Environment, Development and Sustainability (2024) 26:9817–9845

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-03120-4

Tool‑based renewable energy system planning using survey

data: A case study in rural Vietnam

Maria C. G. Hart1 · Sarah Eckhoff1 · Michael H. Breitner1

Received: 2 August 2021 / Accepted: 6 March 2023 / Published online: 17 March 2023
© The Author(s) 2023

Abstract
Renewable energies provide effective sustainable development by raising living standards,
accelerating economic growth, and mitigating pollution. However, specifically in
developing countries, the lack of information, data, and local expertise challenges the
design process and long-term success of renewable energy systems. Following the call
for inter-disciplinary, solution-oriented research, this work uses a design science research-
approach to facilitate multi-energy planning. The decision support system NESSI4D is
developed, which considers site-specific economic, environmental, technological, and
social factors and is tuned for stakeholder needs in developing countries. Following a step-
by-step process model manual, the artifact’s applicability is demonstrated in a use case
for a rural community in Thua Thien-Hue, Vietnam. Missing load data are synthesized
from the TVSEP with the software RAMP. The results show that the implementation of
renewable energy technologies only enables affordable, low-emission electrification with
governmental financial incentives. Several sensitivity tests illustrate the impact of changing
assumptions and highlight the importance of detailed analyses with highly specialized
tools. The demonstrating use case validates the method’s relevance for research and
practice towards the goals of effective sustainable development.

Keywords Sustainable development goals · Decision support system · Renewable energy

systems · Design science research · Vietnam · Load profile

List of symbols

Units
a Year
% Percentage
W Watt

We thank the Thailand Vietnam Socio Economic Panel (TVSEP) Team for the data provided. TVSEP
is funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG). Our views do not necessarily reflect those of the
TVSEP team.

* Maria C. G. Hart
[email protected]
1
Information Systems Institute, Leibniz University Hanover, Koenigsworther Platz 1,
30167 Hanover, Germany

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Vol.:(0123456789)
9818 M. C. G. Hart et al.

kW Kilowatt
kWh Kilowatt hours
kgCO2-eq. Kilogram carbon dioxid equivalents
US$ United States dollar
VND Vietnam dong

Simulation models
HOMER Hybrid optimization of multiple energy resources
iHoga Improved hybrid optimization by genetic algorithms
NESSI Nano energy system simulator
NESSI4D Nano energy system simulator for development
OnSSET Open source spatial electrification tool
RAMP Remote-areas multi-energy systems load profiles
Sure-DSS Sustainable rural energy decision support system

Renewable energy technologies

BS Battery storage
PV Photovoltaic system
WT Wind turbine

Renewable energy system scenarios

Grid Central power grid
Grid–PV Central power grid and photovoltaic system
Grid–WT Central power grid and wind turbine
Grid–PV–BS Central power grid, photovoltaic system, and battery storage
Grid–WT–BS Central power grid, wind turbine, and battery storage
Grid–WT–PV Central power grid, wind turbine, and photovoltaic system
Grid–WT–PV–BS Central power grid, wind turbine, photovoltaic system, and battery
storage

Abbreviations
DSR Design science research
DSS Decision support system
FIT Feed-in tariff
GHG Greenhouse gases in kgCO2-eq.
ICT Information and communication technologies
ICT4D Information and Communication Technologies for Development
IS Information systems
O &M Operation and management
SDG Sustainable development goals
TVSEP Thailand Vietnam Socio Economic Panel
RET Renewable energy technologies
RES Renewable energy systems
UN United Nations

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Tool‑based renewable energy system planning using survey data:… 9819

1 Introduction

Access to electrical and thermal power allows to fulfill basic human needs and has proven
to alleviate economic growth, transform societies, and raise living standards (UNDP,
2016; Oliveira & Moutinho, 2021). The trend toward an electricity-based economy has
increased the importance of electric supply to provide equal economic chances (UNDP,
2016). Although the energy situation has improved worldwide in the past decades, 13 % of
the population still lacks access to a reliable supply (United Nations, 2021). Dependence
on fossil fuels, which provide 70 % of global demand, leaves players vulnerable to
supply shocks, price changes, and political friction (Al-falahi et al., 2017; UNDP, 2016).
Moreover, fossil fuels generate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that reinforce global
warming and have adverse impacts on people’s well-being (United Nations, 2020).
Therefore, the United Nations have formulated the 17 Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) which include the global objective for access to affordable, modern, reliable, and
sustainable energy for all (United Nations, 2021). Great potential lies particularly in the
building sector, where a share of 22 % of global end-use energy is consumed and 17 %
process-related GHG are emitted (IEA, 2019). Renewable energy technologies (RETs)
contribute significantly towards more sustainable energy use in developing countries,
as they are able to supply remote areas with modern electricity in an economically and
ecologically viable manner, or to relieve the often overloaded electricity grids (Nong
et al., 2020; Mandelli et al., 2016a). Additionally, new technologies such as heat pumps
and co-generation plants have emerged, allowing to design energy supply holistically as
multi-energy systems. Cooperative generation in microgrids and heating networks offers
great opportunities for cost and emission reductions. However, to promote the usage of
RETs, stakeholders need to be informed about their technological capabilities as well as
economic, ecological, and social impacts. Especially in developing countries, stakeholders
face the challenge of complex energy components’ technical specifications, geographic and
weather conditions, and consumer-specific energy demands in order to implement suitable
energy systems (Al-falahi et al., 2017; Erdinc & Uzunoglu, 2012). Scarce data and the lack
of studies in developing countries further complicate the formulation of evidence-based
strategies and policies (Oliveira & Moutinho, 2021). Programs have been incorporated
globally, but these often fail to include the users’ needs and views. Social and cultural
issues of target communities result in low acceptance leading to long-term failures (Urmee
& Md, 2016). Therefore, this work argues that stakeholders at the site must be assisted
directly in their decision process for an economical, social, and ecologic sustainable energy
composition. Mathematical models and Information and communication technologies
(ICTs) provide new opportunities to reduce complexities, especially in developing and
transitioning countries (Walsham, 2017). Thus, energy system planning and energy policy
formulation are often supported with decision support systems (DSSs) (Cherni & Kalas,
2010). However, these tools are often commercial, need programming knowledge or are
not suited for rural contexts in developing countries, see Sect. 2. Thus, following several
calls for inter-disciplinary development and solution-oriented research (Lehnhoff et al.,
2021; Gholami et al., 2016; Siksnelyte et al., 2018), this work addresses the following
research question:
How can stakeholders in developing countries make informed decisions to
sustainably build and transform decentralized energy systems?

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9820 M. C. G. Hart et al.

A Design Science Research (DSR) process according to Peffers et al. (2007) is conducted
to develop a tool-based process to analyze small energy systems with scarce data and little
capacities. The process includes the generation of input data that fulfills the conditions of
detail, location-specificity, and topicality. This covers the synthesis of load profiles from
survey data with the software RAMP and the inclusion of location-specific parameters.
Second, the energy simulation software NESSI by Kraschewski et al. (2020) is modified
and extended for the needs of stakeholders in developing countries and included in the
process model. The research design is described in Sect. 3 and the resulting artifact is pre-
sented in Sect. 4. In Sect. 5, the method is tested and applied to a sample of thirty rural
households in the Thua Thien-Hue province in Vietnam where the lack of information,
data, local expertise, and scientific research was identified as a major challenge for the
wide-spread use of RETs (Nguyen & Tuan, 2015; Nong et al., 2020). In Sect. 6, the results
and their implications are evaluated, before limitations and deducing future research are
highlighted in Sect. 7 and a conclusion is given in Sect. 8.

