +5
▪ ⸫ The oxidation number of Cl in ClO3- is +5

Explain briefly how each of the following prevents rusting of iron

Painting

▪ It prevents water and oxygen coming into contact with metal

Galvanizing

▪ This prevents rusting covering or coating iron with a molten layer of zinc. The zinc reacts with
water and oxygen in preference to iron

Using the equation explain how chlorofluocarbon CFC) contribute to the depletion of the ozone
layer

▪ Gases from CFC destroy the ozone layer. when such gases get to the atmosphere the chlorine
atom split the ozone to oxygen atoms and oxygen molecules
▪ The free oxygen atom then combines with ozone molecule to form another oxygen molecule eg.
▪ O3g → O2 + [ O ]
▪ O3g + [ O ] → 2O2 (g)
▪ This results in depletion of the ozone layer

Using an equation discuss how anhydrous copper ll sulphate can be used to test presence of water

▪ Anhydrous copper sulphate is white. When water is added to a sample of anhydrous copper
sulphate it turns blue.
▪ Change of color from white to blue indicates that the added liquid is water
▪ CuSO4 + H2O → CuSO4 H2O

Give one example of waste product from chemical reaction

▪ Gases
▪ Liquids
▪ Ashes
▪ Sludges
▪ Toxic chemical

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State two ways of disposing chemical waste in the laboratory

▪ Draining using a lot of water

▪ Use of a normal waste bin
Name the atom that initiate the process of ozone layer depletion.
▪ Chlorine (Cl).
Impact Of Human Activities On Natural Disasters

▪ Deforestation. Hard surfaces such as sewers, parking lots, and concrete surfaces causes
water to move faster as compared to natural channels. Cutting down natural vegetation
and trees leaves land bare resulting in more erosion when water flows.
▪ Urban development. Urban development has an impact on natural disasters. It
destructs the natural system of waterways.
▪ Natural wetlands destruction. The destruction of natural wetlands causes devastating
floods during peak floods along river basins. More natural wetlands lower water level
during heavy rains.
▪ Agriculture. Large scale practice of agriculture can result in the depletion of top soils
causing weakening of vegetation and inability to protect against flooding.

Effects Of Natural And Human Activities On The Atmosphere

▪ Destruction of buildings
▪ Death of animals and human beings
▪ Change in landscape
▪ Damage of vegetation
▪ Global warming due to production of harmful gases
Ways Of Mitigating Effects Of Global Warming

▪ Use of renewable sources of energy such as solar energy, wind power, and hydroelectric
power.
▪ Automobiles can be fitted with catalytic converters to clean up exhaust gases before they
are released into the atmosphere.
▪ Afforestation and deforestation in order to reduce the carbon dioxide levels in the
atmosphere.

Importance Of The Ozone Layer

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 ▪ The ozone layer acts a s natural ultraviolet (UV) rays shield for the earth. It absorbs
93% to 99% of the sun’s ultraviolet light. The UV light is very dangerous to life on
earth
Problems Associated With The Depletion Of The Ozone Layer

▪ Increased risk for developing several types of skin cancer.

▪ Cataract problems
▪ Damage to immune system.
▪ Aging of the skin. This results in a person looking older than what they actually are.
▪ Respiratory problems such as difficulty in breathing, chest pain, and throat irritation.
▪ Leads to the decline of some amphibians by affecting every stage of their life cycle.
▪ Causes disruptions in the food chain and the oceanic and carbon cycle.
▪ It alters physiological and developmental processes of the plants
How does activities of termites contribute to global warming?
▪ termites contribute to global warming by producing methane (CH4), a potent greenhouse gas, as a
by-product of their digestive process. This methane is released into the atmosphere, contributing
to the greenhouse effect and global warming.
What is the difference between temporary water hardness and permanent water hardness?
▪ temporary hardness can be easily removed by boiling, while permanent hardness requires more
complex treatment methods.

Name a gas which support burning

▪ Oxygen gas

Explain why it is difficult to remove noble gases from air

▪ Noble gases are difficult to remove from air because they are chemically inert. This mean that
they do not react with another element or compound so they not easily captured or trapped.

Explain why nitrogen is largely considered as inert element

▪ It is very reluctant to react with other element this is because it has a high ionization energy which
means that it takes a lot of energy to remove an electron from the nitrogen atom

Explain how nitrogen can be used to preserve food in plastic containers

▪ Oxygen is removed from the container and nitrogen gas is flushed into the container replacing
oxygen. Oxygen removal inhibits the growth of bacteria and nitrogen inert properties prevent
spoilage and rancidity
Why is nitrogen gas inert at room temperature?

▪ Nitrogen gas (N2) is inert at room temperature due to:

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 ▪ Strong Triple Bond. The nitrogen molecule has a strong triple bond (N≡N) that requires a
significant amount of energy to break.
▪ Low Reactivity. This strong bond makes nitrogen molecules relatively unreactive at room
temperature.
Why are most covalent compounds that are in liquid form volatile?

▪ Because covalent compounds have weak intermolecular forces, which means they require less
energy to evaporate, making them volatile.

Mention any two chemical properties of phosphorus.

▪ it reacts with oxygen to form oxides such phosphorus pentaoxide

▪ it reacts with chloride to phosphorus chloride
▪ it reacts with metals
▪ it reacts with base

Mention any two sources of nitrogen.

▪ air,
▪ leguminous plants,
▪ fertilizer,
▪ proteins

Explain why nitrogen is unreactive.

▪ nitrogen is a diatomic 1 gas which has a strong triple covalent bond 1which needs more energy to
break before react 1 hence unreactive

A gas jar is suspected to contain chlorine gas. Describe how it can be tested

▪ put moist blue litmus paper at mouth of test containing chlorine gas 1 -observe - moist blues
litmus paper turns red and get

Given below are general formula of homologous series represented by letter P, Q, R and S

▪ P Cn H2n
▪ Q Cn H2n+2
▪ R Cn H2n+1 COOH
▪ S Cn H2nO

Name the homologous series represented by letter P, R and S

▪ P Alkene
▪ R Alkanoic acid ( carboxylic acid )
▪ S Alkanal

Which general formula represent oxyl carbon

▪ R

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Draw a structural of a compound with 3 carbon atoms in homologous S

Name the compound above

▪ Propanal

Write a test that can be used to distinguish a compound of homologous series Q could be
distinguished from a compound of homologous series R

▪ Solubility test, compound R dissolves in water to gives us one layer while compound Q do not
dissolve in water it gives two layers after adding water
The following are general formula of some organic compounds.

▪ R. Cn H2n
▪ S. Cn H2n+2
▪ T. Cn H2n+1 OH
▪ U. Cn H2n+1 COOH

Which general formulae represents unsaturated hydrocarbon?

▪ R/Cn H2n

Explain how you could distinguish compound R from S.

• Put about 3 cm3 of compound R and S each test tube

• Add about three drops of bromine solution to each test tube
The test tube in which the brown colour disappears contains compound R while the other
one contains S.

Draw and name two branched isomers belonging to homologous series U having 5 carbon atoms.

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Assuming compounds from homologous series T and U are of the same relative molecular mass,
which compound will have higher melting and boiling point? Explain your answer

▪ Compound U will have higher melting boiling points than T because it forms two hydrogen
bonds between its molecules which requires more heat energy to break while compound T forms
only one.

The following are organic compounds X, Y and Z

▪ X. CH3CH2COCH2CH3
▪ Y.CH3CH2CH2COOH
▪ Z. CH3CH2CH2CHO

Name the compounds X and Z

▪ X pentan-3-one
▪ Z butanal

To which family does element Y belong?

▪ alkanoic acid or carboxylic acid

Describe a test that can be used to distinguish sample of element X from Y.

(Acid test)

▪ put X and Y in two test tubes

▪ add sodium hydroxide and 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator
▪ X will remain pink
▪ Y will turn colourless

Or Brady test

▪ put X and Y in two test tubes

▪ add 2,4 – DNPH to each test tube
▪ X will form yellow/ orange precipitate
▪ Y will remain the same

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Name the functional group of alkanals and alkanones.
▪ -CHO(aldehyde group)
▪ -CO- ketone group or -C(=O)-
An organic compound has the following general formula CnH2n+1 COOH
Name one source of the compound.
▪ Vinegar
Write down condensed formula of the compound with 4 carbon atoms.
▪ C3H7COOH
Give a reason why the organic compound dissolve in water.
▪ Presence of polar functional group like OH that can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules
increasing solubility

Figure below is a diagram of an experiment setup

Name the alkanol produced in the experiment

▪ Ethanol

Write down balanced equation of the process that takes place when alkanol in is ignited in the
plentiful supply of oxygen

▪ Ethanol + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

▪ C2H3OH l + 3O2 g → 2O2 g + 3H2O l

Figure below is a diagram showing the arrangement of polymer chains after heating plastic A and
B

A B

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Identify the difference in arrangement of polymer chains between the plastic A and B

▪ Plastic A have cross links between polymer chains while plastic B have no cross-linked chain

Explain the effect of the different in arrangement between plastic A and B

▪ Arrangement in plastic A makes it hard and cannot be melted again once they are made while
arrangement in B makes it more flexible for this reason they do not break easily
State any two differences between natural and synthetic polymers

▪ Natural polymers are biodegradable while synthetic polymers are nonbiodegradable

▪ Natural polymers occur naturally while synthetic polymers are man made
▪ Natural polymers are produced from biological processes while synthetic polymers are produced
from chemical processes

State one use of polythene

▪ Used in making pipes and plastic bags

▪ Used in making insulation for electrical wiring
▪ Used in bowls and bottles

What is the difference between additional polymerization and condensation polymerization?

