STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE & AIR CIRCULATION

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TABLE OF CONTENT

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INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATOLOGY..................................................................................................................2

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ATMOSPHERE..................................................................................................................................................... 3
COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE............................................................................................................... 3

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STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE.................................................................................................................. 6
DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE.................................................................................................................14
HEATING AND COOLING OF THE ATMOSPHERE.................................................................................... 14

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SOLAR RADIATION................................................................................................................................ 15
MECHANISM OF HEAT TRANSFER......................................................................................................22
GREENHOUSE EFFECT........................................................................................................................ 25
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FACTORS AFFECTING TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION..........................................................................28
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION........................................................................................................................ 30
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE....................................................................................................................... 31
AIR CIRCULATION MODELS....................................................................................................................... 35
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CLASSIFICATION OF WINDS...................................................................................................................... 39
PLANETARY WINDS ( PREVAILING WINDS ).......................................................................................39
SEASONAL WINDS................................................................................................................................ 47
LOCAL WINDS........................................................................................................................................47
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PRELIMS POINTERS......................................................................................................................................... 54
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS.........................................................................................................................59
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PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE ” 1
 PRELIMS POINTERS

➔ COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE
◆ Air = mixture of gasses ; their composition follows :

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● Nitrogen : 78.08 %
● Oxygen : 20.95 %

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● Argon : 0.93 %
● Carbon Dioxide : 0.036 %
● Neon , Helium , Krypto , Xenon , Hydrogen

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◆ These gas particles are denser towards Earth’s surface & gets rarefied while travelling
upwards

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◆ CO2 = transparent to incoming solar radiation &
opaque to terrestrial radiations ( from the Earth’s surface )

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◆ O3 = filter out & absorbs UV - rays
◆ Water vapor = absorbs part of insolation ;
warm + wet tropics = 4 % of air / vol ;
dry + cold areas = <1 % of air / vol
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◆ Dust Particles = in lower layer , but transported above by the convection air currents ;
concentration of dust particles are found in sub - tropical & temperate regions

➔ GREENHOUSE EFFECT
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◆ It is a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface

◆ Layer of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere is transparent to the Incoming short-wave
radiations (mostly Visible & UV-rays );
◆ While is opaque to the terrestrial long-wave radiations (Infrared) back from the surface ,
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hence trapping in the gasses

◆ But , due to increased concentration of CO2 and other GHGs ( due to human activities ),
Greenhouse effect has enhanced and thereby led to Global Warming , Climate Change etc
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➔ STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE
◆ TROPOSPHERE
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● Lowermost layer
● Altitude height : 8 k.m. at the poles ; 18 k.m. at the equator
● This variation in height is due to temperature difference and gravity difference at the
equator and poles
● Troposphere gets heat up by long-wave terrestrial radiation
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● All weather phenomenon seen here

● Altitude mimics latitude : temperature decreases by 6.50 C for every 1 k.m. .
● Tropopause experiences : at equator = - 600C and at poles = - 400C

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE ” 53
 ◆ STRATOSPHERE
● Above troposphere up to 50 km
● Stratosphere contains the Ozone layer ;
● Absorb harmful UV-rays ( UV-C ) from the sun , causing temperature to increase in
this layer i.e. temperature increases with altitude in stratosphere

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● Since stable layer , suitable for jet aircraft for flying
◆ MESOSPHERE

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● Lies from 50 km to 80 km
● Coldest layer ; temperature decreases with the altitude ; reaches -900 C at
Mesopause

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● Due to friction in molecules , meteors ( other exo - material ) starts burning
◆ THERMOSPHERE

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● Lies above mesosphere from 80 km to 640 km
● Temperature in this layer increases rapidly with the altitude

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● IONOSPHERE (80 km - 400 km) : is the region in thermosphere , where high
concentration of ions and free electrons are formed , by ionization of atmospheric
gasses by the solar radiation
○ Reflects radio waves & thus crucial for radio , tele-communication , satellite
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communication
○ They are divided in layers based on the frequency of the radio-waves
○ Ionosphere reflects Auroras , when solar particles collide with gases
○ ISS stationed in the lower orbits lies in this layer & most satellites are
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stationed in this layer

◆ EXOSPHERE
● Outermost layer ; from 640 km - 1000 km
● Merges with the outer space
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● Gasses present are mainly hydrogen & helium

NOTE :
● KARMAN LINE : is the dividing line between the atmosphere and outer space . It is generally
considered 100 km above sea level .
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➔ TERMINOLOGIES ASSOCIATED WITH TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION

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◆ SOLAR RADIATION : is the energy emitted by the sun in the form of Electromagnetic
Waves ( EM waves ) ; the majority of solar energy reaching the Earth’s surface is in the
form of Visible Light , the rest significant portion of Infrared and UV-rays
◆ INSOLATION : are the short wavelength energy received by the surface of the Earth
◆ HEAT BUDGET : refers to the balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing
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terrestrial radiation
● Earth’s surface absorbs ~ 51 % of incoming solar energy and ~19 % absorbs by the
atmosphere , and

