LAMINAR AND TURBULENT

FLOW IN PIPE

Usama Alameedy, Ph.D.

Petroleum Engineering Dept.
University of Baghdad
2nd Class

4/13/2025 1
 LAMINAR FLOW
So far, in the preceding lectures, primarily the flow of an ideal fluid has been discussed. In the case of Newtonian
fluid, the flows can be classified as (i) laminar (or viscous), and (ii) turbulent, depending on characteristic
Reynolds number
Characteristics of laminar flow:
(1) ‘No slip’ at the boundary.
(2) Due to viscosity, there is a shear between fluid layers, which is given by ⋅ for flow in X-direction.
(3) The flow is rotational.
(4) Due to viscous shear, there is continuous dissipation of energy and for maintaining the flow energy must be
supplied externally.
(5) Loss of energy is proportional to first power of velocity and first power of viscosity.
(6) No mixing between different fluid layers (except by molecular motion, which is very small).
(7) The flow remains laminar as long as is less than critical value of Reynolds number.

Reynolds experiment
Osborne Reynolds in 1883, with the help of a simple experiment, demonstrated the existence of the following
two types of flows:

4/13/2025 2
 LAMINAR FLOW
Reynolds experiment
Procedure followed:
The water was made to flow from the tank through the glass tube
into the atmosphere and the velocity of flow was varied by adjusting
valve. The liquid dye was introduced into the flow at the bell mouth
through a small tube.
Observations made:
1. When the velocity of flow was low, the dye remained in the form of a straight and stable
filament passing through the glass tube so steadily that it scarcely seemed to be in motion.
This was a case of laminar flow.

2. With the increase of velocity a critical state was reached at which the dye filament
showed irregularities and began to waver. This was a transitional state.
3. With further increase in velocity of flow the fluctuations in the filament of dye became
more intense and ultimately the dye diffused over the entire cross-section of the tube,
due to the intermingling of the particles of the flowing fluid. This was the case of a
turbulent flow.
4/13/2025 3
 LAMINAR FLOW
Reynolds experiment On the basis of his experiment Reynolds discovered that:
• In case of laminar flow: The loss of pressure head ∝ velocity.
• In case of turbulent flow: The loss of head is approximately ∝ 𝑉
[More exactly the loss of head ∝ 𝑉 where n varies from 1.75 to 2.0]
Figure shows the apparatus used by Reynolds for estimating the loss of head in a pipe by measuring the pressure difference
over a known length of the pipe.
(1) The velocity of water in the pipe was determined by measuring the volume of water (Q) collected in the tank over a
known period of time (Q= VA , where A is the area of cross-section of the pipe.)
(2) The velocity of flow (V) was changed and corresponding values of hf (loss of head) were obtained.

(3) A graph was plotted between V (velocity of flow) and hf (loss of head). It may be seen from
the graph that:
(a) At low velocities the curve is a straight line, indicating that the hf (loss of head) is directly
proportional to velocity -->the flow is laminar (or viscous),
(b) At higher velocities the curve is parabolic; in this range hf α 𝑉 , where the value of n lies
between 1.75 to 2.0 --> the flow is turbulent.
(c) In the intermediate region, there is a transition zone. This is shown by dotted line.

4/13/2025 4
 LAMINAR FLOW
Reynolds experiment It is defined as the ratio of the inertia force to the viscous force.

4/13/2025 5
 FLOW OF VISCOUS FLUID IN CIRCULAR PIPES-HAGEN POISEUILLE LAW

Hagen-Poiseuille theory is based on the following assumptions:

1. The fluid follows Newton’s law of viscosity.
2. There is no slip of fluid particles at the boundary (i.e. the fluid particles adjacent to the pipe will have zero velocity).
Figure shows a horizontal circular pipe of radius R, having laminar flow
of fluid through it. Consider a small concentric cylinder (fluid element)
of radius r and length dx as a free body.

If τ is the shear stress, the shear force F is given by:

The forces acting on the fluid element are:

1. The shear force, τ × 2πr × dx on the surface of fluid element.
2. The pressure force, 𝑝 × π 𝑟 on the left end. 3. The pressure force, on the right end.

For steady flow, the net force on the cylinder must be zero.