▪ Additional polymerization this is a process which involves repeated addition reactions of

monomers of the same type while condensation polymerization this is reaction whereby a small
molecule is eliminated between two different monomers

Define conformers.

▪ are compounds that have the same molecular formula and same structural formula but have
different shapes

or

▪ compounds that have same molecular formula but differ by rotation of a carbon bond

Define Isomers
▪ Isomers are molecules that have Same Molecular Formula but Different Structural Arrangement
Figure below shows structure of some organic compounds A, B, C, D and E.

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Name compound A.
▪ pentane
Name one oxidising agent that is used to convert compound E to produce compound C.
▪ Acidified potassium dichromate(k2cr2O7/H+
Explain why compound D does not conduct electricity?
▪ it is a covalent compound without free ions or delocalized electrons to carry electric current

Draw any two isomers of butane.

Given the following reaction

Name the type of polymerization above

▪ addition polymerization

What is the name of the polymer formed?

▪ Polyethene

Explain how the reaction above occurs to form a polymer

▪ heat breaks the double bond of ethene1 releasing free bond 1which join to together form
polyethene

Draw the structural formula of 2-methylpropan-2-ol

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Mention the class of alcohol to which 2-methylpropan-2-ol belong.

▪ tertiary alcohol
Figure shows some isomers of some organic compounds.

▪ Explain the difference in melting and boiling points between structure A and B.
▪ Structure A has a higher melting and boiling point than structure B because it has a large surface
area which result into stronger van der Waals’ forces.

Explain how green house gases affect global temperature

▪ The sun sends out energy as light and ultra-violet ( cv) rays. These warms the earth, which reflect
some of the energy away again as heat.
▪ Some of this heat escapes from the atmosphere. However, some of reflected heat energy is
absorbed by green how gas in the atmosphere. So, the air and the earth are warmed
State any two problems associated with the depletion of ozone layer

▪ Exposure to UV radiation damage the eye resulting to blindness, cataracts and other eye diseases
▪ Weakening of the human immune system
▪ UV radiation negatively affect crops such as wheat, rice, maize, tomatoes etc.

Two major sources of wastes

▪ Domestic source
▪ Farming
▪ Industrial source

Mention one way of treating waste using heat.

▪ Incineration

Blessingsnyoze kugwetsa online group 0990638340

Define waste management

▪ Refers to the collection, transport, processing and disposal of waste.

Explain why burning waste is not good way of waste disposal

▪ Burning encourage air pollution

Explain the importance of ozone layer

▪ It acts as natural shield of the earth which absorbs 93% - 99% of the dangerous sun ultraviolet (
cv) light which can cause skin cancer, damage to crops and harm to aquatic

Give any two effects of hard water in everyday life

▪ It wastes soap due to scum formation

▪ Can cause hot water pipes to block
▪ Can cause electrical appliances such as kettles and boilers to fur hence making them inefficient

Describe any one way of disposing household waste

▪ Composting. The waste is dumped into a dug pit so that it decomposes

Classification Based On Physical State

▪ Based on physical state, wastes can be classified as solid wastes, liquids wastes,
gaseous wastes and sludge wastes

Classification Based On Degradability

▪ Biodegradable wastes. These are wastes that can decay relatively quickly as a result
of the action of bacteria. They include animal and plant waste.
▪ Non–biodegradable wastes. These are wastes that do not decompose naturally.
Examples include plastics and glass

Recycling Of Metals And Plastics

▪ Collection – getting the recyclable plastics from different waste disposal sites.
▪ Sorting – the plastics are sorted out in terms of type, colour, even how it was made.
▪ Cleaning – the goal is to remove impurities and everything that is not recyclable.
▪ Resizing – it consists of shredding the material into small particles, making it easier to
process, reshape.
▪ Identification – the small particles are tested to determine their quality and class.
▪ Compounding – it involves smashing and melting the material pellets. The pellets can then
be used in the production of other products.

Importance Of Recycling Metals And Plastics

▪ It preserves natural resources. It prevents depletion of the metals and materials used to
manufacture plastics.
▪ It reduces emissions of harmful greenhouse gases.
▪ It promotes economic development by saving money that could be spent on mining and
processing of new metals and plastics. The money can be channeled into other
development programs that can help raise the living standards of the people and the
economy as a whole.
▪ It saves money since recycled materials are generally cheap. This means the actual cost
of buying the material is reduced hence saving money.

Ways Of Minimiizng Wastes

▪ Recycling
▪ Reusing
▪ Reduction at source
Advantages of recycling materials

▪ It reduces pollution.
▪ It reduces the cost of producing new products.

Describe how an easter of ethyl ethanoate can be prepared from ethanoic acid. In your description
include chemical equation for the reaction between ethanoic acid and ethanol to produce the named
easter.

▪ When organic acid is reacted with alkanols, they form ester and the reaction process is known as
esterification
▪ Ethanoic acid will react with ethanol in the presence of few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid
to form ethyl ethanoate
▪ Concentrated sulphuric ( V) acid is the catalyst for the reaction for example the equation for the
reaction as follow
▪ Ethanoic acid + ethanol ethyl ethanoate + water
CH3CHOOH + CH3CH2OH CH3CHOO CH2 CH2CH3 + H2O

Describe how the empirical formula of magnesium oxide can be determined

▪ First know the mass of magnesium oxide ( Mg = 24, O = 16 )

 ▪ Then convert the mass of each element into moles to find number of moles, we divide mass
of substance by molar mass
▪ After finding number of moles for each element then convert the moles into simplest mole
ratio
▪ Then write the empirical formula for magnesium oxide using simplest mole ratio

Table below shows electronic configuration of elements P,Q R

Atom Electronic configuration

P 2, 8, 1

Q 2, 8, 7

R 2, 8, 8

Write down formula of the compound formed when P react with Q

▪ NaCl

Name type of bond formed above

▪ Ionic bond

Explain how the bond between P and Q is formed

▪ This bond is formed when a metal reacts with non-metal

Give two physical properties of the compound formed between P and Q

▪ High boiling point

▪ Conduct electricity

Define the term rate of reaction

▪ Is the change in the amount of reactant or product per unit time

Table below shows the volume of gas produced during a certain reaction within a specific time. Use
it to answer the question that follow

Volume of gas produced (cm3) Time (s)

0 0
 15 5

27 20

28 25

30 30

30 45

Plot a graph of volume of gas produced against time in second

Explain why the reaction between zinc and dilute hydrochloric acid is slower than the reaction
between zinc and concentrated hydrochloric acid.

▪ In concentrated hydrochloric acid there are many particles of the acid which means more
collisions with particles of zinc metal this translates to high reaction rate while in dilute
hydrochloric acid there are few particles of acid which means less collisions hence slow
reaction

State two ways of expressing concentration of a solution.

▪ Molality
▪ Percentage composition
Draw structure of pentanol (C5H11OH) showing a tertiary alcohol.

Complete the following chemical equation.

CH3CH2COCH2 + NaHSO3 → ?
▪
CH3CH2COCH2 + NaHSO3 → CH3CHOHSO-3Na+

Name the type of reaction.

▪ Additional reaction.

Give any two uses of diamond.

▪ make jewellery (rings, neckless, watch, earrings)

▪ making drilling equipment
▪ making cutting tools

State the difference between isomer and conformers.

▪ Isomer are the compound having the same molecular formula but different structure formula
while conformers are compound that differ from each other by the rotation of single bond in the
molecule.

Write any three isomers of pentanoic acids and name them using lUPAC naming rule.
Give any 3 properties of thermosetting plastics.

▪ they cannot be recycled.

▪ the do not melt, decompose on heated.
▪ their polymer chain is cross linked.

Explain why thermosoftening plastic melt when subjected to heat.

▪ This is because the intermolecular forces are weak and there are no cross link or branches
between the polymer chain.

Give any two examples of thermosoftening plastics.

▪ polyethene
▪ polyvinylchloride
▪ nylon
▪ Teflon
▪ Polystyrene

Define the term greenhouse gases.