2 Literature review

2.1 Information systems for sustainable development

The United Nations (UN) defines sustainable development as a way to meet present
needs without compromising the ability of future generations to satisfy their own needs
(United Nations, 2021). This requires the enhancement and balance of inter-correlated
economic, ecological, technological, and social conditions through individual, national,
and international efforts (Siksnelyte et al., 2018). The UN has therefore agreed on 17
interrelated, but also sometimes mutually exclusive SDGs that define the common efforts
to achieve a sustainable future (United Nations, 2021). As economies increasingly rely on
electricity, the energy sector plays a significant role in sustainable development as it (among
others) enhances living standards, increases international and national competitiveness,
and transforms societies (UNDP, 2016; Oliveira & Moutinho, 2021). Simultaneously, the
impacts of climate change that are further exacerbated by fossil fuel consumption call for
a rapid energy transition, see SDG 7 (United Nations, 2021). However, inter-disciplinary
decision-making is required to achieve the often contradicting goals of economic viability,
energy resilience, and environmental friendliness (Siksnelyte et al., 2018). Broad
consensus is found on the positive impact of decentralized hybrid energy systems such as
mini- and micro-grids that mainly run on RETs (Balderrama et al., 2020; Herraiz-Cañete
et al., 2022). However, the widespread dissemination of RETs is often hindered by missing
knowledge about their long-term positive impacts or low transparency on the decision
making process of third parties. Further, designing such systems is often overwhelming
and requires detailed information on the energy components’ technical specifications and
inter-correlations, local geographic and weather conditions, consumer-specific energy
demands, market data, and soft social factors (Al-falahi et al., 2017; Erdinc & Uzunoglu,
2012). Deviations may lead to the inadequate choice and sizing of components, leading
to high monetary burdens, low energy reliability, and sometimes long-term failure of the
projects (Herraiz-Cañete et al., 2022; Urmee & Md, 2016). Thus, specialized DSS are
necessary to reduce those complexities. The IS community acknowledges this need and
implies that "Energy + Information > Energy," i.e., information is needed to enable and
support economic and behaviorally driven solutions when designing energy systems

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Tool‑based renewable energy system planning using survey data:… 9821

(Watson et al., 2010). Walsham (2017) identified environment and climate change as the
major societal issues of our century that must be addressed in the realm of Information
and Communication Technology for Development (ICT4D). Thus, research that works
on integrating and cooperating set of people, processes, software, and information
technologies to support individual, organizational, or societal goals are called for
(Watson et al., 2010; Gholami et al., 2016). Lehnhoff et al. (2021) further elaborates that
IS research does not have to be theory-building at once, but must provide solutions for
practical applications. Especially in the field of energy supply, access, and distribution,
ICTs can effectively support stakeholders in developing and transitioning countries.
However, despite its relevance, only few research provides national or empirical insights
for policymakers or explicitly refer to the SDGs (Leong et al., 2020).

2.2 Related energy system simulation tools

Mathematical models, specifically multi-criteria decision support systems, have proven

to address the challenges of energy system planning adequately. They allow to compare
alternatives, rank target values depending on individual goals, and find suitable designs. In
the past decade, a series of computational models have been developed for energy planning
and found widespread research and practical applications, see Mandelli et al. (2016a) and
Mahmud et al. (2018). Widely-known tools are HOMER Pro (link) or iHoga (link) which
conduct comprehensive techno-economic optimizations determining optimal sizing of
components and minimizing net cost (HOMER Energy LLC, 2022; Dufo López, 2022).
They have successfully been employed for case studies covering developing countries, see,
e.g. Vendoti et al. (2021), Lau and Tan (2021), and Gebrehiwot et al. (2019). However,
these tools often focus on the electric infrastructure, with only secondarily treating
thermal loads. They further mostly require expert knowledge, often apply optimization
algorithms which need high amounts of computing power, and were not explicitly
designed for developing countries. In addition, their often commercial nature prevents
stakeholders from using them. SURE-DSS by Cherni and Kalas (2010) uses a people-
centered sustainable livelihood approach to plan the electrification of remote regions, but
it is not an energy system simulator. OnSSET (link), another established tool employed
in developing countries, see Balderrama et al. (2020), requires programming knowledge
and focuses solely on electrification. However, hot water and heat demands cannot be
ruled out systematically to allow for analyses of countries or provinces in colder habitats.
Stevanato et al. (2020) employ MicroGridsPy (link), an open-source modeling framework
for the optimization of hybrid micro-grids. However, it also does not have a graphical
user interface, thus, limiting its widespread application. Another known energy system
simulator is EnergyPLAN (link), which has been used for case studies in both developed
and developing countries, e.g. Ecuador, Tanzania, and Nicaragua (Lund et al., 2021).
Although the freeware includes a variety of functionalities, it has been developed primarily
for national-scale energy systems (Lund et al., 2021). The multi-energy tool NESSI by
Kraschewski et al. (2020) is specialized in decentralized energy systems. The software
focuses on its usability with a rich graphical user interface for stakeholders like building
owners and politicians. However, NESSI was designed for applications in developed
countries and potentially subject to built-in biases (al Irsyad et al., 2017).

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9822 M. C. G. Hart et al.

Process iteration

Metrics, analysis knowledge

Identify Derive objec- Design & Demonstration Evaluation Communication

Disciplinary knowledge
problem & tives of solution development

How to knowledge
motivate
Complex tran- Develop usable Adapt energy Apply and Observe artifact’s Contribute to the

Inference
sition to sus- method that system simulation validate artifact ability to consider research body of

Theory
tainable energy facilitates decision tool for conditions guided by process location-specific solution-oriented
systems in devel- support towards in developing model to design conditions for IS research
oping countries sustainable countries and sustainable energy system
to support SDGs energy systems develop step- energy systems in transition
for stakeholders by-step process a suitable context and thereby
in develop- model manual support SDGs
ing countries

Fig. 1  Design science research methodology adapted from Peffers et al. (2007)

2.3 Load profile generation for energy system simulation tools

Energy system analysis tools depend on suitable load profiles. Obtaining such load profiles
is challenging and in developing countries often missing as they require information on
household characteristics, a sufficient level of detail, and must be topical. Most simulation
tools offer a library of pre-defined load profiles that are often not fitting for individual
cases due to different cultural, social, and economic conditions (Proedrou, 2021). The tools
HOMER Pro, iHoga and NESSI allow to import hourly or average user load data (Dufo
López, 2022; Kraschewski et al., 2020). However, this data is often missing in developing
countries. HOMER Pro additionally allows to import U.S.-American facility profiles from
the OpenEI database and apply a similarity measure based on the Koeppen Geiger Climate
Classification Index (HOMER Energy LLC, 2022). This is not sufficient in the context of
rural areas in developing economies as the people’s living conditions differ considerably
from those in industrial countries. Thus, in the reviewed body of literature, several
tools, models, and methods are discussed to synthesize load profiles, see e.g. Marszal-
Pomianowska et al. (2016) and McKenna and Thomson (2016). However, most tools are
fed using data from detailed activity diaries, national time-use surveys, or device ownership
statistics, and are context-specific to particular cases in developed countries or urban areas.
For the developing world, an approach is needed that is able to cope with the dynamic
settings at the site and inexact data. The software RAMP (link) by Lombardi et al. (2019)
was specifically designed to generate high-resolution load profiles in developing countries.
RAMP simulates users’ appliance habits accounting for the device’s nominal capacity,
frequency of use, and total daily functioning time. Randomly varying parameters allow
considering uncertainty and irregular usage behavior (Lombardi et al., 2019). The software
is considered among the richest and most functional tools with respect to flexibility and
customizability (Herraiz-Cañete et al., 2022).

