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BCV405C-Concreting Techniques and Practices

Module-1
Concrete is a composite material composed of aggregate bonded together with fluid cement
that cures over time. Concrete is the second-most-used substance in the world after water and
is the most widely used building material. Its usage worldwide, ton for ton, is twice that of
steel, wood, plastics, and aluminium combined.
When aggregate is mixed with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms fluid slurry
that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts with the water through a
process called concrete hydration that hardens it over several hours to form a hard matrix that
binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many uses. This time
allows concrete to not only be cast in forms, but also to have a variety of tooled processes
performed. The hydration process is exothermic, which means ambient temperature plays a
significant role in how long it takes concrete to set. Often, additives (such as pozzolans or
superplasticizers) are included in the mixture to improve the physical properties of the wet
mix, delay or accelerate the curing time, or otherwise change the finished material. Most
concrete is poured with reinforcing materials (such as steel rebar) embedded to provide
tensile strength, yielding reinforced concrete.
 Concrete is a very strong and mouldable (comes in any shape) construction material.
 This can continue to harden and gains strength over many years.
 It has a very long history.
 The Ancient Romans weren’t the first to make concrete.
 Romans were first to utilize this material widespread around 600 BC.
 The Romans successfully implemented the use of concrete in the majority of their
construction around 200 BC.
 It wasn’t until 1793 that this innovation took a major jump forward when John
Smeaton found an increasingly present day technique for delivering water driven lime
for concrete.
 In 1824 Joseph Aspdin designed Portland concrete by consuming finely ground chalk
and dirt until the carbon dioxide was evacuated.
 After that the first widespread use of concrete in home construction was in England
and France between 1850 and 1880 by Francois Coignet.
 In the nineteenth Century, concrete was utilized for the most part for mechanical
structures.
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Types of Concrete

1) Reinforced Concrete

This type of concrete is reinforced with steel bars or mesh to increase its tensile
strength and durability. It is commonly used in the construction of high-rise buildings,
bridges, and other structures that require extra strength and stability.

2) Lightweight Concrete

As the name suggests, this type of concrete is lighter in weight than normal concrete,
making it ideal for construction projects where weight is a concern. It is commonly
used in the construction of precast concrete elements, such as wall panels, roof slabs,
and paving blocks.

3) High-Strength Concrete

This type of concrete has a compressive strength of over 40 MPa and is used in the
construction of structures that require extra strength, such as tall buildings, bridges,
and dams.

4) High-Performance Concrete

This is a specialized type of concrete that has enhanced properties, such as high
durability, increased strength, and resistance to extreme temperatures and
environmental conditions. It is commonly used in the construction of nuclear power
plants, offshore structures, and other high-tech projects.
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5) Precast Concrete

This type of concrete is manufactured off-site and then transported to the construction
site. It is commonly used in the construction of precast concrete elements, such as wall
panels, columns, beams, and staircases. Precast concrete offers several advantages
over traditional cast-in-place concrete, including reduced construction time and
increased quality control.

Composition of Concrete

Concrete is composed of three main ingredients - cement, aggregates, and water. Cement is
the binding agent that holds the concrete together, while aggregates, such as sand and gravel,
provide strength and bulk.

The water is used to hydrate the cement and activate the chemical process that hardens the
concrete. This is why the ratio of cement to water is an essential factor in determining the
strength and durability of the concrete. The ideal water cement ratio needs to first be
calculated because, higher water-to-cement ratio can result in weaker, less durable concrete
that is more prone to cracking and erosion.

In addition to the three main ingredients, concrete may also contain additives such as
admixtures, which can enhance certain properties such as workability, strength, and
durability. These additives can include fly ash, silica fume, and plasticizers, among others.

Properties of Concrete

Concrete possesses several properties that make it an ideal building material for a wide range
of applications. Here are some of the most important properties of concrete :

1. Workability -
This refers to the ease with which the concrete can be mixed, transported, and placed
into its final position. A high degree of workability is essential for achieving the
desired shape and finish of the concrete.
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2. Strength -

Concrete is known for its strength and can withstand heavy loads and stresses.
The compressive strength of concrete can vary widely depending on its composition
and curing time.

3. Durability -

Concrete is highly durable and can withstand exposure to elements, including water,
wind, and extreme temperatures. Proper curing and maintenance can extend the
lifespan of concrete structures.

4. Creep -

This refers to the gradual deformation of concrete under sustained loads over time.
Creep can result in structural damage if not accounted for during the design and
construction process.

5. Shrinkage -

Concrete can shrink as it dries, which can result in cracking and other damage. Proper
reinforcement and curing can help minimise the effects of shrinkage.

6. Unit weight -

The unit weight of concrete refers to its density and can vary depending on its
composition and strength. A higher unit weight can result in stronger, more durable
concrete.

7. Modular ratio -
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This refers to the relationship between the elastic moduli of concrete and the steel
reinforcement used to reinforce it. A higher modular ratio can result in stronger, more
durable structures.

8. Poisson's ratio -

This is a measure of the ratio of lateral strain to axial strain when a material is
stretched or compressed. Poisson's ratio can affect the overall strength and stability of
concrete structures.