▪ Are compound of air whose accumulation in the atmosphere cause rise in global temperature.

Mention any three examples of greenhouse gases.

▪ Carbon dioxide.
▪ Sulphur dioxide.
▪ Methane.

Explain how extensive burning of organic fuel causes global warming

▪ extensive burning of fuel produces carbon dioxide which accumulates in the atmosphere resulting
in greenhouse effect which causes global warming

Give any two benefits of recycling.

▪ it reduces pollution.
▪ It reduces the cost of producing new products.
Explain what is meant by 3RS in waste management.

▪ Reduce. Buy and consume less to create less waste i.e. damping of wastes in a site
▪ Reuse. Use items multiple times before discarding them e.g. plastic bags .
▪ Recycle. Process used materials like plastics, paper or metals into new products e.g paper.

Give any two types of waste based on degradability.

▪ biodegradable
▪ Nonbiodegradable

Mention any two advantages of incineration.

▪ reduce waste volume

▪ it produces heat energy which can be used for other purposes
▪ prevent emission of methane if controlled
▪ it is cheap

Explain how hot water from industry pollute water.

▪ water results reduction of oxygen in water, this leads to death of fish due to suffocation.

Define the term limiting reagents.

▪ Is the reactants that are completely used up in the reaction while other is still available.

Magnesium react with oxygen to form Magnesium oxide, according to the following equation.

2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

If 6g of Mg react with 2g of oxygen

Determine the limiting reagent in the reaction.( RAM: of Mg = 24 and O =16

With aid of well labeled diagram and chemical equation describe Laboratory Preparation of
Ammonia

▪ Ammonia can be prepared in the laboratory by reacting ammonium chloride with calcium
hydroxide.
▪ Chemical Equation
▪ ammonium chloride + calcium hydroxide → calcium chloride + water + ammonia
▪ 2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2 + 2H2O + 2NH3
▪ Preparation: Ammonium chloride and calcium hydroxide are mixed in a flask.
▪ Heating: The mixture is gently heated, releasing ammonia gas.
▪ Collection: Ammonia gas is collected by upward displacement of air or using a drying tube as
shown in the diagram above.
With aid of well labeled diagram and chemical equation describe Industrial manufacture of
ammonia by haber process

▪ The Haber process is a method of producing ammonia (NH3) from nitrogen (N2) and hydrogen
(H2) gases. This process is crucial for the production of fertilizers and other chemicals.
▪ Reaction Equation
▪ N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)
▪ Conditions
▪ High pressure: 200-250 atm
▪ Moderate temperature: 400-500°C
▪ Iron catalyst: Promoted with potassium oxide and aluminum oxide
▪ Gas mixture preparation: Nitrogen and hydrogen gases are mixed in a 1:3 ratio.
▪ Compression: The gas mixture is compressed to high pressure.
▪ Catalytic reaction: The compressed gas mixture is passed over the iron catalyst.
▪ Ammonia separation: Ammonia is separated from unreacted gases through condensation or
absorption.
With aid of well labeled diagram and chemical equation describe Laboratory Preparation of Nitric
Acid
 ▪ Nitric acid can be prepared in the laboratory by reacting potassium nitrate with concentrated
sulfuric acid.
▪ Chemical Equation
▪ KNO3 + H2SO4 → KHSO4 + HNO3
▪ Preparation: Potassium nitrate is mixed with concentrated sulfuric acid in a retort.
▪ Heating: The mixture is heated gently, causing the nitric acid to vaporize.
▪ Distillation: The nitric acid vapor is distilled off and collected in a receiver.
With aid of flowchart diagram and chemical equation describe manufacture of nitric acid by the
Ostwald process
The Ostwald process is a widely used method for producing nitric acid (HNO3) on an industrial
scale.

▪ Chemical Equations
▪ Ammonia + oxygen → . Nitrogen ll oxide + steam
▪ 4NH3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O
▪ Nitric oxide oxidation:
▪ 2NO + O2 → 2NO2
▪ Nitrogen dioxide absorption:
▪ 2NO2 + H2O → HNO2 + HNO3
▪ Excess air is passed to oxidize nitrous acid and nitric acid
▪ Nitrous acid + oxygen → nitric acid
▪ 2HNO2 + O2 → 2HNO3
▪ Ammonia oxidation: Ammonia is mixed with air and passed over a platinum-rhodium catalyst at
high temperatures (around 900°C).
▪ Nitric oxide oxidation: The nitric oxide produced is cooled and mixed with air to oxidize it to
nitrogen dioxide.
▪ Nitric acid production: The nitrogen dioxide is absorbed in water to produce nitric acid.
With aid of flow chart diagram and chemical equation describe production of ammonium nitrate
fertilizer
 ▪ In this process, a concentrated ammonium nitrate solution is sprayed into a prilling tower or
chamber, where it is cooled and solidified into small particles or prills.
▪ Equation as follow
▪ Ammonia + nitric acid → ammonium nitrate
▪ NH3 (aq) + HNO3 (aq) → NH4NO3(aq)
▪ Solution preparation: Ammonium nitrate solution is prepared through the reaction of ammonia
and nitric acid.
▪ Concentration: The solution is concentrated through evaporation.
▪ Prilling: The concentrated solution is sprayed into the prilling tower, where it is cooled and
solidified into prills.
▪ Collection: The prills are collected and packaged for use as fertilizer.
With aid of diagram describe Extraction of sulphur by frasch process

▪ Drilling: Wells are drilled into the sulfur deposit, typically 150-300 meters deep.
▪ Superheated water injection: Superheated water (around 160°C) is pumped into the deposit to
melt the sulfur.
▪ Melting: The superheated water melts the sulfur, creating a molten sulfur pool.
▪ Air injection: Compressed air is injected into the well to froth the molten sulfur, making it less
dense.
▪ Lifting: The froth mixture of molten sulfur and water is lifted to the surface through a pipe.
▪ Collection: The molten sulfur is collected in a pit or tank, where it cools and solidifies.
▪ Purification: The solidified sulfur is then purified and packaged for use.
With aid of diagram and flow chart manufacture of sulfuric acid by the contact process: you should
also include chemical equation

▪ The contact process is a widely used method for producing sulfuric acid (H2SO4) on an industrial
scale. Sulfur burning: Sulfur is burned in air to produce sulfur dioxide (SO2).
▪ Sulfur burning: S + O2 → SO2
▪ SO2 oxidation: The sulfur dioxide is oxidized to sulfur trioxide (SO3) using a vanadium(V) oxide
catalyst.
▪ SO2 oxidation: 2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3
▪ SO3 absorption: The sulfur trioxide is absorbed in sulfuric acid to produce oleum (H2S2O7).
▪ . SO3 absorption: SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7
▪ Dilution: The oleum is diluted with water to produce sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
▪ Dilution: H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4
▪ Sulphur trioxide is not directly dissolved in water because the reaction produces a lot of heat that
acid sprays (fumes) are formed instead of liquid acid.
With aid of flow chart describe how you can manufacture of ammonium sulphate: in your
explanation you should include chemical equation

▪ Reaction: Ammonia gas is reacted with sulfuric acid in a reactor to form ammonium sulfate. The
reaction is typically carried out in a stirred tank reactor.
▪ Chemical Equation
▪ 2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4
▪ Crystallization: The resulting solution is then cooled or evaporated to crystallize the ammonium
sulfate. This can be done through various methods, such as:
▪ Cooling the solution in a crystallizer
▪ Evaporating the solution in a vacuum evaporator
▪ Filtration: The crystals are filtered to separate them from the mother liquor. This is typically done
using a centrifuge or a filter press.
▪ Washing: The crystals are washed with water or a dilute solution to remove impurities.
▪ Drying: The crystals are dried in a rotary dryer or a fluidized bed dryer to produce a dry product.
 ▪ Packaging: The dried ammonium sulfate is then packaged in bags or bulk containers for
distribution.
Explain how 500cm³ of 0.2M of sodium chloride solution can be prepared using sodium chloride
crystals. The explaination should be included all necessary mathematical calculations (Relative
atomic mass of Na=23 and Cl= 35.5).

▪ Firstly, find the mass of sodium chloride by using this formula.

▪ Mass = Molarity x Molar mass x Volume.
▪ Mass=0.2M(23x35) x 500÷1000.
▪ Mass=0.2M (58.5g) x 0.5dm³.
▪ Mass=5.85g.
▪ 5.85g solid of NaCl weighed on beam balance and place in beaker.
▪ Using distilled water, the solid of NaCl is dissolved quantitatively.
▪ Then the solution of NaCl was transferred to 500cm³ of volumetric flask, the beaker filled with
distilled water several times adding solution into volumetric flask.
▪ Distilled water is added into flask up to zero mark.
▪ The flask is covered on top and shaken to mix thoroughly.

The electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is essentially the electrolysis of water. With the aid
of clearly labelled diagram show that this sentence is true.

Support your answer by giving relevant ionic equation and explanation for the reaction that takes
place at the anode and cathode during the electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid.

▪ When the switch is closed electrons move from negative terminal of the battery to the cathode. In
the liquid ions move to the electrode of opposite charge.
▪ at the cathode hydrogen ions gain electrons according to the equation
o 4H+(aq) + 4e- → 2H2 (g)
▪ this is reduction (the 4 electrons are there to balance the half equation at the anode)
▪ at the anode the OH- ions give up electrons and oxygen gas bubbles off according to the equation
o 4OH-(aq) - 4e- → O2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
▪ instead of dilute sulphuric acid being decomposed it is the water that gets decomposed in. since
this is electrolysis of water
PURIFICATION OF COPPER
 ▪ The anode is made of impure copper. The cathode is pure copper. The electrolyte is
dilute copper (II) sulphate solution.
▪ The copper in the anode dissolves into the solution. This is oxidation reaction. The
half reaction equation at the anode is: Cu (s) Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-
▪ The copper ions are reduced and deposited on the pure copper cathode. The half
reaction equation at the cathode is: Cu2+ + 2e- Cu (s)
▪ The impurities do not dissolve; they just drop to the bottom of the container.
With the aid of a well labelled diagram. Describe an experiment that could be done in
order to electroplate an iron spoon with silver metal. Your explanation should include
relevant equations

At anode
▪ copper metal dissolves and ionizes in copper sulphate according to the following
equation
▪ Cu (s)  Cu2+ + 2e-
▪ the size of anode will decrease in size
At cathode
▪ the lost electron goes to the cathode through the external circuit
▪ the copper ions get attracted to cathode (spoon) and gain electrons to form copper
metal Cu2+ + 2e-  Cu (s) 1
▪ iron spoon will be coated with copper and increase in size
ELECTROPLATING OF IRON WITH COPPER
 ▪ When The switch is closed the copper metal in the anode dissolves and is
oxidized as follow
▪ Cu (s) Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-
▪ The copper ions (Cu2+) are attracted to the cathode. At the cathode, the copper
ions are gain electrons and are reduced to copper atoms.
▪ Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu (s)
▪ The copper metal coats the iron metal.
▪ The iron metal is said to be electroplated.
applications of electroplating and its benefits to society
▪ To make objects look attractive. For example, most necklaces and wristwatches are
plated with silver to make them look shiny and beautiful.
▪ To protect metals from corrosion. For example, steel car bumpers are coated with
chromium to protect them from reacting with water.
▪ To increase the strength or size of the metal. If a metal bar is small, it can be made
bigger by adding a layer on it through electroplating.
▪ To extract and purify metals from ores e.g. copper.
With well labelled diagram describe Electrolysis of brine (concentrated solution of sodium
chloride, NaCl (aq)).
 ▪ The ions present in solution are Na+, Cl- from the salt, and H+ and OH- from the
water. The figure below shows the reactions at each electrode as the electrolysis
proceeds.
▪ At the cathode, the H+ accepts electrons since hydrogen is less reactive than
sodium. The equation for the reaction is:
▪ 2H+ (aq) + 2e- H2 (g).
▪ This is reduction. The hydrogen gas bubbles off.
▪ At the anode, the Cl- ions give up electrons more readily than the OH- ions do.
The equation for the reaction is:
▪ 2Cl- (aq) 2e- Cl2 (g).
▪ This is oxidation. The chlorine gas bubbles off.
▪ When the hydrogen and chlorine gases bubble off, Na+ ions and OH- ions remain
behind, so a solution of sodium hydroxide(NaOH) is formed.

Table shows the molecular formula and boiling points of compound.

compound Molecular formula Boiling point 0C

A C2H4 -104

B C2H5OH 79

C CH3COOH 118

D H2O 100

E C2H6 -89
Which compounds in the table is hydrocarbon.

▪ A and E.

Which compounds in the table are soluble.

▪ B, C and D.

Which compounds in the table is gases at room temperature.

▪ A and B.

Explain why boiling point of compound D is higher than boiling point of compound E.

▪ Because compound D its intermolecular force is strong due to hydrogen bond.

Describe test which can be done to distinguish compound C and D.

▪ Litmus test, blue litmus paper will change its colour in compound C while in compound D no
colour change (will remain the same).

The following structural formula of four molecules with the molecular formula C4H8.

1) C-C=C 2) C -C 3) C - C 4) C

C C-C C= C C-C=C

Name the molecules of 1 and 2 .

▪ But -2 -ene.
▪ But-1 -ane./ Butane.

Which compound are conformer of each other.

▪ 1 and 3.

Describe how concentration of 20cm³ sodium chloride solution can be determined using
evaporation method.

▪ Firstly, measure the volume of sodium chloride solution using measuring cylinder and record it in
dm³.
▪ Heat the sodium chloride solution in the break until all solution evaporate.
▪ collect all solid sodium chloride remain in a beaker.
▪ weigh it in the digital balance and record the mass.
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔(𝒈)
▪ Calculate the number of moles by Moles= 𝑹𝑴𝑭
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔
▪ Then calculate the concentration of the solution using concentration=
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
▪ Then resulting concentration will be the concentration of 23cm3 of sodium chloride.
Outline the procedure to be followed in order to prepare a standard solution of sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) of volume 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑 and concentration of 0.2M. (𝑹𝑨𝑴: 𝑵𝒂 = 𝟐𝟑, 𝑶 = 𝟏𝟔, 𝑯 = 𝟏)
▪ Work out the volume of mass of sodium hydroxide to be dissolved using the formula mass =
500 40g
M × V × Mr = 0.2M × dm3 × = 40g 2 mark
1000 mol

▪ Using a balance measure 40g of sodium hydroxide in a 100 ml beaker. 1 mark

▪ Add distilled water to the beaker and gently stir to dissolve the sodium hydroxide 1 mark
▪ Transfer the mixture into a 500cm3 volumetric flask. 1 mark
▪ Using distilled water rinse the beaker and transfer the content into the volumetric flask. 1 mark
▪ Gently add distilled water to the volumetric flask up to the mark. 1 mark
▪ Stopper the flask and gently turn it upside down several times to evenly mix the solution. 1 mark
▪ Transfer the solution into a reagent bottle and label it. 1 mark

LIMITING AND EXCESS REAGENT

▪ The limiting reagent is the reactant that is completely used up in a reaction while the other is
still available. The quantity of the limiting reagent controls the amount of product formed by
the reaction. The excess reagent is the reactant that remains after the chemical reaction has
reached equilibrium.

DETERMINING LIMITING AND EXCESS REAGENTS IN A CHEMICAL REACTION

▪ To determine the limiting reagent and the excess reagent in a chemical reaction, there are four
important guidelines.

1 Ensure the chemical equation is balanced.

2 Convert given masses into moles.
3 Calculate the number of moles of product produced by each reactant.
4 The reactant that produces the smaller number of moles of product is the limiting reagent.
WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION

▪ Water of crystallization refers to the water present in crystals of some salt compounds. Water
of crystallization is also called water of hydration.
▪ Salts containing water of crystallization are called hydrates or hydrated compounds. Some
of the hydrates are shown in the table below.
Name of salt Formula Number of molecules of water of
crystallization

Copper (II) sulphate pentahydrate CuSO4.5H2O 5

 Magnesium sulphateMgSO4.7H2O 7
heptahydrate

Sodium carbonate decahydrate Na2CO3.10H2O 10

Cobalt (II) chloride hexahydrate CoCl2.6H2O 6

▪ When hydrated salts are heated, they lose their water of crystallization. The resulting crystal is
called anhydrous, meaning without water.

DETERMINING THE PERCENTAGE OF WATER IN MOLECULAR AND HYDRATED IONIC

COMPOUNDS

▪ The percentage of water in any molecular or hydrated ionic compound can be determined both
experimentally and theoretically.

• Experimentally, the percentage of water in a hydrate is found by comparing the mass of water
driven off, usually by heating, to the total mass of the compound.

• Theoretically, the percentage of water is found by dividing the water of crystallization relative

formula mass by the relative formula mass of the hydrate.

Example 1

▪ Calculate the percentage of water crystallization in sodium

carbonate decahydrate (Na2CO3.10H2O). RAM of Na = 23, C = 12, O = 16 and H = 1).

Solution

Relative formula mass of water = 10 x 18

= 180

Relative formula mass of Na2CO3 10H2O = (23x2) + (12x1) + (16x3) + 180

= 46 + 12 + 48 + 180

= 286 amu
 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Percentage of water = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

180
= x 100
286

= 62.937%

Example 2

On heating 1.250 g hydrated barium chloride, 1.060 g of anhydrous barium chloride remained.
Calculate the percentage of water of crystallization in the compound.