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE ” 54
 ● ~ 30 % of incoming solar energy is reflected back , out of which : 6 % ( by
atmosphere ) , 20 % ( by the clouds ) , 4 % ( Earth’s surface )
● Out of the outgoing terrestrial radiation , ~ 64 % is radiated back to the space
◆ Variations in this heat budget can be seen due to following factors :
● Latitudinal variations

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● Seasonal variations
● Surface characteristics

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● Albedo Effect
◆ CONDUCTION : transfer of heat to the object in direct contact without the movement
● It heats up the ground during the daytime as the sun’s energy is transferred to the

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surface
◆ CONVECTION : transfer of heat by the movement of the air molecules

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● It rises the warm , lighter air and sinks the cool , dense air
● It is responsible for vertical heat transfer in the atmosphere

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◆ ADVECTION : transfer of heat by the horizontal movement of air masses
● It transfers warm air from tropical regions to the cooler regions , while cold air is
brought to the warm areas .
● It leads to phenomena like Land & Sea Breezes
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◆ TERRESTRIAL RADIATION : transfers heat in the form of EM waves
● It radiates the long-wave Infrared emitted from the Earth’s surface , after absorbing
the incoming solar energy .
● This heat is absorbed by the GHGs and leads to greenhouse effect
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➔ WIND : is the horizontal movement of air across the Earth’s surface , from the high pressure to
the low pressure
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➔ ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE : is the force exerted by the weight of the air above the specific
region on the Earth's surface
◆ HIGH PRESSURE = zone where cool air sinks exerting pressure on the surface
◆ LOW PRESSURE = zone where warm air rises reducing pressure from the surface
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◆ PRESSURE SYSTEM FORMING CIRCULATION CELL

● In the low pressure region , air converges at the surface filling the vacuum created
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by the rising warm air

● While , in the high pressure region , exerting pressure pushes / diverges the air
outwards towards the adjacent low pressure region
● This continuous cycle of pressure system forms the circulation cell
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➔ PRESSURE GRADIENT : is the rate of change in the atmospheric pressure

◆ Steep pressure gradient ( large pressure difference over short distance ) = strong winds
◆ Gentle pressure gradient ( small pressure difference ) = light winds ( slower )

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE ” 55
➔ ISOBARS : are lines drawn that connects points of equal atmospheric pressure at a given
altitude
◆ Closely spaced isobars ( steep pressure gradient ) = strong winds
◆ Widely spaced isobars ( gentle pressure gradient ) = light winds
◆ The wind direction is perpendicular to the Isobars

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➔ PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE (PGF) : is the force resulting from the difference in atmospheric

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pressure .
◆ It acts to move air from the areas of higher pressure to lower pressure
◆ PGF is perpendicular to the isobars

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◆ PGF is parallel to the direction of wind

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➔ CORIOLIS FORCE : is the apparent force caused by the Earth’s rotation , and deflects the path
of the moving objects

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◆ In the northern hemisphere , coriolis force deflects the moving air to the right of its path
(clockwise direction)
◆ In the southern hemisphere , coriolis force deflects the moving air to the left of its path
(anti-clockwise direction)
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◆ The coriolis force does not affect the speed of the wind .

➔ HADLEY MODEL : (ONE - CELL MODEL )

◆ Hadley’s theory suggested that warm air rises at the equator and flows toward the poles,
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where air cools & descends , creating a return flow toward the equator .
◆ LIMITATIONS :
● Hadley did not account for the coriolis effect
● The model did not fully explain the global atmospheric circulation beyond the tropics
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➔ FERREL MODEL : (THREE - CELL MODEL )

◆ Ferrel addressed the Hadley’s drawbacks & therefore taking coriolis effect in to the
account , Ferrel proposed three - cell model : which divided the atmosphere into three
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distinct cells in each hemisphere

◆ HADLEY CELL ( 00 - 300 latitude ) :
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● It lies from sub - tropical high pressure ( around 300 latitude ) to equatorial low
pressure ( around the equator )
◆ FERREL CELL ( 300 - 600 latitude ) :
● It lies from sub - tropical high pressure ( around 300 latitude ) to sub-polar low
pressure ( around 600 latitude )
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● Ferrel cell is not directly driven by heat , but indirect circulation resulting from the
interaction between the other two cells
◆ POLAR CELL ( 600 - 900 latitude ) :

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE ” 56
 ● It lies from polar high pressure ( around the poles ) to sub-polar low pressure( around
600 latitude )

➔ PLANETARY WINDS (PREVAILING WINDS): are the large - scale winds that blow constantly in
specific direction over large parts of the Earth , throughout the year

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◆ TROPICAL EASTERLIES :

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● They blow from sub - tropical high pressure ( around 300 latitude ) to equatorial low
pressure ( around the equator )
● In the northern hemisphere , travel from NE to SW

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● In the southern hemisphere , travel from SE to NW
● They helped sailors in historic trade route

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● Tropical Deserts due to Easterlies =
○ are largely located under the influence of the subtropical high-pressure belt (
around 300 latitude )

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○ descending air, becomes dry and warm ( due to compression), leading to arid
conditions in these regions
○ These deserts are found on the western margins of continents , since easterlies
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lose most of their moisture while crossing vast land masses

