PMF IAS Prelims Magnum 2025 — International Relations and

Places in News
Prelims-Specific Current Affairs from January 2024 to December 2024

Table of Contents
1. IR – India and Neighbourings Countries............................................................................................................1
1.1. {India-Bangladesh} Extradition Treaty **.....................................................................................................1
1.2. {India-Bangladesh} Indo Bangladesh Protocol (IBP) Route ...........................................................................1
1.3. {India-Bangladesh} Teesta water sharing with Bangladesh * .......................................................................2
1.4. {India-China} China’s ‘Xiaokang’ border defence villages along LAC .............................................................2
1.5. {India-China} India-China Border Issue .........................................................................................................3
1.6. {India-China} Battle of Walong ....................................................................................................................3
1.7. {India-Mauritius} India Amends DTAA with Mauritius ..................................................................................4
1.8. {India-Myanmar} Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project ................................................................4
1.9. {India-Nepal} India-Nepal Border Dispute ** ...............................................................................................4
1.10. {India-Pakistan} Karatarpur Sahib................................................................................................................5
1.11. {India-Pakistan} Kartarpur Corridor Agreement ...........................................................................................6
1.12. {India-Pakistan} Ladakh’s demand on Gilgit-Baltistan ..................................................................................6
1.13. {India-Pakistan} Lahore Declaration 1999 * .................................................................................................6
1.14. {India-Pakistan} Operation Meghdoot .........................................................................................................6
1.15. {India-Pakistan} WB Expert to Examine Hydroelectric Projects in J&K ...........................................................7
1.16. {India-SE Asia} PM’s Brunei Visit ..................................................................................................................8
1.17. {India-Sri Lanka} India-Sri Lanka Relations ...................................................................................................8
1.18. {India-Sri Lanka} Katchatheevu and Wadge Bank .........................................................................................9
2. IR – Bilateral Ties of India with Other Countries ............................................................................................. 10
2.1. {India-Africa} PM Modi’s Visit to Nigeria.................................................................................................... 10
2.2. {India-Australia} Mobility Arrangement for Talented Early-professionals Scheme (MATES) ......................... 10
2.3. {India-Canada} Labour Market Impact Assessment (LMIA) Permits ............................................................ 10
2.4. {India-CAR} India and Uzbekistan Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT)............................................................ 11
2.5. {India-Germany} Germany's Growing Defence Ties with India ** ............................................................... 12
2.6. {India-Iran} 10-year Contract for Chabahar Port......................................................................................... 12
2.7. {India-US} H-1B visa .................................................................................................................................. 13
2.8. {India-US} Important terms: India-US Trade ............................................................................................... 13
2.9. {India-US} Indian Firms on U.S. Blacklist .................................................................................................... 13
2.10. {Iran-Pakistan} Evolution of Iran-Pakistan Relations .................................................................................. 13
2.11. {Israel-Palestine} Balfour Declaration ........................................................................................................ 15
2.12. {Israel-Palestine} Three countries recognise Palestinian as a state ............................................................. 15
2.13. {Maldives} Maldives | China | India .......................................................................................................... 15
3. IR – Africa ...................................................................................................................................................... 16
3.1. {Africa} Crisis in West Asia-North Africa (WANA) ........................................................................................ 16
3.2. {Africa} Defence Attache (DA) in Africa ...................................................................................................... 16
3.3. {Africa} Emergency in Ecuador ................................................................................................................... 16
3.4. {Africa} Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) ................................................................................. 16

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 3.5. {Africa} Liberia .......................................................................................................................................... 18
3.6. {Africa} Sudan Crisis .................................................................................................................................. 18
3.7. {Africa} Lesotho ......................................................................................................................................... 19
3.8. {Africa} Scramble for the Sahel *................................................................................................................ 19
4. IR – Asia ........................................................................................................................................................ 21
4.1. {Asia} Chagos Islands ** ............................................................................................................................ 21
4.2. {Asia} Rising Tension in the Korean Peninsula ............................................................................................ 21
4.3. {Asia} Trans-Himalayan Multi-Dimensional Connectivity Network ............................................................. 21
4.4. {Asia} World's Largest Dam on Brahmaputra * .......................................................................................... 22
4.5. {Asia} Sierra Madre | South China Sea ....................................................................................................... 22
4.6. {Asia} Vladivostok ..................................................................................................................................... 22
5. IR – European Union ...................................................................................................................................... 26
5.1. {EU} EU Deforestation Regulation (EUDR) .................................................................................................. 26
5.2. {EU} Italy-India Joint Strategic Action Plan 2025-2029 ................................................................................ 26
5.3. {EU} Schengen Zone * ................................................................................................................................ 26
5.4. {Europe} Kerch Strait ................................................................................................................................. 27
5.5. {Europe} Schengen visa updates for Indian citizens .................................................................................... 27
5.6. {India-EU} India’s retaliation against EU tariffs .......................................................................................... 27
5.7. {India-EU} Suspension of MFN Clause by Switzerland ................................................................................. 28
5.8. {India-EU} Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) .................................................................. 28
6. IR – Multilateral Organisations ...................................................................................................................... 31
6.1. {Groupings} 11th ADMM Plus Meeting ....................................................................................................... 31
6.2. {Groupings} Africa Club * ........................................................................................................................... 31
6.3. {Groupings} Annual meeting of Pacific Islands Forum * .............................................................................. 31
6.4. {Groupings} Clean Economy Investor Forum ............................................................................................... 31
6.5. {Groupings} Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) ............................................................... 34
6.6. {Groupings} ECOWAS (CEDEAO) ................................................................................................................. 34
6.7. {Groupings} G7 and India ** ...................................................................................................................... 34
6.8. {Groupings} Heads of Asian Coast Guard Agencies Meeting (HACGAM) ..................................................... 36
6.9. {Groupings} I2U2 Initiative ** .................................................................................................................... 37
6.10. {Groupings} IBSA Fund ............................................................................................................................... 37
6.11. {Groupings} India to host IATA's 81st Annual Summit .................................................................................. 37
6.12. {Groupings} Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF) for Prosperity ........................................................... 37
6.13. {Groupings} International Solar Alliance (ISA) ............................................................................................ 38
6.14. {Groupings} MAHASAGAR Initiative ........................................................................................................... 38
6.15. {Groupings} Mutual Evaluation Report by FATF .......................................................................................... 38
6.16. {Groupings} NATO completes 75 years **................................................................................................... 41
6.17. {Groupings} Nile Basin Cooperative Framework ......................................................................................... 41
6.18. {Groupings} Non-Alignment in the Era of the Global South ........................................................................ 44
6.19. {Groupings} Pakistan’s International Monetary Fund (IMF) Bailout ............................................................ 44
6.20. {Groupings} South-South Cooperation ....................................................................................................... 44
6.21. {Groupings} Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) Summit ................................................................. 46
6.22. {Groupings} SQUAD Grouping ** ............................................................................................................... 46
6.23. {Groupings} UN Internal Justice Council (UNIJC) ......................................................................................... 47
6.24. {Groupings} United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) ....................................................... 47
6.25. {Groupings} Universal Postal Union (UPU) ** ............................................................................................. 47
6.26. {Institutions} Paris Club ** ......................................................................................................................... 47
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 6.27. {Institutions} WEF Annual Meeting 2024: Davos ........................................................................................ 48
6.28. {International Organisations} Delhi Declaration on Civil Aviation ............................................................... 48
6.29. {International Organisations} Indo-U.S. poultry dispute ............................................................................. 48
7. IR – Middle East ............................................................................................................................................. 50
7.1. {Middle East} Change in dynamics in Syria * .............................................................................................. 50
7.2. {Middle East} Drone Attack in Jordan | Tower 22 ....................................................................................... 51
7.3. {Middle East} Golan Heights **.................................................................................................................. 51
7.4. {Middle East} ICJ ruling on Israel’s occupation of West Bank ** .................................................................. 54
7.5. {Middle East} India, UAE civil nuclear energy agreement ........................................................................... 54
7.6. {Middle East} India-UAE Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) .......................................................................... 55
7.7. {Middle East} Iran drone attacks on Israel .................................................................................................. 55
7.8. {Middle East} Israel- Lebanon Ceasefire Deal ............................................................................................. 55
7.9. {Middle East} Proxies backed by Iran in the Middle East ............................................................................. 56
7.10. {Middle East} Syrian Crisis: Implications for Regional Geopolitics ............................................................... 57
7.11. {Middle East} UAE launches 10-year Blue Visa ** ....................................................................................... 57
7.12. {Middle East} Rafah Crossing ** ................................................................................................................ 57
8. IR – Russia-Ukraine War and Related Aspects ................................................................................................ 59
8.1. {Russia-Ukraine} Drone attack on Zaporizhzhia nuclear facility .................................................................. 59
8.2. {Russia-Ukraine} Kharkiv * ........................................................................................................................ 59
8.3. {Russia-Ukraine} Kursk .............................................................................................................................. 59
8.4. {Russia-Ukraine} Pokrovsk ......................................................................................................................... 61
8.5. {Russia-Ukraine} Russia’s ‘high income’ rating despite sanctions ** ........................................................... 61
9. IR – United Nations ........................................................................................................................................ 62
9.1. {UN} 76th International Day of UN Peacekeepers ........................................................................................ 62
9.2. {UN} Global Human Development Index Report 2022................................................................................. 64
9.3. {UN} GlobE Network ** ............................................................................................................................. 65
9.4. {UN} Summit of the Future ........................................................................................................................ 65
9.5. {UN} Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW) ...................................................................... 66
9.6. {UN} UN Counter-terrorism Trust Fund ....................................................................................................... 66
9.7. {UN} UN Forum on Forests ......................................................................................................................... 66
9.8. {UN} UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees (UNRWA) * ..................................................... 68
9.9. {UN} UNSC non-permanent members (NPM).............................................................................................. 68
10. IR – Issues ...................................................................................................................................................... 69
10.1. {Issues} EU’s Chat Control Law ................................................................................................................... 69
10.2. {Issues} Hannibal Directive ** .................................................................................................................... 69
10.3. {Issues} Pakistan-Afghanistan Border Issue ** ........................................................................................... 69
10.4. {Issues} Panama Canal .............................................................................................................................. 69
10.5. {Issues} Protests in Barcelona *.................................................................................................................. 70
10.6. {Issues} Safety of Rwanda (Asylum and Immigration) Bill ........................................................................... 70
10.7. {Issues} Shadow Fleet **............................................................................................................................ 71
10.8. {Issues} Threat of famine in Gaza & Haiti | IPC Classification ..................................................................... 71
10.9. {Issues} United Kingdom’s Graduate Route Visa (GRV) Scheme ** .............................................................. 72
10.10. {Issues} China Banned Export of Minerals to the US ............................................................................... 73
11. IR – Miscellaneous ......................................................................................................................................... 74
11.1. {China} China Shock * ................................................................................................................................ 74

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 11.2. {China-Taiwan} China – Taiwan Conflict ..................................................................................................... 74
11.3. {Canada} Post-Graduation Work Permit Program (PGWP) by Canada ........................................................ 75
11.4. {Diaspora} Kafala System ** ...................................................................................................................... 75
11.5. {Diplomacy} Animal Diplomacy ................................................................................................................. 75
11.6. {Diplomacy} International Day of Peace ..................................................................................................... 75
11.7. {Laws} Apostille Convention * .................................................................................................................... 75
11.8. {Laws} Genocide Convention...................................................................................................................... 75
11.9. {Misc} State of emergency in New Caledonia * .......................................................................................... 76
11.10. {Multilateral} 46th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting ** ................................................................. 76
11.11. {US} Department of Government Efficiency (“DOGE”) ............................................................................ 77
11.12. {Pakistan} Balochistan Region **........................................................................................................... 78
11.13. {Pakistan} Gwadar Port Complex attack ................................................................................................ 78
11.14. {Philipines} India Supports Philippines’ Sovereignty ............................................................................... 79
11.15. {US-China} AUKUS | Chip Four alliance by US ** .................................................................................... 79
11.16. {US-China} The Resolve Tibet Act ........................................................................................................... 80
11.17. {SA} Chancay Port, Peru......................................................................................................................... 80
11.18. {SA} PM's Historic Visit to Guyana ......................................................................................................... 80
11.19. {Trade} Tripartite Agreement between Nepal, India and Bangladesh ..................................................... 80
11.20. {Events} Raisina Dialogue 2024 ............................................................................................................. 81
12. Places In News ............................................................................................................................................... 82
12.1. {Africa} Barberton Greenstone Belt ............................................................................................................ 82
12.2. {Africa} Ghana's first nuclear energy plant ................................................................................................. 83
12.3. {Africa} Kenya Mapping ............................................................................................................................. 83
12.4. {Africa} Lake Victoria ** ............................................................................................................................ 84
12.5. {Africa} Dar es Salaam * ............................................................................................................................ 84
12.6. {Africa} River Nile ...................................................................................................................................... 84
12.7. {Africa} Sahara desert witnesses first flood in 50 years .............................................................................. 86
12.8. {Africa} Zimbabwe ..................................................................................................................................... 86
12.9. {Antarctica} Point Nemo ............................................................................................................................ 87
12.10. {Asia} Lakshadweep tourism ................................................................................................................. 87
12.11. {Asia} Aral Sea ...................................................................................................................................... 88
12.12. {Asia} Dagestan Region * ...................................................................................................................... 88
12.13. {Asia} Solomon Islands .......................................................................................................................... 88
12.14. {Asia} Mt. Lewotobi Laki Laki ................................................................................................................ 88
12.15. {Asia} Lebanon ** ................................................................................................................................. 88
12.16. {Asia} Saint Martin Island * ................................................................................................................... 89
12.17. {Caribbean} Caribbean Islands............................................................................................................... 89
12.18. {Caribbean} Operation Indravati | Haiti ................................................................................................ 91
12.19. {Environment} Amazon Rainforest ......................................................................................................... 91
12.20. {Environment} Carambolim Lake ........................................................................................................... 92
12.21. {Environment} Coastal Erosion in Brazil ................................................................................................. 92
12.22. {Environment} Coral Triangle ** ............................................................................................................ 93
12.23. {Environment} Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary * .................................................................................. 93
12.24. {Environment} Guru Ghasidas-Tamor Pingla Tiger Reserve (TR) ............................................................. 94
12.25. {Environment} Hindon River .................................................................................................................. 94
12.26. {Environment} India’s First Dark Sky Park .............................................................................................. 95
12.27. {Environment} Javadhu Hills (Jawadhi, Jawadhu) .................................................................................. 96
12.28. {Environment} Kanwar Lake | Oxbow Lake * ......................................................................................... 96

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 12.29. {Environment} Moyar Valley .................................................................................................................. 96
12.30. {Environment} Pallikaranai Marsh ......................................................................................................... 97
12.31. {Environment} Point Calimere................................................................................................................ 97
12.32. {Environment} Pollution in Buddha Nullah ............................................................................................. 97
12.33. {Environment} Pulicat bird sanctuary ** ................................................................................................ 97
12.34. {Environment} Roopkund Glacial lake .................................................................................................... 98
12.35. {Europe} Azores Island........................................................................................................................... 98
12.36. {Environment} Sirpur Lake (Pakshi Vihar), Indore ................................................................................... 98
12.37. {Environment} Valmiki Tiger Reserve ..................................................................................................... 98
12.38. {Europe} Belgium recognises Ecocide ..................................................................................................... 99
12.39. {Europe} Country Moldova .................................................................................................................... 99
12.40. {Europe} Danube river ........................................................................................................................... 99
12.41. {Europe} E.coli infestation in Seine River ................................................................................................ 99
12.42. {Europe} Little Prespa Lake * ............................................................................................................... 100
12.43. {Europe} Our Living Islands campaign by Ireland ................................................................................. 101
12.44. {Middle East} Al-Jawf Region ............................................................................................................... 102
12.45. {Middle East} Cape Route (European-Asian sea route) ......................................................................... 102
12.46. {Middle East} Hezbollah’s Exploding Pagers ......................................................................................... 103
12.47. {Middle East} Tell Umm Amer heritage site .......................................................................................... 103
12.48. {Misc} Black Sea, Red Sea & Panama Canal ......................................................................................... 104
12.49. {Misc} International Status for Jamnagar Airport ................................................................................ 106
12.50. {Misc} Morodharo ............................................................................................................................... 106
12.51. {Misc} Nimmu-Padam-Darcha Road .................................................................................................... 106
12.52. {Misc} Sagar Island.............................................................................................................................. 107
12.53. {Misc} Sanglaphu Lake ........................................................................................................................ 107
12.54. {NA} Badwater Basin in Death Valley .................................................................................................. 107
12.55. {Misc} Saydnaya Prison, Syria.............................................................................................................. 107
12.56. {NA} Canada ....................................................................................................................................... 108
12.57. {NA} Darien Gap ** ............................................................................................................................. 108
12.58. {NA} Lake Erie ..................................................................................................................................... 111
12.59. {NA} Lake Gatun.................................................................................................................................. 111
12.60. {NA} Pacific Island of Saipan ................................................................................................................ 112
12.61. {NA} Rio Grande River ......................................................................................................................... 113
12.62. {SA} Nazca Lines * ............................................................................................................................... 113
12.63. {Tourism} Jog Waterfall, Karnataka ..................................................................................................... 113
12.64. {Oceania} Lizard Island * ..................................................................................................................... 114

Note: Some infographics/maps are placed outside the

topic because of their full-page size.

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 1. IR – India and Neighbourings Countries

1.1. {India-Bangladesh} Extradition Treaty **

 Bangladesh’s International Crimes Tribunal issued an arrest warrant against former PM Sheikh Hasina for her alleged
involvement in “crimes against humanity”.

India – Bangladesh Extradition Treaty

• In 2013, India and Bangladesh executed an extradition treaty as a strategic measure to address insurgency and ter-
rorism along their shared borders.
• It was subsequently amended in 2016 to ease the exchange of fugitives wanted by both nations.

Grounds for extradition

• The treaty mandates the extradition of individuals charged with or convicted of crimes that warrant a minimum sen-
tence of one year’s imprisonment.
• A key requirement for extradition is the principle of dual criminality, meaning that the offence must be punishable in
both countries.
• Also valid for attempts to commit, aiding, abetting, inciting, or acting as an accomplice in such crimes.

Grounds for refusal of extradition

• Article 6 of the treaty stipulates that extradition may be refused if the offence is “political nature”.
• It can also be refused if the accusation is not “made in good faith in the interests of justice” or if it involves military
offences not considered “an offence under general criminal law.”

What is Extradition?
• SC defines extradition as “the delivery on the part of one State to another of those whom it is desired to deal with
for crimes of which they have been accused or convicted and are justifiable in the Courts of the other State”. It is
typically enabled by a bilateral or multilateral treaty.

Extradition law in India

• The Ministry of External Affairs acts as the central authority for extradition matters.
• The Extradition Act 1962 provides the legislative basis for extradition of a fugitive criminal from India.
• India has extradition treaties with 44 nations.

Principles of Extradition Treaty

• Extradition applies only to such offences which are mentioned in the treaty.
• Principle of dual criminality is applied, which means that the offence sought to be an offence in the national laws
of the requesting as well as requested country.
• Requested country must be satisfied that there is a prima facie case made against the offender.
• Extradition should be made against only for the offence (rule of speciality).
• The accused must be provided with a free and fair trial.

1.2. {India-Bangladesh} Indo Bangladesh Protocol (IBP) Route

 Set to run the first trial of vessels between Maia Port (India) & Sultanganj Port in Bangladesh.
• Will take place on Indo Bangladesh Protocol (IBP) Route no. 5 & 6.
• Will reduce the distance by around 930 kilometers compared to the existing waterway route.
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• Signed for first time between India and Bangladesh in 1972. Under this, inland vessel of one country can transit
through the specified routes of the other country.
• Includes the river routes of Ganga, Brahmaputra, and their tributaries across the two countries.
• It connects the National Waterway (1, 2, 16 & 97).
• This route enables easier access to the markets in the Northeast, with 50:50 cargo sharing.
• The Inland Waterways connectivity through the IBP route also holds significance for Bhutan.
• Dhubri on NW-2: Agreed exit/ entry point in India for Bhutan's EXIM cargo movement.

Indo-Bangladesh Protocol (IBP) Route

• National Waterway-1: The Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly between Haldia and Allahabad.
• National Waterway-2: Brahmaputra river between Bangladesh Border and Sadiya.
• National Waterway-16: Barak River from Bhanga to Lakhipur.
• National Waterway-97: Sunderbans Waterways from Namkhana to AtharaBankiKhal.

1.3. {India-Bangladesh} Teesta water sharing with Bangladesh *

Teesta River
• Origin: Pahunri (or Teesta Kangse) glacier in the Eastern Himalayas in the state of Sikkim, India.
• It flows southward through the Indian states of Sikkim and West Bengal, eventually entering Bangladesh.
• In Bangladesh, it merges with the Brahmaputra River (known locally as the Jamuna River).
• Major tributaries: Rangpo River, the Rangit River, and the Great Rangit River.

Key Events and Agreements

• 1983 Agreement:
 An ad-hoc agreement on the sharing of Teesta waters was reached in 1983, with Bangladesh allocated 36% and
India 39% of the water flow, leaving 25% to be decided later.
 However, this agreement was never fully implemented.
• 1996 Ganges Water Treaty:
 Although this treaty primarily addressed the Ganges River, it set a precedent for bilateral cooperation on water-
sharing between India and Bangladesh.
• Attempts at a Comprehensive Agreement:
 In 2011, an attempt was made to resolve the dispute when the Indian PM visited Bangladesh.
 Proposed agreement aimed at allocating 37.5% of Teesta's waters to Bangladesh and 42.5% to India.
 However, the West Bengal govt opposed it, arguing that it would harm its agricultural interests.

1.4. {India-China} China’s ‘Xiaokang’ border defence villages along LAC

• China has been constructing 628 Xiaokang or “well-off villages” along India’s borders near Tibet.
• Include mostly double-storey, large and spacious buildings.
• Expected Purpose: Assert Chinese claims over LAC. Dual use infrastructure.

India’s response
• Vibrant Villages Programme in 2022 to develop its border villages into modern villages.

Line of Actual Control (LAC)

• Indian claim: 3,488 km long, while the Chinese claim: 2,000 km.
• LAC is divided into three sectors:

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 1. Eastern sector (Arunachal Pradesh & Sikkim): Boundary dispute over the MacMahon Line.
2. Middle sector (Uttarakhand & Himachal Pradesh): Only border with broadly agreed maps.
3. Western sector (in Ladakh): Boundary dispute pertains to the Johnson Line.