3 Research design and methodology

No tools were found that meet the requirements of providing targeted decision support for
sustainable multi-energy systems in developing countries (see Sect. 2.2). Thus, following
the calls in the IS community for more solution-oriented research (Lehnhoff et al., 2021),
an intuitive method for the design, transformation, and evaluation of energy systems in
developing countries when data is scarce is developed using the design-science-oriented
approach by Peffers et al. (2007) shown in Fig. 1. In the IS community, DSR is a popular

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problem-solving paradigm that aims to improve technical and scientific knowledge through
the development of innovative artifacts. Its potential to contribute to society’s critically
needed sustainability transformation is explicitly highlighted (vom Brocke et al., 2020).
Research outcomes of DSR can be design artifacts or design theories (Baskerville et al.,
2018). Gregor and Hevner (2013) define three levels of DSR research contribution types:
situated implementation of artifact, nascent design theory, and well-developed design the-
ory about embedded phenomena. Multiple research processes exist in DSR, most promi-
nently by Hevner (2007) and by Peffers et al. (2007). This work uses the process by Peffers
et al. (2007) consisting of the 6 steps (1) identify problem and motivate, (2) derive objec-
tives of solution, (3) design and development, (4) demonstration, (5) evaluation, and (6)
communication. The process is iterative, feeding back lessons learned into earlier steps.
For the problem identification of this work, see Sects. 1 and 2. As a basis for the arti-
fact, NESSI by Kraschewski et al. (2020) is used. In the design and development stage,
NESSI is adapted and expanded to account for circumstances in developing countries.
The new tool is called NESSI4D. Further, the usage of NESSI4D is described in a process
model that serves as a comprehensive decision support manual for stakeholders that aim to
design long-term sustainable energy systems. The process model also includes the usage of
RAMP, a load profile generation tool that was identified in the literature review (Sect. 2.3).
The development and resulting artifact are described in Sect. 4. In the fourth stage, the
applicability is demonstrated and validated in a carefully constructed case study as is com-
mon in DSR (Peffers et al., 2012) and DSS literature (Arnott & Pervan, 2012), see Sect. 5.
In Sect. 6, the tool is evaluated and discussed. The artifact contributes not only practically
but also theoretically by providing a research tool for conducting in-depth case studies in
developing countries.

4 Artifact description

The Nano Energy System SImulator NESSI by Kraschewski et al. (2020) is specialized
in decentralized energy systems. It simulates thermal and electrical energy flows, total
costs, and GHG emissions. The simulation procedure is visualized in Fig. 4 step (ii). It
is built upon DSR following software engineering guidelines. In this work, NESSI is
adapted and expanded to account for circumstances in developing countries. For this
purpose, the electric infrastructure is extended by small-scale wind turbines (WT) and
diesel generators, to adapt to existing energy market structures and raise the flexibility
as well as the robustness of the system. Given the developments in electric mobility
and the cost advantages of electric two-wheelers, the simulation of battery and fuel-
powered light motorcycles is also enabled. Models regarding the national power grid
were altered to represent its availability in developing countries. Thus, the user is now
able to simulate power system expansions and potential outages. For the case of an
absent power grid and no storage possibilities, a reactive load is incorporated to use
excess energy to heat a body of water. The economic calculations were improved by
adding the U.S. dollar (USD) as a further currency option. Particularly in developing
countries, microgrids provide an opportunity for electrification in remote areas where
grid expansion is economically or technically infeasible. Additionally, they support the
integration of distributed energy sources and reduce losses through shorter transmission
distances (Nong et al., 2020; Mandelli et al., 2016b). Thus, to allow for off-grid applica-
tions an island power grid is included. Additionally, the option of combining building

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Fig. 2  NESSI4D’s graphical user interface

analysis results to examine neighborhoods and villages is implemented. A high level of

detail and flexibility is maintained by combining the results after simulating carefully
constructed individual houses. The rich graphical user interface, optional country-spe-
cific standard input data for the components, underlying weather data, numerous cur-
rency options, and an extensive country-, building-, and household-specific load profile
library, support users in performing simulations. To overcome the challenge of missing
energy demand data, the user can choose load profiles from the library that were gen-
erated from detailed household survey data which were previously synthesized using
RAMP by Lombardi et al. (2019). Alternatively, load profiles owned by the user can be
imported. In summary, the model of the software has been extended with respect to the
unique circumstances of the energy system in developing countries by including new
energy producing, consuming, and storing components, changing underlying assump-
tions, and allowing for neighborhood simulation. For a visual impression of NESSI for
Development (NESSI4D), see Figs. 2 and 3 or the Online Resources.
To further assist stakeholders that aim to design long-term sustainable energy sys-
tems, a comprehensive decision support manual was developed, depicted in Fig. 4. The
detailed step-by-step approach considers indicators that greatly influence the system’s
final architecture and technical, economic, and ecological outcomes. First, the country’s
situation, stakeholders’ objectives, and international literature must be assessed to eval-
uate the available technologies and possible barriers. Input data must be compiled or
synthesized which includes detailed information on energy demand, geographic condi-
tions and climate, as well as available technologies at the site, their settings, and local
prices. It is emphasized that the inclusion and diligent consideration of each parameter
is indispensable in the decision-making process to ensure the longevity of the energy
project. To meet this need, this tool is designed to guide the user through each step
and parameter of the process. Secondly, fitting energy system scenarios have to be for-
mulated carefully and simulated with the software NESSI4D. Sensitivity analyses are
advised that go beyond the chosen scenarios to test the robustness of the simulation’s

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Tool‑based renewable energy system planning using survey data:… 9825

Fig. 3  NESSI4D’s graphical user interface: results

outcomes. Finally, the results must be interpreted thoroughly, taking into account coun-
try- and context-specific factors.