Solution
Total mass of hydrate = 1.250 g

Mass of anhydrous salt = 1.060 g

Mass water of crystallization = mass of hydrate – mass of
anhydrous

= 1.250 g – 1.060 g

= 0.19 g

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Percentage ofwatercrystallization= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑒

0.19
= x100%
1.250

= 15.2%

Experiment

Aim

To determine the percentage of water in hydrated copper sulphate

Materials
Hydrated copper sulphate, evaporating basin (tin), burner, triple beam balance, tripod stand and wire
gauze.

Procedure

1. Weigh the tin on the triple beam balance and record its mass in the appropriate space in the table of
results.
2. Add the crystals of hydrated copper sulphate until the reading increases by approximately 5g.
3. Record the mass of the tin plus the hydrated copper sulphate.
4. Find the mass of the hydrated copper sulphate.
5. Heat the tin gently until the hydrated copper sulphate turns into a white powder.
6. Weigh the tin plus white powder (anhydrous copper sulphate) and record the results in the
appropriate space in the table.
7. Work out the mass of the white powder.
8. Find the mass of water lost.
9. Calculate the percentage of water in the hydrated copper sulphate.
Table of results
Item Mass (g)

Tin

Tin + hydrated copper sulphate

Hydrated copper sulphate

Tin + anhydrous copper sulphate

Anhydrous copper sulphate

Water lost

• Mass of hydrated copper sulphate = mass of tin + hydrated copper sulphate – mass of tin
• Mass of anhydrous copper sulphate = mass of tin + anhydrous copper sulphate – mass of tin

• Mass of water lost = mass of hydrated copper sulphate – mass of white powder

EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAE OF A COMPOUND

1. EMPIRICAL FORMULA

➢ Empirical formula is the formula that contains the lowest number of atoms that make up a
compound.
➢ For example, in the molecular formula of glucose, C6H12O6 the ratio of atoms is 6:12:6. This
can be simplified to 1:2:1. Therefore, the empirical formula of glucose would be written as
CH2O.

CALCULATING EMPIRICAL FORMULA

The empirical formula of any compound can be worked out from:

• mass composition of a compound

• percentage composition by mass of a compound

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR CALCULATING EMPIRICAL FORMULA

a. Convert mass of each element into moles.

b. Convert the moles into simplest mole ratio.
c. Write the empirical formula using simplest mole ratio.

Example 1

A compound contains 52.2% carbon (C), 13.0% hydrogen (H), and 34.8% oxygen (O). Work out its
empirical formula.

(RAM of C =12, H =1 and O = 16)

SOLUTION

Since percentage is usually out 100, then assume you have 100 g of the substance. Then convert the
percentage of each element into mass in grams. Thus

Carbon = 52.2 g, H = 13.0 g and 34.8 g.

Element Mass (g) Number of moles Simplest mole ratio

Carbon (C) 52.2 4.35

=2
= 4.35
2.175
Hydrogen (H) 13.0 13
=6
= 13
2.175
Oxygen (O) 34.8 2.175
=1
= 2.175
2.175

The empirical formula of the compound is: C2H6O

Example 2

A compound was found to contain 3.2 g of copper, 0.6 g of carbon and 2.4 g of oxygen. Find its
empirical formula. (RAM of Cu = 64, C = 12 and O =16)

Solution
Element Mass (g) Number of Simplest mole
moles ratio
Copper (Cu) 3.2 3.2 0.05
64
= 0.05
=1
0.05
Carbon (C) 0.6 0.6 0.05
12
= 0.05
=1
0.05
Oxygen (O) 2.4 2.4 0.15
= 0.15
16
=3
0.05

The empirical formula of the compound is: CuCO3

2. MOLECULAR FORMULA

A molecular formula is a formula that shows the exact or actual number of atoms of each element in one
molecule of a compound.
CALCULATING MOLECULAR FORMULA

a. Identify or work out the empirical formula

b. Identify the molar mass of the compound
c. Calculate the empirical formula mass
d. Find the empirical formula units using the formula:
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
e. Empirical formula units = 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

f. Multiply the subscripts in the empirical formula. The result is the required molecular formula.

Example 3

Calculate the molecular formula of a compound if its empirical formula is CH2O and has a molar mass
of 180 g/mol. (RAM of C =12, H = 1 and O = 16).

Solution

Empirical formula = CH2O

(12 x 1) + (1 x 2) +
Empirical formula mass =
(16 x 1)
= 30 g/mol

Molar mass of compound = 180 g/mol

180𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
Empirical formula unit =
30𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

= 6

Molecular formula = 6(CH2O)

= C6H12O6

THEORETICAL AND PERCENTAGE YIELD OF A CHEMICAL REACTION

The yield is the amount of product obtained from a chemical reaction. There are two kinds of yield:
theoretical and actual.
Theoretical yield the amount of a product obtained from the balanced equation without doing an
experiment while actual yield is the amount of a product obtained by experiment.

CALCULATING PERCENTAGE YIELD OF A REACTION

The percentage yield of a chemical reaction is calculated using the formula:

Percentage yield = Actual yield x 100%

Theoretical yield

Example 1:

2.34 g of aluminium reacts with excess copper (II) sulphate solution to produce 3.89 of copper
according to the equation:

2Al (s) + 3CuSO4 (aq) Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + 3Cu (s)

Determine the theoretical, actual and percentage yield of copper.

(RAM of Cu = 64 and Al = 27)

Solution

a. To find the theoretical yield from the balanced equation

2 moles Al = 3 moles Cu
2 x 27g Al = 3 x 64g Cu
54g Al = 192g Cu
2.34g Al = y

2.34 x 192
Y= 54

=8.32g

The theoretical yield of copper is 8.32g;

b. The actual yield of copper is 3.89g

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑥 100%
percentage yields = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
3..89 𝑥 100%
= 8.32𝑔
 = 46. 75%

27 You are provided with Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) solution, iron sulphate (FeSO4) solution,
zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) solution, and copper sulphate (CuSO4) Magnesium rods (Mg), iron rods
(Fe), Zinc rods (Zn), and (Cu) rode three test tube and distilled water.

Procedure

a). pour 10ml of Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) into four test tubes.

b). Drop each of the four into each of the test tube.

c). Observe the results for about 3 minutes.

d). Record the results in the table by indicating reaction or no reaction.

e). Rinse the test tube using distilled water.

f). Repeat the steps a to e using Magnesium sulphate , iron sulphate, copper sulphate and
remaining rods.

Arrange the metals in order of increasing reactivity and indicate the direction of an arrow

Mg.

Zn.

Fe.

Cu.

Arrange the metals in order of reducing reactivity and indicate the direction of an arrow
 Cu.

Fe.

Zn.

Mg.

State the most reducing and oxidizing agent.

▪ Most reducing agent is magnesium (Mg)

▪ Most oxidizing agent is copper (cu)

Write the reduction half equation for the reaction between magnesium metal and copper sulphate
solution

Overall equation

▪ Mg(s) + cuso4 (aq) → mgso4 (aq) + cu(s)

Reduction half equation for copper ions

▪ Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)

Oxidation half equation for magnesium

▪
Mg(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2e-

Apart from the volume of the solution, mention any other factors to be kept constant in this
experiment.

▪ Time for the reaction.

▪ Concentration of the solution.

Why is potassium more reactive than zinc?

 ▪ Potassium is more reactive than zinc because it loses electrons more easily due to its larger
atomic size and lower ionization energy compared to zinc.

Identify any two metals that can displace magnesium from its chloride solution.

▪ Potassium (K) and Sodium (Na) can displace magnesium from its chloride solution because they
are more reactive than magnesium.

Give any two examples of endothermic processes.

Photosynthesis

Melting of ice

Given the equation:

NH₄⁺(aq) + H₂O(l) ⇌ H₃O⁺(aq) + NH₃(g)

▪ Conjugate acid: H₃O⁺

▪ Conjugate base: NH₃
Give two conditions necessary for rusting to take place.
▪ Presence of oxygen
▪ Presence of water

INVESTIGATING CONDITIONS FOR RUSTING

Materials: test tubes, test tube rack, iron nails, cooking oil, anhydrous calcium chloride, tap
water Procedure:
a. The apparatus is set up as shown below.

b. The test tubes are left undisturbed for one week.

Expected results
The nail in test tube A will rust while those in test tubes B and C will not rust.
Explanation
In test tube A, rusting occurs because of the presence of both oxygen and water. The tap water
contains air, hence oxygen. All the necessary conditions for rusting are present in test tube A.
In test tube B, rusting will not occur because the boiled water does not contain dissolved
oxygen. The oil prevents any atmospheric oxygen from entering. So, only water is

present. In test tube C, the anhydrous calcium chloride is used to remove water. Hence only
air is present. As a result, rusting will not occur.