1.5. {India-China} India-China Border Issue

 India and China have agreed to end the military standoff in eastern Ladakh after four years of tensions and to resolve
patrolling along the LAC.

Recent Developments
• Patrolling Agreement between India and China was signed in October 2024 along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) in
eastern Ladakh, resolving military standoffs since 2020.
• Friction Points such as Demchok and Depsang included in the agreement to ensure disengagement.
• High-level meetings between the Indian PM and the Chinese President at the BRICS summit.
• Demobilization: The agreement also signifies a return to the status quo pre-2020, with expectations of further de-
induction of troops on both sides.
• China opposes Taiwan's expansion in India, asserting its “One-China Principle” amid Taiwan's increased international
presence.
• Taipei Economic and Cultural Centre (TECC) in Mumbai, marking the third such office, represents Taiwan's interests
in India, focusing on trade and culture.
Read more > India – China Relations, China’s ‘Xiaokang’ border defence villages along LAC.

1.6. {India-China} Battle of Walong

 Army will inaugurate Walong War Memorial and Shaurya Sthal at Lama Spur. Set during the 1962 Sino-Indian War,
the Battle of Walong occurred at the easternmost tip of Arunachal Pradesh.
• Chinese forces launched multiple offensives in Arunachal Pradesh during the 1962 Sino-Indian War. Walong became
a key target for China's People's Liberation Army, aiming to break through Indian defences and capture the region.
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  Located near the tri-junction of India, China, and Myanmar, Walong was the only advanced landing ground (ALG)
in the region.
• Although Indian forces eventually had to withdraw due to overwhelming Chinese numbers, the defence of Walong
is remembered for the extraordinary valour of Indian soldiers.

1.7. {India-Mauritius} India Amends DTAA with Mauritius

 India amended its Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA) with Mauritius.

Amendments to the DTAA

Principal Purpose Test (PPT)

• The amendment includes the PPT to prevent abuse of the treaty for obtaining tax benefits.
• If obtaining treaty benefits is the principal purpose of a transaction, then treaty will not apply.
• The PPT will deny treaty benefits, such as reduced withholding tax on interest, royalties, and dividends, if obtaining
those benefits was a primary purpose of the transaction.
• The amendment aims to curb tax treaty abuse and minimise avenues for tax avoidance.
 Grandfathered: Investments made before the legislation's adoption may be 'grandfathered in' or excluded from the
new tax rules when a new tax law or regulation is adopted.
 Treaty shopping: When a resident of one country (say the “home” country) who earns income or capital gains from
another country (say the “source” country) can benefit from a tax treaty between the source country and yet an-
other country (say the “third” country).
 FPI investments in India: US > Singapore > Luxembourg > Mauritius.

1.8. {India-Myanmar} Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project

 Kaladan Project (KMTTP) has “almost died” after the capture of the Paletwa township near the Mizoram border rebel
Arakan Army (AA).
• Conceived in 2008 by India and Myanmar to connect Kolkata port with the Sittwe port in Rakhine or Arakan State,
further connected to Mizoram by road and the Kaladan river, which flows by Paletwa.
• Entire funding by India. Project consultant: Inland Waterways Authority of India.

1.9. {India-Nepal} India-Nepal Border Dispute **

India-Nepal Border
• Nepal shares a border of over 1,850 km with five Indian states – Sikkim, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and
Uttarakhand.

IR & Places In News – 4 IR – India and Neighbourings Countries Prelims Magnum 2025
 • The Anglo-Nepal War of 1814 and the subsequent treaty of peace signed in 1816 resulted in the delimitation and
delineation of the border between the two countries.
• While the Mahakali River formed the western boundary, the Mechi River boundary was formed along the east
with ridges in the Darjeeling hills and Sikkim.

History of India-Nepal Border Dispute

• Nepal surrendered a part of its western territory with
the Treaty of Sugauli, signed between the British East
India Company and Nepal in 1816, at the end of the
Anglo-Nepalese War of 1814-16.
• The subsequent Sugauli treaty defined the origin of
the Kali River as Nepal's border point with India. The
dispute is mainly due to the varying interpretations of
the river's origin and its various tributaries.
1. The maps issued by the British Surveyor General
of India in 1819, 1821, 1827, and 1856 showed the
Kali River as originating in Limpiadhura.
2. In 1920-21, Kali was shown as a stream originating
from a temple site and joining the main stream
about a kilometre downstream.
3. However, the last map issued by the British before
they left India in 1947 showed the initial position
of the Kali River originating in Limpiadhura.
• The villages in this area were covered by the Nepal
government census until 1962, and the people paid
land revenue to the government in Kathmandu. Situa-
tion changed after Indo-China War of 1962.

Differing views on the source of Kali River

Nepal’s Claim
• Nepal shows the Kali River about 16 km northwest of Kalapani at Limpiyadhura in the Zanskar range. Thus, the entire
stretch starting from Limpiyadhura, including Kalapani & Lipulekh, belongs to Nepal.

Kalapani area
• Tri-junction between India, China and Nepal, strategically significant in South Asian diplomacy.
• Since 1962, Kalapani has been manned by the Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP).

Lipulekh
• Lipulekh pass connects the Indian state of Uttarakhand with the Tibet region of China.

India’s Claim
• India argues that the River Kali originated from a smaller rivulet named Pankhagad, lying on the southern portion of
Kalapani, and the subsequent ridge on the eastern part of this area is the true border, therefore making the territory
part of India.

1.10. {India-Pakistan} Karatarpur Sahib

 Proposals to engage Pakistan for "Kartarpur Sahib" bring to the fore the idea of ‘Para-diplomacy’.

Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – India and Neighbourings Countries IR & Places In News – 5
 Kartarpur Corridor

• Connects the Darbar Sahib Gurdwara in Narowal (Pakistan) with the Dera Baba Nanak shrine in Gurdaspur (India’s
Punjab).
• It was built to commemorate the 550th birth anniversary celebrations of Guru Nanak Dev.
• Village Kartarpur is located on the west bank of the River Ravi, where Guru Nanak Dev spent the last 18 years of
his life.

1.11. {India-Pakistan} Kartarpur Corridor Agreement

 India & Pakistan renewed the Kartarpur Corridor agreement until
2029 (was initially for five years).
• The first agreement was signed in October 2019 to allow visa-free
travel through the corridor.
• Open for Indian pilgrims of all faiths (with valid passports) & per-
sons of Indian origin (with OCI card).
• It is open from dawn to dusk. Pilgrims travelling in the morning will have to return on the same day.
Read More < Para diplomacy and Karatarpur Sahib

1.12. {India-Pakistan} Ladakh’s demand on Gilgit-Baltistan

• Local parties of Ladakh demanded territorial control up to Gilgit-Baltistan in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir.
• Earlier it was in Kashmir division of Jammu and Kashmir, now a separate UT without legislature.
• Two elected hill councils: Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Councils in Kargil and Leh.
• Ladakh: Muslim-majority; Leh district: Buddhists; Kargil: Shia Muslims.

1.13. {India-Pakistan} Lahore Declaration 1999 *

• Signed between then Indian PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee & then Pak PM Nawaz Sharif in February 1999.
• Just months later, the Pakistani forces started their manoeuvres in Kargil in May 1999.

Key highlights of the 1999 Lahore Declaration

• Nuclear and Conventional Safety: Both emphasised the need to reduce the risk of accidental or unauthorised use of
nuclear weapons.
• Kashmir issue: India and Pakistan agreed to intensify their efforts to resolve all conflicts related to Kashmir through
proper diplomatic channels.
• Confidence-Building Measures: Also agreed to keep the channels of communication open and engage in a structured
dialogue to address all issues of concern to build mutual confidence.
• Commitment to multilateralism: Both emphasised their commitment to the South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation (SAARC).
• Terrorism: The Lahore Declaration also called for strict actions against all stakeholders of terrorism.

1.14. {India-Pakistan} Operation Meghdoot

• Conducted by the Indian Army to seize control of the Siachen Glacier in Ladakh.
• Took place on April 13, 1984, marking the beginning of the world's highest military conflict.
 Karachi Agreement (1949) and Simla Agreement (1972) did not clearly mention who controlled the glacier, and
so LOC terminated merely at NJ9842.
• Pre-empted Pakistan's Operation Ababeel & India gained complete control over it. Indian Army became the first and
only military force to deploy tanks and heavy artillery at altitudes exceeding 5,000 meters.

IR & Places In News – 6 IR – India and Neighbourings Countries Prelims Magnum 2025
1.15. {India-Pakistan} WB Expert to Examine Hydroelectric Projects in J&K
 A delegation from Pakistan, along with a World Bank-appointed neutral expert, is set to visit Jammu and Kashmir (J&K)
to discuss and examine hydroelectric projects.
• The neutral expert will be tasked with examining the Ratle Hydroelectric Project in Chenab Valley and the Kishanganga
Power House in Bandipore's Gurez.
• The discussions will take place under the 1960 Indus Waters Treaty, backed by the World Bank.

Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – India and Neighbourings Countries IR & Places In News – 7
• Pakistan previously objected to hydroelectric projects in J&K, fearing reduced water flow.
• In 2015, after failing to agree with India, Pakistan asked the World Bank to appoint a neutral expert but later opted
for arbitration to resolve the dispute.
For more details, visit > Indus River System

1.16. {India-SE Asia} PM’s Brunei Visit

 Prime Minister's visit to Brunei marks 40 years of diplo-
matic ties.

About Brunei
• Official name: Brunei Darussalam. Capital: Bandar Seri
Begawan.
• Location: Southeast Asian country located on the northern
coast of the island of Borneo.
• Geographical Position: It consists of two non-contiguous
parts and is bordered by the Malaysian state of Sarawak. Its
coastline is along the South China Sea.
• Highest Peak: Bukit Pagon.
• Brunei is the only sovereign state entirely on Borneo; the
rest of the island is divided between Malaysia and Indone-
sia. It is a constitutional absolute monarchy, with the Sul-
tan as the ruling monarch.

1.17. {India-Sri Lanka} India-Sri Lanka Relations

Recent Developments in India-Sri Lanka Relations

• Maritime Rescue Coordination Centre (MRCC): Jointly commissioned with a USD 6 million grant from India. It is part
of the broader initiative under the Colombo Security Conclave.
• Model Village Housing Project: Virtual handover of houses constructed by India.
• Energy Sector Initiatives: Discussed LNG supply plans, a proposed petroleum pipeline, and oil and gas exploration
projects. The construction of the Sampur Solar Power Plant has been announced.
• Other Developments: Discussed projects to develop Trincomalee, expand Kankesanthurai port, and enhance Sri
Lanka’s liquid milk industry and fertiliser production.
• IMF debt restructuring: India was the first to offer support for Sri Lanka's debt restructuring.

Historical Ties
• Cultural and Religious Connections: Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka by Emperor Ashoka's son, Mahinda, in the
3rd century BCE. Strong historical ties through trade and cultural exchanges.
• Colonial & Post-Colonial Relations: India and Sri Lanka gained independence from British rule in 1947 and 1948, re-
spectively. India played a key role in helping Sri Lanka establish its democratic institutions.
• Tamil Conflict: Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) formed in 1976; involved in an armed conflict.
• The India-Sri Lanka Agreement (1987) led to the involvement of the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF)
 The 13th Amendment to the Sri Lankan Constitution, introduced in 1987, aimed to devolve powers to provincial
councils as part of the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord to address Tamil demands for autonomy.

Colombo Security Conclave (CSC) 2023

• CSC was founded as a maritime security grouping of India, Sri Lanka and the Maldives in 2011.
IR & Places In News – 8 IR – India and Neighbourings Countries Prelims Magnum 2025
 • Other members: Mauritius (included in 5thedition); Observers: Bangladesh and Seychelles.

1.18. {India-Sri Lanka} Katchatheevu and Wadge Bank

• India and Sri Lanka had been claiming
Katchatheevu since at least 1921
placed the island within Sri Lanka’s boundaries.
• In 1974, the two governments signed an agree-
ment, and the island was ceded to Sri Lanka.
• T maritime boundary
between India and Sri Lanka, and Sri Lanka gave
India sovereign rights
called ‘Wadge Bank’ near Kanyakumari in 1976.

Wadge Bank
• The India-Sri Lanka agreement of 1976 recognised it as part of India’s exclusive economic zone.
• It is a continental shelf nearly 80 kilometres (50 miles) seaward from the coast of Kanyakumari.
• Fishery Survey of India -sq-mile area.
• Under the agreement were not allowed
Wadge Bank.
• The agreement allowed Indian fishermen to use the resources in the Wadge Bank area.
• It is a shallow zo
• In late 2023, GoI invited Notice Inviting Offers O

Fertile fishing ground

• Rich in biodiversity, fertile fishing ground with the highest organic production on the West Coast.
• Low intensity
and has less impact
• Has moderate temperatures - C high salinity.
• This ground's peak season is from July to October, with upwelling during the July-September period.

Banks

• Elevation of the seafloor

• Has continental origin. Can cover extensive surface area but not more than thousands of meters into the water
column.
• Banks have summits less than 200 m
• Shoals: Banks whose tops rise close enough to the sea surface to be hazardous to shipping.
• can upwell
nutrient-rich currents.

-------- End of Chapter --------

Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – India and Neighbourings Countries IR & Places In News – 9
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 2. IR – Bilateral Ties of India with Other Countries

2.1. {India-Africa} PM Modi’s Visit to Nigeria

 PM Narendra Modi's visit to Nigeria is the first by an Indian PM in 17 years, aimed at deepening India-Nigeria relations
across multiple sectors.

Significance of Indian PM’s Visit to Nigeria

 Historical Milestone: First visit in 17 years, highlighting Nigeria's importance in India's African diplomacy.
 Distinguished Honor: PM Modi conferred with the Grand Commander of the Order of the Niger, Nigeria’s second-
highest honour, becoming only the second foreign dignitary to receive it.
 Strategic Partnership: The visit strengthens the India-Nigeria strategic partnership, established in 2007.
 Common Values: Both nations share multi-ethnic, multi-religious and democratic systems, positioning them as natural
allies.
 Participation in G20: India invited Nigeria during its G20 Presidency in 2023.
 Nigeria, the most populated country in Africa & Africa's second-largest economy, has bilateral trade of $7.9 billion
with India, mainly in crude oil and Indian investments totaling $27 billion across sectors.

2.2. {India-Australia} Mobility Arrangement for Talented Early-professionals Scheme (MA-

TES)
 The Department of Home Affairs of Australia gives Indian university graduates and early career professionals a chance
to work in Australia for two years through the MATES scheme.
• The Migration and Mobility Partnership Arrangement (MMPA), signed in 2023 between Australia and India to foster
two-way migration and mobility while addressing illegal and irregular migration.

Eligibility Criteria for MATES

• Age Limit: Indian nationals aged 30 or younger at the time of application.
• Language Proficiency: Proficient in English, with an overall IELTS or equivalent score of at least six.
• Educational Qualifications:
 Graduates within two years from an eligible educational institution at the time of application.
 A Bachelor's degree or higher in renewable energy, mining, engineering, Information Communications Technol-
ogy (ICT), AI, financial technology (FinTech), or agricultural technology (AgriTech).
• Eligible Institutions: Graduates from the top 100 universities in India as per the NIRF 2024 ranking.
• Visa Process: The visa will be granted through a ballot system that randomly selects applicants.
 MATES does not require sponsorship from an Australian employer  accessible to more applicants.
Key Terms

• Migration and Mobility Partnership Arrangement (MMPA): A bilateral framework agreement between two coun-
tries to facilitate the legal movement of people and cooperation on migration issues.
• IELTS (International English Language Testing System): A standardised test to measure English language profi-
ciency for non-native English speakers.

2.3. {India-Canada} Labour Market Impact Assessment (LMIA) Permits

 Following the imposition of intake caps on international student admissions to Canada, Indians are turning to Labour
Market Impact Assessment (LMIA) work permits to emigrate.

IR & Places In News – 10 IR – Bilateral Ties of India with Other Countries Prelims Magnum 2025
• It allows Canadian employers to hire foreign workers if recruitment efforts for hiring local employees fail. For this,
employers need to post their job requirements on the official Canadian portal, and eligible foreign workers can apply
through it. A positive LMIA is sometimes called a confirmation letter.

Why is LMIA preferred over the student visa route?

• Rising costs associated with student visas, including living expenses and tuition fees.
• The inability to score the required scores in English proficiency tests.

Can LMIA lead to permanent residency?

• A positive LMIA does not guarantee permanent residency.
• Skilled foreign workers must still meet all requirements under the Express Entry immigration process (a quick way to
permanent residence for immigrants seeking a new life in Canada).

2.4. {India-CAR} India and Uzbekistan Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT)

 India & Uzbekistan signed the Bilateral Investment Treaty in Tashkent.

About A Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT)

• It is a reciprocal agreement between two nations that protects investments made by individuals and companies of
one state in the other state.
• India introduced a new Model BIT text in 2015, replacing the earlier 1993 version. The 2015 Model BIT has since
served as the basis for renegotiating existing BITs and framing investment-related provisions in Free Trade Agree-
ments (FTAs) and Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs).

Key Features of the BIT

• National Treatment: Ensures foreign investors receive treatment equivalent to domestic investors.
• Protection from Expropriation: This law limits a country's ability to seize or nationalise foreign investments within its
territory.

Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – Bilateral Ties of India with Other Countries IR & Places In News – 11
• Settlement of Disputes: Must exhaust local legal remedies before pursuing international arbitration.

India – Uzbekistan Relations

• Energy Security: India has signed a contract with Uzbekistan for uranium ore concentrates supply.
• Security and Defence cooperation: E.g. Joint military exercise "DUSTLIK".
• Economic Relations: India ranks among Uzbekistan’s top 10 trade partners for the year 2023-24.

2.5. {India-Germany} Germany's Growing Defence Ties with India **

• The Tarang Shakti air exercise (one of its largest multilateral air exercises), featuring the German Luftwaffe and
Indian Air Force, marked a key milestone in their partnership, showcasing both nations' commitment to strengthening
military cooperation and sharing best practices.
 Pacific Skies 24 is a major joint air exercise planned by France, Germany, and Spain to assert their presence in the
Indo-Pacific region. Tarang Shakti is considered a precursor to Pacific Skies 24.

2.6. {India-Iran} 10-year Contract for Chabahar Port

• India Ports Global Ltd (IPGL) and Ports & Maritime Organisation of Iran (PMO) signed the contract.
• Location: Sistan and Baluchistan Province (Iran) on the Makran coast.
• Only oceanic port of Iran (1st deepwater port) | Near Gulf of Oman and Gwadar port (Pakistan).
⇨ Oceanic port: Located on the shore of a sea or ocean. Can be commercial and non-commercial.

India in Chabahar Port

• India and Iran signed a 10-year contract in 2023 for the operation of Chabahar port in Iran.
• Agreement in 2016 for India to develop and operate the port’s Shahid Beheshti terminal for ten years.
• Another Indian project: Linking of Chabahar Port to the Zaranj-Delaram Highway in Afghanistan.
• Ports in Chabahar: Shahid Kalantari port and Shahid Beheshti port. India’s investment is restricted to the Shahid
Beheshti port.

IR & Places In News – 12 IR – Bilateral Ties of India with Other Countries Prelims Magnum 2025
 International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC)

• The INSTC envisages the movement of goods

 Mumbai to Bandar Abbas in Iran by sea;
 Bandar Abbas to Bandar-e-Anzali, an Iranian port on the Caspian Sea,
by road;
 Bandar-e-Anzali to Astrakhan, a Caspian port in the Russian Federation
by sea;
 To other parts of the Russian Federation and Europe by rail.

2.7. {India-US} H-1B visa

 In the fiscal year 2023, Indians accounted for 72.3% of the total H-1B approvals. However, Chinese workers were in
second place, receiving 11.7%.

Overview of the H-1B Visa Program

• It allows American employers to hire non-immigrant workers for speciality occupations requiring advanced skills en-
abling the temporary employment of foreign professionals (at least bachelor’s degree).
• H-1B visas are typically capped each year and allocated through a lottery system managed by the U.S. Citizenship and
Immigration Services (USCIS).
• Exemptions: Certain H-1B workers, such as those employed in higher education institutions, non-profits, or govern-
ment research organisations, are exempt from the annual visa cap.
• Validity and Extensions: The visa is initially valid for three years, with a one-time extension option for an additional
three years, making six years the general maximum duration.
• Lifetime Limit: There is no limit on the total number of H-1B visas an individual can hold over their lifetime, as long as
each visa term follows standard application and approval procedures.
• Job change: H-1B holders can change employers but must reapply for a new visa. If a transfer application is denied,
the individual could become "out of status," potentially facing a re-entry bar of three to ten years unless the previous
employer rehires them.
• Green Card: H-1B visa holders can apply for a Green Card (Lawful Permanent Residency) for themselves and eligible
family members, allowing a path to longer-term residency.
 Indian Participation in Employment: Computer-related occupations accounted for 65% of all H-1B visas in 2023,
followed by architecture, engineering, and surveying (9.5%) and education (6%)

2.8. {India-US} Important terms: India-US Trade

• Generalised System of Preferences (GSP): Non-contractual instrument by which developed countries extend tariff
concessions to goods originating in developing countries.
• Totalisation agreement gives social security to Indian professionals in US eliminating dual deductions.
 Friendshoring is the act of manufacturing and sourcing from countries that are geopolitics allies.
 Nearshoring involves delegating tasks to third-party providers in neighbouring countries.

2.9. {India-US} Indian Firms on U.S. Blacklist

 The U.S. recently sanctioned around 400 entities, including 19 Indian firms, over alleged ties to Russia's defense and
technological sectors, primarily for supplying dual-use technologies.
• U.S. Executive Order (E.O. 14024) imposes sanctions targeting entities aiding Russia since 2021 targeting hundreds
of firms across 20+ countries to limit Russia’s access to sensitive technologies.

2.10. {Iran-Pakistan} Evolution of Iran-Pakistan Relations

Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – Bilateral Ties of India with Other Countries IR & Places In News – 13
• Iran-Pakistan border (Goldsmith Line): From a tripoint with Afghan-
istan to the northern Arabian Sea.