5 Demonstration: rural community in Thua Thien‑Hue, Vietnam

5.1 Step 1: assess the country’s situation, stakeholders’ goals and international

literature

In the last years, improvements in the energy sector enabled quality increases of electricity
supply, reduction of outages as well as grid expansions to virtually every household in
Vietnam (Hien, 2019). Currently, stakeholders are faced with a rapid increase in energy
demand due to rising prosperity and population growth. Ongoing investments to expand
the grid’s capacity and agility, as well as the energy-generating infrastructure, are
indispensable to ensure the continued reliability of the power supply (Nong et al., 2020).
In rural areas specifically, the extension or reconstruction of the grid is often timely and
economically impracticable, because of complex geographical conditions, low population
density, and the households’ little energy demands (Gebrehiwot et al., 2019). Frequent
occurring grid overloads further strengthen the need for alternative solutions, such as
decentralized systems based on renewable energies (Nong et al., 2020).
Until now, electricity was mainly sourced from hydropower, natural gas, and coal
(Dapice, 2018). As these resources are considered exploited and finite, the rising electricity
load is met with imports and a stronger focus on coal mining. The Vietnamese government
has set its energy targets oriented toward RET, specifically hydro, wind, and solar energy
by committing to reduce GHG emissions by 25 % until 2030 at the 21st Conference of the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Dapice, 2018).
Peer-reviewed studies for Vietnam of the past 10 years have been mainly regarding
the country’s overall energy situation, e.g., Nguyen and Tuan (2015); Min and Gaba

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9826 M. C. G. Hart et al.

Fig. 4  Process model

(2014), Zimmer et al. (2015), and Huong et al. (2021), consumption behavior, e.g.,
Hien (2019), renewable resource potentials and implementation challenges, e.g., Phap
et al. (2020), Polo et al. (2015), Tran et al. (2016), and Nguyen et al. (2014), as well as
energy or environmental (protection) policies, e.g., Lan et al. (2019), Nong (2018), Nong
et al. (2019), Coxhead et al. (2013). Several studies have evaluated the economics of
renewable energy generating components and the relation between energy consumption,
income, economic growth, foreign direct investments or emissions, e.g., Tang and

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Tool‑based renewable energy system planning using survey data:… 9827

Tan (2015), Phuong and Tuyen (2018), Morelli and Mele (2020), Phong et al. (2018),
Phrakhruopatnontakitti et al. (2020), Tang et al. (2016), Son and Yoon (2020), and Long
et al. (2018). Other articles regard the conventional strategy of expanding the national grid,
e.g., Le et al. (2013). Several works have simulated the option of feeding the central power
grid with large solar or wind renewable energy plants (Le et al., 2018; Truong et al., 2021;
Viet et al., 2018). Nguyen and Van (2021) and Thanh et al. (2021) analyze a grid-connected
rooftop solar system for a household in urban settings. Decentralized solutions in the rural
energy conditions have scarcely been evaluated. Nguyen et al. (2019a) and Tran et al.
(2021) analyze micro-grid design on Vietnamese islands with HOMER, but emphasize that
further studies must be conducted where electricity is readily available. Nguyen (2007b)
has examined this possibility through evaluating the economics of hybrid wind and solar
stand-alone renewable energy systems (RES) for rural households. However, they applied
inexact input data by assuming a constant energy demand and using rough weather data.
They further do not include the option of implementing RETs supplementary to the power
grid and the environmental impacts of the energy systems. Due to this lack of research,
Nong et al. (2020) demand more scientific studies that do not only aid policy-makers in
their strategy formulation, but also facilitate stakeholders to generate regional-specific
inquiries.

5.2 Step 2: evaluate energy demand and synthesize load profiles

There have been several studies closing the gap of missing load data by forecasting the
Vietnamese energy demand (Võ et al., 2020; Nguyen et al., 2019b, 2018; Lee et al., 2020).
These studies focus on the industry and construction sectors or the overall electricity
consumption. Inferences about rural demands are infeasible. Load profiles with data from
the Thailand Vietnam Socio Economic Panel (TVSEP) of the year 2017, see tvsep.​de, is
generated. The survey contains information on 609 rural households in the low per-capita-
income province Thua Thien-Hue in Vietnam. The households are selected based on a
three-stage cluster sampling design and acknowledged to be representative for the rural
population in this region (Hardeweg et al., 2013).
Most households comprise of couples with up to two children. Using an exchange
rate of 0.000043 US$/VND, the annual mean income is 4,653 US$ per household and
1,265 US$ per capita. The houses have a mean size of 84.5 m2 and three rooms on average.
The majority uses electricity for lighting and bottled gas for cooking. Almost every house-
hold owns one television, refrigerator, and rice cooker, as well as three fans. Smartphones
are less common with a share of 53 %. Other electrical appliances are owned infrequently
in the sample as depicted in Fig. 5. Air conditioners, for example, are rarely owned, which
might be due to the high costs of its operation (Le & Pitts, 2019).
As no information about the lighting system is available, the satisfaction of basic vis-
ual demand is assumed, concluding in the presence of one indoor light per room and one
outdoor light per house. The assumptions of the assets’ usage are dependent on the aver-
age time between sunrise and sunset, assumed working hours, and free-time behaviors.
Selected appliances are considered to be used occasionally. Further information about the
typical usage characteristics, and power needs per appliance, is obtained from Le and Pitts
(2019); Mandelli et al. (2016b), and Lombardi et al. (2019). For simplicity, weekends,
vacation days, as well as the differentiation between seasons, are omitted. Table 1 summa-
rizes the appliance’s settings and its assumed usage.

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9828 M. C. G. Hart et al.

Radio 2
Sewing machine 3
Air conditioner 3
Phone 4
Tablet 4
Water heater 13
Washing machine 17
Computer 19
Satellite dish 19
Iron 26
Video recorder 33
Smartphone 53
Refrigerator 55
Rice cooker 87
Fan 88
Television 93

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage [%]

Fig. 5  Share of electrical appliance ownership in rural Thua Thien-Hue, Vietnam

Table 1  Assumptions of appliance usage based on the TVSEP, Mandelli et al. (2016b), Lombardi et al.
(2019), and Le and Pitts (2019)
Appliance P Cycle Total use Window 1 Window 2 Window 3
W min min

Indoor bulb 7 10 300 00:00–05:30 – 18:30–24:00

Outdoor bulb 13 10 180 00:00–05:30 – 18:30–24:00
Stand fan 55 5 525 00:00–07:30 12:00–13:00 18:30–24:00
Rice cooker 600 20 111 05:30–07:30 12:00–13:00 18:30–20:00
Television a 50 10 348 05:30–07:30 12:00–13:00 18:30–24:00
Refrigerator 150 30 1,440 00:00–24:00 – –
Smartphone charger 5 30 180 00:00–07:30 12:00–13:00 18:30–24:00
Video recorder 30 5 34 05:30–07:30 12:00–13:00 18:30–24:00
Iron 1,200 5 20 b 05:30–07:30 12:00–13:00 18:30–24:00
Computer 200 5 132 05:30–07:30 12:00–13:00 18:30–24:00
Washing machine 500 45 45 b 00:00–24:00 – –
Water heater 3,500 5 42 05:30–07:30 12:00–13:00 18:30–24:00
Tablet 50 5 205 05:30–07:30 12:00–13:00 18:30–24:00
a
With satellite dish of 75 W
b Used occasionally

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Tool‑based renewable energy system planning using survey data:… 9829

Fig. 6  Example of 365 different

stochastic daily load profiles of
the thirty rural households in
Thua Thien-Hue

For this analysis, thirty households are randomly chosen to form a representative, small
village. The above-mentioned information is then used to generate load profiles with
RAMP based on the households’ individual asset ownership. In Fig. 6, the summation of
these load profiles for one day is depicted. Interested readers find the characteristics and
appliance ownership for each selected household in Appendix A in the Online Resources.