◆ WESTERLIES :
● They blow from sub - tropical high pressure ( around 300 latitude ) to sub-polar low
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pressure ( around 600 latitude )

● In the northern hemisphere , travel from SW to NE
● In the southern hemisphere , travel from NW to SE
● They are strong and persistent in the southern hemisphere , also named :
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○ Roaring Forties ( 400 S - 500 S )

○ Furious Fifties ( 500 S - 600 S )
○ Shrieking Sixties ( 600 S - 700 S )
● Mid - latitude Deserts due to Westerlies =
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○ typically found between 300 and 600 latitude in both hemispheres

○ These are found on the eastern margins of continents & witnessed in vast
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landmasses

◆ POLAR EASTERLIES :
● They blow from polar high pressure ( around the poles ) to sub-polar low pressure(
around 600 latitude )
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● In the northern hemisphere , travel from NE to SW

● In the southern hemisphere , travel from SE to NW
● They are very cold and drive polar fronts

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE ” 57
 ◆ INTER - TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE ( ITCZ ) :
● It is the region near the equator ( 50N - 50S ) , where trade winds converges from both
the hemispheres & creates a zone of low-pressure
● Rising air results in cloudy skies and high humidity i.e. INSTABLE CONDITION
● They are the ‘thermally - induced ’ regions

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◆ DOLDRUMS :
● It is a term known for ‘ calm & stagnant air ’ near the equatorial region and associated

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with low pressure , heavy rainfall and high humidity
● It is the belt of calmness , where sailing ships might get stuck because of no presence
of horizontal movement of air , describing the state of inactivity

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◆ HORSE LATITUDES :
● It is a zone of high atmospheric pressure ~ 300 N / S of the equator i.e. region of

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sub-tropical high pressure .
● They are associated with calm and stable weather because of clear skies and dry

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weather ( arid or semi - arid region ) i.e. desertic conditions

➔ LOCAL WINDS : are the small - scale winds that occur over limited geographical areas ,
influenced by local topography , temperature difference and seasonal factors
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◆ LAND & SEA BREEZES :
● Originate from the differential heating and cooling of land and sea surfaces
● During the day-time , land heats up faster than water , creating a low-pressure zone
over land & high-pressure zone over sea . This forms SEA BREEZE , with cool air
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from sea moving towards warm land air .

● During the night-time , land cools faster than water , creating a high-pressure over
land & low-pressure over sea . This forms LAND BREEZE , with dry & cool land air
moving towards sea .
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◆ MOUNTAIN & VALLEY BREEZES :

● They are formed due to temperature differences between mountain slopes and valleys
● During the day - time , the mountain slopes heats up faster than the valley , creating a
high-pressure in the valley floor . This denser and cooler air from the valley moves
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upwards to replace rising warm air on the mountains , forming VALLEY BREEZE
● This wind moving upslope is termed ‘ANABATIC WIND’
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● During the night-time , the mountain slopes cool faster than the valleys . This dense,
cool air moves downhill due to gravity , flowing into the valleys , forming MOUNTAIN
BREEZE
● This creates a layer of cold air trapped near the surface , with the warmer air above,
leading to temperature inversion
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● This wind flowing down the slope is termed ‘KATABATIC WIND’

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE ” 58
 ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE & CONCEPT OF AIR MASS

TABLE OF CONTENT

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HUMIDITY , CONDENSATION & PRECIPITATION............................................................................................. 2

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HUMIDITY....................................................................................................................................................... 3
CONDENSATION............................................................................................................................................6

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PRECIPITATION........................................................................................................................................... 18
AIR MASS...........................................................................................................................................................23
CYCLONES & ANTICYCLONES....................................................................................................................... 31

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TROPICAL CYCLONES................................................................................................................................34
TEMPERATE ( EXTRA-TROPICAL ) CYCLONES....................................................................................... 38
TORNADOES..................................................................................................................................................... 44
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JET - STREAMS................................................................................................................................................. 47
SUBTROPICAL JET STREAMS................................................................................................................... 49
POLAR JET STREAMS................................................................................................................................ 50
PRELIMS POINTERS......................................................................................................................................... 52
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PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS.........................................................................................................................58

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PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE & CONCEPT OF AIR MASS ” 1
 PRELIMS POINTERS

➔ HUMIDITY : amount of water vapor present in the air ( gaseous form )

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◆ HUMIDITY CAPACITY = ability / limit of air molecule to hold water vapour ;
= can be increased / decreased w.r.t change in temperature ;

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= Humidity Capacity is directly proportional to temperature ;
= warmer air can hold more vapour , while cold air has a lower
humidity capacity
◆ ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY = actual water content present in the air

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◆ RELATIVE HUMIDITY = ratio of absolute to the humidity capacity , an air can hold ;
= Indicates how close the air is being saturated with moisture ;

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= Relative humidity decreases as the temperature rises