Evolution of Iran-Pakistan relations

• Iran was the first country to recognise Pakistan with diplomatic re-
lations on 14 August 1947.
• Western inclination: Both countries joined the Central Treaty Or-
ganization (CENTO) in 1955.
⇨ Central Treaty Organization (CENTO)/Middle East Treaty Organization (METO)/ Baghdad Pact: NATO-like military
alliance of the Cold War formed by Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. The US was not part of it.
• Ayatollah Khomeini’s ultra-conservative Shiite regime in Iran and Sunni majority Pakistan's Islamisation under dicta-
tor Gen Zia-ul-Haq led to the divergence.
• Iran supported the Northern Alliance against the Taliban.
⇨ “Asli Balouchestan” refers to the southeastern corner of Iran and part of Pakistan’s Balochistan.

Balochs in Iran

• Balochi speaking ethnic group of Balochistan (Pakistan) and Iran’s Sistan & Baluchestan provinces.
• Sunni Baloch minority faces religious persecution by Iranian Shia state.

Neighbouring Countries of Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan

⮚ Iran: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, Turkey.
⮚ Pakistan: Afghanistan, Iran, India. Pakistan does not border China (India's Official Map).
⮚ Afghanistan: China, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Iran, India.

IR & Places In News – 14 IR – Bilateral Ties of India with Other Countries Prelims Magnum 2025
2.11. {Israel-Palestine} Balfour Declaration
 The Balfour Declaration, announced 107 years ago in 1917 by the British government, supported a Jewish national
home in Palestine. It was a turning point in the Zionist movement and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Arthur James
Balfour authored it.

2.12. {Israel-Palestine} Three countries recognise Palestinian as a state

Key elements to the decision

• Spain, Norway and Ireland announced the recognition of a Palestinian state.
• The three countries recognised a Palestinian state with its borders to be demarcated as they were prior to 1967, with
Jerusalem as the capital of both Israel and Palestine, subject to a final settlement.
• Full embassy status to Ireland's representative office in West Bank & Palestinian mission in Ireland.
• However, Ireland made it clear that recognising a Palestinian state does not diminish Ireland's belief in Israel's right
to exist in peace and security.
• The move is mostly symbolic, but it makes Israel appear more isolated on the international stage.
• It may also have an impact on public opinion within Israel.
 About 144 of the 193 UN members recognise Palestine as a state, including most of the global south, Russia,
China, and India.

2.13. {Maldives} Maldives | China | India

Maldives
• More than 1200 island, 99.6 per cent area encom-
passed by Sea having 98 per cent literacy.
• Bars non-Sunnis from becoming a Maldivian citi-
zen.

Historical Rollercoaster of Maldives’ for-

eign policy
• Originally Buddhist later became a constitution-
ally Muslim nation.
• Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation (1887) with
foreign affairs surrendered to Britain.
• World War II: British naval base | British protec-
torate until its independence in 1965.
• India: First nation to launch a resident mission in
Male in 1976.
• UTF Harbour Project agreement at Uthuru Thilafalhu atoll is also an Indian project.
• China: Maldives' first bilateral FTA | Top source of tourists pre-COVID.

India's footprint in Maldives

• India is the closest neighbour of Maldives with SBI as the largest bank of Maldives.
• Exercises: Ekuverin and Ekatha. | Operation Cactus (Military Coup 1988), Operation Castor (Tsunami Relief 2004),
and Operation Neer (Water Shortage 2014).

-------- End of Chapter --------

Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – Bilateral Ties of India with Other Countries IR & Places In News – 15
 3. IR – Africa

3.1. {Africa} Crisis in West Asia-North Africa (WANA)

 The conflict between the Sudan Armed Forces (SAF) and
the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) has led to widespread de-
struction, displacement, and severe humanitarian crises.

Background
• Persistent Legacy of War: Since its 1956 independence,
Sudan has faced 15 military coups, two civil wars, and the
Darfur conflict driven by the Janjaweed militia (a precur-
sor to the RSF), causing 1.5 million deaths and massive dis-
placement.
• Fall of al-Bashir and Rising Conflict
• Ethnic Violence: Renewed attacks on the Masalit people
in Darfur, reviving old grievances from the Darfur ethnic
cleansing of 2003.

3.2. {Africa} Defence Attache (DA) in Africa

• Philippines signed a deal with India (2022) to acquire three batteries of the BrahMos cruise missile.
• Armenia is first foreign customer (2022) for India’s Pinaka rocket launcher.

Pinaka rocket launcher

• Multi-Barrel Rocket Launcher (MBRL) designed by the Armament Research and Development Establishment
(ARDE), a laboratory of the DRDO. First used in the Kargil War.
• Range: 60 to 75 kilometers.

Defence Attache (DA)

• Armed force member representing his/her country's defence establishment in the embassy.
• Enjoys diplomatic status and immunity.
• Indicative of military and foreign engagements: For example, India had seven officers posted to its mission in Mos-
cow, indicative of its military-technical exchange and bilateral engagement.
• First-time Indian DAs in Spain, Djibouti, the Philippines, Tanzania, and Poland.

3.3. {Africa} Emergency in Ecuador

• Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and the Pacific Ocean on the west.
• Capital: Quito | Largest city: Guayaquil (centre for drug violence).
• Features: Amazon jungle, Andean highlands, and wildlife-rich Galápagos Islands.

3.4. {Africa} Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC)

 China has pledged $51 billion in new funding at the 9th Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) in Beijing, sup-
porting 30 infrastructure projects across Africa.
• Establishment: Founded in 2000 to formalise China-Africa strategic partnership.
• Summit Frequency: Held every three years; Last summit held virtually in 2021 due to COVID-19.

IR & Places In News – 16 IR – Africa Prelims Magnum 2025

• The FOCAC includes 53 African nations — every country on the continent except Eswatini, which maintains diplomatic
ties with Taiwan in defiance of Beijing’s “One China” Policy.
 Kingdom of Eswatini is a landlocked country in Southern Africa. Mozambique borders it to its northeast and
South Africa to its north, west, south, and southeast.

Chinese Foreign Affairs Minister visits Africa

 Visit by Chinese Foreign Affairs Minister: Egypt, Tunisia, Togo and the Ivory Coast.

Evolution of Sino-Africa Relations

• Go Out Policy: Promotion of Chinese investment in Africa. Signed the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) agreements in
2013.
• Raw Material Export: Africa’s largest trading partner & destination of one-fourth of its raw material.
Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – Africa IR & Places In News – 17
• Strategic investor: First international base of Chinese navy in Djibouti.

Chinese interests in Africa

• Africa has 90% of the world’s cobalt and platinum and 75% of coltan essential for electronics.
• "Yuan-based panda bonds” and "debt restructuring", pushing Yuan as an alternative to the dollar.

3.5. {Africa} Liberia

• A group of senators proposed relocating Monrovia, the capital of Liberia, due to recurring floods.
• Located on the western coast of Africa.
• Bordered by Sierra Leone to the northwest, Guinea to the north, Ivory Coast to the east, and the Atlantic Ocean to
the south and southwest.
• Major Exports: Iron ore, rubber, timber, cocoa, and coffee.

3.6. {Africa} Sudan Crisis

• Military coup 2019: Military generals ousted dictator Omar al-Bashir amid a popular uprising against rising corruption,
increasing costs of living, and repression of social groups.
• Power sharing: After the 2019 coup, civilian groups and the military decided to share power.
• Military coup 2021: General Burhan & Dagalo of the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF) led it. Former dictator
Omar al-Bashir founded RSF as Arab counterinsurgency militia in Darfur region.
 Earlier in 1992-1996, Sudan also played host to Osama Bin Laden, who had heavily invested in the country’s in-
frastructure. The US then declared Sudan as a “state sponsor of terrorism” in 1993, and the United Nations im-
posed sanctions.

Current situation
• Post 2021, the military coalition assured that elections would take place and blamed the civilian groups for causing
instability due to infighting.
• In 2023, General Burhan and Dagalo’s rift over the RSF’s role in Sudan came to the fore.
• Indian workers, particularly the Hakki Pikki tribal community, were in Sudan during a crisis in 2023.

IR & Places In News – 18 IR – Africa Prelims Magnum 2025

• Jeddah talks: Saudi Arabia and the United States led talks to initiate a truce between Sudan’s army and the paramili-
tary Rapid Support Forces (RSF), but it failed.
 Operation Kaveri (2023): Operation by India. to evacuate Indian citizens from crisis-hit Sudan.

3.7. {Africa} Lesotho

 India dispatched 1000 metric tonnes
of rice as part of its humanitarian as-
sistance to Lesotho.

Geography and Culture

• Situated in the Maloti Mountains. It
is often called the "Kingdom in the
Sky" due to its high elevation.
• Only independent state in the world
that lies entirely above 1,000 meters (3,281 feet) in elevation.
• It is an enclaved country completely surrounded by South Africa. This makes it one of the few countries in the world
entirely surrounded by another country.
• River: Caledon River, Orange River, and the Tugela River. All these originate from the Lesotho Mountains.
• Capital: Maseru
• Language: The official languages are Sesotho (Widely Spoken) and English.

Economy
• Lesotho is a key water supplier to South Africa through the Lesotho Highlands Water Project.
• The country is known for its high-quality diamond mines.

3.8. {Africa} Scramble for the Sahel *

Sahel Region
• Sahil in Arabic means coast or shore, stretches from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea with Sahara Desert in the
north and the Savannah in south.
Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – Africa IR & Places In News – 19
• G5 Sahel: Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso, Chad, and Mauritania.

-------- End of Chapter --------

IR & Places In News – 20 IR – Africa Prelims Magnum 2025

 4. IR – Asia

4.1. {Asia} Chagos Islands **

 The U.K. will restore sovereignty of the Chagos Islands to Mauritius but retains Diego Garcia airbase.
• The Chagos archipelago is a group of seven atolls in the Indian Ocean, comprising at least 60 islands about 500 km
south of the Maldives and more than 2000 km northeast of Mauritius.
• Chagos Islands are the southernmost archipelago of the Chagos–Laccadive Ridge, a long submarine mountain range
in the Indian Ocean.
• Key Islands: Salomon Islands, Diego Garcia, Nelsons Island, etc.
• The Great Chagos Bank is the largest atoll in the world.

4.2. {Asia} Rising Tension in the Korean Peninsula

 Provocative moves by North Korea and the rebuttals by South Korea are
on the rise.

Korean Peninsula
• 38th parallel (38° N) roughly demarcates North Korea and South Korea.
• Potsdam Conference (1945), near the end of World War II, chose it as
the bifurcation border.

4.3. {Asia} Trans-Himalayan

Multi-Dimensional Connec-
tivity Network
 Nepal and China signed the MoU to build
the Trans-Himalayan Multi-Dimensional
Connectivity Network (THMDCN) and
the Belt and Road Cooperation frame-
work.

Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – Asia IR & Places In News – 21

• THMDCN is an economic corridor between Nepal and China & part of China's Belt and Road Initiative.
• The corridor consists of several transportation infrastructure projects, such as the China-Nepal railway, the restoration
of the border ports, and highway construction.

4.4. {Asia} World's Largest Dam on Brahmaputra *

 China has planned the world's largest dam on the Brahmaputra River in Tibet near the Indian border.
• It will be built at the lower reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River (the Tibetan name of the Brahmaputra).
• The dam is planned to be constructed at a massive gorge in the Himalayan region, where the Brahmaputra River
makes a sharp U-turn before entering Arunachal Pradesh and flowing into Bangladesh.

Yarlung Tsangpo River

• It is the longest river in Tibet and the fifth longest in China.

• Origin: Angsi Glacier in western Tibet. After reaching Assam, the river is known as the Brahmaputra.
• Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon, formed by a horse-shoe bend in the river where it leaves the Tibetan Plateau &
flows around Namcha Barwa, is the deepest and possibly longest canyon in the world.

4.5. {Asia} Sierra Madre | South China Sea

• Sierra Madre was constructed in the US for World War II and commissioned in 1944 as a landing ship.
 Landing Ship is the naval designation for ships supporting amphibious operations by carrying tanks, vehicles,
cargo and landing troops directly onto a low slope beach with no docks or piers.
• Subsequently, it was sent to Vietnam during the US participation in the Vietnam War (1954-75).
• In 1976, it was transferred to the Philippines, an ally of the US. In the 1990s, the Philippines decided to bring this
ship to the Second Thomas Shoal, a submerged reef located in the South China Sea.
• In 1999, the Sierra Madre was left on the Second Thomas Shoal, which is a part of the mostly uninhabited Spratly
Islands in the South China Sea. The placement of the ship was deliberate in order to further its territorial claims.
• China also has deployed its ships in the vicinity. It has also directed water cannons at supply boats.
• The ship is largely dilapidated and rusting. However, for the Philippines, its removal would risk weakening its claims
over the islands and the Chinese presence being established.

4.6. {Asia} Vladivostok

• Indian companies face logistics constraints for transporting copper concentrate from Mongolia, the landlocked Cen-
tral Asian country, to India.
• The possible routes are by rail to Chian’s Tiajin port or a combined road and rail route to Vladivostok.
• Vladivostok is a port city on the Pacific Ocean shore of the Russian Far East.
• It is located around Zolotoy Rog (“Golden Horn Bay”) on the western side of Muravyov-Amursky peninsula that sep-
arates Amur and Ussuri bays on the Sea of Japan.
• It is the end point of the Trans-Siberian Railway, and is the first free seaport of the Far East.

Yellow Sea

• Also known as North Sea, it is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean located between mainland China and
the Korean Peninsula, and can be considered the northwestern part of the East China Sea.
• Separated from the Sea of Japan by the boundary from the southern end of Haenam Peninsula to Jeju Island in
South Korea. The innermost bay of the northwestern Yellow Sea is called the Bohai Sea, into which flow the Yellow
River, the Hai River and the Liao River.
• The northeastern extension of the Yellow Sea is called the Korea Bay, into which flow the Yalu River, the Chongchon
River and the Taedong River.
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Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – Asia IR & Places In News – 23
IR & Places In News – 24 IR – Asia Prelims Magnum 2025
 -------- End of Chapter --------

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 5. IR – European Union

5.1. {EU} EU Deforestation Regulation (EUDR)

 The EU proposes an extension of the deadline to implement deforestation regulation.
• The EUDR was adopted in 2023, and seeks to prevent the import of specified goods contributing to deforestation and
forest degradation on the EU market.
• Scheduled to apply to large and medium-sized businesses from December 2024 and to small and micro-enterprises
(SMEs) from June 2025.
• Objective: Minimise EU’s contribution to global deforestation & forest degradation & reduce the EU’s contribution to
GHG emissions and biodiversity loss.
• Products covered: Coffee, leather, oil cake, wood furniture, paper, and paperboard. It applies not only to raw mate-
rials but also to finished goods that may contain these materials.
• As per the regulation, a company will only be authorised to place these products on the European market or export
them provided they are:
 deforestation-free,
 produced in accordance with relevant local legislation,
 covered by a due diligence statement.

5.2. {EU} Italy-India Joint Strategic Action Plan 2025-2029

 At the G20 Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Prime Ministers Narendra Modi and Giorgia Meloni launched the Italy-India
Joint Strategic Action Plan 2025-2029 to strengthen bilateral ties.

Significance of the 2025-2029 Plan

 Enhances trade & investment in green technologies, advanced manufacturing & sustainable mobility.
 Boosts participation of SMEs in industrial and technological innovation, fostering collaboration between large corpo-
rations and start-ups.
 Strengthens support for multilateral initiatives like IMEC, the Global Biofuels Alliance, and the ISA.
 Counters China’s BRI by promoting connectivity and cooperation in the Indo-Pacific and Europe.
 Builds on existing frameworks such as the 2023 Executive Programme of Cultural Cooperation and Joint Working
Groups in food processing and energy.

5.3. {EU} Schengen Zone *

• Kosovo recently obtained visa-free access to the
Schengen zone in Europe.

Kosovo
• Self-declared independent country in the Bal-
kans region of Europe.
• Landlocked country. Member of the Interna-
tional Monetary Fund and World Bank.
• Legal statehood
Russia and China.

Schengen zone

IR & Places In News – 26 IR – European Union Prelims Magnum 2025

• N
•

• Of the 27 EU member states, 23

 EU states not part of the Schengen Area: Cyprus, Romania, Bulgaria, and Ireland
 Non-EU states part of the Schengen Area: Iceland, Liechtenstein, Switzerland, and Norway.
• Croatia, an EU member since 2013, joined Schengen in 2023.
• Romania and Bulgaria, EU members since 2007, will have partial Schengen entry in March.
 Schengen crisis 2015 migrant crisis.
 Dublin Regulation: it is a law that determines which country in Europe or Dublin countries is responsible for decid-
ing your asylum

Schengen visas
• Allows visitors to travel freely in the Schengen area for a maximum of 90 days in any 180-day period.
• However, this does not give the right to work.
• It is valid for almost all EU Member States and a few associated non-EU countries.

5.4. {Europe} Kerch Strait

 A Russian oil tanker split during a storm in the Kerch Strait, causing an oil spill.

• Connects the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. It separates the Kerch Peninsula of Crimea in the west from the Taman
Peninsula of Russia’s Krasnodar Krai in the east.
• Only direct link between Russia and Crimea. Important for supply of fuel and other essential goods.

5.5. {Europe} Schengen visa updates for Indian citizens

• Under the new visa ‘cascade’ regime, Indian nationals can get multi-entry visas valid for two years.
• It was decided in the context of the EU-India Common Agenda on Migration and Mobility.

5.6. {India-EU} India’s retaliation against EU tariffs

 India proposes a $1.1-billion retaliation against the EU for extra steel duties as it has resulted in a cumulative trade
loss for India amounting to $4.412 billion.
• The safeguard duty imposed by the EU is a Tariff Rate Quota (TRQ). Recently, the EU has extended the safeguard
duties on steel imports by another two years till 2026.

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• Under the TRQ mechanism, every country is allocated a quota to export 26 steel products to the EU. This quota was
set at 105% of the average imports from that country between 2015 and 2017. Exports beyond this quota attract an
additional 25% duty.
• Under WTO rules, another safeguard measure for these categories of steel products cannot be imposed for another
eight years.
 A Tariff Rate Quota (TRQ) is a trade mechanism that limits the quantity of a product that can be imported at a
lower tariff rate while allowing higher tariff rates for any additional imports. TRQs are used to protect domestic
production by restricting imports.

5.7. {India-EU} Suspension of MFN Clause by Switzerland

 Switzerland suspends the Most-Favoured-Nation (MFN) clause in its tax treaty with India, potentially affecting $100
billion investment plans and higher taxes on dividends for Swiss companies operating in India starting January 1,
2025.
• The MFN clause ensures that a country receives the most favourable tax treatment offered to any other country under
a bilateral tax treaty.
• India and Switzerland amended their Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA) in 2010 to include such provisions
for more favourable tax treatment.

Most-Favoured Nations (MFN) Clause

• The MFN clause requires a country to extend the same trade terms to all trading partners.
• It allows for a reduction in the taxation rate on dividends, interest, royalties, or fees for technical services, similar to
concessions given to another OECD country at a later date.
• The issues at hand included:
 Whether MFN clause can be invoked when a third country is not yet an OECD member when signing DTAA. Whether
the MFN clause is automatically effective or requires a notification.

5.8. {India-EU} Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA)

• European Free Trade Association (EFTA): Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland.
• The India-EFTA deal was concluded after ten years of disagreements. First FTA that India has signed with any European
country.
• Enhances market access and simplifies customs procedures, making it easier for Indian and EFTA businesses to ex-
pand operations in the respective markets.
 EFTA is offering 92.2% of its tariff lines, which covers 99.6% of India’s exports.
 The EFTA’s market access offer covers 100% of non-agri products and tariff concession on Processed Agricultural
Products (PAP).
 India is offering 82.7% of its tariff lines which covers 95.3% of EFTA exports of which more than 80% import is
Gold.
 Sensitivity related to PLI in sectors such as pharma, medical devices & processed food etc. have been taken while
extending offers.
 Sectors such as dairy, soya, coal & sensitive agricultural products are kept on the exclusion list.

India and EFTA

• In 2023, India ranked as the EFTA's fifth-biggest trading partner, following EU, US, UK, and China.
• India and EFTA trade reached $25 billion, Indian exports at $2.8 billion and imports at $22 billion.
• EFTA nations are world's ninth-largest merchandise trader & fifth largest in commercial services.
• More than 300 Swiss companies such as Nestle, Holcim, Sulzer, and Novartis, apart from banks such as UBS operate
in India, while Indian IT majors TCS, Infosys and HCL work in Switzerland.

IR & Places In News – 28 IR – European Union Prelims Magnum 2025

 India’s key Imports & Exports from the four countries
• Imports: Gold, silver, coal, pharmaceuticals, vegetable oil, dairy machinery, medical items, crude and scientific
equipment.
• Exports: Chemicals, iron and steel, gold, precious stones, yarns, sports goods, glassware and bulk drugs to these
nations.

Significance of Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement

For India

• FDI: Binding commitment for EFTA countries to invest $100 billion in India.
 $50 billion within the first 10 years and an additional $50 billion in the subsequent five years.
 Will be from the private sector, not pension funds in the EFTA region.
 India reserves the right to withdraw tariff concessions if investment commitments are not met.
• Employment Creation of 1 million jobs in India within 15 years of the agreement.
• Market access: Will not discriminate against Indian service providers with EFTA service providers.
 India’s annual services exports are worth $5 billion to EFTA (4 times the goods exports).
 About 85 per cent of our services exports go to Switzerland and about 15 per cent to Norway.
• Increased Labour Movement: EFTA has granted India three visa categories: intra-corporate transferee, independent
professionals, and contractual service provider.
 No specific quota, EFTA reserves the right to decide on a numerical limit per their constitution.
 TEPA also facilitates technology collaboration and access to world-leading technologies in precision engineering,
health sciences, renewable energy, Innovation and R&D.

For EFTA countries

• EFTA countries will experience a significant reduction in tariffs in India.

 Aims to eliminate duties export of various industrial goods to India by EFTA companies.
 Ex:.Pharmaceuticals, machinery, watches, fertilisers, medicines, chemical products, minerals, fish.

Key features of TEPA

Investment

• EFTA countries to invest $100 billion in India, creating one million jobs over 15 years.
• India can withdraw tariff concessions if the investment and job targets aren't met.
• The investment chapter isn't subject to dispute resolution.

