Fluids sheet :االسم
:الشعبة
fluid properties:
𝑚
Density (𝜌): = [𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑 ]
𝑣
𝑚𝑔
Specific weight (𝑤): = 𝜌𝑔 = [𝑵/𝒎𝟑 = 𝒑𝒂]
𝑣
𝑉 1
Specific volume (𝑣): = = [𝒎𝟑 /𝒌𝒈]
𝑚 𝜌
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑤𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
Specific gravity (𝑠𝑝. 𝑔𝑟): =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Viscosity:
𝐹𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑢
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜏) = =𝜇 = [𝑵/𝒎𝟐 = 𝒑𝒂 ]
𝐴 𝑑𝑦
𝜏
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜇 ) = 𝑑𝑢 = [𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆] *poise = 0.1𝑁. 𝑠/𝑚2
𝑑𝑦
𝜇
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑣) = = [𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒌𝒆] *stoke = 𝑚2 /𝑠
𝜌
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids:
𝑑𝑢
1. Newtonian fluids: 𝜏 = 𝜇
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2. non-Newtonian fluids: 𝜏 = ( )𝑛 = 𝜇𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢 𝑛−1
𝜇𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑘( )
𝑑𝑦
Effect of Temperature on Viscosity:
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑠: 𝜇 𝑇 = 𝐴𝑒𝛽/𝑇
1
𝑏 𝑇2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑠: 𝜇 𝑇 =
1 + 𝑎/𝑇
𝜇 𝑇 = Dynamic viscosity at absolute temperature T.
𝐴, 𝛽 = Constants (for a given liquid).
𝑎, 𝑏 = Constants (for a given gas).
Parabolic equation: 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑦 2 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑙, 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠.
Liner equation: 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑦 + 𝑚
𝜋𝑑𝑁
Shift velocity (u) = = [𝒎/𝒔]
60
2𝜋𝑁
Shift power (p) =𝑇 × = [watt]
60
Torque =𝐹 × 𝑑/2 = [𝑵. 𝒎]
Power dissipated as heat = [ 𝜏 × (𝜋 𝑑𝑙)] × 𝑢
𝐹= 𝜏 × 𝐴
For disc rotate on a table:
2𝜋𝑁
Angular velocity (𝜔) =
60
𝑑 4
𝜋𝜇𝜔( 2 )
T=
2𝑡
SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY:
Case I. Water droplet:
4𝜎
𝑃= = [𝑵/𝒎𝟐 ]
𝑑
Case II. Soap (or hollow) bubble:
8𝜎
𝑃= = [𝑵/𝒎𝟐 ]
𝑑
SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY:
4𝜎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
ℎ= = [𝒎𝒎]
𝑤𝑑
4𝜎
For water and glass: ℎ = = [𝒎𝒎]
𝑤𝑑
Work done = Surface tension × total surface area
For water bubble:
𝑑
Work done = 𝜎 × 4𝜋( )2
2
For the soap bubble: Work done = 𝜎 × 8𝜋(𝑑/2)2
COMPRESSIBILITY AND BULK MODULUS:
𝑑𝑝
𝐾= ∗ 𝐾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 2.07 × 106 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
−𝑑𝑉/𝑉
1
Compressibility= ∗ 𝐾𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 101.3 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝐾
Power (p) = 𝐹 × 𝑢
1
Isothermal: 𝑍 =
𝑝
1
Isentropic: 𝑍 =
𝛾𝑝
DIMENSIONAL AND MODEL ANALYSIS:
FLUID STATICS (HYDROSTATICS):
Pressure:
𝐹 𝒍𝒃
𝑝= = 𝜌𝑔ℎ = [𝑁/𝑚2 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎] ∗ 1𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 105 [𝒑𝒂] = 14.504 [𝒑𝒔𝒊 𝒐𝒓 ]
𝐴 𝒊𝒏𝟐
∗ 1𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1.01325 × 105 𝒑𝒂 = 1 𝒃𝒂𝒓
𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑤ℎ
𝑝
Pressure head (h) = = [𝒎]
𝜌𝑔
𝑆ℎ𝐼
ℎ = 𝑦[ − 1]
𝑆𝐼𝐼
Buoyancy forces:
𝐹𝑏 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔𝑉𝑠 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑔
Buoyancy = weight
𝑊 × 𝑥 = 𝑊 × (𝐺𝑀 × sin 𝛼 ) = 𝑊 × (𝐺𝑀 × 𝛼)
𝑉 = 𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 /𝜌𝑓
𝐺𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀 ± 𝐵𝐺
*+ ve sign: when G is lower than B.