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➔ CONDENSATION : is a process by which water vapour in the air changes into liquid / ice , when
the air cools or becomes saturated
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◆ CONDITIONS FOR ITS FORMATION
● RH = 100 % achieved , fully saturated air & zero capacity to add more
● Dew point achieve
● Presence of Hygroscopic Nuclei ( to provide surface support for water vapour to
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condense upon ) ; for example : minute salt particles , dust particles , pollutants
◆ DEW POINT : is temperature at which air becomes fully saturated and water vapour begins
to condense into liquid
● ABOVE DEW POINT ( + ) = no condensation
= RH < 100 %
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= Clear skies , dry conditions

● BELOW DEW POINT ( – ) = condensation occurs ( dew / frost based on above /
below freezing point )
= RH = 100 %
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= near the surface : fog formation & low visibility conditions

◆ TYPES OF CONDENSATION
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● DEW = when air cools down and condenses on surfaces like grasses , leaves etc
= air temperature drop to dew point , but remain above freezing point
= formation conditions :: Clear skies & Calm winds
● FROST = when air temperatures drops below freezing and vapour turns into ice
= air temperature drops below dew point & freezing point
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= Formation conditions :: Clear skies & Calm nights → supports rapid

radiational cooling

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE & CONCEPT OF AIR MASS ” 52
 ● FOG = when air near surface becomes saturated , leading to suspended water droplets
in the air
= air temperature drops to dew point
= Clear skies & Calm or light winds
= long winter nights

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= temperature inversion feature , traps cooler air near the ground
➢ MIST = less dense fog , visibility 1 - 2 km

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➢ HAZE = extremely fine water droplets suspended , visibility 3 - 5 km
● SMOG = smoke + fog
● VOG = volcano + fog

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● CLOUD = when air condenses at high altitudes i.e. when rising air cools and condenses
vapour around hygroscopic nuclei

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◆ ADIABATIC COOLING & CONDENSATION :

● Rising air parcels expands due to the decrease in pressure at higher altitudes . As it
expands , it cools because its internal energy is spread over a larger volume . When this
rising air parcel cools to its dew point temperature , condensation occurs .
● Unsaturated rising air cools at the rate about 100 / km , called the “Dry Adiabatic Lapse
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Rate” .
● Saturated rising air cools at the rate 50 / km , due to release of latent heat during
condensation , called the “Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate” .

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE & CONCEPT OF AIR MASS ” 53
➔ PRECIPITATION : is the process through which condensed water in clouds falls to the surface of
the Earth in various forms :
◆ RAIN : liquid water droplets falling to the ground
◆ SNOW : ice crystals or snowflakes falling to the ground
◆ SLEET : small , frozen raindrops / ice pellets falls down

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◆ HAIL : solid irregular lumps of ice falling to the ground
◆ DRIZZLE : very small / fine water droplets ( smaller than raindrops ) falls down

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◆ VIRAGE : raindrops / ice crystals evaporates before reaching the ground

➔ TYPES OF RAINFALL :

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◆ CONVECTIONAL RAINFALL = occurs when the sun heats the Earth's surface, causing
warm, moist air to rise rapidly. As it ascends, the air cools and condenses to form clouds,

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eventually leading to heavy rainfall, typically accompanied by thunderstorms. This type of
rainfall is common in equatorial regions and during summer afternoons in temperate zones.

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● Cumulonimbus clouds are formed
● Rainfall is short but intense
◆ OROGRAPHIC RAINFALL = occurs when moist air is forced to ascend a mountain slope.
As the air rises, it cools and condenses, causing precipitation on the windward side of the
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mountain, while the leeward side remains relatively dry, often forming a rain shadow.
● Nimbostratus or stratus clouds are formed
◆ FRONTAL RAINFALL = occurs when a warm air mass meets a cold air mass , causing the
warmer, lighter air to rise over the colder , denser air. As the warm air ascends, it cools and
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condenses , resulting in cloud formation and precipitation. This type of rainfall is commonly
seen in temperate regions and is associated with fronts in cyclonic systems .

➔ AIR MASS : is a large body of air that has relatively uniform temperature , humidity and pressure
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across its horizontal extent . The conditions for its formation are :
◆ Uniform large surface area
◆ Stationary or slow-moving air over a large area
◆ Stable atmospheric conditions , minimal vertical air movement
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◆ Stay over the same region for prolonged period , to fully acquire characteristics of surface
◆ High-pressure system with gentle or low-level divergence
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◆ Weak isobars , which will result in slow air movement

◆ Five major air mass types :

● Maritime Tropical ( mT ) : warm and humid , formed over tropical oceans and seas
● Continental Tropical ( cT ) : warm and dry , formed over tropical and subtropical
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landmasses
● Maritime Polar ( mP ) : cool and moist , formed over cold oceans in polar or sub-polar
regions

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE & CONCEPT OF AIR MASS ” 54
 ● Continental Polar ( cP ) : cool and dry , formed over polar and sub-polar landmasses
● Continental Arctic ( cA ) : extremely cold and dry , formed over arctic or antarctica
regions

➔ AIR MASS INTERACTION : occurs when two different air masses , with distinct temperature and

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moisture characteristics meet , where this colliding boundary is called FRONT .
◆ WARM FRONT : occurs when a warm air mass is active and moves over the cold air region .