Eq. (1)

6
Eqn. (1) shows that flow will occur only if pressure gradient exists in the direction of flow.
4/13/2025 The negative sign shows that pressure decreases in the direction of flow.
 FLOW OF VISCOUS FLUID IN CIRCULAR PIPES-HAGEN POISEUILLE LAW
• Eqn. (2) indicates that the shear stress varies linearly across the section. Its value is zero at the
center of pipe (r = 0) and maximum at the pipe wall given by:
Eq. (2)

In this equation, the distance y is measured

From Newton’s law of viscosity, from the boundary. The radial distance r is
related to distance y by the relation:
Eq. (3)

Comparing two values of τ from eqns. 1 and 3, we have:

Integrating the above equation w.r.t. ‘r’, we get: Eq. (4)

Eqn. (4) shows that the velocity distribution curve is a parabola (see Figure). The maximum velocity occurs at the center and is given by,
Eq. (5) Substitute eqn. (4) into (5), we have:

Eq. (6) Eqn. (6) is the most commonly used equation for the
velocity distribution for laminar flow through pipes.
4/13/2025 7
 FLOW OF VISCOUS FLUID IN CIRCULAR PIPES-HAGEN POISEUILLE LAW
Equation 6 can be used to calculate the discharge as follows: The discharge through an elementary ring of thickness dr at radial
distances r is given by:

Average velocity of flow, Eq. (7)

Eqn. (7) shows that the average velocity is one-half the maximum velocity. Substituting the value of umax from eqn. (5), we have:

The pressure difference between two sections 1 and 2 at distance x1 and x2 , Is given
by

Eq. (8)

where, D is the diameter of the pipe, and L is the length. Eqn. (8) is known as the Hagen-Poiseuille equation.
4/13/2025 8
Example. An oil of viscosity 9 poise and specific gravity 0.9 is flowing through a horizontal pipe of 60 mm diameter. If the
pressure drop in 100 m length of the pipe is 1800 kN/𝑚 , determine: (i) The rate of flow of oil; (ii) The Centre-line velocity; (iii)
The total frictional drag over 100 m length; (iv) The power required to maintain the flow; (v) The velocity gradient at the pipe
wall; (vi) The velocity and shear stress at 8 mm from the wall.
Solution

Wall shear stress,

Frictional drag for 100 m length,

4/13/2025 9
Example. Oil of absolute viscosity 1.5 poise and density 848.3 kg/ m flows through a 30 cm I.D. pipe. If the head loss in
3000 m length of pipe is 20 m, assuming a laminar flow, determine (i) the velocity, (ii) Reynolds number and (iii) friction
factor (Fanning’s)

Solution

4/13/2025 10
Example. A lubricating oil of viscosity 1 poise and specific gravity 0.9 is pumped through a 30 mm diameter pipe. If the pressure
drop per metre length of pipe is 20 kN/ 𝑚 , determine: (i) The mass flow rate in kg/min, (ii) The shear stress at the pipe wall, (iii)
The Reynolds number of flow, and (iv) The power required per 50 m length of the pipe to maintain the flow

Solution

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Example. Crude oil of µ = 1.5 poise and relative density 0.9 flows through a 20 mm diameter vertical
pipe. The pressure gauges fixed 20 m apart read 600 kN/ 𝑚 and 200 kN/ 𝑚 , as shown in Figure.
Find the direction and rate of flow through the pipe.

Solution

Since the pipe is of uniform diameter, velocity head would

be same and as such flow direction will be indicated by the
values of piezometric head at sections A and B. Taking the
level at A as datum, we have:

Since piezometric head at A is greater than that at B, hence, flow takes place from A to B (i.e. upwards)
But the loss of pressure head for viscous flow through circular pipe is
given by the Hagen-Poiseuille relation

As Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is laminar

4/13/2025 12
 H.W

1. A crude oil of viscosity 0.9 poise and relative density 0.9 is flowing through a horizontal circular pipe of diameter 120 mm and
length 12 m. Calculate the difference of pressure at the two ends of the pipe, if 785 N of the oil is collected in a tank in 25
seconds
2. A liquid with a specific gravity 2.8 and a viscosity 0.8 poise flows through a smooth pipe of unknown diameter, resulting in a
pressure drop of 800 N/ 𝑚 in 2 km length of the pipe. What is the pipe diameter if the mass flow rate is 2500 kg/h.