5.3 Step 3: compile data on geographic conditions and climate

Another critical factor for energy systems is the climate conditions at the site. Climate
data is needed to enable the calculation of the components’ energy yield. For instance,
to obtain the PV module’s yield, information on the diffuse, beam, and reflected solar
radiation is needed. The WT’s simulation requires wind speed data and air density.
Depending on the country, different datasets are available with varying time steps. As
this approach strives for a high degree of detail, data with minutely or hourly time steps
is desired. This enables the analysts to interpret the results in more detail and discover
weaknesses and limitations. Thus, location-specific data from the NASA-Merra2 dataset
for wind and temperature data and Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service for
radiation data were compiled (CAMS, 2021; Renewables Ninja, 2021).

5.4 Step 4: assess available energy producing, storing and consuming technologies

on site, its settings and local prices

Vietnam’s wind and solar resources provide suitable conditions for related renewable
energy generating components (Nguyen, 2007a; Tran & Chen, 2013; Phap et al., 2020;
Polo et al., 2015). Thus, electrification via the grid is compared with systems that
include supplementary photovoltaic modules (PV) and small scale WTs. Battery storage
units (BS) are included due to their capabilities to smooth the RET’s fluctuating yields
and increase the system’s efficiency (Gebrehiwot et al., 2019). The diesel generator is
excluded since it does not fulfill the policymakers’ desire to shift toward ecological
sustainable energy systems. The evaluation of thermal energy is omitted, because the
climatic conditions induce no heat demands. The warm water demand for showering

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or cooking is assumed to be fulfilled with the electric heater since no related data is
available. Six RES with different combinations of thirty 6 m2 rooftop PVs, two WTs,
and one BS for a representative grid-connected rural neighborhood are simulated and
compared to the scenario of sole grid supply. The predetermined energy component
settings, operation and management costs (O &M), and investments are summarized
in Table 2. Because there are comparatively low wind speeds in the Thua Thien-Hue
region, input data from a WT model designed for low wind speeds is used (Nord, 2020;
Nguyen, 2007a).Costs of converters and inverters are assumed to be included in the
components’ prices.
Additionally, three sensitivity analyses to show the importance of simulations for the
decision process are conducted. The first analysis accounts for future cost developments.
Data suggests that RETs are becoming financially more attractive, whereas the electricity
price in Vietnam is expected to rise continuously due to non-sustainable governmental
subsidies (Le, 2019; Hiep & Hoffmann, 2020). The predicted electricity price development
of 8.5 %/a, decreasing RET investments of 30 % by 2030, and further 20 % until 2050
(Dapice, 2018) is simulated. Second, the influence of policymakers through feed-in tariffs
(FITs) is assessed. Especially in developing countries, FITs need to be set at an appropriate
level to solve the implementation bias toward the rich and achieve access to modern
electricity for the poor (Kobayakawa & Kandpal, 2014). Third, the potentials to reduce
the value of initial investments is examined. Batteries, originally designed for electric
vehicles, are expected to enter the energy market as reconditioned second-life batteries.
For the residential sector, the batteries’ capacity is sufficient and shows a high application
potential as a cheaper alternative (Kamath et al., 2020). Additionally, WTs from the
company Rivogy whose parts can be mostly manufactured at the site using local products
(Kroeger, 2020) are included. Because of a lower-rated power per WT, a higher number of
installed WTs to ensure the scenarios’ comparability is assumed. Step-by-step screenshots
of the analyses for one exemplary RES are provided in Appendices B and C in the Online
Resources.

5.5 Step 5: conduct computations

First the results and findings of the base analysis is presented, comparing the simulated
RES with a reference scenario which does not consider additional components. As no
space heating is required, due to sufficiently high temperatures, the village’s load com-
prises solely of electrical demand that sums up to 45,355 kWh/a. The components’ prices
result in investments of 37,944 US$ for the PVs, 44,500 US$ for the two WTs, and an addi-
tional 9,614 US$ for systems including BS. With the local conditions and selected RES
settings, the WTs and PVs generate 36,683 kWh/a and 63,922 kWh/a, respectively. The
degree of autarchy spans from 32 % (Grid–PV) to 66 % (Grid–WT–PV), whose values
increase up to 90 % (Grid–WT–PV–BS) when a BS is added. Additional BS also have the
potential to increase the degree of self-consumption, for example, from 60 % to 75 % in the
case of Grid–WT.
Figure 7 summarizes the annual grid supply, GHG emissions, and total costs of each
energy system. The latter is presented by a fixed annualized value and comprises the
discounted initial investments, O &M and demand-related costs, as well as the gener-
ated yields from selling surplus energy. The total costs in the reference scenario are

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Table 2  Input data and technical settings for the village

Component Input Value Based on

Project data Project duration and 20 a Assumption

lifetimes
Discount rate 5% Assumption
Central power grid Electricity price a 0.081 US$/kWh Valev (2020)
Emission factor 0.913 kgCO2 ∕kWhb IGES (2020)
Photovoltaic systems Rated power 30*1.2 kWpeak Assumption
Orientation South Jacobson and Jadhav (2018)
Tilt angle 16 ◦ Jacobson and Jadhav (2018)
Investment 1,054 US$/kWpeak IRENA (2020)
O &M costs 9.5 US$/kWpeak*a IRENA (2020)
Feed-in tariff 0.0806 US$/kWh Prime Minister (2020)
Imported wind turbines Rated power 2*8.9 kW Nord (2020)
Hub height 24 m Nord (2020)
Rotor radius 3.5 m Nord (2020)
Cut-in wind speed 2.5 m/s Nord (2020)
Rated wind speed 6.8 m/s Nord (2020)
Cut-out wind speed 16 m/s Nord (2020)
Investment 2,500 US$/kW IRENA (2016, 2020)
O &M costs 40 US$/a IRENA (2016)
Locally produced wind Rated power 18*1 kW Kroeger (2020)
turbines Hub height 15 m Kroeger (2020)
Rotor radius 1m Kroeger (2020)
Cut-in wind speed 2.5 m/s Assumption
Rated wind speed 6.8 m/s Assumption
Cut-out wind speed 16 m/s Assumption
Investment 1,500 US$/kW Kroeger (2020)
O &M costs 32 US$/a IRENA (2016)
Feed-in tariff 0.085 US$/kWh Prime Minister (2018)
Battery storage Capacity 46 kWh Chaianong et al. (2020)
Thereof utilizable 70 % Hlal et al. (2019)
Max. (dis-)charge power 20 kW Assumption
Efficiency 95 % Kamath et al. (2020)
Investment 209 US$/kWh Kamath et al. (2020)
O &M costs 0 US$/kWh*a Kamath et al. (2020)
Second-life battery storage Capacity 46 kWh Assumption
Thereof utilizable 60 % Assumption
Max. (dis-)charge power 20 kW Assumption
Efficiency 91 % Kamath et al. (2020)
Investment 65 US$/kWh Kamath et al. (2020)
O &M costs 0 US$/kWh*a Kamath et al. (2020)
a
Includes basic charge
b Due to missing data, only consider CO2 are considered

3,673 US$/a. More cost-effective are the three compositions Grid–PV, Grid–PV–WT, and

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9832 M. C. G. Hart et al.