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The warm air gently rises over the cold air , forming nimbostratus clouds over the gentle
slope of the warm front . The rainfall associated is generally steady and light , but for several
long durations .

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◆ COLD FRONT : occurs when a cold air mass is active and moves over the warm air region .
The cold air mass forces the warm air to rise rapidly , forming cumulonimbus clouds over the

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steeper slope of the cold front . The rainfall associated is typically short-lived , but intense .
◆ STATIONARY FRONT : where neither air mass advances , resulting in stand-off condition.

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The rainfall associated is the prolonged periods of cloudiness and precipitation.
◆ OCCLUDED FRONT : occurs when cold front overtakes warm front , lifting the warm air
completely off the ground . This is associated with complex weather patterns with clouds and
precipitation .
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➔ CYCLONES : is a large scale air system that revolves around a centre of low atmospheric
pressure . The features associated are :
◆ Low pressure system
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◆ Inward spiraling winds , with speed increasing as it approaches the centre

◆ Rotational motion caused by the coriolis force
● In the northern hemisphere : counter-clockwise
● In the southern hemisphere : clockwise
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◆ Strong wind pattern , that can reach destructive level ( especially in Tropical Cyclones )
◆ Closed Isobars , indicating strong pressure-gradient i.e. stronger winds

➔ TROPICAL CYCLONES : are those that originate over oceans in tropical areas and move over to
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the coastal areas bringing about large scale destruction caused by violent winds and heavy
rainfall. The conditions for its formation are :
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◆ Large sea surface with temperature higher than 270 C

◆ Coriolis force acting
◆ Small variations in the vertical wind speed
◆ Pre-existing weak low-pressure
◆ Upper divergence above the sea-level system
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◆ TERMINOLOGIES =
● EYE : centre of the cyclone , calm weather and clear skies
● EYE WALL : surrounds the eye , heavy rain and the most intense winds

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE & CONCEPT OF AIR MASS ” 55
 ● SPIRAL RAINBANDS : bands of clouds and precipitation , spiraling outwards

➔ EXTRA-TROPICAL ( TEMPERATE ) CYCLONES : are those that develop in the mid and high
latitudes , beyond the tropics i.e. between 300 and 600 latitude in both the hemispheres . The
conditions for its formation are :

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◆ Presence of air masses with temperature contrast
◆ Development of Front

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◆ Presence of coriolis force
◆ Upper - level disturbance
◆ Low atmospheric pressure

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◆ Different stages of interaction between cold polar air and warm tropical air are :

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● INITIAL STAGE ( stationary front ) = stationary boundary exists between the cold and
warm air mass known as ‘Polar Front’ . The air masses on both sides of the front are

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not moving much .
● FRONTAL WAVE = a disturbance in the winds along the polar front creates a small
wave - like kink on the boundary . This disturbance causes the air to move ( warm air
polewards and cold air equatorwards ) , leading to the formation of wave cyclones .
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● DEVELOPING CYCLONIC CIRCULATION = as the cold front and warm front develop ,
low-pressure centre deepens , forming a better defined cyclone .
● MATURE STAGE = cyclone reaches its most developed stage with well-defined
structure . The cold front moves faster than the warm front , forming a comma-shaped
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cloud pattern . The front experiences typical heavy precipitation , with continuous rain
near the warm front . The clouds associated with warm front and cold front are
nimbostratus and cumulonimbus .
● OCCLUDED STAGE = the faster moving cold front eventually catches up with the warm
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front , creating an occluded front . This occlusion brings widespread cloudiness and
precipitation . This marks the beginning of the cyclone’s decay as the warm air is lifted
completely off the ground , weakening the low-pressure centre .
● DISSIPATION STAGE = the cyclone gradually weakens as the temperature contrast
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between the cold and warm air decreases . The system eventually dissipates when all
the warm air is lifted and the cyclone loses its source of energy .
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◆ TERMINOLOGIES :
● FRONTOGENESIS = strengthening of the front due to temperature and pressure
gradients , leading to development of cyclone
● FRONTOLYSIS = weakening of a front , when the cyclone begins to lose its strength .
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➔ GEOSTROPHIC WINDS : are high-altitude winds that flow parallel to isobars due to a balance
between the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis effect. This balance allows these winds to

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“ ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE & CONCEPT OF AIR MASS ” 56
 maintain a steady, west-to-east direction with minimal friction, commonly occurring in the upper
troposphere.

➔ JET STREAMS : are narrow , fast-flowing air currents in the upper atmosphere , typically found
between the troposphere and stratosphere. They flow west to east and are driven by temperature

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contrasts between polar and tropical regions, influencing global weather patterns and guiding
storm systems . The characteristics of Jet stream are :

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◆ Narrow bands of very fast-moving winds
◆ Flow in a circumpolar pattern around the polar region , encircling the globe
◆ Are geostrophic nature winds

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◆ Latitude-dependent , more pronounced in mid-latitudes
◆ Predominantly flows from west to east , due to coriolis effect

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◆ Exhibit a wavy , meandering pattern due to variations in the atmospheric pressure ,
referred as “ ROSSBY WAVES ” .

