GreatCircle

► It is a circle on a sphere, whose plane passes through the centre of a sphere and its diameter is equal to
that of the sphere.

Small Circle

► It is circle on a sphere, whose plane does not pass through the centre of a sphere and its diameter is
less than that of the sphere.

The earth, shape and its size

► The earth is not a solid sphere, just a spheroid.

► Therefore, it is slightly flattened at the pole and sharpened at the equator.
► Hence equatorial diameter is about 27nautical miles(42 Km) longer than polar diameter.
► But for the navigational purpose, the earth is assumed to be solid sphere and came to be called
Terrestrial sphere.

Polar compression

► It can be defined as the ratio of difference between polar radius and equatorial radius to equatorial
1
radius of the earth. It is about .
297

Terrestrial sphere

► It is sphere representing the earth.

-Terrestrial Navigation [using terrestrial object - Light house, Light vessel, Island,
5 5Navigational marks.]
-Celestial Navigation [using heavenly bodies - Moon, Sun, Planets, Stars]
-Hyperbolic Navigation [using radio frequency - LORAN, Decca, Omega, R.D.F. Radar , ARPA]
Satellite Navigation [G.P.S]
-ENA Electronic Navigational Aids]

Navigation

► Navigation is an art of conducting or controlling the ship from one place to another by fixing ship's
position at frequent interval.(coastal/celestial/hyperbolic/electronic/satellite navigation/e- navigation)

Pole

► Poles are the points where earth's axis cuts the earth's surface. There are two poles: north pole and
south pole, 180* apart.

Meridians

Meridians are semi-great circles joining the north pole and south pole.

Prime meridian (or) Greenwich meridian

► Prime meridian or Greenwich meridian is a particular meridian passing through Greenwich
observatory (royal observatory)in England.

► It is used as a Datum point for measuring longitude of a place.

► Therefore, it is the zero longitude and also known as Greenwich meridian.

Equator

► Equator is the particular GC which divides the earth equally northern and southern hemispheres.
► It is the GC drawn passing through the point 90° away from north pole and south pole.
► It is used as the Datum point for measuring latitude of a place.
► Therefore, it is a zero degree of latitude.

Parallel of Latitudes

► Parallel of latitudes are small circles drawn parallel to the equator.

Latitude of a place [Geocentric latitude]

► Latitudes is an angle at the earth's centre measured northward or southward from the equator to the
given place along the meridian of given place, up to 90*N/S.

Geographic latitude

► It is an angle at the centre of curvature of the meridian (earth's centre) measured northward or
southward from the equator to the given place along the meridian , up to 90°.

Longitude

► It is an angle at the north pole (or) earth's centre always measured clockwise (west ward) or
anticlockwise (east ward) from the Greenwich meridian to the meridian of given place along the
equator up to 180°E(or) 180° W.

Measurement of Distance on the earth's surface

Geographical mile (6087 ft)
Nautical mile (6080 ft)
Land mile (or) Statue mile (5280 ft)

Geographical mile

► It is the length of an arc of the equator subtending an angle of 00° 01' at the earth's centre.
► The length is 6087 ft.
Nautical mile

► It is the length of an arc of the meridian subtending an angle of 00° 01 at the centre of curvature of the
meridian.
Therefore, the length is increasingly varied from the equator toward the
pole due to the irregularity of the shape of the earth. But for navigational
purpose, 6080 ft is adopted as one nautical mile.
(1852 meter = 6080 ft = 1 Nm)

Land mile (or) Statue mile

► It is the length of 5280 ft decreed by Queen Elizabeth I.

Deviation

► Deviation is the angle of deflection of ship's compass needle from magnetic meridian due to the ship's
magnetic including forces on the needle.

Compass error

► It is the angle between True North and Compass North due to the combination of variation and
deviation.