Trade in goods

• Tariffs on cut and polished diamonds will reduce from 5% to 2.5% in five years.
• Tariff cuts for wines will vary based on price, gradually decreasing over 10 years.
• EFTA exports like seafood, fruits, coffee capsules, oils, sweets, and processed foods benefit.
• Also covered are smartphones, bicycle parts, medical equipment, clocks, watches, medicines, textiles, apparel, iron
and steel products, and machinery.
• Excluded products: Gold, dairy, soya, coal, and some agricultural products.
• India's exports to EFTA countries will not be significantly affected because most products already have low or zero
tariffs owing to Most Favoured Nation (MFN) status in EFTA countries.

Trade in services

• Both India and EFTA members agreed to liberalise services across various sectors.
Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – European Union IR & Places In News – 29
• Norway commits to allowing access for Indian yoga instructors and traditional medicine practitioners, following its
legal rules.
• Norway and Switzerland offer four and three years, respectively, for skilled Indian professionals under intra-corpo-
rate transfers, with work permit requirements.
• Unlike past FTAs, TEPA extends service trade benefits to any corporate entity incorporated in an EFTA member, re-
gardless of its operations location.
• However, benefits under the investment chapter are limited to entities with substantial business activities within
EFTA.

Sustainable development

• Environmental and labour aspects à first time India has included such commitments in an FTA.
• While the TSD chapter doesn't involve dispute resolution, India needs to ensure any scrutiny of its implementation
respects the balance in these agreements.

-------- End of Chapter --------

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IR & Places In News – 30 IR – European Union Prelims Magnum 2025

 6. IR – Multilateral Organisations

6.1. {Groupings} 11th ADMM Plus Meeting

 11th ASEAN Defence Ministers’ Meeting-Plus was held in Lao PDR.
• ADMM-Plus is a platform for ASEAN and its eight Dialogue Partners, i.e. Australia, China, India, Japan, New Zealand,
Republic of Korea, Russia and the US (collectively referred to as the “Plus Countries”), to strengthen security and
defence cooperation for peace, stability, and development in the region.
• The Inaugural ADMM-Plus was convened in Ha Noi, Viet Nam in 2010. It meets annually since 2017.
• It is the only official framework of Defense Ministers' meetings in the Asia-Pacific Region.

6.2. {Groupings} Africa Club *

 Formed in the final leg of the 37th African Union Summit.
• Alliance of African Multilateral Financial Institutions (which are African owned and controlled).
• To amplify Africa's influence in the global financial system in line with Agenda 2063 and SDG.
 Agenda 2063: Africa’s blueprint for transforming Africa into global powerhouse of the future.
• Members: African Export Import Bank, Trade and Development Bank, Africa Finance Corporation, African Reinsurance
Corporation, African Trade and Investment Development Insurance, Shelter Afrique Development Bank & ZEP–RE
(PTA Reinsurance Co).

African Union
• Continental body of 55 member states of the African Continent.
• Launched in 2002 as a successor to the Organisation of African Unity (OAU, 1963-1999).
• Headquarters: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
• The AU is the most recent recipient of ‘full member status’ to the Group of 20 (G20).

6.3. {Groupings} Annual meeting of Pacific Islands Forum *

 The annual Pacific Islands Forum (PIF) meeting took place in Nuku’alofa, the capital of Tonga.

Pacific Islands Forum (PIF)

• Formed in 1971, PIF is an intergovernmental organisation with 18 members located in the Pacific region.
• Member states: Australia, Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, French Polynesia, Kiribati, Nauru, New
Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Republic of Marshall Islands, Samoa, Solomon Islands,
Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.
• Associated members: Tokelau, Wallis and Futuna.

6.4. {Groupings} Clean Economy Investor Forum

 Will be organised by Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity (IPEF) in Singapore.
• Nodal agency: Department of Commerce.
• Participants: Region’s top investors, philanthropies, financial institutions, innovative companies, start-ups and entre-
preneurs.
• To mobilise investments in sustainable infrastructure, climate technology, renewable energy projects.
• CEIF is managed by Invest India, India’s National Investment Promotion Agency.

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IR & Places In News – 32 IR – O Prelims Magnum 2025
Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – O IR & Places In News – 33
6.5. {Groupings} Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)
 The 6th International Conference on Disaster Resilient Infrastructure was held in New Delhi.
• Theme: ‘Investing today for a more resilient tomorrow.’
• CDRI was established in 2019 at the UN Climate Action Summit under India’s leadership and with the support of the
UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR).
• Multi-stakeholder global coalition of nations, UN organisations, multilateral development banks, corporate sector,
and academic institutions.
• Objective: To promote the resilience of infrastructure systems to climate and disaster risks.
• Members: 39 countries and 7 organisations. Membership in the CDRI is open to all entities, subject to the approval of
the governing council.
• Governing authority: Governing Council, the Executive Committee and the Secretariat.
• Secretariat: New Delhi, India

6.6. {Groupings} ECOWAS (CEDEAO)

• Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger withdrew from the West African bloc ECOWAS.
• Regional intergovernmental organisation established through the Lagos Treaty (1975).
• Headquarters: Abuja (Nigeria) | Objective: Creation of democratic, integrated “borderless region”.
• Members: Benin, Cape Verde, Cote d’ Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone,
Senegal and Togo.

6.7. {Groupings} G7 and India **

 50th G7 Leaders’ Summit concluded in Apulia (Italy) with India's participation as an Outreach Country.
 On January 1, 2024, Italy succeeded Japan (2023) in assuming the Presidency for the seventh time in its history. It will
hand it over to Canada on December 31, 2024.
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Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – O IR & Places In News – 35
History and evolution of G7
• The G7 is an informal grouping of leading industrialised nations, including the United States, France, Germany, Japan,
the United Kingdom, Italy, and Canada.
• The first “World Economic Summit”, which later became the G7, was launched in 1975 by former French President
Valéry Giscard d’Estaing and then German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt.
• Initial concerns were economic problems of the 1970s, including the first oil crisis and the collapse of the system of
fixed exchange rates (Bretton Woods).
• Canada became a member of the group at the 1976 summit in Puerto Rico, and with its inclusion, the G7 was born
(Not a founding member).
• Since the Ottawa Summit of 1981, the European Union has participated in all working sessions.
• In 1998, at the Birmingham Summit, the Group of Eight was constituted as Russia became a member.
• Russia’s membership was suspended in 2014 following its annexation of Crimea.

G7 and G20

• The G20 is a larger group of countries, which also includes G7 members.

• The G20 was formed in 1999 to bring more countries together to address global economic concerns.
• Apart from the G7 countries, the G20 comprises Argentina, Australia, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Rus-
sia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea, and Turkey.

Mechanism of G7 summits
• Annual informal summits, rotatedly presided over by leaders of member countries.
• The host country typically gets to invite dignitaries from outside the G-7 to attend the Summit.
• Groundwork for the summit is done by the “sherpas” (representatives of members).
• Releases non-binding communique in the end.
• Does not have a formal constitution or a fixed headquarters.
• Each year, starting from the 1st of January, one of the Member States takes over the leadership of the Group on a
rotating basis. The EU does not hold the rotating presidency of the G7.

Group of Seven (G7) Summit 2024

 India is participating as an Outreach Country in the G7 Leaders’ Summit in Italy.

Origin of G7

• Originated from a 1973 meeting of finance ministers and central bank governors in Paris, France.
• Convened in response to major economic challenges at the time — an oil crisis, rising inflation, and the collapse of the
Bretton Woods system.
 In Bretton Woods system, the value of the US dollar was fixed against gold. It required countries to guarantee
the convertibility of their currencies into U.S. dollars to within 1% of fixed parity rates.
• Lacks a permanent administrative structure, yet the G7 rotates its presidency annually.
• Agenda: Includes defending the “rules-based international system”. Key priorities include migration, climate change,
food security, and the implications of artificial intelligence (AI) for humanity.

6.8. {Groupings} Heads of Asian Coast Guard Agencies Meeting (HACGAM)

 The 20th HACGAM was held in Incheon, South Korea, with the Indian Coast Guard (ICG) participating alongside coast
guard agencies from 23 Asian countries.

About HACGAM

IR & Places In News – 36 IR – O Prelims Magnum 2025

• Initiated by Japan in 2004, it is an annual event hosted on a rotational basis by its 23 member nations to promote
cooperation among regional coastguards.
• Associate Members: Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia
(ReCAAP) and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC).
• As chair of its Search and Rescue working group, India plays a leadership role in the forum.
 18th Edition was hosted by the Indian Coast Guard in New Delhi in 2022.

6.9. {Groupings} I2U2 Initiative **

 Rising tensions between Iran and Israel over the Hamas Leader killing may impact some initiatives like the I2U2 initi-
ative (West Asian Quad).
• Established in 2021, it is a strategic partnership between India, Israel, UAE and US.
• Aim: To mobilise private sector capital and expertise to achieve a variety of goals, including modernising infrastruc-
ture, advancing low-carbon development pathways, and improving public health.

6.10. {Groupings} IBSA Fund

• Established in 2004 and became operational in 2006 to enhance South-South cooperation.
• Each country contributes US$ 1 million annually to this fund.
• Secretariat: United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation.
• Recognition: UN South-South Partnership Award in 2006 and UN’s MDG award in 2010.

IBSA
• Formed as IBSA Dialogue Forum by Brasilia Declaration 2003 by India, Brazil, South Africa.
• Cooperation in: Global and regional political issues, Trilateral collaboration on concrete areas/projects, Assisting other
developing countries.
• Does not have a headquarters or a permanent executive secretariat.

6.11. {Groupings} India to host IATA's 81st Annual Summit

 After a 42-year gap, India will host the International Air Transport Association (IATA) 's annual general meeting (AGM)
next year. The decision was taken at the 80th IATA AGM in Dubai.
• For the third time, the IATA AGM convened in India (Delhi) between 1958 and 1983.
• IndiGo, India’s largest airline by market share, will be the host airline of the AGM.
• Participants: Almost all global airlines, aircraft manufacturers, and aviation sector stakeholders.

International Air Transport Association (IATA)

• Founded in Havana, Cuba, in 1945 to promote aviation sector cooperation.
• At its founding, IATA had 57 members from 31 nations, mostly in Europe and North America.
• Currently, its 330 airline members from 120 nations comprise more than 80 percent of global air traffic.
• HQ: Montreal, Canada.

International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO)

• Intergovernmental specialised agency associated with the United Nations (UN).
• Established by: Convention on International Civil Aviation 1944 (Chicago Convention).
• HQ: Montreal, Canada.
• Establishes legal standards in the aviation sector.

6.12. {Groupings} Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF) for Prosperity

Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – O IR & Places In News – 37

• The IPEF members signed various agreements, which are first-of-their-kind approaches.
• These agreements will enter into force after at least five IPEF partners complete their internal legal procedures for
ratification, acceptance or approval.
• India did not formally sign these agreements as the formation of the new government is underway.

Agreements signed
IPEF Clean Economy Agreement

• Aims energy security and transition, climate resilience and adaptation, GHG emissions mitigation, etc.
• Joint collaborative actions such as Cooperative Work Programmes and the IPEF Catalytic Capital Fund.

Cooperative Work Programme (CWP)

• Three new CWPs: on emissions intensity accounting, on e-waste urban mining (led by India), and on Small Modular
Reactors (SMRs).

IPEF Catalytic Capital Fund

• Supports the expansion of the pipeline of quality clean economy infrastructure projects.
• Founding supporters: Australia, Japan, Korea, and the United States.
• Administered by: Private Infrastructure Development Group (PIDG).

IPEF Fair Economy Agreement

• To create a more transparent and predictable business environment, a level playing field for businesses and workers,
to combat corruption by strengthening anti-corruption frameworks, etc.

6.13. {Groupings} International Solar Alliance (ISA)

 Malta becomes 119th member of ISA.
• Treaty-based international organisation, initially of solar resource rich countries (Suryaputras), lying fully or partially
between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
• Brainchild of India and France, launched at the COP21 (Paris) of UNFCCC.
• ‘Towards 1000’ strategy: To mobilize USD 1000 billion of investments in solar energy solutions by 2030.
 To deliver energy access to 1000 million people using clean energy solutions.
 To install 1000 GW of solar energy capacity.
 To mitigate global solar emissions to the tune of 1000 million tonnes of CO2 every year.
• Membership: More than 120 signatories. All UN member states are now eligible to join the ISA.
 Countries that do not fall within Tropics can join the alliance with the exception of voting rights.
• HQ: National Institute for Solar Energy of India, Gurugram.
• The United Nations General Assembly granted observer status to the ISA in 2021.

6.14. {Groupings} MAHASAGAR Initiative

 The third edition of MAHASAGAR (Maritime Heads for Active Security And Growth for All in the Region), a bi-annual
initiative by the Indian Navy, took place.
• Theme: Training Cooperation to Mitigate Common Maritime Security Challenges in Indian Ocean Region.
• MAHASAGAR is a high-level virtual interaction among leadership in Bangladesh, Comoros, Kenya, Madagascar, Mal-
dives, Mauritius, Mozambique, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, and Tanzania.
• MAHASAGAR resonates with the government’s SAGAR vision.

6.15. {Groupings} Mutual Evaluation Report by FATF

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IR & Places In News – 40 IR – O Prelims Magnum 2025
• Financial Action Task Force mutual evaluations are in-depth country reports that analyse the implementation and
effectiveness of measures taken against money laundering, terrorist & proliferation financing.
• The reports are peer reviews, where members from different countries assess another country.
• After analysing a country’s anti-money laundering and counter-terrorist financing system, mutual evaluations recom-
mend strengthening it further.

India’s rating based on MER

• India has been provided with a “regular follow-up” rating. The rating is currently shared by only four other G20 coun-
tries — the UK, France, Italy and Russia (suspended from FATF in February 2023)
• Most developing countries are in the “enhanced follow-up” category, which requires submission of reports annually,
as against once in three years in the “regular follow-up” category.

6.16. {Groupings} NATO completes 75 years **

• Founded on April 4, 1949. 12 founding members: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the
Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom and the United States.
• Currently 32 members. Latest members: Finland (2023) and Sweden (2024).
• Formed by the signing of the Washington Treaty, which is based on Article 51 of the United Nations Charter, “which
reaffirms the right of individual or collective defence.”
• Article 5 of Washington Treaty explicitly aims to counter Soviet Union's influence in Eastern Europe.
• Direct Military interventions are not a must, dependent as individual member deems fit.
• The only time the article has been invoked so far was following the 9/11 attacks on the US.
• In the aftermath of it, NATO forces were sent to Afghanistan and deployed for nearly 20 years.

Sweden’s NATO bid

• Sweden became NATO’s newest member. Earlier, Finland became the 31st member (2023).

NATO membership

• Open door policy (Article 10): All European countries are eligible to join NATO.
• Since 1949, NATO’s membership has increased from 12 to 31 countries.
• Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Sweden and Ukraine have declared their aspirations to join NATO.
• New member bid must be agreed by consensus of all members.
For more details, visit > NATO and NATO Plus.

6.17. {Groupings} Nile Basin Cooperative Framework

 Water-sharing agreement for the Nile River basin was formally confirmed by the African Union after South Sudan
joined the treaty to ensure fair and sustainable use of the Nile water.
• Signatory Nations: South Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania ratified. Kenya joined but yet to
ratify, Congo abstained, and Egypt & Sudan refused to sign.
• Ethiopia's $4 billion Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) on the Blue Nile has increased tensions because Egypt
fears that if Ethiopia doesn't resolve its concerns, it may cut off water supplies essential for drinking water and irriga-
tion downstream.

Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD)

• Formerly known as the Millennium Dam and sometimes called the Hidase Dam.
• Location: Benishangul-Gumuz Region of Ethiopia, about 14 km east of the border with Sudan.
• On completion, it will be Africa's largest hydroelectric power plant.

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IR & Places In News – 42 IR – O Prelims Magnum 2025
Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – O IR & Places In News – 43
6.18. {Groupings} Non-Alignment in the Era of the Global South
 At the 19th Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) summit themed ‘Deepening Cooperation for Shared Global Affluence’, the
Kampala Outcome document was adopted.
• Uganda, as NAM Chair from December 2023, aims to strengthen NAM and promote Global South unity.
Read more > Importance of NAM for India.

6.19. {Groupings} Pakistan’s International Monetary Fund (IMF) Bailout

 IMF approved Extended Fund Facility (EFF) for Pakistan.

What is an IMF Bailout?

• It is a form of financial assistance the IMF provides to countries facing severe economic crises. These crises can include
macroeconomic concerns, currency crises, balance-of-payment problems, or significant declines in economic growth.
• The primary goal is to stabilise the economy of the borrowing country and restore its financial health.

Conditions Imposed by the IMF for Bailouts

• When a country borrows from the IMF, it must agree to certain conditions, known as IMF conditionality.

Policy Adjustments

• Fiscal Revenue Measures: Increasing taxes or improving tax collection.

• Spending Cuts: Reducing government expenditures, often including subsidies.
• Governance Reforms: Enhancing transparency and reducing corruption.

Quantitative Performance Criteria (QPCs)

• Monetary and Credit Aggregates: Controlling inflation and stabilising the currency.
• International Reserves: Building up foreign exchange reserves.
• Fiscal Balances: Maintaining a balanced budget or reducing deficits.
• External Borrowing: Limiting new external debt.

Structural Benchmarks

• Banking Sector Reforms: Strengthening the financial sector.

• Market Reforms: Promoting competition and reducing market distortions.
• Public Sector Reforms: Improving efficiency and reducing the size of the public sector.

Extended Fund Facility

• Established in 1974. Lending facility of the fund of the IMF to help countries address medium and longer-term balance
of payments problems.
• Amounts drawn under EFF are to be repaid over 4½–10 years in 12 equal semi-annual instalments.

6.20. {Groupings} South-South Cooperation

 September 12 is observed as the United Nations Day for South-South Cooperation.
• The United Nations Day for South-South Cooperation celebrates the economic, social and political developments
made in recent years by regions and countries in the South.
• The date commemorates the adoption of the Buenos Aires Plan of Action for Promoting and Implementing Technical
Cooperation among Developing Countries (BAPA) in 1978.
• Theme 2024: "A Better Tomorrow through South-South Cooperation."

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Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – O IR & Places In News – 45
6.21. {Groupings} Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) Summit
 Shanghai Cooperation Organisation Summit took place in Kazakhstan’s capital Astana.

• Before the inclusion of Belarus as the newest member, it had nine members: India, Iran, Kazakhstan, China, Kyrgyz-
stan, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
• Afghanistan and Mongolia hold Observer Status.

6.22. {Groupings} SQUAD Grouping **

 Amid escalating tensions in the South China Sea, the USA formed a new strategic alliance dubbed the “Squad” con-
sisting of the United States, Japan, Australia and the Philippines.
IR & Places In News – 46 IR – O Prelims Magnum 2025
• Met for the first time in June 2023 on the sidelines of the Shangri-La security dialogue.
• Reaction from China: It is viewed as an extension of American efforts to contain China's rise.
• "QUAD" alliance includes India, the "Squad" appears to have a more unified internal coherence.

6.23. {Groupings} UN Internal Justice Council (UNIJC)

 Former SC judge Madan Lokur was appointed UN Internal Justice Council chairperson.
• UNICJ as part of the new internal justice system to ensure independence, professionalism and accountability in the
administration of the justice system of the United Nations.
• It consists of five members — a staff representative, a management representative, and two distinguished external
jurists, one nominated by the staff and one by management.
• The Secretary-General of the UN appoints the IJC chairmen and members.

Functions
• It searches for suitable candidates for judge positions when there are vacancies in the UN Dispute Tribunal (UNDT)
and the UN Appeals Tribunal (UNAT).
• It provides its opinions on the justice administration system to the General Assembly, which appoints the UNDT and
the UNAT judges based on the recommendations from the IJC.
 In 2019, Justice Lokur was appointed to the Supreme Court of Fiji as a judge of its non-resident panel. He was the
first Indian judge to be appointed as a judge in the Supreme Court of another country.

6.24. {Groupings} United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF)

 The UN Secretary-General paid tributes to the Brigadier General Amitabh Jha from India, serving as Deputy Force
Commander with the UNDOF at Golan Heights.
• UNDOF was established by Security Council resolution 350 in 1974, following the agreed disengagement of the Israeli
and Syrian forces in the Golan.
• Its mandate has been renewed every six months.
• Nepal is the top troop and police contributor to the mission; however, India is the third country to contribute in the
top ten.
• Headquarter: Camp Faouar.

6.25. {Groupings} Universal Postal Union (UPU) **

 150th Anniversary of the Universal Postal Union. | Established by the Treaty of Bern in 1874, it is the second-oldest
international organisation in the world. India joined the UPU in 1876.
• Specialised agency of the UN that coordinates postal policies among member countries and manages the global postal
system.
• Headquarters: Bern, Switzerland. Member Countries: 192.
• Any UN member country can become a member of the UPU. Non-UN member countries can join if at least two-thirds
approve their request of the UPU member countries.

6.26. {Institutions} Paris Club **

• An informal group of official creditors, primarily Western nations.
• Aim: Find sustainable solutions to the payment difficulties experienced by debtor countries.
• As debtor countries undertake reforms to stabilise and restore their macroeconomic and financial situation, Paris Club
creditors provide an appropriate debt treatment.
• Currently, the Paris Club consists of 20 members.
• India and China are not members of the Paris Club.
Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – O IR & Places In News – 47
6.27. {Institutions} WEF Annual Meeting 2024: Davos
• Theme: Rebuilding trust in an environment of rapid transformation.

Key takeaways
• Discussion on war, economy and the rise of India, launch of Global Good Alliance for Gender Equity and Equality
(GGAGEE).
• GGAGEE launched by WEF and Government of India, earlier discussed in G20 Leaders’ Declaration.

6.28. {International Organisations} Delhi Declaration on Civil Aviation

 2nd Asia Pacific Ministerial Conference on Civil Aviation concluded by adopting Delhi Declaration hosted by Ministry
of Civil Aviation with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).

Key Highlights
• The Delhi Declaration aims to enhance regional cooperation, address emerging challenges, and foster sustainable
growth within the civil aviation sector.
 In India, 15% of pilots are women (global average - 5%).
• India’s aviation sector transformed from "aviation exclusive" to "aviation inclusive" over the past decade and em-
phasised its vital role in connecting people and cultures and driving prosperity.
• International Buddhist Circuit to connect places related to Lord Buddha across Asia was also proposed.
• ICAO presented plans for establishing a Pacific Small Island Developing States Liaison Office to support smaller na-
tions in addressing aviation challenges.