PREVENTION OF RUSTING
▪ Painting. It prevents water and oxygen coming into contact with metal.
▪ Greasing and oiling. It prevents water and oxygen from interacting with the metal.
▪ Alloying. An alloy is a mixture of metals. For example, stainless steel is made by
mixing iron with chromium, nickel and manganese. The alloy is corrosion resistant.
▪ Galvanizing. This involves covering or coating iron with a molten layer of zinc. The
zinc reacts with water and oxygen in preference in preference to iron.
▪ Even if the zinc is scratched, the iron does not rust. This is because zinc is higher in
the activity series. Zinc coated iron is called galvanized iron. In galvanizing, zinc is
being sacrificed to protect iron. Hence this type of protection is called sacrificial
protection.
▪ Coating iron with plastic.
▪ Electroplating. This is the process of coating a metal with a thin layer of another
metal by using electrolysis.

Explain why rusting does not occur even if a galvanized metal is badly scratched.

▪ galvanizing involves coating a metal with zinc and zinc is more reactive than iron so when
scratched zinc reacts with water and air instead of iron1hence prevents rusting to take place

Define enthalpy substance.

▪ is the heat content of a substance.

Bond energy.

▪ Is the amount of heat required to break or form 1mole of bond.

Define activation energy.

▪ is minimum amount of energy required to start up a reaction

The table below shows the bond energies. Use it to answer the questions that follows.

bond Bond energy

O-H 464

H-H 436

O=O 489

Determine whether the following reaction is exothermic or endothermic reaction.

2H2 (g) + O2(g) → 2H2O (g)

Working.

H-H: 2(436) = 872kj.

O=O: 1(489) = 489kj.

Total energy=+1361kj.

O-H: 4(464) = 1856kj.

Enthalpy change = H1 - H2.

=1361 - 1856.

=- 495kj.

Therefore, the reaction is exothermic.

Draw the energy level diagram for the reaction.

The balanced equation below shows how a newly discovered type of fuel reacts with oxygen.

Use the bond energy values given in the table to calculate the overall energy change

Bond Bond Energy (KJ/MOL)

N-N 158

N-H 389

O=O 497

N=N 945

O-H 464

Determine the heat change of the reaction.

▪ ∆H = Energy absord during bond breaking − Energy given off during bond making
▪ ∆H = [2(N − N) + 4(N − H) + (O = O)] − [(N ≡ N) + 4(O − H)]
▪ ∆H = [2(158) + 4(389) + (497)] − [(945) + 4(464)]
▪ ∆H = 2369 − 2801 = 432kJ/mol

Suggest a reason why the fuel is used as a rocket fuel.

▪ It produces a lot of heat energy

Hydrogen gas (H2) and Chlorine (Cl2) gas react to form Hydrogen chloride (HCl). H2 + Cl2
→2HCl If the total energy required to break the reactants bonds is 678kJ and total energy
produced is 862kJ,

Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction

▪ To calculate the enthalpy change (ΔH) for the reaction:

▪ ΔH = Energy of products - Energy of reactants
▪ ΔH = Energy released - Energy absorbed
▪ ΔH = 862 kJ - 678 kJ
▪ ΔH = -184 kJ
Is the reaction above endothermic or exothermic? Give a reason.

▪ The reaction is exothermic because the total energy released (862 kJ) is greater than the total
energy absorbed (678 kJ), resulting in a negative ΔH value (-184 kJ). This indicates that heat is
released during the reaction.

Define relative flow value.

▪ is the distance travelled by a spot in comparison to the distance travelled by solvent.

Figure below is chromatogram show analysis results of difference type of sample.

Identify the pure sample.

▪ X.

Which sample contain the greatest number of ingredients.

▪ Y.

Calculate the retention fraction (Rf) of the sample X.

Working.
distance moved by spot
RF=
distance moved by solvent

3
=4

= 0.75

Chromatogram of acid enzymes A and B and three simple sugar as shown below.
Draw solvent front on the chromatogram.

Which two simple sugars present in A and B.

▪ Strand 1 and strand 2

If the solvent travelled 5.1cm and sport strand 1 travelled 1.7cm up to the paper, calculate the
relative flow value
1.7
Rf =
5.1

= 0.333

With the aid of a well labelled diagram, describe an experiment that can be conducted to identify a
pure sample of naphthalene given two sample a and b
Name two sources of phosphorus.

▪ Phosphate rocks: Natural deposits containing phosphorus-rich minerals.

▪ Organic matter: Plant and animal waste, bones, and tissues.

Mention any two products made from Sulphur apart from fertilizer.

▪ Sulphuric acid
▪ Rubber vulcanization

Mention any two applications of precipitation.

▪ Water treatment: Precipitation is used to remove impurities and contaminants from water
▪ Qualitative analysis: Precipitation reactions are used to identify specific ions or compounds in a
sample.

Magnesium and oxygen react to form magnesium oxide according to the equation given below.
2Mg(S) + O2(g) → 2MgO(S) If 6g magnesium and 2g of oxygen are available for the reaction,
 ▪ Determine the limiting reagent. (RAM; O = 16, Mg= 24)
▪ Calculate moles of magnesium and oxygen
▪ Moles of Mg = mass of Mg / atomic mass of Mg = 6 g / 24 g/mol = 0.25 mol
▪ Moles of O₂ = mass of O₂ / molecular mass of O₂ = 2 g / 32 g/mol = 0.0625 mol

Determine limiting reagent

▪ From the equation, 2 moles of Mg react with 1 mole of O₂.

▪ Moles of O₂ required for 0.25 mol Mg = 0.25 / 2 = 0.125 mol
▪ Since 0.0625 mol (available) < 0.125 mol (required), O₂ is the limiting reagent.
▪ Calculate the percentage yield of MgO if 3.8g of MgO is produced.

Calculate theoretical yield of MgO

▪ Moles of MgO produced = 2 × moles of O₂ = 2 × 0.0625 = 0.125 mol

▪ Theoretical mass of MgO = moles of MgO × molecular mass of MgO = 0.125 mol × 40 g/mol = 5
g

Calculate percentage yield

▪ Percentage yield = (actual yield / theoretical yield) × 100

= (3.8 g / 5 g) × 100 = 76%

Balance the redox equation:

▪ Al(s) + Ag(aq) + → Ag(s) + Al(aq) 3+(aq)

▪ Al(s) + 3Ag⁺(aq) → 3Ag(s) + Al³⁺(aq)

For the reaction: Mg(s)+Cu(aq) 2+ →Cu(s)+Mg(aq) 2+ i)

Write the oxidation half equation and reduction half equation.

▪ Oxidation: Mg(s) → Mg²⁺(aq) + 2e⁻

▪ Reduction: Cu²⁺(aq) + 2e⁻ → Cu(s)

Identify the oxidizing agent.

▪ Cu²⁺ (copper(II) ion) is the oxidizing agent.

Below are formulae of some organic compounds. W. C2H5CHO X. C3H7OH Y. CH3COCH3 Z.

C2H5COOH

Name the compounds W and Y

▪ W. C₂H₅CHO: Propanal
▪ Y. CH₃COCH₃: Propanone

Write a balanced chemical equation to show how compound Z reacts with magnesium metal.
 C₂H₅COOH (Z) + Mg → (C₂H₅COO)₂Mg + H₂

Give names of the products formed when compound X and Z react.

▪ X (C₃H₇OH) + Z (C₂H₅COOH) → C₂H₅COOC₃H₇ (propyl propanoate) + H₂O

Explain why alkanoic acids have higher melting and boiling points than alkanols with same
molecular mass.

▪ Alkanoic acids have higher melting and boiling points due to stronger intermolecular hydrogen
bonding between carboxyl (-COOH) groups.

Describe any two properties of esters.

▪ Fruity or floral odors

▪ Relatively low boiling points

Given the formula of the ester, CH3(CH2)3COOCH3, deduce the formulae of two reactants from
which the ester is prepared.

▪ CH₃(CH₂)₃COOH (pentanoic acid)

▪ CH₃OH (methanol)

With the aid of a well-balanced equation, explain how ethanoic acid can be prepared from ethanol
using oxidizing agents.

▪ ethanol reacts with oxygen1 using acidified potassium dichromate 1 to form ethanal

▪ Ethanal further reacts with oxygen to ethanoic acid

Explain the process by which Sulphur is extracted from sulphur beds.

▪ Three concentric pipes are placed inside a sunk borehole 1 to the bottom of sulphur.
▪ Water is superheated at about 1700C 1 under high temperature and pressure which melts sulphur
below beds
▪ Hot compressed air is pumped down at about 15 atm through inner pipe.
▪ Then the mixture of air hot water and molten sulphur comes up through middle pipes

PREPARATION OF ETHANOL
 ➢ Ethanol can be prepared using both indigenous methods and industrial technology.