* – ve sign: when G is higher than B.
𝑊1 . 𝑧. 𝑙
𝐺𝑀 = = [𝒎]
𝑊. 𝑑
𝐼𝑜′𝑜"
𝐵𝑀 = = [𝒎]
𝑉
BM>BG → stable
BM<BG → unstable
BM=BG → neutral
BG=OG-OB
OG = H/2
OB = h/2
H ارتفاع الجسم
h ارتفاع الجزء الغاطس
First moment of area:
1 ⬚
𝑦𝑐 = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴
𝐴 𝐴
1 ⬚
𝑋𝑐 = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝐴
𝐴 𝐴
Second moment of area:
⬚
about x-axis: 𝐼𝑥 = ∫𝐴 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝑦𝑐2 𝐴
⬚
about y-axis: 𝐼𝑦 = ∫𝐴 𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝑥𝑐2 𝐴
⬚
about its centroidal axis: 𝐼𝑐 = ∫𝐴 (𝑦 − 𝑦𝑐 )2 𝑑𝐴
4 −𝐷4 )𝜋
(𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑡
For hollow cylindrical section: 𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑦 = 𝑖𝑛
64
4 −𝑏 4
𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡
For hollow square section: 𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑦 = 𝑖𝑛
12
𝑏𝑑3 −(𝑏−𝑡)(𝑑−2𝑡1 )3
For beam section: 𝐼𝑥 =
12
𝑡 3 (𝑑 − 2𝑡1 ) + 2𝑏 3 𝑡1
𝐼𝑦 =
12
Pressure force on plane surfaces:
Pressure force: 𝐹 = 𝑝𝑐 × 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑐 𝐴 = 𝑤𝐴𝑥 [𝑵]
𝑃𝑐 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑐 = 𝑤𝐴 = [𝑁/𝑚2 ]
𝐼𝑐
𝑦𝑏 = 𝑦𝑐 +
𝑦𝑐 𝐴
𝐼𝐺
ℎ= +𝑥
𝐴𝑥
⬚
∫ 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝐴
𝑥𝑝 = 𝐴
𝑦𝑐 𝐴
𝑀 = 𝐹𝑅 (𝑦𝑅 − 𝑦𝑐 )
Inclined surface:
𝐼𝐺 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2
ℎ=𝑥+
𝐴𝑥
Pressure forces on curved surfaces:
𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑠 = √𝑤 2 + 𝐹𝑝2
𝐹𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑐 𝐴𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
2
Semi-parabolic Shab area = 𝑏ℎ
3
𝑊
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝐹𝑝
PRINCIPLES OF FLUID MOTION:
the total change of velocity is in both t and 𝑆:
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑠 + 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡
𝑑𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑈 𝑑𝑠
Acceleration: 𝑎𝑠 = = + where =𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Equation of a streamline in a three-dimensional flow is given as:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑤
when we have more than dimension:
𝑉 2 = 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2
𝑑𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑎= = (𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 )+
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
Bernoulli’s equation:
𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝑤 2𝑔 𝑤 2𝑔
𝑝 𝑣2
Total head (𝐻 ) = + +𝑧
𝑤 2𝑔
Type equation here.Continuity equation:
𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝑚
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜌 = ,
𝑉
Venturimeter:
𝐴1
𝑉2 = × √2𝑔ℎ
√𝐴12 − 𝐴22
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 × × √2𝑔ℎ = [𝑚3 /𝑠]
√𝐴12 − 𝐴22
ℎ − ℎ𝑓
𝑐𝑑 = √
ℎ
𝑃1 −𝑃2
Horizontal → ℎ = ( )
𝑤
𝑃1 −𝑃2
Vertical or inclined → ℎ = ( ) + (𝑍1 − 𝑍2 ) = [𝑚]
𝑤
From manometer:
Case. I. Differential manometer containing a liquid heavier than the liquid
flowing through the pipe.
𝑆ℎ𝐼
ℎ = 𝑦[ − 1]
𝑆𝑝
Case. II. Differential manometer containing a liquid lighter than the liquid
flowing through the pipe.