6.29. {International Organisations} Indo-U.S. poultry dispute

 The settlement of complex disputes during litigation, or broadly ‘litigotiation’, was key to solving the long pending
Indo-U.S. poultry dispute.
• It was a seven-long outstanding trade dispute at the World Trade Organization (WTO).

Background
• In 2012, the US challenged India's import restrictions on poultry products from the U.S. due to avian influenza or bird
flu.
• The U.S.’s primary contention was that India failed to provide scientific justifications.
• WTO Appellate Body ruled in favour of the US. Subsequently, India was given a year to modify or withdraw its incon-
sistent measures.
• The U.S. later alleged that India had failed to meet obligations and filed a retaliation claim at the WTO.
• India filed its counter-dispute to establish that its revised measures conformed with WTO rules.
• In fresh negotiations, India has dodged a yearly $450 million claim. India has agreed to reduce tariffs on select products
such as berries, frozen turkey & premium frozen duck meat destined for luxury hotels.

Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement)

• Entered into force with the establishment of the World Trade Organization in 1995.
• Related to the application of food safety and animal and plant health regulations.
• Explicitly permits governments to choose not to use international standards.
• Should not arbitrarily discriminate between countries with identical or similar conditions.
• Harmonisation: The SPS Agreement encourages governments to establish national SPS measures that are consistent
with international standards, guidelines, and recommendations.
• The WTO itself does not and will not develop such standards.
IR & Places In News – 48 IR – O Prelims Magnum 2025
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 7. IR – Middle East

7.1. {Middle East} Change in dynamics in Syria *

 Conflict in Syria continues with Israeli airstrikes targeting sites in Aleppo, Hama, Homs, and Palmyra.

City Key Highlights

Aleppo Among the world’s oldest continuously inhabited cities (exact age unknown).
Home to the ancient Citadel of Aleppo, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

IR & Places In News – 50 IR – Middle East Prelims Magnum 2025

 Formerly Syria's largest city (now 2nd largest), textile hub (especially silk).
Idlib A focal point in the Syrian civil war, Hosts many displaced refugees due to ongoing conflict.
Fertile lands produce olives and cotton.
Hama Famous for ancient water wheels ("Noria") used to irrigate fields from the Orontes River.
Includes the ancient city of Hamath, an important city-state in ancient times.
Homs Famous for sites like the ancient city of Palmyra & the Krak des Chevaliers, Crusader castle.
Palmyra It features well-preserved ruins such as the Temple of Bel and the Roman amphitheatre.

7.2. {Middle East} Drone Attack in Jordan | Tower 22

• The strikes targeted Tower 22, a US military outpost (a smaller version of a military base) in Jordan.

Tower 22

• Tower 22 (Jordan) is near the Al Tanf garrison (Syria) of the US troops.

• Located near the demilitarized zone on the border between Jordan and Syria.
• The Iraqi border is only 10 kilometres (6 miles) near Rukban region.
• Rukban is an arid, remote area in northeast Jordan adjacent to the Jordan–Syria border and close to the tripoint
with Iraq.

Jordan
• Bordered by Israel to its west, Saudi Arabia to its southeast, Iraq to its northeast and Syria to its north.

7.3. {Middle East} Golan Heights **

 Due to threats from Syria, Israel plans to double the population in the Golan Heights.
• It is bounded by the Jordan River and the Sea of Galilee on the west, Mount Hermon on the north, the seasonal Wadi
Al-Ruqqād River on the east, and the Yarmūk River on the south.
Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – Middle East IR & Places In News – 51
Historical Background
• Golan Heights was captured from Syria
by Israel during the Six-Day Middle-East
War of 1967.
• Syria tried to retake golan heights during
the 1973 Arab-Israeli war, after which
both countries signed an armistice in
1974. A UN observer force has been on
the ceasefire line since 1974.
• Israel unilaterally annexed the golan
heights in 1981, which was not recog-
nised internationally.
• Since 1967, the UN has recognised Golan
Heights as Syrian territory under an Israeli
military occupation.
• The U.S. was the first country to recognise Israel’s sovereignty over the Golan, which the rest of the international
community regards as Israeli-occupied.

Strategic Importance
• The area is a key source of water for an arid region. Its land is also very fertile, which is good for farming.
• The Syrian capital, Damascus, can be clearly seen from the top of the Golan Hills.
• It overlooks northern Israel’s Galilee region and the Sea of Galilee and dominates the route to Damascus on the Syrian-
controlled side.

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Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – Middle East IR & Places In News – 53
7.4. {Middle East} ICJ ruling on Israel’s occupation of West Bank **
 The International Court of Justice held Israel’s occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem as illegal and should
come to an end “as soon as possible”. The ICJ’s opinion is not binding or enforceable.

‘Occupation’ under international law

• Israel has occupied the West Bank and East Jerusalem since the Six-Day War in 1967. Prior to this, the territories were
under Jordanian control.
• As per Article 42 of the 1907 Hague Regulations, a “territory is considered occupied when it is actually placed under
the authority of the hostile army.”
• The occupation extends only to the territory where such authority has been established and can be exercised. How-
ever, an occupation must be temporary and cannot entail any transfer of sovereignty.
• Once a territory is seized, the occupying power assumes specific obligations toward individuals within the occupied
territory, such as ensuring that provisions of food and medical care are extended to the population of an occupied
territory and prohibiting the use or threat of force against civilians.
 Article 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention: “The Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own
civilian population into the territory it occupies”.

International Court of Justice (ICJ)

• The World Court, established in June 1945 by the UN Charter as Principal judicial organ of the UN but independent of
the UN Secretariat and only principal organ of UN, NOT located in New York.
• Headquarters: Peace Palace (The Hague, Netherlands). Official languages: English and French.
• Membership: UN members (automatically), Non-UN members by ratifying the ICJ Statute.
• Does not include more than one judge of same nationality and they do not represent their governments but are
independent magistrates, elected by UNGA and UNSC. They are eligible for re-election.
• Judgements: Binding, without appeal | No jurisdiction on individuals, NGOs, or any private entity.
• No suo moto cases. | No jurisdiction on war crimes or crimes against humanity.

Difference between ICJ and ICC

Particulars International Court of Justice (ICJ) International Criminal Court (ICC)

Established in 1946 2002
Agreement UN Charter and ICJ statute Rome Statute. India is not a signatory.
Relation to UN O C Independent,UNSC may refer cases.
Headquarters The Hague, Netherlands The Hague, Netherlands
Type of Court Civil court Criminal Court
Jurisdiction UN Member States (Governments) Individuals
Sovereignty, boundary disputes, ,
Genocide, crimes against humanity, war
Subject Matter trade, natural resources, human rights, treaty viola-
crimes, crimes of aggression.
, , etc.
C
Funding Funded by UN
tary .
Nature Binding Not binding

7.5. {Middle East} India, UAE civil nuclear energy agreement

 India and UAE signed the first civil nuclear cooperation agreement. It was signed between the Nuclear Power Corpo-
ration of India Limited (NPCIL) and the Emirates Nuclear Energy Company (ENEC) for the Barakah Nuclear Power Plant
Operations and Maintenance.
IR & Places In News – 54 IR – Middle East Prelims Magnum 2025
• It is seen as the outcome of the trilateral cooperation format between France, India, and the UAE, which was discussed
on the sidelines of the UNGA summit in 2022.

Barakah Nuclear Energy Plant

• Barakah Nuclear Energy Plant in UAE is Arab's first nuclear power plant
• Located along the Arabian Gulf coastline in Al Dhafra, Abu Dhabi. Its capacity is 5,600 MW when all units are opera-
tional. It is expected to provide up to 25% of the UAE's electricity needs.
• The plant is part of the UAE's plan to meet half of its electricity needs with renewable energy by 2050.

7.6. {Middle East} India-UAE Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT)

 The India-UAE BIT, signed in 2023 and effective from August 31, 2024, replaces the 2013 treaty. It aligns with India's
Model BIT while addressing emerging investment challenges.
 BIT: A reciprocal agreement between two nations to promote and protect private investments in each other's ter-
ritories. It ensures a stable legal framework, fair treatment under international law, and protection against expro-
priation.

7.7. {Middle East} Iran drone attacks on Israel

Iran-Isreal relations
• Iran was not part of the first Arab-Israeli war (1948).
• Iran was second Muslim-majority country after Turkey to recognise formation of Israel in 1948.
• Islamic theocracy was installed in Iran after the Shah was overthrown in the 1979 Islamic Revolution.
• Shift in stand towards Israel: Now, it was seen as the occupier of Palestinian land.
• Attacks on Iranian nuclear facilities: Multiple attacks by Israel & US, including the Stuxnet attack.
 Stuxnet is a malicious computer virus that attacked a uranium enrichment facility at Iran’s Natanz nuclear site. It
was the “first publicly known cyberattack on industrial machinery”.

7.8. {Middle East} Israel- Lebanon Ceasefire Deal

 The Israel-Lebanon ceasefire builds on UNSC Resolution 1701, addressing hostilities between Israel and Hezbollah
since 2006 came into effect.

Key Aspects of UNSC Resolution 1701 and Israel-Lebanon Ceasefire

Role of UNIFIL (United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon)

• Deployment of up to 15,000 peacekeepers to monitor ceasefire and assist Lebanese troops.

• Ensures safe return of displaced persons and secures the buffer zone.

Key Provisions of the Ceasefire under Resolution 1701

• Cessation of Hostilities: Both Israel and Hezbollah to halt military actions within 60 days.
• Buffer Zone: The Lebanese Army is designated as the sole military presence in South Lebanon, between the Blue Line
and the Litani River.
• Hezbollah Withdrawal: Hezbollah fighters to retreat at least 40 kilometres from the Israeli border.
• Israeli Withdrawal: Israeli forces to vacate Lebanese territories occupied since October 2023.
• Oversight Mechanism: Implementation supervised by the UN, United States, France, Israel, and Lebanon.
• Limited Disarmament: Does not require Hezbollah's complete disarmament north of the Litani River but restricts
armed personnel in the buffer zone.
• Arms Control: Prohibits arms supply to Lebanon without the Lebanese government's approval.
Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – Middle East IR & Places In News – 55
• Landmine Maps: Israel required to provide maps of landmines in Lebanon.
• Monitoring: UN Peacekeepers, Lebanese Military & Multinational Committee ensure compliance.
• Right to Retaliation: Israel reserves the right to strike if the agreement is breached.

7.9. {Middle East} Proxies backed by Iran in the Middle East

 Militant proxies backed by Iran form an anti-US “axis of resistance” in the region.

Why Iran supports them

• Critical of Israel: Israel is seen as an extension of the US to influence the region for its strategic interests.
• Shia-Sunni conflict: Located in a region dominated by Sunni-majority nations, it has attempted to assert itself with
the help of various non-state actors.
• Strategic interests: Such groups provide Iran with strategic depth and wide regional influence without full risk of
their actions on the Iranian state.

Major militant groups in the region

Hamas

• Sunni Islamist militant groups have been running the region of Gaza since 2007.
• Emerged during the first Intifada (Palestinian uprising against Israel) in 1987 and opposes Zionism.
 Zionism: 19th-century political project advocating for an ethnic homeland for the Jewish people.
Palestinian Islamic Jihad

IR & Places In News – 56 IR – Middle East Prelims Magnum 2025

• Sunni Islamist militant group with the aim to establish an Islamic state in Palestine.
• Founded in 1979 as an offshoot of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt.
• Military wing is the al-Quds Brigades.

Hezbollah

• Meaning “Party of God”, a Shiite militant organisation.

• Iran’s Revolutionary Guards set it up to counter Israel's invasion of Lebanon in 1928.
• Since the October 7 attacks, Israel and Hezbollah have engaged in cross-border attacks.

Houthis

• Militant group that has been fighting the civil war in Yemen for a decade.
• The Houthis now control northern Yemen, including the capital Sana’a.
• Post-October 7 attacks, carrying out Red Sea attacks in solidarity with the Palestinian cause.

Iranian militant groups in Syria

• After the Syrian civil war began in 2011, Iran intervened to support President Bashar al-Assad.
• Syria is a key transit route for Iranian proxies between Iraq and Lebanon.

Popular Mobilisation Forces (PMF)

• State-sanctioned Shi’ite militant grouping of Iraqi paramilitaries and loyal to Iran.

7.10. {Middle East} Syrian Crisis: Implications for Regional Geopolitics

 The collapse of the Bashar al-Assad regime in Syria marks a pivotal moment for Middle Eastern geopolitics, particu-
larly affecting Iran's regional influence.
 The “Levant” refers to the region encompassing the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea, including Syria, Leb-
anon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, and parts of Cyprus & Turkey.
Also, refer to Arab World Vs. Israel, Renewed Phase of Syrian Civil War.

7.11. {Middle East} UAE launches 10-year Blue Visa **

 UAE has approved a 10-year Blue Residence visa for individuals contributing significantly to environmental protec-
tion.
• Eligible individuals include members of international organisations, international companies, associations, NGOs,
global award winners, distinguished environmental activists and researchers.
• Areas include marine & land-based ecosystems, air quality, sustainability, circular economy, etc.
• Eligible persons can apply through the Federal Authority for Identity, Citizenship, Customs, and Port Security (ICP).
Relevant authorities can also nominate eligible individuals.

Other Residency Options

• UAE typically issues residency visas with a two-year validity.
• In 2019, UAE introduced 10-year Golden Visas for investors, entrepreneurs, scientists, outstanding students, grad-
uates, and humanitarian pioneers.
• In 2022, UAE launched 5 yr. Green Visas for skilled professionals, freelancers, investors, entrepreneurs.

7.12. {Middle East} Rafah Crossing **

• Rafah Crossing: Border crossing between the southern end of the Gaza Strip and Egypt.
• Only land entry point to Gaza not controlled by Israel.

Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – Middle East IR & Places In News – 57

 -------- End of Chapter --------

IR & Places In News – 58 IR – Middle East Prelims Magnum 2025

 8. IR – Russia-Ukraine War and Related Aspects

8.1. {Russia-Ukraine} Drone attack on Zaporizhzhia nuclear facility

• Located in Ukraine. Currently Russia controls
it (Europe’s largest facility).

Safety of nuclear reactors

Strong but vulnerable

• Most nuclear reactors are made of several lay-

ers of steel and concrete and are designed to
absorb shocks from earthquakes of magnitude
8 or even higher.
• Ordinary shelling or gunfire can’t impact them
seriously. The drone attack did not cause much
physical damage to the Zaporizhzhia station.
• However, failure can't be ruled out in case of a
powerful bomb or missile attack.

Risk from power outage

• Nuclear reactors get heated to thousands of Celsius from inside & have to be constantly cooled.
• This is usually done by a circulation of water, maintained through an external power source.
• Power outages cause disruptions in it. The failure of power caused the Fukushima disaster of 2011.
• After the Fukushima disaster, several nuclear reactors installed ‘passive’ cooling systems as an additional layer of
safety. These systems do not require electricity.

8.2. {Russia-Ukraine} Kharkiv *

• Kharkiv is the second-largest city in Ukraine population-wise.
• It is a major industrial town higher education.

8.3. {Russia-Ukraine} Kursk

• One of the oldest cities in Russia lying along the upper Seym River in Moscow and is home to large nuclear power
stations.
• Located in the fertile Black Earth territory and has a moderate continental climate.
• Contributes to two major drainage areas: the Dnieper River and the Don River.
• The Kursk Magnetic Anomaly has one of the richest iron ore deposits in the world.

Dnieper River
• Dnieper (or Dnipro) river is a major transboundary river in Eastern Europe flowing through Russia, Belarus and
Ukraine and is emptied into the Black Sea.
• Historically, it was an important barrier dividing Ukraine into right and left banks.

Don River
• It flows through the Central Russia and drains into the Sea of Azov.

Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – Russia-Ukraine War and Related Aspects IR & Places In News – 59
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 Seym River
• The Seym is a west-flowing river in Russia and Ukraine and is the largest tributary of the river Desna.

IR & Places In News – 60 IR – Russia-Ukraine War and Related Aspects Prelims Magnum 2025
8.4. {Russia-Ukraine} Pokrovsk
• Dubbed as "gateway to Donetsk" by Russia, control over the city would allow Moscow to disrupt Ukrainian supply
lines along the eastern front and boost its campaign to capture the city of Chasiv Yar, which sits on higher ground,
offering potential control of a wider area.
• Pokrovsk, part of Donetsk, lies on a key road used by the Ukrainian military to supply other embattled Ukrainian-held
outposts, such as the towns of Chasiv Yar and Kostiantynivka in the Donetsk region.
• It has emerged as a coking coal producer and a vital logistical hub.

8.5. {Russia-Ukraine} Russia’s ‘high income’ rating despite sanctions **

 World Bank has upgraded Russia
from an ‘upper-middle income’
country to a ‘high-income’ status.

Russia's economic resilience

• In nominal terms, Russia ranks 72nd
globally in per-capita GNI and 53rd
in purchasing power parity.
• The increase in real (3.6%) and
nominal (10.9%) GDP was caused
by growth in trade (+6.8%), the fi-
nancial sector (+8.7%), and con-
struction (+6.6%).

World Bank's income rankings

• The World Bank classifies economies into four groups based on per-capita gross national income (GNI) in US dollars:
low, lower-middle, upper-middle, and high.
• Criteria for high-income countries: $14,005 or more per person.
• Russia, Bulgaria and Palau upgraded their status to "high-income countries".
• Ukraine improved its status from a lower-middle-income country to an upper-middle-income country.

-------- End of Chapter --------

Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – Russia-Ukraine War and Related Aspects IR & Places In News – 61
 9. IR – United Nations

9.1. {UN} 76th International Day of UN Peacekeepers

UN Peacekeeping
• Provides security, political and peacebuilding support to help countries make the difficult, early transition from con-
flict to peace. Currently 11 UN peacekeeping operations deployed on three continents.

• The UN Peacekeeping forces were awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in the year 1988.
• Capstone Doctrine covers the basic principles and key concepts related to UN peacekeeping.

International day of peacekeeping

• On this day in 1948, the first UN Peacekeeping Mission, the UN Truce Supervision Organisation (UNTSO), began
operations in Palestine.
• Theme 2024: 'Fit for the future, building better together', towards creating an equitable, just, and sustainable world
for all.
• On the same day, the Dag Hammarskjold Medal will be awarded posthumously to fallen peacekeepers.

Dag Hammarskjold Medal

• Established by the UN Secretary-General medal in 2000 as a posthumous award to members of peacekeeping

operations who lost their lives during service under the United Nations.
• Medal is awarded to any Member State who has lost one or more military or police peacekeepers.

Captain Mbaye Diagne Medal

• Established by the Security Council in 2014.

• To be awarded to military, police, civilian UN and associated personnel who demonstrated exceptional courage in
the face of extreme danger.

India and Peacekeeping

UN Military Observer Group In India And Pakistan (UNMOGIP)

• Appointed by the UN Secretary-General based on the U.N. Security Council Resolution 39 of January 1948 that set up
the U.N. Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP).
• Arrived on 24 January 1949 to supervise the ceasefire between India and Pakistan in Jammu & Kashmir, as permitted
by the Karachi Agreement of July 1949.
• Following renewed hostilities of 1971, UNMOGIP has remained in the area to observe the ceasefire.
• HQ: Srinagar (May to October) and Islamabad (November to April).
• India officially maintains that the UNMOGIP’s role was “overtaken” by the Simla Agreement of 1972 that established
the Line of Control(LoC).
• Pakistan continues to seek cooperation from the UNMOGIP.
IR & Places In News – 62 IR – Prelims Magnum 2025
Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – IR & Places In News – 63
India as contributor

• India is one of the largest contributors with deployment in nine

peacekeeping missions.
• Centre for UN Peacekeeping in New Delhi imparts niche training
in peacekeeping operations.
• Deployed Female Engagement Teams in the Democratic Repub-
lic of Congo and Abyei (second-largest Indian women contingent
after Liberia). Also deployed women military police in Golan
Heights.
• Major Radhika Sen was awarded “Military Gender Advocate of the Year 2023” by the UN.

9.2. {UN} Global Human Development Index Report 2022

IR & Places In News – 64 IR – Prelims Magnum 2025

 India climbed one spot on the global Human Development Index (HDI) for the year 2022.

About the Global Human Development Index (HDI) Report 2022

• HDI: Composite index measuring human development, considering four indicators.
 Life expectancy at birth.
 Expected years of schooling.
 Mean years of schooling.
 Gross national income (GNI).
• Published by: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
• Title: Breaking the gridlock: Reimagining cooperation in a polarised world.
• India's status in HDI: Placed in the medium human development category.
• Rank: 134 (2022) out of 193 countries (Earlier 135 (2021)).
• Top ranking country: Switzerland.
• Sri Lanka (78) and China (75) both are in High Human Development category. India also ranks lower than Bhutan,
placed 125th, and Bangladesh, which is at the 129th position.
• Positives: In 2022, India's HDI indicators improved in all areas.
 Life expectancy increased from 67.2 to 67.7 years.
 Expected years of schooling rose to 12.6.
 Mean years of schooling went up to 6.57.
 GNI per capita also increased from $6,542 to $6,951.
 India’s first state-level human development index was brought out by Madhya Pradesh in 1995.
• India progressed in reducing gender inequality better than the global and South Asian averages.
• It now ranks 108 out of 166 countries in the gender inequality index (GII) 2022.
• India’s adolescent birth rate in 2022 was 16.3 (births per 1,000 women ages 15-19), an improvement from 17.1 in
2021. Inequality across the world is rising again.

9.3. {UN} GlobE Network **

 India has recently been elected to the 15-member steering committee of the GlobE Network (Global Operational
Network of Anti-Corruption Law Enforcement).
• It was launched during the UN General Assembly Special Session against Corruption (UNGASS) as an initiative sup-
ported by the G20.
• Aims to improve international cooperation among law enforcement agencies to address cross-border corruption,
share best practices, and facilitate investigations and prosecutions.
• Secretariat: Under the United Nations Office against Drugs and Crime (UNODC).
• Central authority in India: Ministry of Home Affairs with CBI and the ED as member authorities.
• Membership: 219 member authorities and 121 member nations.

9.4. {UN} Summit of the Future

 At the recent United Nations "Summit of the Future," India emphasised the need for a global shift towards sustain-
able living to address climate change challenges.

Main objectives of the Summit of the Future

 To unify approaches to global issues, advocating for a new consensus to evolve the international system for future
generations.
 Adopt the Pact for the Future, including a Declaration on Future Generations and a Global Digital Compact to address
peace, security, and digital cooperation.

Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – IR & Places In News – 65

 To strengthen global governance to address challenges like climate change, pandemics, and economic instability,
reinforcing multilateralism.
 To revitalise efforts toward the SDGs, which have stalled due to recent global crises.

Pact for the Future

• The Pact aims to create a framework for international cooperation to tackle pressing issues such as climate change,
inequality, and technological challenges while ensuring sustainable development for current and future genera-
tions.
• Background: Culmination of a multi-year initiative launched in 2021 through the UN Secretary-General's "Our Com-
mon Agenda" report.

9.5. {UN} Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW)

 September 26 is the International Day for the Total Elimination of Nuclear Weapons by UN. This year’s agenda in-
cludes a Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW) session.

About Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW)

• Adopted in July 2017 by the UN. It entered into force in January 2021 after the 50th ratification.
• It adopted the Vienna Action Plan (First Meeting in Vienna, Austria) to implement the treaty.

Key Provisions
Prohibitions

• Development, testing, production, acquisition, possession, stockpiling, use, and threat of use of nuclear weapons,
Deployment of nuclear weapons on national territory & Assistance in any prohibited activities.

Obligations

• Environmental Remediation: Addressing contamination from nuclear weapon use or testing.

• Victim Assistance: Providing support to individuals affected by nuclear weapons.

Treaties Related to Nuclear Disarmament

• Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)
• Outer Space Treaty
 Entered into Force in 1967
 Ban the placement of weapons of mass destruction in space.
 Prohibits the testing of nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction in space.

9.6. {UN} UN Counter-terrorism Trust Fund

• Established in 2009 by the Secretary-General and transferred to UNOCT.
• Accepts contributions from Governments, NGOs, private institutions & individuals.

9.7. {UN} UN Forum on Forests

• Established in 2000 as a subsidiary body of the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).
• Objective: To promote the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests and to
strengthen long-term political commitment to this end.
• Membership: All United Nations member states and specialised agencies. India is a founding member.
• HQ: New York

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Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – IR & Places In News – 67
 UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
• Established ECOSOC in 1945 as one of the 6 main organs of the UN.
• Objective: To advance 3 dimensions of sustainable development – economic, social & environmental.
• Members: 54 members elected by UNGA for a term of 3 years.
• Each member shall have one vote. Decided by a majority of the members present and voting.

9.8. {UN} UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees (UNRWA) *
• Claims of Israel: Hamas siphons off funds of UNRWA and teaching hatred in UNRWA schools.
• Established after Arab Israeli War of 1948 by U.N. resolution for direct relief to Palestinian refugees.
• Periodic renewal of mandate every three years (until 2026) till final solution reached by parties.
• Headed by: Commissioner-general appointed by UN secretary-general and reports directly to the General Assembly.
Headquarters: Gaza City and Amman.
• Operates in West Bank, East Jerusalem, and Gaza, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria being only UN agency helping specific
conflict/region refugees.
 UNRWA is distinct from Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR),
 Covers Palestinians refugees outside UNRWA’s area of operations.
• Funding for UNRWA: Voluntary contributions and U.N.’s regular budget.

Who is a Palestine Refugee as Defined by UNRWA?

• Normal place of residence was Palestine during period from 1 June 1946 to 15 May 1948 and who lost both
home and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 Arab-Israeli war qualifies as a Palestine refugee, as defined
by UNRWA, and is eligible for UNRWA registration.

9.9. {UN} UNSC non-permanent members (NPM)

 Pakistan, Somalia, Denmark, Greece & Panama were elected as UNSC non-permanent members.
• Elected by secret ballot in the UN General Assembly for a two-year term, must receive two-thirds votes (129 votes
out of the 193-member). Pakistan was elected for the 8th time as a non-permanent member.
• Originally, there were 11 members of the UNSC: 5 permanent and 6 non-permanent members (NPM).

1963 amendment to the UN Charter

• Increased the number of NPM in UNSC from 6 to 10.
• Increased the number of affirmative votes required to pass any UNSC resolution from 7 to 9 (out of 15).
• It set the pattern for geographic representation as follows:
 5 from African and Asian States
 1 from Eastern European States
 2 from the Latin American States
 2 from Western European and other States
 UN Charter Article 27(3) states that votes in the Security Council on non-procedural matters "shall be made by
an affirmative vote of nine members including the concurring votes of the permanent members"-- this is often
called the veto power of permanent members.

-------- End of Chapter --------

IR & Places In News – 68 IR – Prelims Magnum 2025

 10. IR – Issues

10.1. {Issues} EU’s Chat Control Law

 Aimed at combating child sexual abuse online. The law includes provisions for mass scanning of private messages and
breaking end-to-end encryption.
• Critics argue that scanning creates risky backdoors, compromising the security by exposing it to exploitation by mali-
cious third parties.
• The revised draft limits scanning to images, videos, and URLs, excluding text and audio messages.
• Another change requires user consent for scanning, but a refusal would block multimedia sharing, making the "choice"
effectively illusory.

What is Encryption?
• Process of converting readable information into an unreadable format using specific rules. These rules, or encryption
algorithms, use keys to lock and unlock the information.
• E.g. with a key "kite," the algorithm encrypts "ice cream" into "AdNgzrrtxcpeUzzAdN7dwA==". If a different key, like
"motorcycle," is used, the encrypted text becomes entirely different.

End-to-End (E2E) Encryption

• E2E encryption refers to a method where data is encrypted from the point of origin to its final destination. This
ensures that the information remains protected throughout its entire journey.
• Encryption-in-transit protects data while it's being transmitted between your device and the server.
• E2E encryption protects data both during transmission and when it's stored on servers.
 In symmetric encryption, the same key is used for both encrypting and decrypting the information.
 Asymmetric encryption uses different keys for encryption and decryption, offering additional security.

10.2. {Issues} Hannibal Directive **

 Israel Defence Forces (IDF) allegedly activated “Hannibal Directive” post-October 7 attack. Hannibal Directive refers
to a purported IDF operational policy that aims to pre-empt politically painful prisoner swaps by immediately elimi-
nating everyone in the vicinity of a captive Israeli soldier, even if it poses a risk to the soldier himself.

10.3. {Issues} Pakistan-Afghanistan Border Issue **

 Afghan troops opened fire on Pakistani forces repairing a border fence, prompting Pakistani retaliation that led to
Afghan casualties, highlighting tensions along the Durand Line.

Historical Context
• Durand Line drawn in 1893 by Sir Mortimer Durand, marked the boundary between British India and Afghanistan to
limit Russian influence.
• Length and Geography: The 2,670 km border cuts through mountainous terrain.
• Pashtun Division: The line split Pashtun communities, with many on the Pakistani side, causing ongoing tribal and
cross-border tensions.
• Afghan Non-recognition: Afghanistan has never accepted the Durand Line as a legitimate border, fueling disputes
with Pakistan over territorial claims.

10.4. {Issues} Panama Canal

Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – Issues IR & Places In News – 69

• Location and Length: 82 km canal in Isthmus of Panama
connecting Pacific & Atlantic Oceans.
• Importance for Shipping: Saves 13,000 km of travel by
eliminating navigation around Cape Horn.
• Economic Lifeline: Annually transits 14,000 ships, with US
ships constituting 74% and China 21%.
• Geopolitical Role: A vital trade route supporting global
commerce and US strategic interests.

Historical Overview

• French Initiative (1880): Ferdinand de Lesseps, Suez Ca-

nal builder, began the project but failed due to financial
and logistical issues.
• US Involvement: Completed under Theodore Roosevelt,
securing Panama's independence from Colombia in
1903.
• Lock Technology: Revolutionized shipping with a locks
system, operational since 1914, enabling efficient cargo
movement.
• US-Panama Treaty (1977): Two treaties by
Jimmy Carter and Omar Torrijos enabled the
Panama Canal's transfer by 1999, ensuring
neutrality, sovereignty, and U.S. oversight
for open access.

10.5. {Issues} Protests in Barcelona *

 Locals in Barcelona, Spain, took to the streets
to highlight over-tourism in the country.

Role of Tourism in Barcelona

• Tourism is pivotal in Barcelona's economy,
benefiting businesses like hotels and restau-
rants.
• Tourism contributes up to 14% of the city's
GDP and employs approx. 1,50,000 people.
• However, prices have escalated due to in-
creasing demand and displaced residents.

Response of the administration

• The administration phased out all short-term rental leases by 2028 to curb the soaring housing costs.
• Cruise ships were banned from docking at one of its terminals to reduce pollution and congestion. Further, smoking
bans were introduced on certain beaches.

10.6. {Issues} Safety of Rwanda (Asylum and Immigration) Bill

 The Rwanda Bill was passed by the UK to counter a challenge raised by the British Supreme Court against a contro-
versial deportation policy.

IR & Places In News – 70 IR – Issues Prelims Magnum 2025

What was the policy?
• UK government plans for deporting undocumented immigrants to the East African nation of Rwanda.
• Rwanda plan aims to reduce illegal migration and net migration numbers in the UK.

Main provisions of the bill

• Under the Bill, asylum seekers deemed to have illegally entered its territories after January 1, 2022, can be sent to
Rwanda for “processing”.
• Crucially, irrespective of whether an asylum seeker is found to be “genuine” or not, they cannot return to the UK and
must opt for settlement in either Rwanda or another country.

10.7. {Issues} Shadow Fleet **

 India has been painted as a host of a shadow fleet that is ‘laundering’ Russian crude.
• ‘Shadow fleet’, also known as dark fleet, comprises ships engaged in illegal operations to avoid detection and cir-
cumvent sanctions.

Tactics used by Shadow Fleets

Tactic Description
Dark activities Disabling the automatic identification system (AIS) to hide vessel movements
Location manipulation Manipulating Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) data to distort vessel location
Weak ownership struc- Using vague/complex ownership structures to obscure the true owners of vessels
tures
Multiple flags of conven- Frequent switching of flags (flag hopping) to avoid sanctions and regulation scrutiny
ience
 A flag of convenience refers to a situation where the ship is registered in a different country than the one where
the ship’s owner resides or holds citizenship.

10.8. {Issues} Threat of famine in Gaza & Haiti | IPC Classification

Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – Issues IR & Places In News – 71

• Israel and Hamas war in Gaza and the crisis in Haiti caused by criminal gangs attacking the country’s key government
institutions are posing the challenge of famine.

IPC Classification of Famine

• Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC), developed in 2004 during the famine in Somalia, is a collaboration
of 15 global organisations and charities.
• The group uses a five-tier scale to monitor access to food and levels of hunger.
• Famine is the top tier, Phase 5, “the absolute inaccessibility of food to an entire population or sub-group of a popula-
tion, potentially causing death in the short term.”
• Occurs when 20% of households have an extreme lack of food, 30% of children suffer from acute malnutrition, and at
least two adults or four children per every 10,000 people die daily because of outright starvation or the interaction of
malnutrition and disease.
• Phase 3 is “crisis” and Phase 4 is “emergency” levels of food need.

Declaration of famine

• Declared by top United nations officials based on the IPC criteria. Such a declaration would not bind UN members or
states but serve to focus global attention on the problem.

Hunger, Malnutrition, and Starvation

• Hunger: People can’t afford or physically obtain sufficient nutrition for an extended period.
• Malnutrition: A medical condition that occurs when people don’t get the right calories to grow and function properly,
leading to health problems.
• Starvation: Not a technical term, but it describes extreme suffering or death caused by lack of food.
 Without food, the body uses carbohydrates and fats first, then turns to breaking down protein, including muscle
and vital organs.
 Without treatment, organs stop functioning, and the body’s defences can’t fight infection.

10.9. {Issues} United Kingdom’s Graduate Route Visa (GRV) Scheme **

• Currently, Indians constitute roughly 42% of GRV holders, again, the highest among all nationalities.
• Introduced by the UK government in July 2021. Permits individuals to remain in the UK for at least two years upon
successful completion of a bachelor’s, post-graduate, or other eligible courses.
• For those with PhDs or other doctoral qualifications, the GRV extends to a three-year stay.
• Applicant must be in the UK at the time of application and hold a Short-Term Study visa or a General Student Visa and
the education provider must notify the UK Home Office about the course’s completion.
IR & Places In News – 72 IR – Issues Prelims Magnum 2025
10.10. {Issues} China Banned Export of Minerals to the US
 China has banned the export of gallium, germanium, and antimony, citing national security concerns. The develop-
ment came a day after the US prohibited certain chips and machinery and added more than 100 Chinese companies
to a restricted trade list.

Significance of the Banned Rare Minerals

• Gallium: A soft, silvery-white metal similar to aluminium, melting point just above room temperature. It is used in
semiconductors, LEDs, high-efficiency solar cells, and medical thermometers.
• Germanium: A greyish-white metalloid that is brittle. It is important for low-carbon technologies such as solar cells,
fibre optic cables, infrared technology, and thermal imaging devices.
• Antimony: It is a hard, brittle, silvery metalloid used in bullets, night-vision goggles, batteries, and other military
applications.

-------- End of Chapter --------

Current Affairs A-Z (Current Affairs + Prelims Magnum +

Mains Pathfinder + Infographics) ALL in One Place!

Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – Issues IR & Places In News – 73

 11. IR – Miscellaneous

11.1. {China} China Shock *

 The China shock disrupted Western markets and adversely impacted Indian manufacturing and trade. It refers to the
significant economic disruption that followed China's entry into the WTO in 2001, leading to a surge of low-cost goods
that overwhelmed global markets.

China Shock 2.0

• It is the renewed surge in Chinese exports amid a domestic economic slowdown, which poses new challenges for
global markets and industries.
• This influx is expected to displace workers and exacerbate trade tensions, particularly affecting countries like India
that rely heavily on Chinese goods.

11.2. {China-Taiwan} China – Taiwan Conflict

Republic of China (RoC): Taiwan

• Taiwan (old name: Formosa) is a tiny island off the east coast of China.
• Chinese republicans of the Kuomintang government retreated to Taiwan after 1949 communists victory.

IR & Places In News – 74 IR – Miscellaneous Prelims Magnum 2025

Chinese drills near Taiwan
 Large-scale Chinese military drills named “Joint Sword-2024A” are taking place near Taiwan just days after the swear-
ing-in of Taiwanese President William Lai Ching-te.
• These drills are seen as military means to send political signals and China’s “grey zone” tactics.
 Grey zone warfare generally means a middle, unclear space that exists between direct conflict and peace in inter-
national relations.

11.3. {Canada} Post-Graduation Work Permit Program (PGWP) by Canada

• PGWP allows international students to work in Canada after they have completed their studies.
• India is the largest beneficiary of the PGWP programme.

11.4. {Diaspora} Kafala System **

• The Kafala system, prevalent in the GCC states, is a complex of laws and practices that ensure the state and citizens
hold all the power. At the same time, individual migrants are treated as temporary.
• It ties migrant workers' visas to their employers and allows employers significant control over workers' lives, including
housing, food, and transportation.
• The absence of worker unions further silences them and hampers their ability to organise for better rights.

Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)

• Political, economic, social, and regional organisations formed to address regional challenges faced by the Arab States
of the Gulf. Members: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and UAE.

11.5. {Diplomacy} Animal Diplomacy

 Malaysia, the world’s second-largest palm oil producer, is aiming to improve its environmental image by putting
forward the “orangutan diplomacy”.
• Animal diplomacy involves giving or lending animals as a sign of friendship or goodwill between countries. These
creatures possess cultural significance or are indigenous to the country that gifts them, hence making them influential
instruments for diplomacy.

11.6. {Diplomacy} International Day of Peace

• It is observed annually on September 21 and was established by the UN General Assembly in 1981 to promote ideals
of peace worldwide.
• This year's theme, “Cultivating a Culture of Peace,” emphasises the importance of nurturing peace across commu-
nities and generations.

11.7. {Laws} Apostille Convention *

• Hague Convention (Apostille Convention) abolishing the Requirement of Legalisation for Foreign Public Documents
concluded in 1961 and entered into force in 1965.
• Covers only public documents and certifies only authenticity, not the quality of the content.
• India is a signatory. Nodal ministry: Ministry of External Affairs.

11.8. {Laws} Genocide Convention

• South Africa invoked the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1948, against
Israel in the ICJ for its military conflict in Gaza.
• Both South Africa and Israel are signatories to the Genocide Convention of 1948.

Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – Miscellaneous IR & Places In News – 75

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1948
• Adopted in 1948, came into force in 1951, first human rights treaty of UNGA.
• Codification of genocide as offence, obligates State Parties to prevent and punish genocide.
• Recent signatory: Zambia (2022). India ratified in 1959 yet to define genocide.

11.9. {Misc} State of emergency in New Caledonia *

• It is a French overseas island territory in the Pacific Ocean located near Australia.

French rule in New Caledonia

• O Melanesian Kanak people, have inhabited it.
• Western colonial interest in the island began with the arrival of British explorer James Cook in 1774.
•
• Kanak people

Demand of independence

• Kanaks protest French rule

• Nouméa Accord (1998) was signed between France & New Caledonia to grant limited autonomy.
• The majority voted against independence in three referendums in 2018, 2020, and 2021.
• The Kanaks (41%) generally favour independence, while European-origin groups (24%) and other immigrants want

11.10. {Multilateral} 46th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting **

 46th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting will be in Kochi. India last hosted the 2007 ATCM in Delhi.
• Organised by: National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research, Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES).
• The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia became the latest entrant to the Club of Antarctic Treaty Parties.

About the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting

IR & Places In News – 76 IR – Miscellaneous Prelims Magnum 2025

• The original twelve Parties to the Treaty and those Parties that demonstrate their interest in Antarctica by conducting
substantial research activity are together called the Consultative Parties.
• From 1961 to 1994, the ATCM met every two years. Since 1994, the meetings are annual.
• The meetings are hosted by Consultative Parties in alphabetical order of their English names.
• Only Consultative Parties participate in decision-making. Consultative status is open to any country that can demon-
strate its commitment to Antarctica by conducting significant research.
• ATCM approval is required for new construction or initiatives in Antarctica.

Discussion Topics at ATCM

• Sustainable management of Antarctica and its resources.

• Biodiversity prospecting.
• Inspections and exchange of information and data.
• Research, collaboration, capacity building, and cooperation.
• Climate change impacts on Antarctica and beyond.

Antarctic Treaty
• Signed by 12 countries in 1959. Came into force in 1961. 56 countries have joined, including India in 1983. Of the 56
nations in the Antarctic Treaty, 29 have consultative party status.
• India has been a consultative party to the Antarctic Treaty since 1983.
• In 2022, India enacted the Antarctic Act, reaffirming its commitment to the Antarctic Treaty.
 Original signatories to the Antarctic: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway,
South Africa, the USSR, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
 India is not among the Original signatories.
 Consultative Parties to the Antarctic Treaty have the authority to vote and make decisions. Notably, Canada and
Belarus have been working towards becoming Consultative Parties to the Treaty, but they have yet to succeed.

Key Features of the Treaty

 Antarctica is designated for peaceful purposes only.
 No militarisation or fortification is allowed.
 Signatories can carry out scientific investigations freely.
 Scientific data and plans should be shared and cooperation extended.
 Nuclear testing and radioactive waste disposal are prohibited in Antarctica.
Biodiversity prospecting or bioprospecting is the systematic search for biochemical and genetic information in nature
in order to develop commercially valuable products for pharmaceutical, agricultural, cosmetic and other applications.

11.11. {US} Department of Government Efficiency (“DOGE”)

 US President formed Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE) to reduce government bureaucracy & waste,
with a mission completion target for America's 250th anniversary in July 2026.

The Structure and Approach of DOGE

• Advisory Role: DOGE will not be an official government department but will provide advice and guidance from out-
side the government. It will partner with the White House and the Office of Management & Budget.
• Lead By: Elon Musk & Vivek Ramaswamy.
• "Modern Manhattan Project": The US President has likened DOGE to a “Manhattan Project,” reflecting its ambition
and intended transformative impact.

Mission and Objectives

Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – Miscellaneous IR & Places In News – 77
• Dismantling Bureaucracy: DOGE's primary mission is to dismantle government bureaucracy, cut excess regulations,
eliminate wasteful spending, and restructure federal agencies.
• Restructuring Government Departments: Musk and Ramaswamy will oversee the restructuring of various govern-
ment departments to enhance efficiency and reduce costs.
• Transparency and Public Involvement: DOGE's actions will be posted online for maximum transparency, and the pub-
lic will be encouraged to provide feedback on government spending.
• Cutting Excessive Regulations: This department will work on eliminating excessive government regulations seen as
barriers to business innovation and economic growth.
• Targeting Waste and Fraud: DOGE aims to identify and eliminate outdated or underperforming programs that target
“massive waste and fraud” within the federal government.
 The Manhattan Project was a top-secret R&D project during World War II that aimed to develop the first nuclear
weapons. Initiated by the United States with support from the United Kingdom and Canada, it led to the creation
of the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.
 NOTE: Do not be confused with the term “DodgeCoin,” a cryptocurrency.

11.12. {Pakistan} Balochistan Region **

• Mountain Pass: Bolan pass, Khojak pass,

Lak pass, Harnai pass, Gonshero pass etc.
• Rivers: Bolan, Zhob, Hingol, Nari, Porali, Kud, Dasht
etc.
• Central Makran Range and the Makran Coast
Range to the south divide the coastal plain from
the rest of the plateau. Sulaiman Range lies in the
East and South-East.

11.13. {Pakistan} Gwadar Port

Complex attack

IR & Places In News – 78 IR – Miscellaneous Prelims Magnum 2025

 Majeed Brigade of Baloch Liberation Army has claimed responsibility for Gwadar Port complex attack in Pakistan.

Balochistan Context
• Balochistan chiefdoms, including Ahmed Yar Khan, the chief of Kalat, hoped to secure an independent state, but after
Pakistan invaded Kalat in 1948, he was forced to accede.
• This triggered an ongoing insurgency fuelled by persisting economic disaffection, political disenfranchisement, and
repression by Pakistan.

Majeed Brigade

• National Awami Party in Balochistan faced repression (1972) by then-Pakistani PM Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto.
• Majeed Langove Senior's failed assassination attempt in 1974 gathered him martyrdom in Balochistan. His younger
brother also followed the struggle.
• Later, Aslam Achu, a BLA leader, decided to establish a suicide squad named ‘Majeed Brigade’.
• Other attacks: Chinese Consulate in Karachi (2018), the Gwadar Pearl Continental Hotel (2019), and the Pakistan Stock
Exchange in Karachi (2020).