3. A fluid of viscosity 8 poise and specific gravity 1.2 is flowing through a circular pipe of diameter 100 mm. The maximum shear
stress at the pipe wall is 210 N/ 𝑚 . Find: (i) The pressure gradient, (ii) The average velocity, and (iii) Reynolds number of flow.
4. A fluid of density 1200 kg/ 𝑚 and viscosity 0.5 poise is flowing at a rate of 5 𝑚 /min in a circular pipe of cross-section of 1 𝑚
. Is the flow laminar or turbulent? Can you predict the maximum velocity of the fluid in the pipe ?

5. It is required to pump glycerine at the rate of 25 litres/sec. from a sump and deliver it freely at a point 120 m away and 8 m
above the level of sump through a 150 mm pipe, Fig. 10.13. (i) What is the power of the pump required assuming an overall
efficiency of 65% ? (ii) What would be the rate of rise of temperature due to viscous dissipation if the pipe is completely
insulated ? Sp. gr. of glycerine = 1.26; viscosity = 15 poise, specific heat = 248 J/N °C; K.E. correction factor, α = 2

6. A pipe 60 mm diameter and 450 m long slopes upwards at 1 in 50. An oil of viscosity 0.9 Ns/ 𝑚 and specific gravity 0.9 is
required to be pumped at the rate of 5 litres/sec. (i) Is the flow laminar? (ii) What pressure difference is required to attain
this condition? (iii) What is the power of the pump required assuming an overall efficient of 65%? (iv) What is the centre-line
velocity and the velocity gradient at pipe wall?
4/13/2025 13
 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT
FLOW IN PIPE

Usama Alameedy, Ph.D.

Petroleum Engineering Dept.
University of Baghdad
2nd Class

4/20/2025 1
 TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES

In a pipe, a laminar flow occurs when Reynolds number (Re) is less than 2000 and a turbulent flow occurs when Re > 4000.
The shear in turbulent flow is mainly due to momentum transfer.

Following points are worth noting about turbulent flow:

(i) The velocity distribution in turbulent flow is more uniform than in laminar flow.

(ii) In turbulent flow the velocity gradients near the boundary shall be quite large resulting in more shear.

(iii) In turbulent flow the flatness of velocity distribution curve in the core region away from the wall is because of the mixing of
fluid layers and exchange of momentum between them.

(iv) The velocity distribution which is paraboloid in laminar flow, tends to follow power law and logarithmic law in turbulent
flow

4/20/2025 2
 TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES
The turbulent motion can be classified as follows:
1. Wall turbulence. It occurs in immediate vicinity of solid surfaces and in the boundary layer flows where the
fluid has a negligible mean acceleration.
2. Free turbulence. It occurs in jets, mixing layers etc.
3. Convective turbulence. It takes place where there is conversion of P.E into K.E. by the process of mixing (e.g.
the turbulent flow in the annular space between the concentric rotating cylinder, conventional flow between
parallel horizontal plates etc.).
Loss of head due to friction in pipe flow–Darcy equation

it has been observed through experiments that the viscous friction effects associated with fluid are proportional
to: (i) The length of the pipe, L, (ii) The wetted perimeter, P, and (iii) 𝑉 𝑛 , where V is the average velocity of flow
and n is an index varying from 1.5 to 2 (depending on the material and nature of the pipe surface); for
commercial pipes ≈2 (with turbulent flow).
Darcy-Weisbach equation

D = Diameter of the pipe, ℎ𝑓 = Loss of head due to friction. f is known as Darcy coefficient of friction factor.)
4/20/2025 3
 TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES

Loss of head due to friction in pipe flow–Darcy equation

Expression for coefficient of friction in terms of shear

stress:
(where, τ0 = shear stress at the pipe wall) or
Universal velocity distribution equation

𝑢𝑓 shear friction velocity

The difference (umax – u) is known as the velocity defect.

τ0 = the boundary shear stress

𝜌 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

4/20/2025 4
Example: A pipe of 100 mm diameter is carrying water. If the velocities at the pipe center and 30 mm from the
pipe center are 2.0 m/s and 1.5 m/s respectively and flow in the pipe is turbulent, calculate the wall shearing
stress.

Solution.