Uses of Concrete

1. Driveways and patios -

Concrete is an ideal material for driveways and patios due to its durability, low
maintenance, and versatility. Concrete can be stamped or coloured to match the
aesthetics of the surrounding area, making it an attractive option for homeowners.
Additionally, concrete can withstand heavy loads and is resistant to cracking, making
it a long-lasting and reliable choice.

2. Sidewalks -

Concrete is a popular choice for sidewalks due to its strength, affordability, and ease
of installation. Concrete sidewalks can withstand heavy foot traffic and can be easily
repaired if damaged. They are also low maintenance and resistant to weathering and
erosion.

3. Parking -

Concrete is a common material used for parking lots due to its strength and durability.
Parking lots made of concrete can withstand heavy traffic and can last for many years
with proper maintenance. Additionally, concrete is slip-resistant and can be painted
with visible markings for safety.
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4. Streets -

Concrete is a preferred material for street paving due to its durability, skid-resistance,
and ability to withstand heavy loads. Concrete streets are low-maintenance and can
last for many years with proper care. They are also resistant to oil and gas spills,
making them an ideal choice for high-traffic areas.

5. Footings/Foundation -

Concrete is commonly used for building foundations and footings due to its strength,
durability, and ability to resist water. Concrete foundations can support the weight of a
building and protect it from moisture and water damage. Additionally, concrete can be
reinforced with steel bars to further increase its strength and durability.

6. Mid-Rise and High-Rise Buildings -

Concrete is an ideal material for constructing mid-rise and high-rise buildings due to
its strength, durability, and ability to resist natural disasters like earthquakes and
hurricanes. Reinforced concrete structures can withstand high winds and seismic
forces, making them a reliable choice for tall buildings. Additionally, concrete
buildings can be designed to be energy-efficient and can have a long lifespan with
proper maintenance.

Cement
Cement is an important material in construction. Sheets, blocks, pillars and pipes are made
from concrete produced from cement. Cement is a dry, greenish grey powder with fine
particles. It is made from silica (sand), alumina (aluminium oxide), lime, iron oxide and
magnesia (magnesium oxide).
Cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other materials together.
Cements used in construction can be characterized as being either hydraulic or non-hydraulic,
depending upon the ability of the cement to be used in the presence of water.Non-hydraulic
cement will not set in wet conditions or underwater, rather it sets as it dries and reacts with
carbon dioxide in the air. It can be attacked by some aggressive chemicals after
setting.Hydraulic cement is made by replacing some of the cement in a mix with activated
aluminium silicates, pozzolanas, such as fly ash. The chemical reaction results in hydrates
that are not very water-soluble and so are quite durable in water and safe from chemical
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attack. This allows setting in wet condition or underwater and further protects the hardened
material from chemical attack (e.g., Portland cement).
Uses of cement
• Cement mortar for Masonry work, plaster and pointing etc.
• Concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels,beams,weathershed,stairs,pillars
etc.
• Construction for important engineering structures such asbridge,culverts,dams,tunnels,light
house,clocks,etc.
• Construction of water,wells, tennis courts,septic tanks, lamp posts, telephone cabins etc.
• Making joint for joints,pipes,etc.
• Manufacturing of precast pipes,garden seats, artistically designed wens, flower posts, etc.
• Preparation of foundation, water tight floors, footpaths, etc.
Types of Cements
Many types of cements are available in markets with different compositions and for use in
different environmental conditions and specialized applications. A list of some commonly
used cement is described in this section:
Ordinary Portland cement: Ordinary Portland cement is the most common type of cement
in general use around the world. This cement is made by heating limestone (calcium
carbonate) with small quantities of other materials (such as clay) to 1450°C in a kiln, in a
process known as calcination, whereby a molecule of carbon dioxide is liberated from the
calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide, or quicklime, which is then blended with the other
materials that have been included in the mix. The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is
then ground with a small amount of gypsum into a powder to make 'Ordinary Portland
Cement'(often referred to as OPC). Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar
and most non-specialty grout. The most common use for Portland cement is in the production
of concrete. Concrete is a composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand),
cement, and water. As a construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape
desired, and once hardened, can become a structural (load bearing) element. Portland cement
may be grey or white.
• This type of cement use in construction when there is no exposure to sulphates in the soil or
ground water.
• Lime saturation Factor is limited between i.e. 0.66 to 1.02.
• Free lime-cause the Cement to be unsound.
• Percentage of (AL2O3/Fe2O3) is not less than 0.66.
• Insoluble residue not more than 1.5%.
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• Percentage of SO3 limited by 2.5% when C3A < 7% and not more than 3% when C3A
>7%.
• Loss of ignition -4%(max)
• Percentage of Mg0-5% (max.)
• Fineness -not less than 2250 cm2 /g. Rapid hardening Portland cement
• It is firmer than Ordinary Portland Cement
• It contains more C3S are less C2S than the ordinary Portland cement.
• Its 3 days strength is same as 7 days strength of ordinary Portland cement. Low heat
Portland cement
• Heat generated in ordinary Portland cement at the end of 3days 80 cal/gm. While in low
heat cement it is about 50cal/gm of cement.
• It has low percentage of C3A and relatively more C2S and less C3S than O.P. Cement.
• Reduce and delay the heat of hydration. British standard ( B S. 1370 : 1974 ) limit the heat
of hydration of this cement. Sulphate resisting Portland cement
• Maximum C3A content by 3.5% and minimum fineness by 2500 cm'/g. Firmer than
ordinary pot land cement.
• Sulphate forms the sulpha-aluminates which have expensive properties and so causes
disintegration of concrete.
Sulphate resisting Portland cement
• For this cement, the silage as obtained from blast furnace is used
• The clinkers of cement are ground with about 60 to 65 percent of slag.
• Its strength in early days is less and hence it required longer curing period. It proves to be
economical as slag, which is a Waste product, is used in its manufactures.
Pozzolanic cement
• As per Indian standard, the proportions of Pozzolana may be 10 to 25 % by weight. Burnt
clay, shale, Fly ash.
• This Cement has higher resistance to chemical agencies and to sea water because of absence
of lime.
• It evolves less heat and initial strength is less but final strength is 28 days onward equal to
ordinary Portland cement.
• It possesses less resistance to the erosion and weathering action.
• It imparts higher degree of water tightness and it is cheap
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White Portland cement
• Grey colour of O.P. cement is due to presence of Iron O Oxide.
xide. Hence in White Cement
Fe2O3, is limited to 1 %. Sodium Alumina Ferrite (Crinoline) NavAlF6 is added to act as flux
in the absence of Iron-Oxide.
•It
It is quick drying, possesses high strength and has superior aesthetic values and it also cost
lee than ordinary Cement because of specific requirements imposed upon the raw materials
and the manufacturing process.
• White Cement are used in Swimming pools, pools, for painting garden furniture, moulding
sculptures and statues etc. Coloured Portland
• The Cement of desired colour may be obtained by mixing mineral pigments with ordinary
Cement.
• The amount of colouring material may vary from 5 to 10 percent. If this
this percentage exceeds
10percent, the strength of cements is affected.
• The iron Oxide in different proportions gives brown, red or yellow colour. The coloured
Cement are widely used for finishing of floors, window sill slabs, stair treads etc.
Expansive cement
This type of cement is produced by adding an expanding medium like sulphoaluminate and a
stabilising agent to the ordinary cement.
• The expanding cement is used for the construction of water retaining structures and for
repairing the damaged concrete surfaces.
High alumina cement
• This cement is produced by grilling clinkers formed by calcining bauxite and lime. It can
stand high temper lures. • If evolves great heat during setting. It is therefore not affected by
frost.
Chemical composition of cement
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“Bogue’s Compounds