Departure

► It is the east and west distance between two meridians on same latitude, always expressed[measured]
in nautical mile.
► Due to convergence of all meridians towards the poles, departure is decreasing with higher latitude.
► On the equator, departure is equal to D. Long in minutes.

Earth's rotation

► It is assumed that the earth rotates on its axis once a day (or) 360° in 24 hrs. (or) 15*/hr.
► But actual rate of earth's rotation is 15° 02' 46/hr (or) 360° in 23 hr 56 min 04 sec.
► For practical purposes , 15perhr is adopted.
► Due to the earth's rotation, surface speed of the earth is varied with latitude.
► Surface speed of the earth at the equator is 900 mile/hr (or) 900 knots which is used as D.Long
► Surface speed of the earth at the required latitudes is used as Departure. Problems on surface speed of
earth’s rotation ( A Frost , self examiner and Munoz
Rhumb line
Rhumb line is a line on the earth's surface, which cuts all meridians at the same angle. It appears as a spiral curve on
the earth's surface and as a straight line on the mercator chart. If a vessel follows along a rhumb line, ship will be on
constant heading.

Convergency
► It is the change of direction of a great circle at the meridians.
► In other word, except the equator, a great circle crosses all meridians at the different angles.
The differences between these angles are known as convergency between them.
To obtain convergency , following formula can be used.
Conv .
= sin mean Lat. → Conv. = D. Long × sin mean Lat.
D. Long .

Question (A. Frost, Page 68 , Ex.4C, No.l)

Define vertex of a great circle. What is the course along a great circle at the vertices ? State the relationship between
the direction of a great circle at the equator and the latitude of the vertices.

Solution
► Vertex of a great circle - is the point on a great circle, nearest to the poles.
► There are two vertices, one in each hemisphere diametrically opposite to each other.
► Northern vertex latitude and southern Vertex latitude are equal value but different name.
► The G.C course at the vertices are 090° T. and 270° T.
► Dlong between vertex position and equator crossing is equal to 90* and distance apart is also 90*=5400miles
Direction of G.C at the equator and latitude of vertices are complementary of 90°,
90° ~ Direction of GC at the equator = Latitude of vertex
90° ~ Vertex Latitude = Direction of G.C at the equator

Question (A. Frost, Page 68 , Ex. 4e. No.2 )

Given that a great circle is inclined to the equator 42° and crosses the equator in longitude 50° the direction here being
SW. NE., gave the position of two vertices. What is the convergency between a vertex and a point where the great
circle crosses the equator?

Solution
Direction of great circle at the equator = 90°~ vertex lat
= 90 ~ 42°
= 48°
vertex lat = 42°N/S.
ong crossing the equator= 50° W
D. Long = 90° E / 90° W
VNLong=40°E
Vx Long =140° W

Convergency between equator crossing and vertex =Direction of GC at ~ Direction of G.C of

the equator of the vertex
= 48° ~ 90°
= 42°
Question
Define The convergency of the meridian. If a vessel steams directly towards a point which is in sight does she
follow a mercator track or a great circle track? Explain why a D/F bearing must be corrected before laying off on a
mercator chart. Why is this not done for a visual bearing?

Answer
Convergency of the meridian- is the change of directions of great circle at the meridian. Except the equator, a great
circle crosses all meridians at the different angles. The differences between these angles are known as convergency of
the meridian.

Ifa vessel steams directly towards a point which is in sight, she will follow a mercator track(R/L)

Since the radio wave travels on the earth surface along the great circle track, D/F bearing obtained by radio direction
finders are great circle bearing which cannot be drawn directly on a mercator chart.

To draw (Lay off )on a mercator chart, ½ convergency must be applied to D/F bearing (G.C brg).

This is not done (half convergency need not to apply )for visual bearing because visual bearing are considered to be
rhumb line bearing and distance is very near.
So, convergency is negligible.
Mean Latitude
► Mean latitude is the arithmetical mean between given two latitudes.
► It is not taken into account of geographical condition of earth's surface.