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 TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES
Hydrodynamically smooth and rough boundaries

Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Smooth Pipes

known as Karman-Prandtl equation for the velocity distribution near hydrodynamically smooth boundaries

Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Rough Pipes

is known as Karman-Prandtl equation for the velocity distribution near hydrodynamically rough boundaries

kinematic viscosity v

4/20/2025 6
Example : The velocity of flow in a badly corroded 7.5 cm pipe is found to increase 20 percent as a pitot tube is
moved from a point 1 cm from the wall to a point 2 cm from the wall. Estimate the height of roughness elements.

4/20/2025 7
 H.W

1. A pipeline carrying water has surface protrusions of average height of 0·10 mm. If the shear stress developed
is 8·2 N/m2 determine whether the pipe surface acts as smooth, rough or in transition. For water take ρ = 1000
kg/m3 and kinematic viscosity v = 0·0093 stokes.

2. In a pipe of diameter 100 mm, carrying water, the velocities at the pipe centre and 30 mm from the pipe
centre are found to be 2·5 m/s and 2.2 m/s respectively. Find the wall shearing stress.

4/20/2025 8
 TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES

Common equation for velocity distribution for both smooth and rough pipes

For smooth pipes:

For rough pipes:

Example: Find the distance from the pipe wall at which the local velocity is equal to the average velocity for
turbulent flow in pipes
Solution. Local velocity at a point = Average velocity

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 TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES

Common equation for velocity distribution for both smooth and rough pipes
Variation of f for “turbulent flow”

For the fully developed turbulent flow the friction coefficient ‘f’ is a function of Re or 𝜖/D ratio or both (𝝐 = k), depending on
whether the boundary is hydrodynamically smooth or rough or it is in transition.

Variation of friction co-efficient f “for smooth pipes”:

The coefficient of friction ‘f’ for turbulent flow in smooth pipes is a function of Reynolds number (Re) only, and is
independent of relative roughness 𝜖/D. The value of ‘f’ for smooth pipes for Re varying from 4000 to 1 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 is given by the
following empirical relation (developed by Blasius):
The following empirical relationship given
by Nikuradse for ‘f’ can be used directly:

These eqns. can be solved by hit and trial method

4/20/2025 10
 TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES

Common equation for velocity distribution for both smooth and rough pipes

The ability to predict flow behavior under turbulent flow conditions is a direct result of extensive experimental
studies of velocity profiles and pressure gradients. These studies have shown that both velocity profile and
pressure gradient are very sensitive to characteristics of the pipe wall.

The most commonly used equation-since it is explicit in f and also covers a wide range of
Smooth-Wall Pipe
Reynolds numbers (3000 < Re <3 x 106) was presented by Drew, Koo, and McAdams

𝑓 = 0.0056 + 0.5Re−0.32

An equation proposed by Blasius may be used for Reynolds numbers up to 100,000 for smooth pipes.

𝑓 = 0.316Re−0.25

April 20, 2025 11

 TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES

Common equation for velocity distribution for both smooth and rough pipes

Rough-Wall Pipe The inside wall of a pipe is not normally smooth, and in turbulent flow, the roughness can
have a definite effect on the friction factor, and thus the pressure gradient.

Nikuradse's famous sand grain experiments formed the basis for friction factor data from rough pipes
1 2𝜖
= 1.74 − 2lo g
𝑓 𝑑
The equation that is used as the basis for modern friction factor charts was proposed by Colebrook and White
1 2𝜖 18.7
= 1.74 − 2𝑙𝑜𝑔 +
𝑓 𝑑 𝑅𝑒 𝑓
The friction factor cannot be extracted readily from the Colebrook equation. By rearranging the equation as
follows, a trial-and-error procedure may be used to solve the equation for friction factor.
2
1
𝑓𝑐 = Values of fg are estimated and then fc is calculated until fg and fc.
2𝜖 18.7
1.74 − 2𝑙𝑜 𝑔 + agree to an acceptable tolerance.
𝑑 𝑅𝑒 𝑓𝑔 12
 TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES

Common equation for velocity distribution for both smooth and rough pipes
Rough-Wall Pipe An explicit friction factor equation was proposed by Jain and compared in
accuracy to the Colebrook equation. Jain found that for a range of relative roughness between
10-6 and 10-2 and a range of Reynolds number between 5 x 103 and 108 the errors were within (±
1.0%) when compared with the Colebrook equation.