11.14. {Philipines} India Supports Philippines’ Sovereignty

• India firmly reiterated India’s support for the Philippines in upholding its national sovereignty.

India-Philippines bilateral relations

• Cultural connection: The Laguna Copper Plate inscription, the oldest artefact discovered in the Philippines, written
in "Kavi" derived from Pallava script, the golden statue of Agusan Tara, and the local version of Ramayana (Maharadia
Lawana) indicate cultural connection.

• Diplomatic relations: Formally established on 26 November 1949. Continued Cooperation along the lines of Look East
and subsequent Act East Policy of India.
• Defence Cooperation: In 2022, Philippines became the first foreign country to procure BrahMos.

11.15. {US-China} AUKUS | Chip Four alliance by US **

AUKUS initiative
Prelims Magnum 2025 IR – Miscellaneous IR & Places In News – 79
• Advanced technology partnership between Australia, the UK and the US. It was unveiled in 2021.
• The first pillar of the AUKUS arrangement involves transferring conventionally armed, nuclear-powered submarines
from Washington and London to Canberra.
• Japan, with its strong anti-nuclear orientation, is not currently part of it.

Chip Four alliance

• The US initiated this alliance of Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, and the United States, the world’s major producers of
semiconductors.

11.16. {US-China} The Resolve Tibet Act

 The United States Congress passed the Resolve Tibet Act, aiming to counter Chinese disinformation and promote
dialogue for the resolution of the Tibet-China dispute.

Resolve Tibet Act

• Third major piece of U.S. legislation on Tibet, succeeding the Tibetan Policy Act (TPA) of 2002 and the Tibetan Policy
and Support Act (TPSA) of 2020.
• Unlike its predecessors, the Resolve Tibet Act explicitly challenges China’s historical claims over Tibet and emphasises
Tibetan self-determination and human rights.

11.17. {SA} Chancay Port, Peru

 China is growing its trade power in South America by building a new port in Chancay, Peru.
• Objective: To transform Peru into a major commercial and port hub, connecting South America and Asia.
• Ownership: Primarily owned by the Chinese state-owned company Cosco Shipping, which holds a 60% stake. This
marks China's first control of a port in South America.
• Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): It is a Part of China's investments in Latin America under the BRI Initiative.

About Peru
• Location: Located in western South America, entirely in the Southern Hemisphere.
• Borders: Shares borders with Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to
the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west and south.
• Economy: Peru is the world's second-largest copper producer and also produces gold and zinc.

11.18. {SA} PM's Historic Visit to Guyana

 PM visited Guyana, marking the first visit by an Indian Prime Minister in 56 years.
 Guyana: Located in northeastern South America, Guyana serves as a gateway for CARICOM nations. Borders key
nations like Brazil, Venezuela, and Suriname.
 PM Modi conferred with Guyana's highest national award, The Order of Excellence.
 Energy Security: Guyana’s emergence as an oil hub offers India opportunities for energy diversification.Long-term
agreements planned for oil imports and joint ventures.
 Regional Cooperation: PM Modi co-chaired the India-CARICOM Summit, reinforcing India’s influence in Latin America
and the Caribbean.
 Symbolic planting of a sapling under the Ek Ped Ma Ke Naam initiative, reinforcing cultural ties.

11.19. {Trade} Tripartite Agreement between Nepal, India and Bangladesh

 Nepal, India & Bangladesh signed a Tripartite Agreement to facilitate cross-border electricity trade, allowing Nepal
to export hydroelectricity to Bangladesh via Indian transmission lines.

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• Electricity Export: Nepal will export 40 megawatts (MW) of hydroelectricity to Bangladesh annually.
• Significance: This is the first time Nepal will sell electricity to a third country.

11.20. {Events} Raisina Dialogue 2024

• 9th edition. Theme: “Chaturanga: Conflict, Contest, Cooperate, Create.”
• India’s conference on geopolitics and geo-economics. Held annually since 2016 in New Delhi.
• Modelled on the lines of Singapore’s Shangri-La Dialogue and the Munich Security Conference.
• Organised by Observer Research Foundation (ORF) and Ministry of External Affairs.

-------- End of Chapter --------

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 12. Places In News

12.1. {Africa} Barberton Greenstone Belt

 Researchers have assessed the effects of an ancient meteorite impact in Barberton Greenstone Belt that acted as a
giant fertiliser bomb for life on Earth.
• The meteorite delivered a large amount of phosphorous, a nutrient for microbes crucial for the molecules central to
storing and conveying genetic information.
• It also mixed iron-rich deep waters into shallower waters, creating an environment ideal for microbes.
• It is located in the Kapvaal craton of southeastern Africa.

• It is a rugged mountain terrain of substantially untransformed Archaean rocks.

• It contains the best-preserved, oldest (the lowermost volcanic rocks are almost 3.5 billion years old), and most diverse
sequence of volcanic and sedimentary rocks on Earth unaffected by subduction (and metamorphism) and erosion.
• Makhonjwa Mountains make up 40% of the Barberton belt. Komati River flows through the belt.

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• BGB’s outcrops were added to UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites.

12.2. {Africa} Ghana's first nuclear energy plant

 Ghana plans to establish its first nuclear energy plant.

• Location: West Coast of Africa. Capital: Accra. Bordering countries: Burkina Faso, Togo, Côte d'Ivoire.
• Water bodies: Atlantic Ocean to the south, Gulf of Guinea.

12.3. {Africa} Kenya Mapping

 Violent protests are happening in Kenya against the government's proposed tax hikes.

About Kenya
• Location: Eastern Africa along the equator.
• Shares borders with Ethiopia, Somalia, Uganda, Tanzania, and the Indian Ocean.
• Capital: Nairobi, Currency: Shilling, Chief port: Mombasa.
• Languages: Swahili is a national English

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• Aber-
dare Range highlands, the Great Rift Valley, white sandy beaches, and coral reefs.
• Lake Turkana (Rudolf) is the world’s largest permanent desert lake. Many anthropologists consider this area the cra-
dle of humankind due to the abundance of hominid fossils.

12.4. {Africa} Lake Victoria **

• Africa's largest lake by area, world's largest tropical lake, and second-largest freshwater lake.
• Bordered by Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.
• Source of White Nile (Joins the Blue Nile in Sudan forming Nile River, drainis into Mediterranean Sea).
• Lake Victoria touches the Equator on its northern side.

12.5. {Africa} Dar es Salaam *

• Dar es Salaam, Tanzania's largest city, is located in a bay along the Indian Ocean and has become a crucial economic
centre for the entire East African region.

12.6. {Africa} River Nile

❖ Amidst the civil war, Sudan has been struck with a deadly flood caused by river Nile due to heavy rainfalls causing
displacement of thousands of people.

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• The Nile River is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa and is the longest river in Africa.
• It is the primary water source of Egypt, Sudan and South Sudan. It empties into the Mediterranean Sea.
• Its drainage basin covers 11 countries: the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda,
Kenya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, South Sudan, Sudan, and Egypt.
• The two main tributaries of the river are the Blue Nile and the White Nile:
1. White Nile rises in the Great Lakes region (Lake Victoria) and flows through Uganda & South Sudan.
2. Blue Nile begins at Lake Tana in Ethiopia and flows into Sudan from the southeast. Both meet at the Sudanese
capital of Khartoum.
• The northern section of the river flows north almost entirely through the Nubian Desert to Cairo.
• The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, Africa's largest dam is constructed over the Blue Nile.

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12.7. {Africa} Sahara desert witnesses first flood in 50 years
 Recently, A rare deluge of rainfall has left lagoons of water amid the palm trees and sand dunes of the Sahara desert.
NASA satellites showed water rushing in to fill Lake Iriqui, a famous lake bed between Zagora and Tata that had been
dry for 50 years.

Sahara Desert
• Size: It is the world’s largest hot desert and the third-largest desert overall, smaller only than the deserts of Antarctica
and the northern Arctic.
• Location: It is located in North Africa and touches 11 countries: Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco,
Niger, Sudan, Tunisia, and Western Sahara.
• Hottest landscape: In 1922, Al Azizia (Libya) in the Sahara recorded the highest temperature, 57.7 °C.
• Drainage: Several rivers discharge into Lake Chad in the southern Sahara; the Niger rises in Fouta Djallon region of
Guinea and flows through southwestern Sahara before turning southward to the sea.
• Tribes: Various nomadic groups, Bedouins and Tuaregs are prominent. The oasis in the Sahara and the Nile Valley in
Egypt support settled populations.

12.8. {Africa} Zimbabwe

 Zimbabwe is investigating a suspected case of lion poaching in Hwange National Park.

• The Hwange National Park is home to half of Zimbabwe’s 100,000 elephants. It hosts over 100 mammal and 400 bird
species, including 19 large herbivores and eight large carnivores.
• It is part of Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA) Transfrontier Conservation Area.
• Zimbabwe, a landlocked country in southern Africa. Capital: Harare
• It shares border on the south with the Republic of South Africa and is bounded on the southwest and west by Bot-
swana, on the north by Zambia, and on the northeast and east by Mozambique.
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• Official Languages: English, Shona and Ndebele. Its literacy rate is 92%, the highest in Africa.
• Zambezi River forms a natural riverine boundary with Zambia. Lake Kariba (one of the world's largest manmade
lakes), constructed on the Zambezi River, forms the world's largest reservoir by volume.
• Zimbabwe is home to the world’s largest waterfall – Victoria Falls (on Zambezi River), known locally as ‘Mosi-oa-
Tunya’ (the smoke that thunders).

12.9. {Antarctica} Point Nemo

 C first person to lead an expedition to Point Nemo.
• Point Nemo, also known as the "oceanic pole of inaccessibility" is considered the remotest place on Earth, named

• Location: The nearest land is the Pitcairn Islands, situated 2,688 km away.
• Nearest humans à , 408 kilometres in low Earth orbit.
• While many sailors have navigated near Point Nemo, no specific expedition has reached the exact location since
Canadian-Russian engineer Hrvoje Lukatela discovered it in 1992.

12.10. {Asia} Lakshadweep tourism

Place Significance
Agatti Airport, Lagoon
Bangaram Tourist resorts, Bangaram hut
Administrative headquarters, Most developed, Lighthouse
Kadmath
Minicoy Folk culture and folk dances, Isolated from the leading group
T C Folk dances

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12.11. {Asia} Aral Sea
• Endorheic lake in Central Asia, east of the Caspian
Sea.
• Bordered by Kazakhstan on north and Uzbekistan
on south. Formerly a large saltwater lake.
• Fourth largest body of inland water, lost almost
three-quarters of its volume & half of its area.
• Reasons: Overuse of its two main tributaries —
Amu Darya and Syr Darya—

12.12. {Asia} Dagestan Region *

• O
ince of the Russian Federation.
• This is a predominantly Muslim region with a history of armed in-
surgency as terrorist acts.
• Dagestan’s name translates to ‘Land of Mountains, ’ emphasising its
mountainous terrain.
• Location: Eastern part of North Caucasus, sharing borders with
Georgia and Azerbaijan to the South.
• The largest ethnic group here is Avars, followed by Dargins, Kumyks
and Lezgins.
• Makhachkala, along the coast of the Caspian Sea, is the capital of Dagestan.

12.13. {Asia} Solomon Islands

 Scientists discovered the world's largest coral colony in the Solomon Islands, around 300 years old.
• It is located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, forming two parallel chains of volcanic islands and coral atolls. Pre-
dominantly mountainous terrain with extensive forests, along with some large plains.
• Nearest neighbours: Vanuatu to the southeast and Papua New Guinea to the west.
• Comprises nearly 1,000 islands: Six main large islands and over 900 smaller islands.
• Independence: It was a British protectorate until independence as a republic in 1978.
• Economy: Fisheries, timber, and exports such as copra and palm oil. Mining, especially of gold and nickel, contributes
more to the economy.
• Culture and Society: Rich in diverse cultures with over 70 distinct languages spoken (English is the official Language).
Predominantly Melanesian population with Polynesian and Micronesian minorities.
• Political Structure: It is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system.

12.14. {Asia} Mt. Lewotobi Laki Laki

 The eruption of Mount Lewotobi Laki-Laki in Indonesia set off earthquakes, leading to fatalities, extensive property
destruction, and mass evacuations in the affected region.
• Twin Peaks: Part of the Lewotobi twin volcanic complex, including Lewotobi Laki-Laki (Male) and Lewotobi Perempuan
(Female) stratovolcanoes.
• Geological Importance: Positioned within the "Ring of Fire," an area of vigorous tectonic activity.
• Historical Names: Historically known as Lobetabi, Lovotivo, and Loby Toby.

12.15. {Asia} Lebanon **

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• Location: Western Asia, the second smallest country in continental Asia.
• Bordering nations: Syria to the north and east, Israel to the south. Cyprus lies in the west across the Mediterranean
Sea. It is part of the Levant region in the Middle East. Beirut is the capital of Lebanon.
• There is a disputed area called Shebaa Farms with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights.

12.16. {Asia} Saint Martin Island *

• Saint Martin Island is the sole coral reef island of Bangladesh and lies in the southernmost part of Bangladesh. It is
also known as “Narikel Zinzira” (Coconut island) or “Daruchini Dwip” (Cinnamon island).
• It was originally a part of the Teknaf peninsula but was separated due to the submergence of a portion of the peninsula.

12.17. {Caribbean} Caribbean Islands

 Hurricane Beryl is forecasted to become a Category 4 storm near the Caribbean.
• Beryl is anticipated to track just south of Barbados and then move into the Caribbean Sea as a powerful hurricane,
heading towards Jamaica and eventually Mexico.

Caribbean Islands
• Stretches from Cuba in the northeast to Trinidad and Tobago in the southwest, including the Venezuelan islands of
Aruba, Bonaire, and Curacao.

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• Forms the eastern border of the Caribbean
Sea and touches Central and South America,
including countries like Venezuela, Colombia,
Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras,
Guatemala, and Belize.
Also refer > Ocean-Ocean Convergence and Vol-
canic Island Arc Formation. & Tropical cyclones

CARICOM Countries
• Established in 1973, CARICOM promotes eco-
nomic integration and coordinates foreign
policy among 15 Caribbean member states,
aiming for equitable benefit distribution.
• Secretariat: Georgetown, Guyana. CARICOM
holds observer status at the United Nations.
• Member nations include Antigua and Bar-
buda, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Domi-
nica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Mont-
serrat, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vin-
cent and the Grenadines, Suriname, and Trin-
idad & Tobago.
• The organisation rotates its chairmanship every six months, ensuring all members have an equal say regardless of
size or economic status.
• The CARICOM Single Market and Economy aims to foster regional prosperity by facilitating trade, investment, and
economic opportunities across the Caribbean.

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12.18. {Caribbean} Operation Indravati | Haiti
 By India -stricken Haiti to neighbouring Dominican Republic.

• state of emergency gang warfare.

Haiti
• Second largest Caribbean Island. Capital: Port-au-Prince
• Bordered to the east by the Dominican Republic, which covers the rest of Hispaniola, to the south and west by the
Caribbean, and to the north by the Atlantic Ocean.

12.19. {Environment} Amazon Rainforest

 About 40% of the Amazon rainforest has not
been granted special government protection.
• Only 61% of the peak carbon areas in the Am-
azon are protected as indigenous reserves or
other protected lands, but the rest generally
have no official designation.
• Only 51% of peak carbon areas in Brazil, Suri-
name, and French Guiana are labelled for
preservation.
• Spread over parts of Bolivia, Brazil (60%), Co-
lombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname &
Venezuela.
• The Amazon River, which runs through it,
flows more than 6,500 km. It’s the world’s
second longest river after the Nile, responsi-
ble for around 15% of the planet’s total river
discharge into the oceans.
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• It encompasses the single largest remaining tropical rainforest in the world and houses at least 10% of the world’s
known biodiversity.

Significance of Amazon rainforest

• The Amazon rainforest is called the ‘lungs of the Earth’ because it ‘breathes in’ CO2 and ‘exhales’ oxygen on a massive
scale. It contained 71.5 Bn tonnes of carbon (~double the global CO2 emissions for 2022).
• The Amazon’s canopy cover helps regulate temperature and humidity and is intricately linked to regional climate
patterns through hydrological cycles that depend on the forests.
• It contributes about $8.2 billion annually to Brazil's economy from products, including rubber and timber.

12.20. {Environment} Carambolim Lake

• An artificial water tank in North Goa, created during Kadamba dynasty for irrigating paddy fields.
• Hosts both resident and migratory birds -breasted water hens, open-

12.21. {Environment} Coastal Erosion in Brazil

IR & Places In News – 92 Places In News Prelims Magnum 2025

 Brazil’s coastline (Atlantic Ocean) faces unprecedented Coastal erosion.
• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports that sea levels are rising faster than ever, more than dou-
bling in the past ten years.
• Geography: Brazil occupies most of the eastern part of the South American continent, including its geographic heart-
land and various islands in the Atlantic Ocean.
• Size: It is the fifth-largest country in the world, after Russia, Canada, China, and the United States.
• Capital: Brasília.
Borders: Brazil shares borders with Uruguay, Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suri-
name, and French Guiana (an overseas territory of France). The only South American countries it does not border
are Chile and Ecuador.

12.22. {Environment} Coral Triangle **

 Experts recommend that the Coral Triangle be classified as a Particularly Sensitive Sea Area to protect it from harmful
maritime activities.
• Often referred to as the ‘Amazon of the seas’, it is a huge marine area in Southeast Asia. It includes countries like
Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Singapore, Philippines, Timor-Leste & Solomon Islands.

• It encompasses portions of 2 biogeographic regions: the Indonesian-Philippines Region and the Far Southwestern
Pacific Region.
• It has 76% of all known coral species worldwide and 37% of the world’s total coral reef fish.

About Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSAs)

• These are internationally recognised, highly sensitive, and highly protected locations because of their ecological, so-
cioeconomic or scientific significance.
• The International Maritime Organization (IMO) stressed the guidelines for designating those areas

12.23. {Environment} Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary *

• Location: Dandakaranya forests, Telangana near Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh border.
• Hyderabad Nizam government declared it a wildlife sanctuary in 1952.
• The famous Sammakka-Saralamma Temple is situated inside the sanctuary. Also, the biennial Sammakka Saralamma
Jatara (Medaram Jatara) is held in the Wildlife Sanctuary.

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• Dayyam Vagu, a perennial river, separates the sanctuary into two parts.
• Godavari River passes through the sanctuary. The Koya tribes inhabit it.
• Vegetation: Tropical dry deciduous type.
• Flora: Teak, bamboo, Anogeissus, Pterocarpus, Buchanania, etc.
• Fauna: T C
C Squirrels.

12.24. {Environment} Guru Ghasidas-Tamor Pingla Tiger Reserve (TR)

 The Chhattisgarh government notified Guru Ghasidas-Tamor Pingla as India’s 56th tiger reserve.
 TRs are notified by State govt. under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 on advice of NTCA.
• It is the fourth tiger reserve in Chhattisgarh after Achanakmar, Indravati, and Udanti Sitanadi. It is nestled in the Chota
Nagpur plateau and partly in Baghelkhand plateau.
• It’s the 3rd largest Tiger Reserve after Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh and Manas Tiger
Reserve in Assam.
• It is spread across four districts, Manendragarh-Chirmiri-Bharatpur (MCB), Korea, Surajpur, and Balrampur in the
northern tribal Sarguja region of Chhattisgarh.
• It is connected to the Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve in Madhya Pradesh to the West and Palamau Tiger Reserve in
Jharkhand to the East. It is contagious to Sanjay Dubri Tiger Reserve in Madhya Pradesh.

12.25. {Environment} Hindon River

 The Hindon River has become highly polluted due to industrial effluents and inadequate sewage treatment facilities,
making its water toxic and impacting the health of local communities in UP.
• The Hindon River is a tributary of the Yamuna River and primarily relies on rainfall.
• Source: Originates from the lower Shivalik ranges in Saharanpur District, Uttar Pradesh.
• Flow: Travels across the industrial belt of Western Uttar Pradesh for approximately 400 kilometres before merging
with the Yamuna River in Noida.
• Main Tributaries: Kali (West) River and the Krishni River.
• Pollution Issue: Urban, agricultural, and industrial wastes are released into the river without adequate treatment. It
is one of the most polluted sections of the Ganga basin.
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• 2015 CPCB Report: The Central Pollution Control Board declared the Hindon a 'dead river' in 2015 due to its severe
pollution levels, rendering it 'unfit' even for bathing in several sections.

12.26. {Environment} India’s First Dark Sky Park

• India's first Dark Sky Park and the T T
• Dark-sky park:
• Purpose: To promote

Pench Tiger Reserve

• Spread between MP and Maharashtra on south of Satpura range.
• Comprises: .
• Established as a sanctuary in 1977 | in 1983 | 1992: Pench Tiger Reserve.

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• Derives its name from River Pench, Park into equal eastern and western
halves.
• Ain-i-Akbari, a 16th- .

12.27. {Environment} Javadhu Hills (Jawadhi, Jawadhu)

• Extension of the Eastern Ghats. Separates Vellore and Tiruvannamalai districts of Tamil Nadu.
• Bisected Cheyyar and Agaram rivers, tributaries of the Palar.
• Consist of bluish-grey granites. Places: Beemanmadavu falls (Bheemam Falls), Kavalur Observatory.

12.28. {Environment} Kanwar Lake | Oxbow Lake *

• Known as Kabartal locally. Located in Bihar’s Begusarai district, it is a residual oxbow lake & Asia's largest freshwater
oxbow lake formed due to the meandering of Burhi Gandak, a tributary of Ganga.
• Rainfed lake
• First and only wetland in Bihar of international importance under the Ramsar Convention.
• Declared a protected area by the state govt. in 1986. Designated as a sanctuary by the central govt.

Oxbow lakes
• Curved or U-shaped lake, originally a bend in a river, separated when the river took a straighter course.
• Usually form in flat, low-lying plains
• Oxbow lakes are Stillwater lakes T

Meandering
• Meanders are formed in the middle course of a river. Flows in a curvy, bendy path, like a snake.