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➔ SUB-TROPICAL JET STREAMS : are the high speed wind current located in the upper
troposphere at about 250 - 350 latitude in both the hemispheres, generally at the boundary
between tropical and subtropical air masses . They are primarily driven by the Earth’s rotation and
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the Hadley cell circulation . These jet streams occur around 12-16 km above sea level and result
from the temperature contrast between the equatorial and subtropical regions .

➔ POLAR JET STREAMS : are fast-flowing , narrow air currents found in the upper atmosphere
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near the polar regions ( around 600 latitudes ), forming at the boundary of cold polar air and
warmer mid-latitude air. They are driven by the temperature contrast at the polar front . These jet
streams flow from west to east at altitudes of about 9-12 km and are strongest during winter due
to sharper temperature contrasts. Polar jet streams influence weather patterns by directing
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storm systems and regulating temperature variations across latitudes .

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“ ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE & CONCEPT OF AIR MASS ” 57
 WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN

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TABLE OF CONTENT

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KOPPEN CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM................................................................................................2
TROPICAL HUMID CLIMATES ( GROUP - A )...............................................................................................5

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DRY CLIMATES ( GROUP - B )...................................................................................................................... 6
WARM TEMPERATE CLIMATES ( GROUP - C )........................................................................................... 7

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COLD TEMPERATE CLIMATES ( GROUP - D ).............................................................................................8
POLAR CLIMATES ( GROUP - E )................................................................................................................. 9
HIGHLANDS ( H )......................................................................................................................................... 10
EQUATORIAL CLIMATE.................................................................................................................................... 11
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TROPICAL MONSOON AND TROPICAL MARINE CLIMATES....................................................................... 17
TROPICAL SAVANNA CLIMATE....................................................................................................................... 23
HOT DESERT AND MID - LATITUDE DESERT CLIMATES............................................................................. 28
WARM TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN ( MEDITERRANEAN ) CLIMATE..................................................34
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TEMPERATE CONTINENTAL ( STEPPE ) CLIMATE........................................................................................39

WARM TEMPERATE EASTERN MARGIN CLIMATE....................................................................................... 43
COOL TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN (BRITISH TYPE) CLIMATE........................................................... 49
COOL TEMPERATE CONTINENTAL CLIMATE................................................................................................53
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COOL TEMPERATE EASTERN MARGIN ( LAURENTIAN ) CLIMATE............................................................57

ARCTIC OR POLAR CLIMATE.......................................................................................................................... 61
PRELIMS POINTERS......................................................................................................................................... 64
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS.........................................................................................................................65
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PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 1
 OCEANOLOGY

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TABLE OF CONTENT

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OCEANOLOGY.................................................................................................................................................... 3
STRUCTURE OF OCEAN ( OCEANIC RELIEF )................................................................................................ 4

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CONTINENTAL SHELF...................................................................................................................................5
CONTINENTAL SLOPE.................................................................................................................................. 8

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CONTINENTAL RISE.................................................................................................................................... 10
ABYSSAL PLAIN...........................................................................................................................................11
TRENCHES OR OCEANIC DEEPS..............................................................................................................13
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MINOR RELIEF FEATURES.............................................................................................................................. 16
MID - OCEANIC RIDGES............................................................................................................................. 16
SUBMARINE CANYONS.............................................................................................................................. 18
ABYSSAL HILLS , SEAMOUNTS & GUYOTS..............................................................................................20
ATOLLS......................................................................................................................................................... 22
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OCEAN TEMPERATURE................................................................................................................................... 24
FACTORS AFFECTING TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION..........................................................................25
HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF OCEAN TEMPERATURE..................................................................... 27
VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE.........................................................................................29
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OCEAN SALINITY.............................................................................................................................................. 34
FACTORS AFFECTING OCEAN SALINITY................................................................................................. 35
OCEAN CURRENTS.......................................................................................................................................... 40
FACTORS AFFECTING OCEAN CURRENTS FORMATION....................................................................... 41
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TYPES OF OCEAN CURRENTS..................................................................................................................44

ATLANTIC OCEAN CURRENTS.................................................................................................................. 47
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PACIFIC OCEAN CURRENTS......................................................................................................................53

INDIAN OCEAN CURRENTS....................................................................................................................... 56
IMPACT OF OCEAN CURRENTS................................................................................................................ 58
ATLANTIC MERIDIONAL OVERTURNING CIRCULATION..............................................................................60
FACTORS DISRUPTING ‘AMOC’ FLOW..................................................................................................... 61
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POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF ‘AMOC’ DISRUPTION....................................................................................... 62

INDIAN OCEAN ROLE..................................................................................................................................62

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“ OCEANOLOGY ” 1
OCEAN DEPOSITS............................................................................................................................................ 63
MINERAL DEPOSITS ON CONTINENTAL SHELVES AND SLOPES......................................................... 64
MINERAL DEPOSITS OF DEEP SEA FLOOR.............................................................................................66
UNCLOS....................................................................................................................................................... 69

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TIDES..................................................................................................................................................................71
FORMATION OF TIDES............................................................................................................................... 71
HIGH AND LOW TIDES................................................................................................................................ 72