Fig. 7  Economic and ecological performance of analyzed energy system configurations for a representative
neighborhood in Thua Thien-Hue, Vietnam

Grid–PV–BS with cost reduction potentials of up to 50 % (Grid–PV). Considering the

average annual household income of 4,653.52 US$/a, the share of electricity expenditures
can be reduced from 2.6 % to 1.3 %. These results are driven by the high FITs that allow
to sell excess generated energy. The Grid–WT–PV system, for instance, generates 70,684
kWh surplus energy per year. Due to the inherent characteristic of fluctuating yields of
WTs and PVs, the energy cannot be put into productive use at all times. Thus, selling this
surplus energy allows high monetary yields that reduce the RES investment and O &M
costs. The RES Grid–WT–PV–BS, Grid–WT, and Grid–WT–BS increase the charges by
340 US$/a, 1,260 US$/a, and 2,112 US$/a, respectively. This is due to three factors: Firstly,
the high investment costs of each WT and the additional BS. Secondly, the comparably
high electricity costs from the central power grid due to the wind turbine’s low efficiency.
And closely related to this, the low yields through insufficient amounts of sold surplus
energy.
Regarding the ecological impacts, most GHG are emitted in the reference scenario
(41, 400 kgCO2) due to the grid’s emission factor of 0.913 kgCO2/kWh. Since only RETs
are considered, the lower the annual electricity purchase from the grid, the more environ-
mentally friendly the system. The simulated RES show annual GHG emission reductions
from 12, 273 kgCO2/a (Grid–PV) to 27, 317 kgCO2/a (Grid–WT–PV). Because BS increase a
system’s efficiency, the resulting decreased amounts of procured power lead to less GHG
emissions for all compositions that include storage. Thus, the environmentally most advan-
tageous RES is the Grid–PV–WT–BS combination with 4,749 kWh/a procured from the
grid and annual GHG emission reductions of 37, 073 kgCO2/a. Thus, this RES is capable of
reducing annual emissions to 10%̇ /a of the reference scenario’s amount. However, this RES
results in higher costs indicating a trade-off between the goals of economic viability and
emission reductions. Despite the lower overall WT yield, the RES Grid–WT emits fewer
GHG than the Grid–PV system. This suggests that the timing of wind yields matches the

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Tool‑based renewable energy system planning using survey data:… 9833

Fig. 8  Economic and ecological performance of energy systems of four sensitivity analyses

timing of demand better than solar yields. As a result, the positive impact of BS on GHG
emissions is smaller in Grid–WT than Grid–PV RES.
The results of the sensitivity analyses are shown in Fig. 8. For a visual comparison, ini-
tial results are referenced in gray.
First, the predicted price developments for 2030 and 2050 are analyzed. The
corresponding results are summarized in Fig. 8a and b, relating annual total costs to
GHG emissions. In most cases, a large upward shifts in expenses is found. The reference
scenario’s costs rise to 8,304 US$/a in the year 2030, and successively increase to
42,462 US$/a in the year 2050. These results show the magnitude of monetary strains on

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electricity supply that can be expected in Vietnam in future. The cost reduction potentials
with the application of RETs are now strongly dependent on the grid supply of each energy
system. The higher the amount of electricity procured, the greater the cost difference from
both the reference scenario and the 2020 values. For systems with strong dependencies
on the power grid (Grid–PV, Grid–WT, Grid–PV–BS, Grid–PV–WT–BS), the savings
from lower RET investments are not sufficient to offset the increased electricity costs from
the grid. These systems are more cost-intensive in future. In contrast, systems with low
electricity procurement (Grid–PV–WT and Grid–PV–WT–BS) show cost reductions in
the year 2030 of 409 US$/a and 1,500 US$/a, respectively. Moreover, the combination
Grid–WT–PV–BS enables cost stability in the year 2050 with relatively slight increases
of 754 US$/a. The total annual costs of the latter RES are only a 10th of the costs for the
reference scenario in the same year. These results strengthen the argument toward RET
implementations to reduce the expected high cost of sufficient residential electrification in
future. Generally, overall lower costs and emissions compared to the reference scenario are
found. The earlier mentioned trade-off between economic viability and emission reductions
shrinks as now the BS’s positively influence both factors in the RES Grid–PV–WT.
Figure 8b displays significant positive correlations in 2050, eliminating this trade-off
completely.
In the following, the outcomes with varying FITs are compared. Figure 8c depicts
the annual total costs and GHG emissions for the currently set FITs of 0.0806 US$/kWh
(PV) and 0.085 US$/kWh (WT), no FITs, and increased FITs with values of 0.1 US$/
kWh for both RETs. RES without FIT have higher costs than the reference scenario.
The most expensive system is Grid–PV–WT with 8,927 US$/a, which was previously an
economically viable composition. This exemplifies the FITs’ influence on low total costs.
For Grid–PV and Grid–PV–WT, BS are now not only ecologically but also economically
advantageous compared to their counterparts without BS when no FITs are applied as they
reduce the costs by up to 2,444 US$/a. The increased tariffs do not have a promising impact
on Grid–WT and Grid–WT–BS compositions indicating further necessary incentives for
the set-up of WTs such as investment subsidies. Nevertheless, with an additional BS the
RES Grid–PV–WT becomes economically viable resulting in the most emission reducing
and also more economically advantageous option than the sole grid supply. In comparison
to the altered FIT levels, the current scheme is suitable to incentivize investments,
generally, but should be increased slightly to motivate stakeholders to apply solutions with
the highest emission reducing potentials.
Lastly, the potentials to reduce the amount of initial investments and, thus, the total costs
per year are examined. The results are depicted in Fig. 8d. With locally produced WT and
second-life batteries, the initial investments reduce by 17,500 US$/a (i.e., 27,000 US$/a)
and 6,624 US$/a (i.e., 2,990 US$/a), respectively. Batteries have a significant positive effect
on the system’s efficiency. The RES Grid–WT, Grid–PV, and Grid–WT–PV procure 20 %,
40 %, and 70 % less electricity from the grid with additional BS. These systems also come
with higher total costs of 800 US$/a–900 US$/a. This analysis depicts that the cost differ-
ences between BS including and non-including systems reduce by 300 US$/a–400 US$/a,
leaving the investment in BS still economically disadvantageous—despite a price reduc-
tion of approximately 70 %. The cost cuts in WT through local production result in sig-
nificant cost decreases for Grid–WT and Grid–WT–BS by up to 1,340 US$/a. However,
compared to the reference scenario, these systems are still not cost competitive. Regard-
ing the ecological changes, the lower efficiency of the systems resulted in an increase of
GHG emissions by 1, 824 kgCO2/a to 4, 478 kgCO2/a. All economic results are summarized

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Table 3  Overview of economic simulation results

RES Base Price predictions No FIT Raised FIT Reduced invest
USD/a (2030) (2050)

Grid 3,673 8,304 42,462 3,673 3,673 3,673

Grid–PV 1,900 4,124 26,642 5,874 946 1,902
Grid–PV–BS 2,770 3,848 17,957 5,741 2,050 2,292
Grid–WT 4,934 6,252 23,158 6,186 4,713 4,036
Grid–WT–BS 5,785 6,505 19,002 6,483 5,662 4,367
Grid–PV–WT 3,136 2,727 13,028 8,927 1,859 2,241
Grid–PV–WT–BS 4,015 2,515 4,769 8,833 2,952 2,648

in Table 3. For interested readers, further outcomes not included here can be found in the
Online Resources, see Appendices B and C.