12.29. {Environment} Moyar Valley

• E Gyps vultures in southern India.
• T
• Stretches from Gudalur through core area of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve within the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve in Tamil
Nadu. | Species: Tigers, Elephants, gaurs, blackbuck, sambar, critically endangered Gyps vulture.
• Only region Gyps vultures in the wild.
• Carcasses of wildlife from Moyar village to Bhavanisagar serve as a vital food source for vultures.
• These carcasses are mostly free from harmful substances like NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) and
other poisonous chemicals.
(Note: Gyps Vulture is covered in Magnum Species in News)
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12.30. {Environment} Pallikaranai Marsh
 A bathymetric study in Pallikaranai marshland aims to enhance ecological functions and prevent encroachments,
guided by National Green Tribunal.
• It is a freshwater marsh near Chennai adjacent to the Bay of Bengal.
• Notable species: Russell’s viper, glossy ibis, and Pheasant-tailed jacana.
• In April 2022, Pallikaranai Marsh was designated a Ramsar site. It has 65 wetlands that enhance biodiversity, with
Okkiyam Madavu and Kovalam Creek serving as key outlets to the Bay of Bengal.
 Bathymetry studies underwater depth and topography, measuring water body depths to create detailed seafloor
maps. It uses techniques like sonar, LIDAR, and traditional depth sounding to measure the time for sound waves or
light pulses to reach the seafloor and return.

12.31. {Environment} Point Calimere

• Kodiakkarai also called Point Calimere or Cape Cal-
imere, is a low headland of the Coromandel Coast in
Tamil Nadu.
• Location: South of Vedaranyam in Cauvery River
delta region, nearly at right-angle in coastline.
• Has Kodi Kuzhagar temple, of Chola period, Chola
lighthouse, which was destroyed in the 2004 tsu-
nami.
• The forests of Kodiakkarai, also known the Ve-
daranyam forests, are one of the last remnants of
the dry evergreen forests that were once typical of
East Deccan dry evergreen forests ecoregion.

Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary

• Created in 1967, is in Tamil Nadu. Houses Vedaranyam bird sanctuary and Talaignayar forests.
• A Ramsar site
• Has Endangered Indian blackbucks, migratory spoon-
• T salt pans

12.32. {Environment} Pollution in Buddha Nullah

 Farmers in Punjab and Rajasthan protest against pollution in Buddha Nullah caused by untreated factory waste, af-
fecting public health and agriculture.
• Buddha Nullah is a seasonal water stream that runs through the Malwa region of Punjab and drains into the Sutlej
River, a tributary of the Indus River.
• It passes through the industrial city of Ludhiana before it finally drains into the Sutlej.
• Its pollution has been associated with the "cancer belt" in Punjab, particularly in the Malwa region.

12.33. {Environment} Pulicat bird sanctuary **

• Second-largest bird sanctuary in India.
• Location: Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh and Thiruvallur district of Tamil Nadu.
• Hosts migratory birds during winter, including gulls, terns, plovers, shanks, curlews, and storks.
•

Pulicat Lagoon
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• Shallow, brackish-water lagoon along the coast of the Bay of Bengal.
• Second largest brackish water lagoon Odisha’s Chilika
lake.
• Receives
Kalangi River from the Northwest, and the Swarnamukhi River at
the northern end.
• Runs parallel to the Bay of Bengal and has a sand bar, making it a
lagoon of its own kind.
• Barrier island of Sriharikota separates the lake from the Bay of Ben-
gal.
 Sriharikota: India's rocket launch pad and home to Satish Dha-
wan Space Centre.
• Supports the largest congregation of Flamingoes is Andhra Pra-
desh.

12.34. {Environment} Roopkund Glacial lake

 Roopkund Lake (Uttarakhand) is being impacted by climate
change.
• Location: At the base of Mt. Trishul in the Garhwal Himalayas, part
of the Nanda Devi National Park.
• It is also known as the “Lake of Skeletons” due to the skeletal remains of an estimated 600-800 people found here.
Some of these skeletons date back to around 1200 years. According to genetic research, these people were descended
from various ethnic groups, including Mediterraneans.

Garhwal Himalaya
• Part of the Himalayan Sivalik, the outermost hills of the Himalayas, Western part of Kumaon Himalaya
• Located in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
• Major Peaks: Nanda Devi, Kamet, Mana Peak, Mukut Parvat.

12.35. {Europe} Azores Island

 Azores island created the largest marine protected area in the North Atlantic.
• The Autonomous Region of the Azores is a Portuguese archipelago of volcanic origin made up of nine islands in the
North Atlantic Ocean.
• It is located at the seismically active Azores Triple Junction plate boundary where the North American Plate, Eurasian
Plate and African Plate meet.
• The archipelago, alongside Madeira, Cape Verde, and the Canary Islands, is part of Macaronesia.
• The islands lie in a northwest-southeast direction and are divided into three groups: northwest, central and eastern.
Mount Pico, located on Pico Island, is the highest point on the archipelago.

12.36. {Environment} Sirpur Lake (Pakshi Vihar), Indore

• World Wetlands Day (WWD) at Sirpur Lake, Indore. Theme: ‘Wetlands and Human Wellbeing’.
• Human-made Ramsar wetland with Shallow, alkaline, and nutrient-rich waters, established by Holkars of Indore
(20th century) | Important bird areas (IBAs)
•

12.37. {Environment} Valmiki Tiger Reserve

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• L C only tiger reserve in Bihar).
• Easternmost limit T C

• Situated in the Gangetic Plains bio- bhabar and terai tracts.

• River Gandak forms the western boundary of Valmiki Wildlife Sanctuary.

12.38. {Europe} Belgium recognises Ecocide

• Belgium becomes the first in the European Continent to recognise Ecocide as a crime.
• Capital: Brussels. Also de facto capital of the European Union and the headquarters of NATO.
• Bordered by Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, France & North Sea.
• One of the six founding members of the European Union, Eurozone, NATO, OECD, and WTO.

12.39. {Europe} Country Moldova

 European country Moldova joins the International Solar Al-
liance (ISA).
• Location: It is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bor-
dered by Romania and Ukraine.
• Historical Background: It was part of the USSR until 1991
when it gained independence.
• Economy: Moldova is one of the poorest countries in East-
ern Europe, and its economy largely depends on agriculture
and wine production.
• Geography: Moldova is mostly hilly plains with fertile lands.
It has a well-developed network of rivers and streams, all
draining to the Black Sea.

12.40. {Europe} Danube river

• Poaching and trafficking are threatening the survival
of Sturgeon Fish in Danube river. It is the second-
largest river in Europe after Russia’s Volga. It flows
from Black Forest in Germany to the Black Sea.
• It passes through four capital cities (Vienna, Brati-
slava, Budapest, and Belgrade) and ten countries.
• It is connected to the North Sea via the Rhine-Main-
Danube Canal.
• Sturgeon Fish is found in freshwaters and saltwaters of Eurasia and North America.

12.41. {Europe} E.coli infestation in Seine River

• Paris' outdated sewage system severely infested the Seine River with E. coli.

Seine River
• Location: Paris, empties into the English Channel at Le Havre.
• Length: 775 kilometres, France's second-longest river after the Loire.
• Source: Rises 446 meters above sea level near Dijon in Burgundy.
• Course: Flows through Paris for about 13 kilometres from west to east, joined by the Marne River.
• Drainage Basin: Covers approximately 79,000 square kilometres, draining northern France.

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• Geology: The river basin comprises permeable rocks, which help reduce flood risk.
• Precipitation: Receives modest annual rainfall (650 to 750 millimeters).

Escherichia Coli (E. coli)

Aspect Details
What is E. coli? It is a rod-shaped bacterium found in the intestines of humans and most mammals.
Harmful Strains Certain strains produce a toxin (Shiga), which can damage the intestinal lining.
Symptoms Tiredness, severe abdominal cramps, diarrhoea, urinary tract infections, nausea, vomiting, and,
in severe cases, gastrointestinal perforation, high fever, bloody diarrhoea, and kidney failure.
Transmission Via contaminated food & water tainted by faecal waste from humans & animals.

12.42. {Europe} Little Prespa Lake *

 Little Prespa Lake in Europe has been transformed into swamps or dried up.
• Location: It is situated on the border between Greece and Albania.
• It consists of two lakes:
 Great Prespa Lake (shared by Albania, Greece, and North Macedonia).
 Small Prespa Lake (Mostly in Greece with a small tip in Albania).

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• One of the oldest tectonic lakes in Europe and the highest tectonic lake on the Balkan Peninsula. The region features
rocks from the oldest Palaeozoic formations to sediments from the young Neogene era.
• It is home to the world's largest breeding colony of the Dalmatian pelican.
• The lake is part of the Prespa National Park and is designated as a Ramsar Wetland.

12.43. {Europe} Our Living Islands campaign by Ireland

 Ireland’s government has announced the launch of its “Our Living Islands policy”, which is an effort to revive Ireland’s
island communities that aren’t connected to the mainland.
• It aims to improve infrastructure and increase job opportunities, including the option for remote work.
• The policy plan raised concerns about the declining youth population. It showed that from 1996 to 2016, the popula-
tion on the islands in the policy fell by 12.8%.

About Republic of Ireland

• Located on Ireland (island) in the North Atlantic Ocean, the second-largest island in the British Isles and the third-
largest in Europe. The island is politically divided into the Republic of Ireland, and Northern Ireland, part of the United
Kingdom.

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• Language: Irish (or Gaelic) is the official first language of the Republic of Ireland, although English is more commonly
spoken. Dublin is a UNESCO City of Literature.
• Bordering Countries: It shares its only land border with Northern Ireland.
 Ireland, Spain and Norway announced the recognition of a Palestinian state.

12.44. {Middle East} Al-Jawf Region

 The Al-Jawf region in Saudi Arabia witnessed a historic winter phenomenon, with snowfall blanketing the desert for
the first time in recorded history.
• It is one of the most fertile regions in Saudi Arabia. Human presence here dates to the Stone Age.
• The region is renowned for its olive cultivation, boasting the world's largest modern olive farm, a record noted in the
Guinness Book. The region is one of the coldest regions in Saudi Arabia during winter.

12.45. {Middle East} Cape Route (European-Asian sea route)

• F O O .
• Passes via Cape of Good Hope and Cape Agulhas at the southern edge of Africa. Discovered by Vasco da Gama to
reach India from Europe.

Cape of Good Hope

• Rocky headland on the Atlantic coast of the Cape Peninsula in South Africa.
• Cape Agulhas is the southern tip of Africa, not the Cape of Good Hope.

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 ⇨ Cape Agulhas is the dividing line between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. It is also the meeting point of the warm-
water Agulhas current and the cold-water Benguela current.

12.46. {Middle East} Hezbollah’s Exploding Pagers

 Lebanon witnessed explosions involving
handheld pagers used by Hezbollah mem-
bers.

What Is Pager?
• Also known as a beeper, it is a compact, port-
able device used primarily for receiving and
occasionally sending short messages or
alerts.
• Pagers receive messages via radio frequen-
cies from a base station or central dispatch.
These messages can be numeric or alphanu-
meric and are displayed to the user.
• Some advanced pagers allow users to send
and receive messages.
• Its range depends on the frequency band
used and the coverage of the paging net-
work.

12.47. {Middle East} Tell Umm

Amer heritage site

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• Recently, the Saint Hilarion Monastery/Tell Umm Amer in Palestine was granted UNESCO status and simultaneously
added to the World Heritage in Danger list.
• It is situated in the dunes south of the Wadi Ghazzeh, near Al Nusairat refugee camp, south of Gaza City. It is close to
the Mediterranean coast and borders the town of Deir al-Balah to the east and southeast.
• It is a monastery founded by Saint Hilarion (led the spread of monastic practices in the Middle East).

12.48. {Misc} Black Sea, Red Sea & Panama Canal

Panama Canal
• Atlantic oceans -> Isthmus of Panama -> Pacific oceans | Lies within Panama. | Issue: Drought

Black Sea
 Countries surrounding Black Sea: Ukraine to the north, Russia to the northeast, Georgia to the east, Turkey to the
south, Bulgaria to the southwest, and Romania to the west.
 Issue: The Russia-Ukraine war has disrupted the trade stability in the region.

Red Sea
❖ Surrounding Countries:
• Mediterranean Sea -> Sinai Peninsula, Gulf of Aqaba, Gulf of Suez -> Suez Canal -> Red Sea -> Bab el Mandeb Strait
and the Gulf of Aden -> Indian Ocean
• Issue:

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12.49. {Misc} International Status for Jamnagar Airport
• O C

• Owned by the
• Only airport in Gujarat which has 2 runways.

Significance of Jamnagar in India

• Location: Western coast of India in Gujarat.
• Known as the “Oil City of India,” Jamnagar is home to the world’s largest oil refinery complex.
• World Health Organization (WHO) and the GoI established the WHO Global Centre for Traditional Medicine in
Jamnagar.
• Reliance Industries is developing the world's largest zoo near Jamnagar.

Historical Importance

• Historically known as Nawanagar (the new town).

• One of the most important and largest princely states of the Jadejas in the Saurashtra region.
• Founded in 1540, it served as the capital of the Nawanagar princely state

12.50. {Misc} Morodharo

• Near the village of Lodrani (Near Dholavira in Kutch, Gujarat).
• Mature and late phases of the Harappan .
found in Dholavira.

Dholavira
• On Khadir bet island in the Kachchh Desert Wildlife Sanctuary in the Great Rann of Kachchh.
• Locally as . One of the two largest Harappan sites in India and 5th largest in the subcontinent. One of
the ever excavated.
• Fortified and had elaborate defense systems, a citadel, gateways, streets, castles, and houses that were made of
stones.

12.51. {Misc} Nimmu-Padam-Darcha Road

• Constructed by O (BRO) in Ladakh, also
known as the Zanskar Highway.
• Will connect Manali to Leh through Darcha and Nimmu on Kargil –
Leh Highway.
• It connects Nimmu in the Indus Valley to Padum in Zanskar and

• Now the third axis apart from Manali-Leh and Srinagar-Leh connect-
ing Ladakh to the hinterland.
• Provides all- and shorten the Manali to Kargil
distance by 522 km.
• Crosses only one pass - Shinkun La.

Border Roads Organisation

• Established in 1960 as a part of the Indian Armed Forces.

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 • Under Ministry of Defence, headed by an Indian Army Lieutenant General
• Develops, maintains road networks in India’s border areas & friendly neighboring countries.
• Famous projects: Project Himank in Ladakh, Project Dantak in Bhutan

12.52. {Misc} Sagar Island

Ganga Sagar Mela, the second-largest Hindu agglomerate Kumbh Mela at Sagar island.
• Situated in the Ganges delta at the mouth of the Hooghly River on Bay of Bengal .

12.53. {Misc} Sanglaphu Lake

 Opened to the public for the first time in history.
• Sanglaphu Cho, also known as the "Great Lake," is a revered lake
• Location: Yumesamdong (Zero Point, near Lachung) in Sikkim
• Earlier nearby Gurudongmar Lake was closed due to a Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF).

Sanglaphu Mountain
• Part of the Dongkya range Gurudongmar Glacier to Gurudongmar Lake, which lies in the headwa-
ters of the Lachen Chu, which feeds the Teesta River.

12.54. {NA} Badwater Basin in Death Valley

 Ephemeral lake: Temporary body of water that appears/disappears based on specific conditions.
• Situated in Death Valley, known as the driest place and lowest elevation point in
North America.
• It is only 84.6 miles east-southeast of Mount Whitney, the highest point in the United
States.
• Hurricane Hilary .
• In February 2024, an atmospheric river replenished the lake’s waters.
• Badwater Basin is endorheic, .

Death Valley
• Desert valley in Eastern California, in northern Mojave Desert, bordering Great Basin Desert.
• Thought to be the hottest place on Earth during summer.
• Home to the Timbisha tribe
• It is a graben, a downdropped block of land between two mountain ranges.

12.55. {Misc} Saydnaya Prison, Syria

 Saydnaya Prison in Syria highlights systemic torture, secret executions, and human rights violations during the civil
war.
• Saydnaya Prison was established in the 1980s. It consists of two main buildings, the "Red Building" for civilians and
the "White Building" for military personnel.
• Amnesty International described Saydnaya as a "human slaughterhouse" due to the mass executions and brutal
treatment of detainees.
• Mass Executions: Between 2011 and 2015, it is estimated that between 5,000 and 13,000 people were extrajudicially
executed at Saydnaya.

Amnesty International
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• It is a London-based Non-Governmental Organisation founded in 1961.
• It focuses on human rights, campaigning against abuses and advocating for justice and equality.
• It was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1977 for its efforts to fight torture and protect human rights.

12.56. {NA} Canada

• Location: O , Greenland to the northeast, O , the United States to

the south, O .S. state of Alaska to the west, Saint-Pierre and Miquelon (an archipelagic terri-
tory of France Newfoundland (Canadian province).
• Major Rivers: Mackenzie, Yukon, St. Lawrence, Columbia, and Saskatchewan
• Major Mountains: Rocky Mountains, St. Elias Mountains, Laurentian Mountains
• Major lakes: Lake Superior, Lake Huron, Great Bear Lake, Great Slave Lake, Lake Erie, Lake Winnipeg, Lake Ontario,
Lake Athabasca

Great Lakes
• Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario
• Series of interconnected freshwater lakes in the mid- O
via the Saint Lawrence River.
• Lake Huron: World’s third-largest

12.57. {NA} Darien Gap **

 Panama has ordered Doctors Without Borders
crossed the Darien Gap.
• Darien Gap is one of the world’s most dangerous and fastest-growing border crossings.
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• A geographic region in the Isthmus of Darién
or Isthmus of Panama, which connects the
within Central America.
• On the border between Panama and Colom-
bia. Has large watershed, forest, & mountains.
• Home to the Embera-Wounaan and Guna peo-
ple and Cueva
following the Spanish invasion of Panama).
• No paved road
• Darien Gap is a part of the Donkey Route to the USA.

What is Donkey Route?

Features
• H tropical rainforests, mangrove swamps, and low mountain ranges with cloud forest veg-

• The Pan- C
South America.

Pan-American Highway

• System of roads measuring about 30,000 km in length.

• Runs north-south North, Central and South America.
• 106 km between Panama and Colombia known as the Darién Gap.

National Parks

• A —Darién National Park in Panama and Los Katios National Park in Colombia—administer
a large part of the region.
• Darien National Park and Biosphere has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1981.

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12.58. {NA} Lake Erie
 Water infected with Microcystin in Lake Erie can be harmful.

About Lake Erie

• Location: One of North America's Great Lakes, situated on the border between the U.S. and Canada.
• Size: It is the fourth-largest among the five Great Lakes.
• Major Tributaries: The main contributing rivers include the Detroit, Huron, and Raisin rivers.
• Outflow: Niagara River serves as its eastern discharge point.
• Shallow Depth: Warms and cools more rapidly than other Great Lakes.
• Economic Role: Commercial fishing, tourism, and shipping; Major ports include Cleveland and Toledo.
• Ecological Threats: Faces pollution, invasive species, and algal blooms, posing risks to water quality.

What is Microcystin?
• It is a toxin produced by certain freshwater cyanobacteria, commonly known as blue-green algae. These toxins can
pose significant health risks to humans and animals, primarily affecting the liver.
• It is produced in large quantities during algal blooms, contaminating the water. There are over 250 types of micro-
cystins, with microcystin-LR being the most common and toxic variant.

12.59. {NA} Lake Gatun

• The Panama Canal, an important shipping lane around the world, faces an existential threat due to fall in the level of
Lake Gatun, an artificial water reservoir vital to the operation of the canal system.
• Lake Gatun was formed by damming the Chagres River and its smaller affluents at Gatun.
• The lake’s main function is to hold sufficient water in the Gaillard Cut to the south for canal passage and for use in the
canal’s locks during dry spells. Guacha Island is present in the centre of the lake.

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• Panama Canal is a crucial shipping route that connects Atlantic and Pacific Oceans through the Isthumus of Panama
in Central America.

12.60. {NA} Pacific Island of Saipan

• Capital of the Northern Mariana Islands (NMI). Like territories such as Guam or Puerto Rico, the Northern Mariana
Islands are part of the US without the full status of a state.
• O
southwest of Hawaii.
• It was a colony of Spain, Germany and then Japan. The US took control of the island in WW II.
• Lake Susupe is the only lake in Saipan. Freshwater lake that serves as a habitat for various bird species.
• Battle of Saipan 1944.

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12.61. {NA} Rio Grande River

• Rio Grande is America’s ‘most endangered river’.

• Originates in south- C Gulf of Mexico.
• Fifth-longest river in North America and the 20th-longest river in the world.
• Forms the border between Texas and Mexico, where it is known as the Río Bravo del Norte.
• Meeting point for the Central and Mississippi flyways

12.62. {SA} Nazca Lines *

 AI has helped to discover hundreds of mysterious Nazca lines in Peru.
These are a group of geoglyphs known for depicting larger-than-life
animals, plants and imaginary beings.
• Geoglyphs are designs made on the ground using landscape elements
such as stones, dirt or lumber.
• The geoglyphs, drawn more than two millennia ago on the surface of
southern Peru, feature different subjects, but mainly plants and ani-
mals.
• Geometric shapes, such as triangles, trapezoids and spirals, are also found. Some designs have been associated with
astronomical functions as well.
• The Lines were declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1994.

12.63. {Tourism} Jog Waterfall, Karnataka

 The Karnataka Government discussed plans to increase tourist footfall at Jog Falls.
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• It is also known as Gerusoppe Falls, located on the Sharavati River in the Western Ghats. With a drop of 253 meters
(830 feet), it is the second-highest plunge waterfall in India.

Projects on Jog falls

• Linganamakki Dam: Built in 1964, this dam is located upstream of Jog Falls and regulates the water flow to the falls.
• Sharavathi Hydroelectric Project: One of the largest hydroelectric projects in Karnataka, it harnesses the power of
the Sharavati River.
• Gerusoppa Hydroelectric Project: This project, also known as the Sharavathi Tailrace Project, is situated downstream
from Jog Falls. It taps into the residual water from the Sharavathi River.

Shravasti River

• Origin and flow: Ambuthirtha in the Western Ghats. Flows westward into Arabian Sea at Honnavar.
• Home to the rare and endemic freshwater fish species Batasio sharavatiensis.

12.64. {Oceania} Lizard Island *

 Heat stress triggered a bleaching event that devastated 97% of the coral at Australia's Lizard Island.
• Lizard Island, also called Jiigurru or Dyiigurra, is part of the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland, Australia.
• Aboriginal Australian clan Dingaal

Great Barrier Reef

• Located in the Pacific Ocean northeastern coast of Queensland, Australia, within the Coral Sea.
• Longest and largest coral reef system in the world.
• Stretches in a northwest- for over 2,000 km.
• Recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981.

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