Mean Lat =initial lat ¿ ¿

Mean Lat = Lesser lat [A+] ½ D.Lat.

Middle Latitude
► Middle latitude is the geographical mean between given two latitudes.
► It is taken into account of geographical condition of earth's surface.
► To obtain middle latitude, "mean to middle correction" must be applied to mean lat.
► "Mean to middle correction " can be obtained in the Nautical Tables (Norie's Table /Burton's Tables)
► But this correction is now obsoleted (not use)

Middle Latitude= mean latitude +/- correction

Construction of a Mercator chart

► It is constructed on the basic of cylindrical projection, being equator is tangent point.
► Therefore, longitude scale is constant while latitude scale is increasing with higher latitude.
► On the mercator chart, 1 minute of latitude is used as 1 nautical mile.
► On the mercator chart, 1 minute of longitude is used as 1 meridional part (m.p)

Meridional Part ( mp )
One minute of longitude is used to measure (increased length of latitude scale) increased length of meridian
on the mercator chart, it is called one meridional part. (1mp)

Meridional parts for any latitude (mp of a latitude)

► "MP of a latitude" is the number of longitude minutes measured on the increased length of the meridian on the
mercator chart from the equator.
► For practical navigation, mp for required latitude can be obtained directly in the nautical table.

Difference of Meridional parts [DMP] is a difference of MP for two latitudes.[Apply as to obtain DLat].
Mercator Chart
 Projection (Construction) -» Principle Construction on Mercator Chart construction
 Features
 Exaggeration
 Advantages / Disadvantages

Projection of a Mercator Chart

» It is constructed on the basic of cylindrical projection being tangent at the equator.

Features of a Mercator Chart

» All meridians are appeared as a straight line and paralleled to each other at equal spacing.
» All parallel of latitudes are appeared as straight lines and perpendicular to the meridians but spacing increasing
with higher latitude.
» Longitude scale of a mercator chart is constant whilst latitude scale of a Mercator Chart is increasing with higher
latitude.
» On a mercator chart, 1' of latitude is 1 Nm.
» All the land masses appear to be orthomorphic.
» Compass roses are shown on the chart.

Exaggeration of a Mercator Chart

1
Exaggeration of a Mercator Chart at a latitude = or secant lat
cos Lat

Advantages of Mercator Chart

» Since rhumb line appears as a straight line on a mercator chart, a vessel can steer on constant heading(constant
course) from initial position to arrive required position.
» Since 1' of latitude scale on a chart equal to1Nm, distance can be measured easily on lat scale of a mercator chart.
» Since a mercator chart is orthomorphic, the land masses appear on the chart can easily be identified.
» Any straight line drawn on a mercator chart can be transferred from one place to another on the same chart without
any loss of accuracy.

Disadvantages of mercator chart

» All the land masses appear to be deceptive in shape due to excessive exaggeration of a mercator chart in
higher latitude.
» Mercator chart for polar regions cannot be produced.
» Great circle track cannot be drawn easily on a mercator chart.

Question
Green Land and Africa appear practically the same size on a mercator chart but square mileage of Africa
exceeds that of Green Land. Explain this.

Solution
» Actually africa's square mileage is about three times larger than that of Green Land.
» Africa is situated on the equator (Lat 0°) and Green Land is situated at about Lat 70°N.
1
» Exaggeration of a mercator chart is varied with (or) sec Lat of a place.
cos Lat
1
» Therefore, exaggeration of Africa is = 1 and Africa appears as about3timeslarger than original size on a
cos 0 °
mercator chart.

1
» Exaggeration of Green Land is = 2.92 (about 3) and Green Land appear about 3 times larger than the
cos 70 °
original size and practically appear same size as Africa on the mercator chart.
Hence due to the exaggeration of the Mercator chart, Greenland appear practically same size as Africa on the
Mercator chart.
Natural Scale of a chart
» Natural is the ratio of unit length on the chart to actual length on the earth's surface in same unit.