Composition of Cement clinker

The various constituents combine in burning and form cement clinker. The compounds
formedin the burning process have the properties of setting and hardening in the presence
ofwater.They are known as Bogue compounds after the name of Bogue who identified them. t
These compounds are as follows: Alite (Tricalcium silicate or C3S), Belite (Dicalcium silicate
or C2S), Celite (Tricalciumalluminate or C3A) andFelite (Tetracalciumalumino ferrite or
C4AF).
Tricalcium silicate It is supposed to be the best cementing material and is well burnt
cement.It is about 25-50%
50% (normally about 40 per cent) of cement. It renders the clinker
easier to grind,increases resistance to freezing and thawing, hydrates rapidly generating high
heat and developsan early hardness and strength.
streng However, raising of C3S content beyond the
specified limitsincreases the heat of hydration and solubility of cement in water. The
hydrolysis of C3S is mainly responsible for 7 day strength and hardness. The rate of
hydrolysis of C3S and the character ofof gel developed are the main causes of the hardness and
early strength of cement paste. The heat of hydration is 500 J/g.
Dicalcium silicate It constitutes about 25
25-40%
40% (normally about 32 per cent) of cement. It
hydrates andhardens slowly and takes long time
time to add to the strength (after a year or more).
It impartsresistance to chemical attack. Rising of C2S content renders clinker harder to grind,
reduces early strength, decreases resistance to freezing and thawing at early ages and
decreases heat of hydration.
ation. The hydrolysis of C2S proceeds slowly. At early ages, less than a
month, C2S has little influence on strength and hardness. While after one year, its
contribution to the strength and hardness is proportionately almost equal to C3S. The heat of
hydration is 260 J/g. Tricalciumalluminate It is about 5-11%
11% (normally about 10.5 per cent)
of cement. It rapidlyreacts with water and is responsible for flash set of finely grounded
clinker. The rapidity ofaction is regulated by the addition of 22-3% of gypsum at the time of
grinding cement. Tricalciumaluminate is responsible for the initial set, high heat of hydration
and has greater tendency tovolume changes causing cracking. Raising the C3A content
reduces the setting time, weakens resistance to sulphate atta attack
ck and lowers the ultimate
strength, heat of hydration and contractionduring air hardening. The heat of hydration of 865
J/g.
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Tetracalciumalumino ferrite It constitutes about 8–14% (normally about 9 per cent) of