Equation 16 is recommended for all calculations requiring a 1 𝜖 21.25

friction factor determination for turbulent flow = 1.14 − 2lo g + 0.9
𝑓 𝑑 𝑅𝑒

The determination of the value to use for pipe wall roughness in the friction factor equations is
sometimes difficult. It is important to emphasize that ϵ is not a property that is physically
measured.

13
 TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES
Resistance to a flow of fluid in smooth and rough pipes
Variation of ‘f’ for “turbulent flow” Variation of friction co-efficient ‘f’ for “rough pipes”:

The experimental results obtained by Nikuradse follow closely the trend of the
following equation
Colebrook and White developed an empirical equation of the following form
Value of friction factor for “commercial pipes”:
to predict the friction factor for commercial pipes

𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕: 𝝐 = k.
Example: In a rough pipe of diameter 0.6 m and length 4500 m water is flowing at the rate of 0.6 𝑚3 /s. If the average height of
roughness is 0.48 mm find the power required to maintain this flow

Solution. Diameter of the pipe, D = 0·6 m ∴ Radius, R = 0.6/2= 0.3 m, Length of the pipe, L = 4500 m Discharge, Q = 0.6 𝑚3 /s
Average height of roughness, k = 0.48 mm = 0.48 × 10−3 m,

4/20/2025 14
Example: In a rough pipe of diameter 0.6 m and length 4500 m water is flowing at the rate of 0.6 𝑚3 . If the average height of
roughness is 0.48 mm find the power required to maintain this flow

Power required to maintain the flow,

f = Co-efficient of friction, V = Average velocity of flow, and w = Weight density of water (= 9.81 kN/ 𝑚3 ).

4/20/2025 15
 TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES
Resistance to flow of fluid in smooth and rough pipes

When a fluid flows through a pipe frictional resistance is offered to the motion of the fluid and the loss of head due to friction
is expressed by Darcy-Weisbach equation,

But the loss of head can be predicted correctly only if the friction co-efficient can be evaluated accurately. It can be shown by
dimensional analysis that the friction co-efficient f depends upon the Reynolds number

D = Diameter of the pipe, ρ = Density of the fluid, µ = Dynamic viscosity of the fluid, and k = Average height of pipe wall
roughness protrusions. (The term k/D is commonly known as relative roughness
Variation of friction co-efficient ‘f’ for “laminar flow
the co-efficient of friction ‘f’ for laminar flow in pipes is given by:

shows that for laminar flow the friction coefficient f varies inversely with Re and it is independent of k/ D ratio.

4/20/2025 16
 Moody Diagram
The variation of single-
phase friction factor with
Reynolds number and
relative roughness is
shown graphically in Figure

April 20, 2025 17

The only way this can be evaluated is by
comparison of the behavior of a
normal pipe with one that is sand-
roughened.

friction factor and Reynolds number can

be calculated and an effective 𝝐/𝒅
obtained from the Moody diagram

April 20, 2025 18

Example 1: A liquid of specific gravity 0.82 and viscosity of 3 cp (0.003 kg/m-sec) flows in a 4 in. (101.6 mm)
diameter pipe at a velocity of 30 ft/sec (9.14 m/sec). The pipe material is new commercial steel. Calculate the
friction factor using both the Colebrook equation and the Jain equation.
𝜖
Solution: From Figure 4 for commercial steel = 0.00045 Colebrook solution:
𝑑
Use the Drew, Koo and McAdams equation for a first guess.
Re = ρv d/μ = (820)(9.14)(0.1016)/0.003 = 253,824
𝑓𝑔 = 0.0056 + 0.5Re−0.32 = 0.0056 + 0.5𝑥253,824−0.32 = 0.015
−2 −2
2𝜖 18.7 18.7
𝑓𝑐 = 1.74 − 2𝑙𝑜𝑔 + = 1.74 − 2𝑙𝑜𝑔 2(0.00045) + = 0.0183
𝑑 𝑅𝑒 𝑓𝑔 253,824 0.015
This value is not close enough to fg therefore another trial is required using fg=0.0183
−2 −2
2𝜖 18.7 18.7
𝑓𝑐 = 1.74 − 2𝑙𝑜𝑔 + = 1.74 − 2𝑙𝑜𝑔 2(0.00045) + = 0.0182
𝑑 𝑅𝑒 𝑓𝑔 253,824 0.0183
A third trial using fg=0.0182 gives 0.0182.