1
» For e.g, cm is Lat 30° mean that 1cm length on the chart represents 50000cm on the
50000
earth's surface in Lat 30°.
» Generally, natural scale of a chart is shown under title of the chart in specific latitude.

Gnomonic Chart
» It is a chart on which a great circle can be drawn as a straight line.

Construction of a Gnomonic Chart

» Gnomonic chart is produced on tangential projection (or) zenithal projection.
» Depending on the position of tangent point, there are three kinds of Gnomonic Chart.
» If tangent point is taken at the pole, it is called 'Polar Gnomonic Chart'.
» If tangent point is taken at the equator, it is called 'Equatorial Gnomonic Chart'.
» If tangent point is taken at the required latitude, it is called 'Middle Latitude (or) Oblique Gnomonic Chart'.
» Of these polar Gnomonic Chart is the simplest and easy to visualize.
Great Circle Sailing
GNOMONIC CHART
 To overcome several disadvantages of a mercator chart, Gnomonic chart is used.
 It is constructed on the basic of Tangential (or) Zenithal projection.
 A chart which shows all great circles as straight lines is a Gnomonic Chart.
 The projection of a Great circle on a Tangent plane is a straight line.
 There are three kinds of Gnomonic chart depending upon their point of Tangency.
 They are (a) Polar Gnomonic chart
(b) Equatorial Gnomonic chart
(c) Middle lat (or) oblique Gnomonic chart
 If the pole is used as a Tangent point, it is called polar Gnomonic chart.
 If the equator is used as a tangent point, it is called Equatorial Gnomonic chart.
 If required latitude is chosen as a tangent point, it is called middle latitude (or) oblique Gnomonic chart.
 Of these, Polar Gnomonic chart is simplest and easy to visualize.

Appearance of Polar Gnomonic chart

 If the pole is chosen as a point of Tangency to project on the plane of papers, this project will produce polar
Gnomonic chart.
 Then, the meridians are appeared as the straight lines and radiated out from the pole (point of
tangency) like spokes of a wheel.
 The parallel of latitude are appeared as concentric circles, spacing increasing from tangent point.

Appearance of Equatorial Gnomonic chart

 If a point on the Equator is chosen as a tangent point to project on a plane of a paper the projection will produce a
Equatorial Gnomonic chart.
 The meridians are appeared a parallel straight line, spacing increases from tangent point outward.
 The parallels of latitudes are appeared as symmetrical curves.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Gnomonic chart

Advantages
1. Great circle appears as a straight line.
2. latitude of way points (position of alternation of course) at chosen way point
longitude can readily be read off.
3. Direction of Great circle (or) Great circle course at way points can be measured easily at their
respective meridians.
Disadvantages
1. Distance cannot be measured easily on Gnomonic chart.
2. Rhumb line cannot be drawn easily on Gnomonic chart.
3. It is not orthomorphic.
4. GC track cannot be transferred on same chart.
5. Gnomonic chart cannot be used itself only.

Use of Gnomonic chart in Practical Navigation

 Gnomonic chart is used for great circle sailing.
 Due to several disadvantages of Gnomonic chart, it cannot be used itself only.
 Therefore, it must be used conjunction with mercator chart for same area.
 Firstly, Plot Initial position and Destination position on Gnomonic chart.
 Then join by straight line between these two positions. It will represent G.C track.
 After that, read off way point latitudes at chosen way point longitude on Great Circle track.
 These way points positions including initial and arrival position must be plotted on mercator chart which covers
same area that of Gnomonic chart.
 Finally, Joint by short straight line between these positions and will appear series of short Rhumb line on the
mercator chart.
 The appearance of series of short rhumb line is approximate G.C track on the mercator chart.
 If a vessel follows along the series of short rhumb line, it will be on approximate G.C track, not on the accurate
G.C track.
 However, it is used in Practical Navigation as G.C sailing.