cement. It isresponsible for flash set but generates less heat. It has poorest cementing value.
Raising theC4AF content reduces the strength slightly. The heat of hydration is 420 J/g.
Hydration of Cement In the anhydrous state, four main types of minerals are normally
present: alite, belite, celiteand felite. Also present are small amounts of clinker sulfate
(sulfates of sodium, potassium and calcium) and gypsum, which was added when the clinker
was ground up to produce the familiar grey powder. When water is added, the reactions
which occur are mostly exothermic, that is, the reactions generate heat. We can get an
indication of the rate at which the minerals are reacting by monitoring the rate at which heat
is evolved using a technique called conduction calorimetry.Almost immediately on adding
water some of the clinker sulphates and gypsum dissolve producing an alkaline, sulfate-rich,
solution.Soon after mixing, the (C3A) phase (the most reactive of the four main clinker
minerals) reacts with the water to form an aluminaterich gel (Stage I on the heat evolution
curve above). The gel reacts with sulfate in solution to form small rod-like crystals of
ettringite. (C3A) reaction is with water is strongly exothermic but does not last long, typically
only a few minutes, and is followed by a period of a few hours of relatively low heat
evolution. This is called the dormant, or induction period (Stage II).The first part of the
dormant period, up to perhaps half-way through, corresponds to when concrete can be placed.
As the dormant period progresses, the paste becomes too stiff to be workable.At the end of
the dormant period, the alite and belite in the cement start to react, with the formation of
calcium silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide. This corresponds to the main period of
hydration (Stage III), during which time concrete strengths increase. The individual grains
react from the surface inwards, and the anhydrous particles become smaller. (C3A) hydration
also continues, as fresh crystals become accessible to water.The period of maximum heat
evolution occurs typically between about 10 and 20 hours after mixing and then gradually
tails off. In a mix containing OPC only, most of the strength gain has occurred within about a
month. Where OPC has been partly-replaced by other materials, such as fly ash, strength
growth may occur more slowly and continue for several months or even a year.Ferrite
reaction also starts quickly as water is added, but then slows down, probably because a layer
of iron hydroxide gel forms, coating the ferrite and acting as a barrier, preventing further
reaction.
Various tests on cement:
Basically two types of tests are under taken for assessing the quality of cement. These are
either field test or lab tests. The current section describes these tests in details. Field test:
There are four field tests may be carried out to as certain roughly the quality of cement. There
are four types of field tests to access the colour, physical property, and strength of the cement
as described below.
• The colour of cement should be uniform.
• It should be typical cement colour i.e. grey colour with a light greenish shade. Physical
properties
• Cement should feel smooth when touched between fingers.
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• If hand is inserted in a bag or heap of cement,it should feel cool. Presence of lumps
• Cement should be free from lumps.
• For a moisture content of about 5 to 8%, this increase of volume may be much as 20 to 40
%,depending upon the grading of sand. Strength
• A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of thick glass and it is kept under
water for 24 hours.It should set and not crack. Laboratory tests: Six laboratory tests are
conducted mainly for assessing the quality of cement. These are: fineness, compressive
strength, consistency, setting time, soundness and tensile strength. Fineness
• This test is carried out to check proper grinding of cement.
• The fineness of cement particles may be determined either by sieve test or permeability
apparatus test.
• In sieve test ,the cement weighing 100 gm is taken and it is continuously passed for 15
minutes through standard BIS sieve no. 9.The residue is then weighed and this weight should
not be more than 10% of original weight.
• In permeability apparatus test,specific area of cement particles is calculated.This test is
better than sieve test.The specific surface acts as a measure of the frequency of particles of
average size. Compressive strength
• This test is carried out to determine the compressive strength of cement.
• The mortar of cement and sand is prepared in ratio 1:3.
• Water is added to mortar in water cement ratio 0.4.
• The mortar is placed in moulds.The test specimens are in the form of cubes and the moulds
are of metals.For 70.6 mm and 76 mm cubes ,the cement required is 185gm and 235 gm
respectively.
• Then the mortar is compacted in vibrating machine for 2 minutes and the moulds are placed
in a damp cabin for 24 hours.
• The specimens are removed from the moulds and they are submerged in clean water for
curing.
• The cubes are then tested in compression testing machine at the end of 3days and 7 days.
Thus compressive strength was found out.
Consistency The purpose of this test is to determine the percentage of water required for
preparing cement pastes for other tests.
• Take 300 gm of cement and add 30 percent by weight or 90 gm of water to it.
• Mix water and cement thoroughly.
• Fill the mould of Vicat apparatus and the gauging time should be 3.75 to 4.25 minutes.
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• Vicat apparatus consists of aneedle is attached a movable rod with an indicator attached to
it.
• There are three attachments: square needle,plungerand needle with annular collar.
• The plunger is attached to the movable rod.the plunger is gently lowered on the paste in the
mould.
• The settlement of plunger is noted.If the penetration is between 5 mm to 7 mm from the
bottom of mould,the water added is correct.If not process is repeated with different
percentages of water till the desired penetration is obtained. Setting time
• This test is used to detect the deterioration of cement due to storage.The test is performed to
find out initial setting time and final setting time.
• Cement mixed with water and cement paste is filled in the Vicat mould.
• Square needle is attached to moving rod of vicat apparatus.
• The needle is quickly released and it is allowed to penetrate the cement paste.In the
beginningthe needle penetrates completely.The procedure is repeated at regular intervals till
the needle does not penetrate completely.(upto 5mm from bottom)
The distance between the points of indicator is again measured.The difference between the
two readings indicates the expansion of cement and it should not exceed 10 mm. Tensile
strength
• This test was formerly used to have an indirect indication of compressive strength of
cement.
• The mortar of sand and cement is prepared.
• The water is added to the mortar.
• The mortar is placed in briquette moulds.The mould is filled with mortar and then a small
heap of mortar is formed at its top.It is beaten down by a standard spatula till water appears
on the surface.Same procedure is repeated for the other face of briquette.
• The briquettes are kept in a damp for 24 hours and carefully removed from the moulds.
• The briquettes are tested in a testing machine at the end of 3 and 7 days and average is
found out
Low carbon cement refers to a variety of cement formulations and production processes
designed to significantly reduce the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions associated with
traditional cement manufacturing. Cement, specifically Portland cement, is a crucial
component of concrete and is produced by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) along with
other materials to high temperatures in a kiln, a process that emits a large amount of CO2
primarily through the decarbonation of limestone and the burning of fossil fuels for heat.
Given that the construction industry heavily relies on cement, and considering the global
imperative to combat climate change, there's a growing demand for more sustainable building
materials, including low carbon cement.
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Definition and Approach
Low carbon cement is defined by its reduced carbon footprint. This reduction can be
achieved through various means, including:

Alternative Raw Materials: Using materials that require less energy to process or that are
byproducts of other industrial processes, such as fly ash from coal combustion, slag from
blast furnaces, and natural pozzolans. These materials can partially or wholly replace
Portland cement in concrete mixes.

Innovative Production Techniques: Developing new methods of producing clinker (the main
component of cement) that emit less CO2, or even capture CO2 as part of the process. This
might include novel chemical formulations or the use of alternative, less carbon-intensive
fuels.

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): Implementing CCS technologies to capture the CO2
emissions from the cement manufacturing process before they are released into the
atmosphere, and then storing them underground or utilizing them in other products.

Enhanced Efficiency: Improving the energy efficiency of cement production facilities to

reduce the overall emissions associated with fuel consumption.

Clinker Substitution: Reducing the clinker content in cement with materials that do not
require the same energy-intensive production processes. Clinker substitution is one of the
most effective methods for reducing the carbon footprint of cement.

Benefits and Challenges

Benefits:
Reduced CO2 Emissions: The primary benefit is the significant reduction in greenhouse gas
emissions, contributing to global climate change mitigation efforts.
Sustainable Use of Resources: Many low carbon cements utilize industrial byproducts,
promoting a more circular economy and reducing waste.
Energy Conservation: By optimizing production processes and using alternative materials,
energy consumption can be reduced.
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Challenges:

Technical Performance: Ensuring that low carbon cements meet the same technical
performance standards as traditional Portland cement, including strength and durability.
Regulatory and Market Acceptance: Gaining acceptance from building codes, engineers, and
construction professionals, which often requires extensive testing and demonstration of
equivalency.
Cost: Initial costs may be higher than traditional cement, although this can be offset by the
long-term benefits and potential policy incentives for low carbon materials.
Coarse aggregate
Coarse aggregate is one of the essential components of concrete, playing a significant role in
its strength, durability, and structural performance. It consists of various particulate materials,
including gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete, and geosynthetic aggregates,
typically larger than 4.75 mm (0.19 inches) in diameter. Coarse aggregate is mixed with fine
aggregate (sand), cement, and water to create concrete. The quality, characteristics, and
proportion of coarse aggregate significantly affect the properties of the concrete mix.

Properties of Coarse Aggregate

Size and Gradation: The size and gradation of coarse aggregate affect the concrete's strength,
workability, and durability. Aggregates are categorized by their size, and their selection
depends on the specific requirements of the construction project. Well-graded aggregates,
with a mix of different sizes, tend to create denser and stronger concrete.

Shape and Surface Texture: The shape of the aggregate particles can be angular, rounded,
flaky, or elongated. Angular aggregates have a higher surface area and more particle
interlock, which can increase the strength of the concrete but decrease its workability.
Rounded aggregates, on the other hand, enhance workability. The surface texture can
influence the bond between the aggregate and cement paste; rough-textured aggregates
provide a better bond.

Density and Specific Gravity: The density of coarse aggregate, which is its mass per unit
volume, and its specific gravity, the ratio of its density to that of water, influence the weight
and strength of the concrete. Aggregates with higher specific gravity usually produce
concrete with higher strength.

Porosity and Absorption: Porosity refers to the volume of pores or voids within an aggregate
particle, and absorption is the measure of the amount of water that an aggregate can absorb.
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Both properties affect the concrete's strength and durability, as more porous aggregates may
lead to weaker concrete and higher susceptibility to freeze-thaw cycles and chemical attack.

Moisture Content: The moisture content of coarse aggregate can influence the concrete's mix
design. Aggregates can be in a dry, saturated surface-dry (SSD), or wet condition, affecting
the water-cement ratio and, consequently, the strength and durability of the concrete.

Thermal Properties: The thermal conductivity and expansion of coarse aggregate can impact
the thermal behavior of concrete. Materials with low thermal conductivity and similar
thermal expansion to the cement paste are preferable for minimizing thermal stresses.

Chemical Stability: Aggregates should be chemically inert, meaning they should not react
adversely with the alkalis in cement or the environment. Alkali-aggregate reactions can lead
to expansion, cracking, and deterioration of the concrete over time.

Crushing Strength: The resistance of coarse aggregate to crushing under gradually applied
compressive load is an important property, reflecting the aggregate's ability to withstand the
loads and stresses that occur after the concrete has hardened.