1. INDIGENOUS METHOD OF PREPARING ETHANOL

▪ The indigenous name for ethanol is kachaso. The process for preparing ethanol using
indigenous ways is as follows:
▪ Maize bran (madeya) is mixed with sugar solution or sugarcane or juices of fruits such
as mangoes or masuku.
▪ The mixture is kept for about 3 – 5 days for fermentation to take place.
▪ When fermentation is complete, the mixture is distilled in order to obtain ethanol using
the apparatus shown below.

▪ When the mixture is heated, ethanol boils faster than water because its boiling point is
lower.
▪ The gaseous ethanol rises up in the pot and passes through the delivery tube.
▪ The cold water in the condenser cools and condenses the gaseous ethanol.
▪ Liquid ethanol is finally collected in the receiving bottle.
2. INDUSTRIAL METHODS OF PREPARARING ETHANOL

▪ In industries, ethanol can be prepared by fermentation of sugars by yeast and by

hydration of ethene.

a. PREPARATION OF ETHANOL BY FERMENTATION OF SUGAR BY YEAST

▪ Fermentation is a chemical process whereby sugars are converted to alcohol and carbon
dioxide by a catalyst.
▪ During fermentation of sugars, sugar (glucose) solution is mixed with yeast.
 ▪ The mixture is kept at room temperature for about 3 – 4 days in an apparatus shown
below.

▪ Yeast contains an enzyme called zymase. This enzyme speeds up the decomposition of
sugar into ethanol and water.
▪ The lime water turns milk, indicating the production of carbon dioxide.

The equation for the reaction is:

yeast
C6H12O6 (aq) 2C2H5OH9 (aq) + 2CO2 (g)

glucose ethanol carbon dioxide

▪ Ethanol produced by this process has of low alcohol content. To obtain a higher
percent of ethanol, the mixture separated by fractional distillation.

b. FORMATION OF ETHANOL BY HYDRATION OF ETHENE

▪ Ethanol is prepared by hydrating ethene (reacting it with steam) in the presence of a

catalyst such as phosphoric acid (H3PO4).

H PO
3 4

C2H4 (g) + H2O (l) C2H5OH (l)

The reaction has two main characteristics:

▪ It is exothermic in nature. Therefore, it carried out at a relatively low temperature of

about 300ºC.
▪ It is reversible. Ethanol can be dehydrated back into ethene.
 C2H5OH (l) Conc. H2SO4 C2H4 (l) + H2O (l)

Mention any two dangers of excessive consumption of alcoholic drinks

▪ addiction which destroys physical health

▪ cardiac problems
▪ miscarriage in pregnant women
▪ suicide
▪ risky sexual behavior
▪ loss of employment

Sulphuric acid is an example of strong acid.

Define strong acid.

▪ A strong acid is an acid that completely dissociates in water, producing a high

concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺).

write chemical equation between sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and ammonia (NH3).

▪ H₂SO₄ + 2NH₃ → (NH₄)₂SO₄

identify two conjugate acid base pairs for the reaction.

▪ H₂SO₄ (acid) and HSO₄⁻ (conjugate base)

▪ NH₃ (base) and NH₄⁺ (conjugate acid)
Identify acid-base conjugate pair for the following equation

𝐻𝐴𝑐(𝑙) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻3 𝑂+ + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐴𝑐 −

• 𝐻𝐴𝑐/ 𝐴𝑐 −
• 𝐻3 𝑂+ /𝐻2 𝑂

Copper ll oxide catalyse the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide 0.5g of the oxide was added to a
flask containing 100cm³ hydrogen peroxide solution. Agas was released. It was collected time and
it's volume every 10 second the table below shows results.

Name the method of measuring the rate of reaction used above.

▪ Measuring the volume of gas produced over time.

Name the gas that is formed.

▪ Oxygen gas (O₂).

Plot a graph of volume of gas against time.

About 2.34g of aluminium react with excess copper ll sulphate to produce 3.89g of copper according
to the equation below.

Al + CuSO4 🔜 Al2SO4 + Cu.

Calculate the percentage of yield of copper. (Al=27 Cu=63.5).

▪ Calculate moles of aluminium

▪ Moles of Al = mass of Al / atomic mass of Al = 2.34 g / 27 g/mol = 0.0867 mol
▪ Calculate theoretical yield of copper
▪ From the balanced equation (2Al + 3CuSO₄ → Al₂(SO₄)₃ + 3Cu),
▪ moles of Cu = (3/2) × moles of Al = (3/2) × 0.0867 = 0.1301 mol
▪ Theoretical mass of Cu = moles of Cu × atomic mass of Cu = 0.1301 mol × 63.5 g/mol = 8.26 g
▪ Calculate percentage yield
▪ Percentage yield = (actual yield / theoretical yield) × 100

= (3.89 g / 8.26 g) × 100 ≈ 47.1%

Describe how the following factors affect rate of reaction.

Concentration of reactants.

▪ Concentration: Higher reactant concentrations typically increase reaction rate.

Surface area.

▪ Surface Area: Increased surface area of reactants can enhance reaction rate.

Temperature:

▪ Temperature: Increased temperature generally increases reaction rate.

Catalysts

▪ Catalysts: Presence of catalysts can significantly increase reaction rate.

Explain how a catalyst affect the rate of a chemical reaction.

 ▪ a catalyst lowers activation energy1 hence more particles can get over new activation energy
faster resulting in more fruiting collision1 hence increasing rate of reaction1

Given below are formulae of some organic compounds A, B, C and D.

What kind of the reaction process occurs between compound A and D.

▪ Esterification reaction

Name the product formed from the reaction mentioned above.

▪ Butyl butanoate

Identify two compounds that represents isomers and give reason for your choice.

▪ A and B
▪ Both contain the same molecular formula but differ in the arrangement of their atoms

Methane reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water according to the equation

Use the table bond of enthalpy to calculate the bond breaking energy and bond making energy.

Bonds Broken:

▪ 4 C-H bonds in CH₄

▪ 2 O=O bonds in O₂
 Bonds Formed:

▪ 2 C=O bonds in CO₂

▪ 4 O-H bonds in H₂O

Calculate Total Energy for Bonds Broken

Bonds Broken:

▪ 4 C-H = 4 x 412 = 1648kJ

▪ 2 O=O = 2 x 498 = 996kJ

Total energy to break bonds:

= 1648 + 996 = 2644kJ

Calculate Total Energy for Bonds Formed

Bonds Formed:

▪ 2 C=O = 2 x 799 = 1598kJ

▪ 4 O-H = 4 x 463 = 1852kJ

Total energy released when forming bonds:

= 1598 + 1852 = 3450kJ

Calculate the Overall Energy Change

▪ The overall energy change (ΔH) can be calculated as:

▪ Total Energy Broken - Total Energy Formed

= 2644 - 3450 = -806 kJ

Identify the type of reaction.

▪ (exothermic reaction)

Give a reason for your answer to a above.

▪ the reaction releases energy, indicating it is exothermic.

polymerization of ethene can be presented by the following equation.

What does n represent?

▪ Number of monomer units that combine to form a single polymer chain

Name the monomer and draw it's formula.

▪ Chloroethene

Formula

▪ CH2=CHCl

What type of polymerization is represented by the equation.

▪ Addition polymerization

Describe how the polymer is formed from it's monomer molecules.

▪ Polyethene is formed through addition polymerization, where ethene monomers (CH₂=CH₂) join
together to form a long chain of -CH₂-CH₂- units, resulting in a polymer.

Poly(dichloroethane) is an biodegradable. Explain the term of non- biodegradable.

▪ Non-biodegradable refers to materials that cannot be broken down naturally by living organisms,
such as bacteria, fungi, or other microorganisms, into simpler, harmless compounds.

Describe two environmental problem caused by the disposal of poly(dichloroethane) based on non-
biodegradable.

▪ The polymer remains in the environment for a long time, contributing to pollution.
▪ When burned or degraded, it can release toxic chemicals, such as dioxins and furans, which are
harmful to humans and wildlife.
▪ Non-biodegradable polymers can accumulate in landfills, oceans, and other ecosystems, harming
marine life and contaminating the food chain.

Below are results set of a experiment that carried out by the learner of kugwetsa online group
Zinc metal reacts with copper sulphate solution according to the following equation

▪ Zn(s) + CuSO4 (aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s)

Identify a reducing agent.

▪ zinc or Zn

Write down the oxidation half equation for the reaction above.

▪ Zn → Zn+2 + 2e-

Write a balanced equation for the reaction between Magnesium (Mg) and copper sulphate (CuSO4)
solution.

▪ Mg + CuSO4 → MgSO4 + Cu

Name the oxidising agent for the reaction above.

▪ Cu2+ (copper ii ions)

Write the reducing half equation for the reaction below.

Fe³ aq + 2l → Fe² +aq + l2.

▪ Fe3+ + e- → fe2+

Explain how alloying it used to prevent rusting.