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TYPES OF TIDES......................................................................................................................................... 75
IMPORTANCE OF TIDES............................................................................................................................. 78
PRELIMS POINTERS......................................................................................................................................... 78

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PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS.........................................................................................................................85

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“ OCEANOLOGY ” 2
 PRELIMS POINTERS

➔ Decreasing order of water on the Earth’s surface :

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Oceans > Ice - caps & Glaciers > Groundwater > Lakes > Soil Moisture > Atmosphere

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➔ STRUCTURE OF OCEAN : ocean floor comprises varying topography , shaped by complex
geological processes . The major ocean relief features follows :

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◆ CONTINENTAL SHELF :
● Is gently sloping seaward extension of the continental plate with gradient < 10

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● Width varies from narrow to wide , with average lying between 70 - 80 km
● Depth ranges from the shoreline to about 200 m

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● Covered with sediments , including sand , silt and clay , deposited by rivers , coastal
erosion
● Highly productive and rich in marine biodiversity due to ample sunlight penetration and
nutrient availability
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● Shelf typically breaks at a very steep slope called ‘SHELF BREAK’
● Shelf is narrow or absent for margins with the mountains

◆ CONTINENTAL SLOPE :
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● Is steeply inclined with gradient ranging 20 - 50

● Marks as a boundary between continental and oceanic crust descending from 200 m to
3000 m
● Zone features submarine canyons , often formed by the underwater landslides carrying
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sediments down the slope

● Sediments vary widely , from fine - grained clays to larger particles

◆ CONTINENTAL RISE :
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● Has a gentler slope with gradient ranging 0.50 - 10

● With increasing depth , rise virtually becomes flat and merges with abyssal plain
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● Formed by the accumulation of sediments carried down from continental shelf and slope
● Sediments depositing at the base , eventually creates large , fan-like deposits called
‘Submarine fans’

◆ ABYSSAL PLAIN :
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● Are the flattest and smoothest surface on Earth , with the most extensive and distinct
features of the ocean floor
● Lying between 3000 and 6000 m below sea level

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“ OCEANOLOGY ” 79
 ● Covered with fine particles , sediments rich in organic material
● Host unique but sparse array of deep-sea organisms adapted to cold and low-light
environment
● Contain manganese nodules and holds economic value as potential sources of rare
metals

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◆ OCEANIC DEEPS OR TRENCHES :

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● Are deep and narrow depressions on the ocean floor , around 3 - 5 km deeper than
surrounding ocean floor
● Are elongated with V - shaped cross-section

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● Formed during ocean - ocean convergence and ocean - continent convergence
● Prominent examples includes Mariana Trench ( deepest trench ) , Puerto - Rico Trench ,

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Java Trench , Tonga - Kermadec Trench etc

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◆ SOME SIGNIFICANT MINOR OCEAN FEATURES :

● MID - OCEANIC RIDGES

= are underwater mountain chains , stretching over 65,000 km across the oceans
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= are either broad like plateau , or gently sloping steep - sided narrow mountains
= are the sites of seafloor spreading , with newly formed crust at the ridges hot ,
less dense than older , denser oceanic crust
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● SUBMARINE CANYONS
= are deep , steep sided valleys cut into seabed of the continental slope
= resembles river canyons and transports sediments from the continental shelf to
the deep ocean
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= exhibit headward erosion i.e. progressively erodes back towards the coastline

● ABYSSAL HILLS
= are small , gently sloping elevations on the seafloor
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= typically rise up to 200 m above the ocean floor in rounded or elongated

shapes
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= are formed from volcanic activity at mid-oceanic ridges or tectonic processes

where crustal blocks uplift or shift

● SEAMOUNTS
= are underground volcanic mountains , rise significantly above the surrounding
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seabed , often reaching more than 1000 m in height

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“ OCEANOLOGY ” 80
 ● GUYOTS
= are tablemounts , flat - topped seamounts that have been eroded by wave
action and subsided below the ocean floor

● ATOLLS

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= are ring - shaped coral reefs , islands that encircle a shallow central lagoon
= typically found in warm , tropical ocean waters

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➔ OCEAN TEMPERATURE : refers to the heat content within the various layers of ocean water ,
which varies by location , depth and other environmental factors .

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◆ HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF OCEAN TEMPERATURE

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● is the variation of sea surface temperature across different latitudes and regions of the
world’s oceans and they are influenced by the following :

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○ Latitudinal Temperature Zones
○ Seasonal Temperature Variation
○ Influence of Ocean Currents
○ Upwelling effect
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○ Influence of local coastal features

◆ VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF OCEAN TEMPERATURE

● is the variation in temperature with depth in the ocean , governed by the factors such as
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sunlight penetration , water density and thermal stratification .

● Temperature profile with depth of the ocean can be studied in a three - layer system
○ Mixed layer or Surface layer is the warmest and experiences continuous mixing
of water due to wind , waves and ocean currents . Though , near equator regions
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and tropical latitudes are consistently warm throughout the year , while temperate
and polar regions surface temperature varies significantly with seasons .
○ Thermocline layer is the transition zone which shows the decrease in
temperature with the increasing depth . It acts like a boundary which separates
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warm surface waters and cold deep water . It lies between about 200 to 1000 m
and temperature generally varies from 00 C - 40 C .
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○ The Deep Ocean layer extends from below the thermocline and remains cold
and stable as it is isolated from direct and solar heating .