Environmental Impact: The source and processing of coarse aggregate can have
environmental implications. The use of recycled aggregates, such as those from crushed
concrete, can reduce the environmental impact associated with aggregate production.
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Fine aggregate
Fine aggregate is a critical component of concrete, mortar, and other construction materials,
where it fills the voids between coarse aggregates, contributes to the mixture's overall
strength, workability, and durability, and affects the surface finish of the final product. Fine
aggregates consist of natural sand or crushed stone, with most particles passing through a 3/8-
inch (9.5mm) sieve. In concrete, fine aggregates are essential for providing a compact, dense,
and smooth surface.

Properties of Fine Aggregate

Size and Gradation: The size of fine aggregate particles ranges from 0.075mm to 4.75mm.
The gradation or particle size distribution is a critical property that affects the sand's packing
density, water demand, workability, and the concrete's strength. Well-graded fine aggregates
(having a variety of particle sizes) can significantly improve the concrete mix's compactness
and workability.

Shape: The shape of fine aggregate particles can be classified as rounded, angular, flaky, or
elongated. Rounded particles improve workability due to their smooth surface but may
reduce the mix's strength. Angular particles provide better interlocking and can enhance the
strength of the concrete but may reduce workability.
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Texture: The surface texture of fine aggregate can be smooth or rough. Aggregates with a
rough texture can produce a stronger bond with the cement paste but may require more water,
affecting the concrete's strength and durability.

Specific Gravity and Density: Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of the aggregate to
the density of water. Fine aggregates with higher specific gravity typically yield concrete
with higher density and strength. The bulk density, which includes the void spaces between
particles, is also important for mix design calculations.

Moisture Content: The amount of water present in fine aggregate affects the water-cement
ratio, workability, and strength of the concrete mix. Aggregates may absorb water, which
must be accounted for in the mix design to ensure the correct water-cement ratio is
maintained.

Porosity and Absorption: The porosity of fine aggregate affects its water absorption capacity,
which can influence the concrete's strength and durability. High absorption might necessitate
adjustments in the mix design to maintain the desired water-cement ratio.

Chemical Stability: Fine aggregates should be chemically inert to avoid adverse reactions
with the alkalis in cement (such as alkali-silica reaction) that can lead to expansion and
cracking of the concrete over time.

Fineness Modulus (FM): The FM is an index number representing the mean size of the
particles in a given aggregate, calculated by adding the cumulative percentages of aggregate
retained on each of a specified series of sieves and dividing the sum by 100. It helps to
estimate the aggregate's grading and fineness. A higher FM indicates coarser aggregate,
which can affect the mix's water demand and workability.

Deleterious Materials: Fine aggregates should be free from harmful materials such as clay,
silt, salts, and organic impurities, which can affect the setting time, strength, and durability of
the concrete.
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Types of Tests on Coarse Aggregates

In the case of aggregates, 9 key tests have been identified that define aggregate quality. These
tests on aggregates are listed below –

 Aggregate Crushing Test

 Aggregate Impact Test
 Aggregate Abrasion Test
 Flakiness Index Test
 Elongation Index Test
 Angularity Test
 Soundness Test
 Specific Gravity and Water Absorption Test
 Stripping Value Test

TESTS ON FINE AGGREGATES:

 Sieve Analysis.
 Specific Gravity.
 Water Absorption & Moisture Content.
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 Bulk Density & Voids.
 Specific Surface & Surface Index.
 Clay, Silt Content.
 Bulking of Aggregates.
 Organic Impurities.

Mineral admixtures are not chemically generated and are sourced from other substances.
Mineral admixtures include fly ash, blast furnace slag, and silica fume. They have numerous
roles in the concrete mix and improve the concrete’s varied qualities. As we all know, we
seldom build anything without using concrete additives on the construction site in order to
enhance the qualities. The usage of pozzolanic or mineral admixtures can be traced back to
the early days of concrete construction. Mineral admixtures change the characteristics of both
fresh and cured concrete. Mineral admixtures are sometimes known as concrete additives or
extra cementing materials. They have a hydraulic or pozzolanic effect on the hardened
concrete’s nature. Natural pozzolans (such as the volcanic ash used in Roman concrete), fly
ash, and silica fumes are examples of cementitious materials. They can be used separately or
in conjunction with Portland cement or mixed cement.

What are the Advantages of Mineral Admixtures?

Some of the advantages of mineral admixtures are –
 It lowers costs

 It encourages energy savings as a result

 It boosts workability
 It improves extensibility
 It increases water tightness by reducing the alkali-aggregate reaction
 It strengthens the concrete
 It has less water demand means less heat generated by hydration, which means less
thermal shrinkage.
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 It eases compression
 It lowers permeability
Types of Mineral Admixtures

Some of the types of mineral admixtures are –

Fly Ash – Fly ash is a finely divided byproduct of coal burning. An electrostatic precipitator
collects the fly ash. Fly ash is often referred to as pulverized fuel ash (PFA). The main
components of fly ash are silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3), and calcium oxide (CaO). It has
recently been a frequent element in cement additives. It helps to achieve excellent strength
and performance. Although fly ash is an industrial byproduct, its usage in concrete greatly
enhances long-term strength. The fly ash used in cement additions is very fine, has a low
carbon content, and comes in a variety of highly reactive forms. At later phases, fly ash has a
strong strength effect. The response is slower than usual, and the initial strength is low in
comparison to regular concrete. Fly ash has a long lifespan and a low water content.
ASTM classified fly ash into two classes: Class F and Class C.