𝑆𝐼𝐼
ℎ = 𝑦 [1 − ]
𝑆𝑝
Orificemeter:
𝐴𝑜 𝐴1 √2𝑔ℎ
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 [𝑚3 /𝑠]
√𝐴12 − 𝐴2𝑜
√2𝑔ℎ
𝑉2 = = [𝑚/𝑠]
2
𝐴𝑜
√1 − ( ) 𝐶𝑐2
𝐴1
2
𝐴𝑜
𝐶𝑐 √1 − ( )
𝐴1
𝐶𝑑 =
2
𝐴𝑜
√1 − ( ) 𝐶𝑐2
𝐴1
𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑐 × 𝐶𝑣
𝑆ℎ𝐼
ℎ = 𝑦[ − 1] = [𝑚]
𝑆𝑝
𝑆𝐼𝐼
ℎ = 𝑦 [1 − ] = [𝑚]
𝑆𝑝
• Pitot Tube
𝑉 = 𝐶√2𝑔 (ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑜 ) = 𝐶√2𝑔∆ℎ
𝑆𝑚
∆ℎ = 𝑦 ( − 1)
𝑠
IMPULSE-MOMENTUM EQUATION:
𝑤𝑄
𝐹𝑥 = (𝑉 cos 𝜃1 − 𝑉2 cos 𝜃2 ) + 𝑝1 𝐴1 cos 𝜃1 − 𝑝2 𝐴2 cos 𝜃2
𝑔 1
𝑤𝑄
𝐹𝑦 = (𝑉 sin 𝜃1 − 𝑉2 sin 𝜃2 ) + 𝑝1 𝐴1 sin 𝜃1 − 𝑝2 𝐴2 sin 𝜃2
𝑔 1
𝐹𝑅 = √𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2
−1
𝐹𝑦
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
𝐹𝑥
Laminar and Turbulent Flow in Pipe:
LAMINAR FLOW:
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Inertia force (𝐹𝑖 ) = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜌 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × = 𝜌𝐴𝑉 2
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑑𝑢 𝑉
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹𝑉 ) = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜏 × 𝐴 = (𝜇 )×𝐴=𝜇 ×𝐴
𝑑𝑦 𝐿
𝜌𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷
Reynolds number (𝑅𝑒 ) = = =
𝜇 𝜇/𝜌 𝑣
𝜕𝑝 𝑟 𝑑𝑢
𝜏=− × =−−𝜇
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝑝 𝑅
𝜏𝑜 = − ( )
𝜕𝑥 2
16
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒
𝑟 2
𝑢 = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 [1 − ( ) ]
𝑅
1 𝜕𝑝 2
𝑢=− × (𝑅 − 𝑟 2 )
4𝜇 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑝
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − × × 𝑅2
4𝜇 𝜕𝑥
𝜋 2
𝑄 2 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥
→= = =
𝑢 𝐴 𝜋𝑅 2 2
𝑃 = 𝐹𝐷 ×→= 𝑤𝑄ℎ𝑓
𝑢
32𝜇 → 𝐿
𝑢
(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ) =
𝐷2
𝑄 =𝐴×→
𝑢
𝐹𝐷 = 𝜏𝑜 × 𝜋𝐷𝐿
𝜏 𝜏𝑜
=
𝑟 𝑅
𝑚 =𝑝→𝐴
𝑢
𝑝 = 𝑄∆𝑝
𝑃
𝜂=
𝜂
TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES:
𝑃 = 𝑤𝑄ℎ𝑓
√𝑓 𝜏0
𝑢𝑓 =→ =√
𝑈 2 𝜌
𝑓𝜌𝑉 2
𝜏0 =
2
𝑓1 𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓1 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑓1 = 4𝑓)
𝐷 × 2𝑔
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑢 𝑅
= 5.75 log10 ( )
𝑢𝑓 𝑦
𝑦
𝑢 = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 2.5 𝑢𝑓 ln ( )
𝑅
11.6𝑉
Thickness of laminar sublayer: 𝛿 , =
𝑢𝑓
𝑢𝑓 𝑘
Roughness Renolds number is =
𝑣
if it less than 4 → smooth
or between 4-100 → transition
or more than 100 → rough
Karman-Prandtl equation:
𝑢 𝑢𝑓 × 𝑦
Smooth → = 5.75 log10 ( ) + 5.5
𝑢𝑓 𝑣
𝑢 𝑦
Rough → = 5.75 log10 ( ) + 8.5
𝑢𝑓 𝑘
Common equation for velocity distribution for both smooth and rough
pipes:
→ 𝑢𝑓 𝑅
for smooth pipes: 𝑈
= 5.75 log10 + 1.75
𝑢𝑓 𝑣
→ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑈
𝑢−→ 𝑦
for rough pipes: 𝑢
= 5.75 log10 ( ) + 3.75
𝑢𝑓 𝑅
by Blasius (for smooth pipes):
0.0791
𝑓= 1
(𝑅𝑒 )4
1
= 2.03 log10 (𝑅𝑒 √4𝑓) − 0.91 *Valid up to 𝑅𝑒 = 4 × 106