● ZONE OF UPWELLING :
○ Associated with cold water
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○ Shallow thermocline
○ Associated with tropical deserts

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“ OCEANOLOGY ” 81
 ● ZONE OF DOWN WELLING :
○ Associated with warm water
○ Thermocline at depth
○ Associated with tropical cyclones
○ Fishing zone

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● Thermocline is at depth at the equator and shallow at the poles

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➔ OCEAN SALINITY : refers to the concentration of dissolved salts present in the sea water and
they are affected by the following factors :

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◆ TEMPERATURE :
● Higher temperature → higher evaporation → salinity increases

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◆ INFLUX OF FRESHWATER :
● High rainfall or freshwater input → decreases salinity

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● Melting of glaciers adds freshwater → decreasing salinity
● Therefore , most of the saline lakes are found in subtropical regions .
◆ OCEAN CURRENTS :
● Warm , saline waters are carried from equator to the higher latitudes by the currents ->
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increasing salinity in areas they influence
◆ ENCLOSED WATER BODY :
● Due to little or no freshwater input , enclosed water body records high salinity
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◆ At the equator , due to heavy rain and incorporation of fresh water , there is a decrease of
salinity in the equatorial region .
◆ While at the poles , the polar region receives fresh water from the melting of glaciers and
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there is less evaporation due to low temperature . Therefore , salinity is expected to be low.
◆ Factual observations :
● The salinity for normal open ocean ranges between 33 0/00 and 37 0/00 .
● In the land locked seas , it is as high as 41 0/00 . Example : Red Sea .
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● While in the estuaries and the Arctic , the salinity fluctuates from 0 - 35 0/00 seasonally .
● In the hot and dry regions , where evaporation is high ,the salinity sometimes reaches
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70 0/00 . The tropics witnessed the highest salinity .

➔ OCEAN CURRENTS : is the movement or circulation of water in a definite direction and its
formation is affected by the following factors :
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◆ Related to Ocean = ‘Temperature’ , ‘Salinity’ , ‘Density’

◆ Related to Atmosphere = ‘Winds’ , ‘Atmospheric Pressure’ , ‘Rainfall’
◆ Related to Earth’s Rotation = ‘Coriolis Force’
◆ Modifying factors = ‘Coastal Region Alignment’ , ‘Mid-Oceanic Ridge’
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“ OCEANOLOGY ” 82
◆ ATLANTIC OCEAN CURRENTS
● WARM CURRENTS
○ North Equatorial Current
○ Florida Current
○ Gulf Stream

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○ North Atlantic Drift
○ Irminger Current

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○ Norwegian Current
○ South Equatorial Current
○ Brazilian Current

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● COLD CURRENTS
○ Greenland Current

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○ Labrador Current
○ Canary Current

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○ West Wind Drift
○ Benguela Current
○ Falkland Current
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◆ PACIFIC OCEAN CURRENTS
● WARM CURRENTS
○ North Equatorial Current
○ Kuroshio Current
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○ North Pacific Drift

○ Alaska Current
○ South Equatorial Current
○ East Australian Current
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● COLD CURRENTS
○ Oyashio Current
○ California Current
○ West Wind Drift
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○ Peruvian ( Humboldt ) Current

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◆ INDIAN OCEAN CURRENTS

● WARM CURRENTS
○ Agulhas Current
○ Somalia Current
○ Leeuwin Current
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○ Mozambique Current
● COLD CURRENTS
○ West Australian Current

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“ OCEANOLOGY ” 83
➔ PRACTICE ON THE BLANK MAP =

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➔ TIDES : are the regular rise and fall of sea levels caused by the gravitational forces exerted by the
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moon and the sun

◆ HIGH TIDES : when the water level of the ocean reaches its highest point and creates a
bulge of water along the coastline .
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● Moon , Sun and Earth align in a straight line

● Occurs on the side of Earth facing the moon ( due to moon’s gravity ) and opposite side (
due to centrifugal force )
● Occurs twice a day ( semi-diurnal tide pattern )
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◆ LOW TIDE : when the water level of the ocean reaches its lowest point and the gravitational
pull of the moon and the sun is less directly affecting that part of the ocean .
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● Earth rotates out of the tidal bulge

● Occurs twice a day

◆ SPRING TIDE :
● Occurs when the Earth , moon and sun align in a straight line on the new moon and full
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moon phases .
● Gravitational forces of the moon and the sun combine and create a greater pull on the
Earth’s ocean .

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“ OCEANOLOGY ” 84
 ● This leads to comparatively higher high tides and lower low tides .
● Tidal range is at its maximum

◆ LEAP TIDE :
● Occurs when the Earth , moon and sun form a right angle on the first and third quarter

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phases of the moon .
● Gravitational pull of the sun partially counteracts the pull of the moon , resulting in the

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weaker tidal forces .
● This leads to comparatively lower high tides and higher low tides .
● Tidal range is at its minimum

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“ OCEANOLOGY ” 85