 Class F-Fly Ash is typically formed by the combustion of anthracite and bituminous
coal.
 Fly ash of class C is derived from lignite or sub-bituminous coal.
The majority of fly ash particles are spherical, which improves the workability of concrete.
When fly ash is added to concrete, it increases the time it takes for it to set. Increased setting
time provides for improved concrete hardening and, as a result, increased strength. Concrete
segregation and bleeding are reduced when fly ash is added to the mix. Concrete segregation
refers to the tendency for particles of different sizes to separate. Bleeding of concrete, on the
other hand, is when water seeps through the concrete’s surface. Segregation and bleeding are
both undesirable.

Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS) – Blast furnace slag is a byproduct of the
iron ore extraction process. Blast furnace slag has the highest specific gravity of all mineral
admixtures (2.8 to 3.0). The slag fineness is usually slightly higher than the cement fineness.
Air-cooled slag, expanded or foamed slag, granulated slag, and pelletized slag are all
conceivable kinds of slag. Only granulated slag is regularly employed as a mineral additive
among these. It is a highly reactive kind of slag that is often quenched to form a hardened
substance pulverized into fine particles similar to cement. As a result, it’s known as ground
granulated blast furnace slag.

GGBFS has cementitious as well as pozzolanic characteristics. To hydrate the slag, an

activator is required. GGBFS accelerates the concrete’s first setting time. However, because
its fineness is nearly identical to that of cement, it has little effect on the workability of the
concrete. By replacing cement in concrete with GGBFS, the pace of concrete strength gain is
slowed. The replacement of slag improves the ultimate strength gain as well as the concrete’s
durability. Concrete is very susceptible to chemical assault and corrosion when used in
marine applications. In this aspect, GGBFS is an excellent admixture because it boosts
resistance to these attacks. Concrete containing GGBFS, on the other hand, has been reported
to have higher carbonation rates than standard Portland cement concrete.

Silica Fume – Another mineral type of additive utilized in concrete construction is silica
fume. Silica fume is produced in electric arc furnaces at a temperature of 2000 degrees
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Celsius during the synthesis of silicon or ferrosilicon. Silica fume is a spherical particle with
a diameter of 150 nm on average. Because of its fineness, the inclusion of silica fume
increases the amount of water required to make concrete. Furthermore, the concrete becomes
more sticky and cohesive.

Silica fumes are made up of by-products of amorphous silica particles. It is created as a by-
product of the manufacture of elemental silica or other silicon-based compounds in electric
arc furnaces. Because of its fine nature, silica fumes raise the water demand of concrete,
necessitating the use of a superplasticizer virtually always. The addition of silica fume to the
concrete mix makes it stickier and more cohesive. Slump loss is usually caused by the
addition of silica fume to the concrete. Concrete bleeding has been significantly reduced. In
dry areas where the evaporation rate exceeds the rate at which concrete sets, plastic shrinkage
may occur. Concrete’s permeability is lowered. Silica fume serves as both a pozzolan and a
filler, and the transition zone between aggregates and cement paste is strengthened due to the
reactions. The permeability of chloride is significantly reduced.

Rice Husk Ash – A lot of rice husk is created during the milling of paddy from the fields.
This rice husk is mainly used as a source of energy. Rice husk ash is produced when the rice
husk is burned. It makes up around 25% of the husk’s mass. Rice husk ash poses a significant
environmental risk in the areas where it is disposed of. Field burning (open) provides low-
quality ash, bed furnace burning (fluidized), and industrial furnaces can create rice husk ash.
It has a high silica content. The concrete is strengthened with rice husk ash. Because it is
much smaller in size than cement particles, it also minimises permeability. It lowers the heat
of concrete hydration.

Metakaolin – Metakaolin is a non-purified form of ordinary clay and kaolin clay that
has been thermally activated. Metakaolin particles are smaller in size than cement
particles. Metakaolin, unlike the other admixtures, is not a by-product of the
manufacturing process. Concrete is strengthened by metakaolin as it lowers the
concrete’s permeability, aids the concrete’s chemical resistance, increases the
concrete’s tensile strength, and aids in the early development of concrete strength.
Concrete bleeding is significantly decreased when metakaolin is added. Metakaolin is
also used in the manufacture of fibre-cement and ferro-cement. It is also employed in
the creation of art sculptures.

Mineral Admixture Composite Cement

Mineral admixture composite cement refers to cementitious materials that include a

blend of Portland cement and one or more mineral admixtures. These admixtures,
which can be by-products of other industrial processes or naturally occurring
materials, are added to improve the properties of concrete, both in its fresh and
hardened states.

Ultrafine Materials

Ultrafine materials in concrete technology refer to particles that are significantly

smaller than traditional cement particles, often measured in nanometers (nm) or
micrometers (µm). These can include nano-silica (silicon dioxide), nano-titanium
oxide, carbon nanotubes, and other nano-sized particles. The key characteristic of
ultrafine materials is their extremely high surface area to volume ratio, which can
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profoundly affect the hydration processes, strength, and durability of cement-based
materials.