√4𝑓
1
= 2.0 log10 ( 𝑅𝑒√4𝑓) − 0.8 * 𝑅𝑒 = 5 × 104 𝑡𝑜 𝑅𝑒 𝑎𝑠 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑎𝑠 4 × 107
√4𝑓
The following empirical relationship given by Nikuradse for ‘f’ can be
used directly(smooth):
0.05525
𝑓 = 0.0008 +
(𝑅𝑒)0.237
Smooth-wall pipe:
The most commonly used equation-since it is explicit in f and also covers a
wide range of Reynolds numbers (3000 < Re <3 x 106) was presented by
Drew, Koo, and McAdams:
𝑓 = 0.0056 + 0.5𝑅𝑒 −0.32
by Blasius may Re up to 100,000 for smooth pipes:
𝑓 = 0.316𝑅𝑒 −0.25
Rough-wall pipe:
2
1
Colebrook and white: 𝑓𝑐 =
2∈ 18.7
(1.74−2 log( 𝑑 + ))
𝑅𝑒√𝑓𝑔
{ }
1 ∈ 21.25
Jain equation: = 1.14 − 2 log ( + )
√𝑓 𝑑 𝑅𝑒 0.9
Other equations:
1
= 2.0 log10 (𝑅/𝑘) + 1.74
√4𝑓
1 𝑅 (𝑅/𝑘)
− 2.0 log10 ( ) = 1.74 − 2.0 log10 [1 + 18.7 ]
√𝑓1 𝑘 𝑅𝑒√𝑓1
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑓1 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝐟𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 (𝑓1 = 4𝑓)
Head loss:
4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 =
𝐷 × 2𝑔
𝜋
𝐷 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝐷2 𝐷
𝑚 = [𝑚 = =4 = ]
4 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜋𝐷 4
Mean velocity: 𝑉 = 𝐶 √𝑚 𝑖
𝑤
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 √ , 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑧𝑦 ′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝐶.
𝑓
ℎ𝑓 ℎ𝑓
𝑖= 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
𝐿 𝐿
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝑠 (𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒).
Loss of head due to sudden enlargement:
(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2
ℎ𝑒 =
2𝑔
𝑃 𝑃
Rise of hydraulic gradient: ( 2 + 𝑧2 ) − ( 1 + 𝑧1 )
𝑤 𝑤
Loss of head due to sudden contraction:
2
𝑉22 1 𝑉22
ℎ𝑐 = ( − 1) 𝑜𝑅 ℎ𝑐 = 𝑘
2𝑔 𝐶𝑐 2𝑔
2
1
𝑘 = ( − 1)
𝐶𝑐
𝐴2 3
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠: 𝐶𝑐 = 0.62 + 0.38 ( )
𝐴1
Note: if the value of 𝐶𝑐 in not given then loss of head due to contraction may
𝑉22
be taken as 0.5
2𝑔
Loss of Head due to obstruction in pipe:
2 2
𝐴 𝑉
ℎ𝑜𝑏𝑠 =[ ]
𝐶𝑐 (𝐴 − 𝛼 ) 2𝑔
Loss of head at the entrance to pipe:
𝑉2
ℎ𝑖 = 0.5
2𝑔
Loss of dead at the exit of a pipe:
𝑉2
ℎ𝑜 =
2𝑔
Loss of head due to bend in the pipe:
𝑉2
ℎ𝑜 = 𝑘
2𝑔
Loss of head in various pipe fitting:
𝑉2
ℎ𝑓𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 =𝑘
2𝑔
Hydraulic gradient and total energy lines:
𝑃 𝑉2
Total head = +𝑧+
𝑤 2𝑔
𝑃
( + 𝑧)
𝑤
𝑉2
2𝑔
Thickness of laminar sublayer: 𝛿𝑠 = 11.6𝑣/𝑢𝑓
𝑉
Rate of rise of temperature: = ℎ𝑓 ×
𝐿
• ثوابت
𝜌(water)= 62.4 [lb/ft3]
g = 32.1740 [ft/s]
g = 9.81 [kg/m²]
𝜌(water)= 1000 [kg/m³]
𝜌(mercury) = 13600 [kg/m³]
w(water) = 9.81 [KN/m³]
w(mercury) = 9.81X13.6 [KN/m³]
4
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝑟 3 𝜋
3
𝜋
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑟 2 𝜋 = 𝑑2
4