5.6 Interpret, infer, and recommend

In line with Nguyen (2007b), the results and findings show that with the current market
structure and FIT value, most RES are ecologically and economically advantageous over
the baseline scenario.
The use of RETs reduces electricity procurement which influences the indirect GHG
emissions. In accordance, these results show significant ecological improvements in
each RES with additional RETs and are validated by various research works, see, e.g.,
Nguyen et al. (2019a), Nguyen and Van (2021) or Nguyen (2007b). These changes
are expected to elevate in future, as the rising electricity loads are currently met with
imports and coal mining. These developments have lead to an increase of indirect
emissions from 0.541 to 0.913 kgCO2/kWh in the past 10 years and are expected to rise
further (IGES, 2020). The associated negative environmental and health impacts, which
often disproportionately affect the poor population, strengthen the argument toward the
implementation of decentralized renewable energy. Regarding the rapidly increasing
load demand, decentralized wind and solar energy solutions may be of particular interest
for the Vietnamese stakeholders as their set-up generally takes less time than coal plant
constructions, hydroelectric dams, or large-scale RES projects (Dapice, 2018, 2017).
Economically, RES are often advantageous due to income generation from the sold
surplus energy and cost savings from grid supply reductions. Due to relatively low wind
speeds at site, the WT’s income through generating surplus energy does not cover their
costs. Nguyen (2007b) validates these findings, but states that in areas with high wind
speeds, WTs may be more economically and, thus, underlies the importance of location-
specific simulations. Feeding-in electricity is also beneficial to relieve the national
power grid and postpone necessary grid upgrades due to higher load requirements.
However, high power feeds may also lead to grid overloads, which have already been
observed in some regions of Vietnam (Nong et al., 2020). These risks will be reduced
by higher self-consumption rates through, e.g., additional electrical appliances whose
amounts typically increase with a newly available, reliable, and financially viable energy
supply. Another option is the use of surplus electricity for electric mobility like cars,
tuk-tuks or scooters, and heat generation, e.g., heat pumps and air conditioning.

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RES can also decrease energy cost-induced poverty. With the current FIT policies,
electricity costs can be reduced due to self-consumption and additionally generated
income. However, the economically feasible energy systems require investments of up
to 50 % of the annual income. These sudden costs would disproportionately affect other
consumption goods and the household member’s welfare. In line with Nguyen (2007b)’s
findings and propositions, energy policies should be implemented that offer particular
financial and technical support targeted toward the most disadvantaged population. The
simulations do not include the cost of capital for loans. It is estimated that if the entire
initial investment is financed over 20 years, an interest rate of 2 % must not be exceeded
for individuals. Alternatively, the Vietnamese government could introduce subsidies to
encourage investments. In any case, citizens need support in applying for subsidies and
loans, as the financial literacy of the rural population in Vietnam is limited (Morgan &
Trinh, 2017).
In the subsequent sensitivity analysis, it is observed that the expected price trends
will increase the costs of most energy systems, although disproportionately. Energy-
cost-induced poverty risks rise in future, however, the severance can be reduced by
additional RETs. Tran et al. (2021) further validates these results stating that reduced
RET prices will make isolated RES economically feasible—potentially even without
governmental incentives.
FIT values have been successively increased in the past five years by the government.
The second sensitivity analysis visualizes the importance of these tariff changes and
shows promising effects for the current level. Lower FITs result in infeasible RES-
including scenarios whereas higher FIT cannot decrease the system costs of the prior
uneconomical scenarios to a satisfactory level. Several research set in Vietnam have not
considered feed-in tariffs and validate our findings of RES being uneconomic without
governmental incentives, see, e.g., Nguyen and Van (2021).
In contrast, the current electricity price is too low to encourage investments in RETs
without corresponding monetary incentives. This is especially prominent for BS. With
FITs and the electricity prices at a similar level, there are no economical incentives
to purchase BS. The grid is able to function as a storage system with virtually no
costs. As shown in the third sensitivity analysis, the costs of BS do not influence the
investment decisions as grid usage is always more economical under current tariffs than
BS investments. Thanh et al. (2021) validates these results, but argues that in light of
deteriorating energy security, e.g., power grid failures, back-up batteries are useful and
in some instances necessary.
Next to the economic and ecological sustainability analyzed in the simulation, social
sustainability is an important, non-omittable factor for the long-term success of energy
systems (Urmee & Md, 2016). Locally produced WTs are included to emphasize the
importance of local value creation. The introduction of RETs results in local business
opportunities through distribution, installation, and repair. The generation of new
job prospects promotes knowledge transfers and skill developments through training
in technical schools and companies. Comparing PVs and WTs, the creation of local
employment is particularly strong when implementing the latter, as the installation,
operation, and maintenance are mostly set in rural areas (Nguyen, 2007a). In conclusion,
the slightly increased costs for systems without supporting PVs would still provide a
promising application in future when considering the social factors and predicted price
trends. It should be noted, that the use of second-life BS is also auspicious, but must be
preceded by the formation of thoughtful regulatory frameworks clarifying the product’s
liability and capacity.

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Tool‑based renewable energy system planning using survey data:… 9837

Based on the computational results and further validated by related literature, it

becomes evident that the implementation of RETs does not only have promising long-
term ecological, economic, and social benefits, but also decreases the risk of power grid
overloads, localizes industries, and aids in poverty alleviation. Ultimately, the extent
of the success of an economically viable, emission-reducing energy supply lies in the
components’ settings, prices, and market development. To formulate suitable policies
promoting appropriate RES to residents in rural areas, it is advised that stakeholders
conduct further analyses applying NESSI4D. In light of the SDGs, this work’s implications
do not only address Vietnamese interest groups but also international organizations and
developed countries as the Vietnamese Government has limited financial resources
(Nguyen et al., 2019c).