Lab Test - Fineness of Fly Ash, Recycled Aggregate

The fineness of fly ash is an important factor in its performance as a component in

concrete. It's typically assessed to understand how fine or coarse the particles are,
which affects the fly ash's reactivity and how well it can be mixed with cement. One
common method to test the fineness of fly ash is through the Blaine air permeability
test, although there are other methods like the sieve test or laser diffraction particle
size analysis.

Here's a general overview of how fineness might be tested, focusing on the Blaine air
permeability method as an example:

Blaine Air Permeability Method

Principle: This method measures the specific surface area of the fly ash, which is
indirectly related to particle size—the greater the surface area, the finer the material.
The test is based on the time it takes for a fixed quantity of air to flow through a
compacted sample of fly ash at a known pressure.

Apparatus: The main equipment includes a Blaine apparatus consisting of a

permeability cell, a manometer, and a plunger. A balance, timer, and a standard
reference material (for calibration purposes) are also required.

Sample Preparation: A specific quantity of fly ash (usually a few grams) is carefully
weighed and placed into the cell. The sample is then compacted by tapping or using a
plunger, depending on the equipment's design.
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Test Procedure:

The permeability cell, now containing the compacted fly ash, is attached to the
manometer.

Air is slowly passed through the sample, and the time for a certain volume of air to
pass is recorded.

The specific surface area (and thus the fineness) is calculated using the recorded time,
the known volume of air, and the characteristics of the equipment. The calculation
involves applying the Blaine formula, which incorporates the viscosity of air, the
pressure difference, and the dimensions of the apparatus.

Results and Reporting: The fineness is reported in terms of surface area, typically in
square meters per kilogram (m²/kg). A higher value indicates a finer material.

Interpretation: Finer fly ash particles react more quickly with water and can contribute
to a higher early strength of concrete. They also tend to provide a better finish and
improved workability. However, the optimal fineness level depends on the specific
application and the balance between early strength and long-term performance.

Alternative Methods

Sieve Analysis: For a simpler and more direct measure, a sieve analysis might be
performed to determine the percentage of particles above a certain mesh size.

Laser Diffraction Particle Size Analysis: This is a more modern and precise method to
measure particle size distribution, offering detailed insights into the range of particle
sizes present in the fly ash.
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Laboratory tests on recycled aggregates are crucial for determining their suitability for use in
new concrete production. These tests evaluate various physical and chemical properties to
ensure the recycled aggregates meet the required standards for construction projects. Here is
an overview of common laboratory tests conducted on recycled aggregates:
1. Sieve Analysis (Particle Size Distribution)
Objective: To determine the gradation or distribution of particle sizes within a given sample
of recycled aggregate.
Procedure: The aggregate is passed through a series of sieves with progressively smaller
openings to separate it into different size fractions. The mass of aggregate retained on each
sieve is then weighed, and the particle size distribution is determined.
Importance: Helps in assessing the suitability of the aggregate for different construction
purposes and in designing concrete mixes.
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2. Specific Gravity and Absorption
Objective: To determine the specific gravity and water absorption of the recycled aggregates.
Procedure: This involves measuring the mass of oven-dry aggregate, the mass of the
aggregate in water, and the mass of the saturated surface-dry aggregate. Calculations are then
performed to find the specific gravity and the percentage of water absorption.
Importance: These properties influence the mix water requirement and the density of
concrete.
3. Crushing Value
Objective: To assess the strength of the recycled aggregates.
Procedure: A specified load is applied progressively to an aggregate sample contained in a
standard cylinder. The crushing value is determined by the percentage of material crushed
finer than a specified size.
Importance: Indicates the aggregate’s resistance to crushing under gradually applied
compressive loads, impacting the strength of the concrete.
4. Impact Value
Objective: To evaluate the toughness of recycled aggregate.
Procedure: Similar to the crushing value test but involves a different apparatus to apply a
sudden impact force to the aggregate sample. The percentage of fines (particles smaller than a
specified size) formed by the impact is the aggregate impact value.
Importance: Higher toughness reduces the breakage of aggregates under impact loads,
influencing the durability of concrete.
5. Los Angeles Abrasion Test
Objective: To measure the hardness and abrasion resistance of aggregates.
Procedure: Aggregates are placed in a rotating drum with steel balls and rotated for a
specified number of revolutions. The percentage of aggregate worn away is measured.
Importance: Provides an indication of the aggregate's resistance to wear and degradation,
which affects the concrete's durability.
6. Soundness Test
Objective: To determine the resistance of recycled aggregates to weathering actions like
freeze-thaw cycles.
Procedure: The aggregate is subjected to cycles of wetting and drying in a solution of sodium
or magnesium sulfate and then dried. The loss in mass represents the aggregate's soundness.
Importance: Ensures the long-term durability of concrete made with recycled aggregates.
7. Water-Soluble Chloride Content
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Objective: To assess the potential for chloride-induced corrosion of reinforcement steel in
concrete.
Procedure: A known weight of the aggregate is dissolved in water, and the chloride content is
determined using titration or other chemical analysis methods.
Importance: Critical for preventing corrosion in reinforced concrete structures.
8. Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR)
Objective: To evaluate the potential of aggregates to undergo harmful alkali-silica reaction in
concrete.
Procedure: Various methods, including the accelerated mortar bar test, where the aggregate is
mixed with an alkaline solution and the expansion of mortar bars is measured over time.
Importance: Prevents long-term durability issues in concrete due to ASR.