▪ Alloying iron with metals like chromium or nickel forms a protective layer that resists corrosion.
This layer blocks water and oxygen from reaching the iron, preventing rusting.

Explain how chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) couse depletion of ozone layer.

▪ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) rise to the stratosphere, where UV rays break them apart, releasing
chlorine atoms. These chlorine atoms destroy ozone molecules, leading to thinning of the ozone
layer and allowing more harmful UV radiation to reach earth

With the aid of chemical equation, describe preparation of ethanoic acid by oxidation.

▪ Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) can be prepared by the oxidation of ethanol (CH3CH2OH) using an
oxidizing agent like potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) or potassium permanganate (KMnO4).
▪ The equation is:
▪ CH3CH2OH + 2[O] → CH3COOH + H2O
▪ Or, using potassium dichromate:
▪ CH3CH2OH + [O] (from K2Cr2O7) → CH3COOH
▪ In this reaction, ethanol is oxidized to ethanoic acid.

With the aid labelled equation describe cracking of Decane to produce butene and an alkane.
 Cracking of Decane

▪ The cracking of decane (C₁₀H₂₂) can produce butene (C₄H₈) and an alkane (C₆H₁₄). Here's the
equation:
▪ C₁₀H₂₂ → C₄H₈ + C₆H₁₄
Decane Butene Hexane
▪ This process involves breaking larger hydrocarbon molecules into smaller ones under high
temperature and pressure conditions, often using a catalyst.
TESTING FOR ANIONS

The commonly tested anions are sulphates, halides and nitrates.

a. TESTING FOR SULPHATE IONS (SO42_)

➢ Add a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid to the sample, followed by a few drops of barium
chloride solution. A white precipitate forms if sulphate ions are present.

b. TESTING FOR HALIDE IONS

➢ A halide ion is the halogen atom bearing a negative charge. For example, F_ , Cl_, Br_ and
I_.
➢ Add a few drops of dilute nitric acid to the sample, followed by a few drops of dilute silver
nitrate solution. Observe and record the colour of any precipitate that forms.

The table below gives expected colours of precipitates with acidified silver nitrate.

Halide ion Colour of precipitate

Fluoride ions (F_) No precipitate

Chloride ions (Cl_) White precipitate

Bromide ions (Br_) Pale yellow precipitate

Iodide ions (I_) Yellow precipitate

c. TESTING FOR NITRATES (NO3_)

➢ Nitrate ions can be detected by reducing them to ammonia.

• To a little nitrate solution, add aqueous sodium hydroxide.
• Drop aluminium foil into the solution.
• Warm gently.

➢ If nitrate ions are present, ammonia gas is given off. Ammonia gas turns damp red litmus paper
blue.

TESTING FOR GASES

➢ The commonly tested gases are ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, chlorine, oxygen and
sulphur dioxide.

a. TESTING FOR AMMONIA (NH3)

➢ Introduce a damp red litmus paper into a jar containing ammonia. The damp red litmus paper
turns blue if the gas is ammonia.

b. TESTING FOR CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)

➢ Bubble the gas produced through lime water (calcium hydroxide solution). Lime water turns
milky if the gas is carbon dioxide.

c. TESTING FOR HYDROGEN GAS (H2)

➢ Introduce a burning splint at the mouth of a gas jar containing hydrogen. The gas burns with a
‘pop’ sound if its hydrogen.

d. TESTING FOR CHLORINE (Cl2)

➢ Hold a damp blue litmus paper at the mouth of a test tube containing chlorine gas. The damp
blue litmus paper gets bleached if the gas is chlorine.

e. TESTING FOR OXYGEN GAS (O2)

➢ Introduce a glowing splint into a gas jar containing oxygen gas. The glowing splint relights
(bursts into flames)

F. TESTING FOR SULPHUR DIOXIDE (SO2)

 ➢ Bubble the gas through acidified potassium dichromate (VII) solution. The acidified potassium
dichromate (VII) changes from purple to colourless if the gas is sulphur dioxide.

g. TESTING FOR THE PRESENCE OF WATER

➢ The presence of water can be tested using anhydrous copper (II) sulphate or anhydrous cobalt
chloride.

a. ANHYDROUS COPPER (II) SULPHATE (CuSO4) TEST FOR WATER

Anhydrous copper sulphate is white. When water is added to a sample of anhydrous copper sulphate, it
turns blue. Change of colour form white to blue indicates that the added liquid is water.

b. ANHYDROUS COBALT (II) CHLORIDE (CoCl2) TEST FOR WATER

Anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride is blue in colour. When water is added to a sample of anhydrous cobalt
(II) chloride, it turns pink.

What is a precipitate?
▪ A precipitate is a solid that forms and separates out from a liquid solution during a chemical
reaction.
Table below show results that were obtained for testing some cations using aqueous ammonia
solution.

Cation 3 drops aqueous ammonia solution Excess aqueous ammonia solution

Cu2+ X Soluble

Fe2+ Green precipitate Y

Al3+ White precipitate Insoluble

Write the results represented by letter

▪ X:light blue precipitate

▪ Y: insoluble
How can white precipitate formed by aluminium be removed?

▪ By adding excess aqueous sodium hydroxide

. What is the importance of writing hypothesis during scientific investigation.

▪ It serves as a guide for the research process/provides a framework for data collection

State two examples of amphoteric oxides

▪ Zinc oxide
▪ Iron (III) oxide
▪ Lead oxide
▪ aluminium oxide

Why does Ethanoic acid give dim light and hydrochloric acid gives bright light during
conductivity?

▪ Ethanoic acid is a weak acid. It therefore dissociates to give few ions hence little current
passes through to give dim light while hydrochloric acid is a strong acid, it releases all the
ions hence more current passes through and produces bright light.

Give two uses of Alkanoetes.

▪ They are used as solvents e.g. ethylethanoate.

▪ As food flavourings
▪ As fragrances e.g. in perfume
▪ Used to make fabrics
▪ As cooking oils
▪ In soap making

Ethanol (𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝑯) reacts with propanoic acid (𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑯) where concentrated sulphuric
acid (H2SO4) used as a catalyst to form compound x and water

Write the balanced equation.

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐. 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
▪ 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂𝐻(𝑙) + 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑙) → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻3 + 𝐻2 𝑂

Name compound x
 ▪ Ethylpropanoate

State one application of precipitation reactions in everyday life.

▪ Treatment of water for domestic use.

▪ Treatment of industrial effluents.
▪ Production of insoluble salts

Nitrogen N2 reacted with burning magnesium to form magnesium nitride( Mg3N2). The same
reaction was repeated at room temperature it was discovered that no reaction took place. Explain
why?

▪ Burning magnesium releases enough energy to break the strong triple covalent bond between
atoms of nitrogen in a nitrogen molecule while energy found at room temperature is not enough
to break the triple covalent bond to initiate the reaction.

During contact process, sulphur dioxide gas react with oxygen gas to produce sulphur trioxide
according to the equation:

State any one condition necessary for the reaction

▪ presence of a catalyst (Vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5).

Mention the type of reaction as indicated by the arrow
▪ reversible reaction
Name the substance produced when sulphur trioxide is mixed with concentrated sulphuric acid

▪ Oleum

Describe the water cycle.

 ▪ –heat from the sun causes evaporation1 from sea, oceans, lakes, rivers (water bodies)
▪ -transpiration also occurs from leaves
▪ -vapour that escape or rises into the atmosphere are then condensed1 upon reaching cold air
places
▪ condensed vapour or droplets form clouds
▪ -the droplets form clouds falls as rains
▪ water run on the surface to water bodies
▪ some water infiltrate in soil and are absorbed by plants

Explain why alkanoic acids have higher melting and boiling points than alkanols with same
molecular mass.

▪ Both alkanoic acids and alkanols exhibit hydrogen bonding. However, alkanoic acids form
stronger hydrogen bonds due to their ability to form dimers, which increases their intermolecular
forces. Therefore, more energy is required to break these stronger intermolecular forces, leading
to higher melting and boiling points.

Discuss briefly how you would prepare an insoluble salt (Lead sulphate) by precipitation method.
Include relevant chemical equation.

▪ Prepare an aqueous solution of lead(II) nitrate (Pb(NO₃)₂).

▪ Prepare an aqueous solution of a soluble sulphate, such as sodium sulphate (Na₂SO₄) or sulphuric
acid (H₂SO₄).
▪ Mix the two solutions together. A white precipitate of lead(II) sulphate (PbSO₄) forms
immediately because it is insoluble in water.
▪ The precipitate can then be filtered, washed with distilled water to remove soluble impurities, and
dried.
▪ Relevant Chemical Equation:
▪ Pb(NO3}2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq)→ PbSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
▪ Alternatively, using sulphuric acid:
▪ Pb(NO3}2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) →PbSO4(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
THE END
Sir kugwetsa O990638340

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