6 Evaluation, implications, and generalized recommendations

The artifact is evaluated through the demonstrating use case from Sect. 5 as is common in DSR
Peffers et al. (2012) and DSS literature Arnott and Pervan (2012). The demonstration shows
that the developed tool and process model are suitable for the intended application, i.e., the
design of an RES under consideration of the location-specific energy situation in developing
countries. Following step (i), all input data needed for NESSI4D is compiled or generated
and the challenge framed. Missing data can be drawn from the tool’s library or synthesized
in detail with the help of the software RAMP. When the computations are conducted in
step (ii), users are supported with numerous values and illustrative graphics provided by
the software. With this tool, solution-oriented research on virtually all SDGs is enabled as
called for by Leong et al. (2020), Gholami et al. (2016), and Walsham (2017). For instance, as
NESSI4D provides renewable and traditional, fossil solutions, differences in GHG emissions
are quantified and the advantages of renewable RETs highlighted, thus, supporting SDG 13
(climate protection), SDG 11 (sustainable cities), and SDG 3 (good health and well-being).
SDG 7 calls for affordable energy, thus, NESSI4D carefully calculates the cost of energy
systems to design governmental policies and avoid energy poverty which simultaneously
tackles SDG 1 (end poverty). In step (iii) the user interprets, infers, and recommends about
a suitable RES design with the given information. Using NESSI4D, household members
and village leaders can factor numerous key values into their decisions, understand the
impact of small changes, and design their customized optimal energy system. More broadly,
policymakers are supported in forming site- and target-specific policy recommendations that
align with national and international goals of feasibility, reliability, and emissions reductions.
By empowering people to actively participate in the energy planning process, new potential
is created, potentially leading to longer-term more successful projects and job creation,
as Urmee and Md (2016) call for. Thus, NESSI4D contributes to practice as a measure to
reduce complexities in the energy system planning process and to theory as a research tool.
In summary, this work demonstrates the suitability of the tool-based method for performing
structured analyses that include the most relevant indicators for energy system planning in
developing countries.
In the demonstration, the software’s results are validated with findings from related
simulation research showing that energy systems powered by RES reduce environmental
pollution and contribute to energy security, but must be financially supported through
governmental incentives, see, e.g., Nguyen and Van (2021); Thanh et al. (2021); Tran et al.
(2021); Nguyen et al. (2019a). However, this type of analysis is subject to the conflict between

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9838 M. C. G. Hart et al.

accuracy and generalizability, which means that transferring them to other energy projects
should be done with caution. It is recommended to analyze each energy project individually
with tools such as NESSI4D in order to achieve a long-term project success. Thus, the
validation’s expressiveness through comparison with other research literature is limited. Thus,
the recommendations following the tool’s results must be applied in practice and monitored in
the long term. Thorough interviews should be conducted with experts in the fields of energy
planning, development aid, construction, academic research, and private stakeholders to
further validate and improve this work’s approach.

7 Limitations and further research

The analyses show that this method allows stakeholders to support fundamental inferences
about an optimal energy composition considering the circumstances and individual
preferences of stakeholders. Regarding the input data, the usage of synthesized load
profiles from survey data is sufficiently detailed to assess energy system configurations
when data is scarce. Nonetheless, measuring load profiles at the site provides more precise
results, as weekdays, vacations, and seasons were disregarded. In addition, the used
survey was conducted in 2017. With energy demands rising by 8 % per year, results get
outdated quickly. In its current version, NESSI4D does not account for demand increases.
These must be considered in the energy system’s final implementation to avoid the risk
of undersized components. Further, NESSI4D solely accounts for emissions associated
with energy flows whereas life cycle costs, including emissions during production and
environmental risks due to poor waste management, are omitted. Knowledge of the
component’s operation, supervision, and repair, as well as accompanying technical
capacities, also influences the long-term economic and ecological sustainability of an
energy system. Besides, social sustainability is only discussed qualitatively but has been
proven important for the long-term success of modern electrification projects (Urmee &
Md, 2016). The omission of these factors may distort the results and findings.
Next to addressing the above-mentioned shortcomings, future research should conduct
even more in-depth case studies using this or a further developed method. Regarding
the case study, not all capabilities of the developed method have been showcased yet.
The thermal infrastructure, as well as electric vehicles, have not been accounted for.
The operation of the latter with excess energy, for instance, might enable an additional
mode of affordable transportation that allows for better employment opportunities, time-
efficiency increases, and health benefits due to decreased emissions. Further research
examining buildings beyond the residential sector such as schools or administration offices
can also prove beneficial, provided corresponding data can be obtained. On the subject
of NESSI4D, the inclusion of additional renewable energies such as biomass, hydro, or
hydrogen and incorporation of load evolution will be future tasks. The ultimate objective is
to develop a comprehensive decision support system for politicians and building owners in
developing countries to make informed decisions about their energy systems. The research
goals, therefore, overlap with the academic field labeled ICT4D where Walsham (2017)
identified environment and climate change as major societal issues that must be addressed
with information and communication technology. The authors aim to make NESSI4D
available for said stakeholders in future via a web application.

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Tool‑based renewable energy system planning using survey data:… 9839

8 Conclusions

Rapidly rising energy demands, depleting fossil fuels, and the aim for an ecologically,
economically, and socially more sustainable energy system motivate stakeholders to
rethink energy infrastructures for buildings and small, decentralized energy networks.
The lack of information, data, and local expertise is a major challenge for the future
wide-spread use of renewable energy in developing countries. Following the call for
inter-disciplinary, solution-oriented research, a tool-based method to enable multi-
energy planning considering location-specific circumstances is developed. Following
a DSR approach, the energy system simulation tool NESSI is adapted to address
stakeholders’ needs in developing countries. To further reduce complexities, a detailed
process model is provided as a manual for energy system planning with simulation
models. As common in DSR and DSS research, the applicability of the approach is
then evaluated and validated with a demonstrating use case. Following the demand
for scientific energy research in Vietnam, a case study for a representative village of
thirty rural poor households in the Thua Thien-Hue province is conducted. For this
purpose, load profiles evaluated from detailed household survey data and synthesized
with RAMP are used. It is found that the implementation of PV modules and WTs is
more economically, environmentally, and socially sustainable than sole grid utilization.
Predicted price trends depict cost increases for electrification and higher risk for
energy-cost induced poverty reinforcing the need for the promotion of renewable
components. The demonstration shows the importance of careful policy planning when
setting incentives such as feed-in tariffs and cost reduction potentials through second-
life batteries and locally produced wind turbines. Investments in RES are suitable for
poverty alleviation, job creation, and industry localization for the rural population
in Vietnam. It is recommended to promote RETs in rural areas, formulate tailored
energy policies, and support local stakeholders to facilitate the transition to modern
electrification. The demonstrating case study validates the artifact’s relevance and
emphasized the importance of providing highly specified DSS tools for energy system
planning in developing countries. Thus, NESSI4D contributes to practice as a measure
to meet the SDGs and to theory as a research tool and must be further improved in
future works.
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at https://​doi.​
org/​10.​1007/​s10668-​023-​03120-4.

Funding Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL. The authors did not receive
support from any organization for the submitted work.

Availability of data and material All supplementary data can be viewed in the file named “Online
Supplements.” For information about the raw survey data, please, contact the authors.

Code availability The software is not open-source yet, but an open-access web-application is being
programmed at the moment. We provide screenshots of our analysis in our Online Resources.

Declarations
Conflict of interest All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization
or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in
this manuscript.

Ethics approval Not applicable.

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9840 M. C. G. Hart et al.

Consent to participate Not applicable.

Consent for publication Informed consent was obtained from all authors.

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