Jain solution
1 𝜖 21.25 21.25
= 1.14 − 2log + = 1.14 − 2log 0.00045 + -> f=0.0183
𝑓 𝑑 𝑅𝑒0.9 2538240.9
19
Example: The friction for turbulent flow through rough pipes can be determined by Kaman-Prandtl equation

where, f = friction factor, R0 = pipe radius and k = average roughness. Two reservoirs with a surface level difference of 20 metres
are to be connected by 1 metre diameter pipe 6 km long. (i) What will be the discharge when a cast-iron pipe of roughness k =
0.3 mm is used ? (ii) What will be the percentage increase in discharge if the cast-iron pipe is replaced by a steel pipe of
roughness k = 0.1 mm ? Neglect all local losses.

Head loss due to friction,

4/20/2025 20
Example: The friction for turbulent flow through rough pipes can be determined by Kaman-Prandtl equation

where, f = friction factor, R0 = pipe radius and k = average roughness. Two reservoirs with a surface level difference of 20 metres
are to be connected by 1 metre diameter pipe 6 km long. (i) What will be the discharge when a cast-iron pipe of roughness k =
0.3 mm is used ? (ii) What will be the percentage increase in discharge if the cast-iron pipe is replaced by a steel pipe of
roughness k = 0.1 mm ? Neglect all local losses.

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 H.W

A smooth pipeline of 100 mm diameter carries 2.27 𝑚3 per minute of water at 20°C with kinematic viscosity of 0.009
stokes, calculate: (i) Friction factor: (ii) Maximum velocity; (iii) Shear stress at the boundary.

To determine the head lost due to friction, recalculate the previous problem using the friction factor from the Colebrook
equation and Mody diagram.. Use ∈= 0·00633 m or 6·33 mm

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 H.W

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4/20/2025 24
 LOSS OF ENERGY (OR HEAD) IN PIPES

When water flows in a pipe, it experiences some resistance to its motion, due to which its velocity and ultimately
the head of water available is reduced. This loss of energy (or head) is classified as follows :

A. Major Energy Losses This loss is due to friction.

Darcy-Weisbach Formula
B. Minor Energy Losses These losses are due to : The loss of head (or energy) in pipes
1. Sudden enlargement of pipe, due to friction is calculated from Darcy-
2. Sudden contraction of pipe, Weisbach formula
3. Bend of pipe,
4. An obstruction in pipe,
5. Pipe fittings, etc.

MAJOR ENERGY LOSSES Chezy’s Formula for Loss of Head due to Friction
These losses which are due to friction are calculated by : Chezy’s formula (for loss of head) is generally used
1. Darcy-Weisbach formula for the flow through open channels.,
2. Chezy’s formula.

4/20/2025 25
 LOSS OF ENERGY (OR HEAD) IN PIPES
Chezy’s Formula for Loss of Head due to Friction

This formula helps to find the head loss due to friction if the mean flow velocity through the pipe and also the
value of Chezy’s constant C are known.

Example : In a pipe of diameter 350 mm and length 75 m water is flowing at a velocity of 2.8 m/s. Find the head
lost due to friction using : (i) Darcy-Weisbach formula; (ii) Chezy’s formula for which C = 55. Assume kinematic
viscosity of water as 0·012 stoke.

4/20/2025 26
Example : In a pipe of diameter 350 mm and length 75 m water is flowing at a velocity of 2.8 m/s. Find the head
lost due to friction using : (i) Darcy-Weisbach formula; (ii) Chezy’s formula for which C = 55. Assume kinematic
viscosity of water as 0.012 stoke.

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 LOSS OF ENERGY (OR HEAD) IN PIPES
MINOR ENERGY LOSSES

Whereas the major loss of energy or head is due to friction, the minor loss of energy (or head) includes the
following cases :
1. Loss of head due to sudden enlargement, 2. Loss of head due to sudden contraction, 3. Loss of head due to an
obstruction in the pipe, 4. Loss of head at the entrance to a pipe, 5. Loss of head at the exit of a pipe, 6. Loss of
head due to bend in the pipe, and 7. Loss of head in various pipe fittings.

Loss of Head due to Sudden Enlargement

Example : At a sudden enlargement of a water main from 240 mm to 480 mm

diameter, the hydraulic gradient rises by 10 mm. Calculate the rate of flow.

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 Example : At a sudden enlargement of a water main from 240 mm to 480 mm diameter, the hydraulic gradient
rises by 10 mm. Calculate the rate of flow.

From continuity equation, we have:

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 LOSS OF ENERGY (OR HEAD) IN PIPES
Loss of Head due to Sudden Contraction

Due to sudden contraction, the stream lines converge to a minimum cross-

section called the vena-contracta and then expand to fill the downstream
pipe
OR

4/20/2025 30
Example: A horizontal pipe carries water at the rate of 0.04 m3/s. Its diameter, which is 300 mm reduces abruptly
to 150 mm. Calculate the pressure loss across the contraction. Take the co-efficient of contraction = 0·62.

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 LOSS OF ENERGY (OR HEAD) IN PIPES
Loss of Head due to Obstruction in Pipe

The loss of energy due to an obstruction in pipe takes place on account of the
reduction in the cross-sectional area of the pipe by the presence of obstruction which
is followed by an abrupt enlargement of the stream beyond the obstruction. Head loss
due to obstruction (hobs.) is given by the relation :
A = Area of the pipe, a = Maximum area of obstruction,
and V = Velocity of liquid in pipe.

Loss of Head at the Entrance to Pipe Loss of head at the entrance to pipe (hi) is given by the relation :

where, V = Velocity of liquid in pipe.

Loss of Dead at the Exit of a Pipe Loss of head at the exit of a pipe is denoted by h0 and is given by the
relation:

where, V = Velocity at outlet of pipe.

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 LOSS OF ENERGY (OR HEAD) IN PIPES
In general the loss of head in bends (hb) provided in pipes may be
Loss of Head due to Bend in the Pipe
expressed as :

where, V = Mean velocity of flow of fluid, and and, k = Co-efficient of bend; it depends upon angle of bend, radius of curvature
of bend and diameter of pipe.

Loss of Head in Various Pipe Fittings The loss of head in the various pipe fittings (such as valves, couplings,
etc.) may also be represented as :

where, V = Mean velocity flow in the pipe, and k = value of the co-efficient; it depends on the type of the pipe fitting.

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 HYDRAULIC GRADIENT AND TOTAL ENERGY LINES

The concept of hydraulic gradient line and total energy line is quite useful in the study of flow of fluid in pipes. These lines
may be obtained as indicated below.
It is known that the total head (which is also total energy per unit weight) with respect
Total Energy Line (T.E.L. or E.G.L.): to any arbitrary datum, is the sum of the elevation (potential) head, pressure head and
velocity head, i.e., Total head

When the fluid flows along the pipe, there is loss of head (energy) and the total energy decreases in the direction of flow. If
the total energy at various points along the axis of the pipe is plotted and joined by a line, the line so obtained is called the
‘Energy gradient line’ (E.G.L.). In literature, energy gradient line (E.G.L.) is also known as ‘Total energy line’ (T.E.L.).

Hydraulic Gradient Line (H.G.L.):

The sum of potential (or elevation) head and the pressure head at any point is called the piezometric head. If a
line is drawn joining the piezometric levels at various points, the line so obtained is called the ‘Hydraulic gradient line.’
The following points are worth noting :
1. Energy gradient line (E.G.L.) always drops in the direction of flow because of loss of head.
2. Hydraulic gradient line (H.G.L.) may rise or fall depending on the pressure changes.
3. Hydraulic gradient line (H.G.L.) is always below the energy gradient line (E.G.L.) and the vertical intercept between the two is
equal to the velocity head

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Example: A horizontal pipe line 40 m long is connected to a water
tank at one end and discharges freely into the atmosphere at the
other end. For the first 25 m of its length from the tank, the pipe
is 150 mm diameter and its diameter is suddenly enlarged to 300
mm. The height of water level in the tank is 8 m above the centre
of the pipe. Considering all losses of head which occur,
(i) Determine the rate of flow.
(ii) Draw the hydraulic gradient and energy gradient lines. Take f =
0.01 for both sections of the pipe.

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 ‫متت حبمد هللا‪..‬امنيايت الصادقة للجميع ابلنجاح و بتفوق‪.‬‬
‫أسامة‬

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