Chosen
WP long
Altitudes and corrections (ynh.mmmc)2013
Celestial sphere is a concentric sphere with the earth, having infinite radius.

It is used to represent the universe and used to determine the position of heavenly bodies. Between celestial sphere
and the earth, all heavenly bodies are situated.

Zenith is a point on the celestial sphere, vertically overhead of an observer on the earth’ s surface .(Z)

Nadir is a point diametrically opposite to the zenith, vertically beneath the observer on the earth’s
surface.

Visible horizon is a circle bounding the observer’s view at sea.(vv’)

Sensible horizon is a plane of a circle drawn passing through the observer’s eye and perpendicular to the observer’s
vertical.(sos’)

Rational horizon is great circle drawn passing the earth’s center, and parallel to the sensible horizon, 90* away
from zenith and nadir.(RCR’)

Back horizon

Back horizon is the visible horizon at the back of an observer facing toward the body., It is used when the
visible horizon below the body is obscured( by land masses or group of ship or hazy).

Vertical circles are great circles joining zenith and nadir.

Principle vertical circle is the particular vertical circle drawn passing through the north and south point of an
observer. It is, therefore, correspond to the observer’s meridian.

Prime vertical circle (PVC) is the particular vertical circle drawn passing through the east and west point of an
observer.

Vertical circle passing through the body is the vertical circle drawn passing through the body (observed/to be
observed).

Dip of the sea horizon(DIP) is an angle of depression of the visible horizon below the sensible horizon .Its value
depends on the observer’s height of eye. Dip (in minutes)=0.98|HE.in Ft.or 1.78|HE in metres.(angle of SOV)

Parallax in altitude (angle of CXO) a is an angle at the body measured between the lines drawn from the body to
the earth’s center and to the observer .Its value depends on the followings;

(a) Distance between the earth and the body.

(b) Altitude of body (low and high)
(c) Radius of the earth (equatorial radius> polar radius)
Horizontal parallax of the moon(HP of the moon) is the parallax in altitude of the moon when the moon is on the
rational horizon. (sensible horizon).

(ynh.mmmc)

Altitude is an angular height of an object(heavenly body) above the horizon . (ynh.mmmc)

Sextant altitude is an angular height of an object above the visible horizon, as directly read from the sextant.

Observed altitude is an angular height of an object above the visible horizon, correct for IE.
Therefore ,it is the sextant altitude corrected for index error of the sextant (on the arc(-) off the arc (+).

Apparent altitude is an angular height of an object above the sensible horizon.

True altitude is an angular height of an object above the rational horizon.

True zenith distance of body(TZD) is an angular distance of body from the zenith to the body.TZD= 90*-T.alt.

Refraction is an angle at the observer’s eye measured between actual object and the visible object. It is caused by the
rays of the light passing into the denser layer of atmosphere, bent toward the normal .Therefore visible object is
appeared to be higher than actual object .There are (a) Terrestrial refraction (b ) Astronomical refraction .

Terrestrial refraction The direction of the visible horizon is usually lifted up, this is called terrestrial refraction.

Astronomical refraction The apparent direction of heavenly body is higher than the true direction by an amount, called
astronomical refraction.

Mean refraction is the value of the astronomical refraction with the barometer at 29.6”(1002mb) and tempature50*F.
(given in the Norie's nautical table)

Abnormal refraction liable to occur when the sea is warmer than the air and the frequently happens near land masses,
for example, in the red sea, the Persian gulf, west coast of Africa. The lower portion of the atmosphere is most
subject to stratification and this is the one reason why observation should generally be taken from the upper
bridge.

Effect of terrestrial refraction on dip is to reduce the dip by 1/13.

Effect of terrestrial refraction on distance of sea horizon is to increase the distance of sea horizon by 1\13. The value of
refraction is zero at the zenith and maximum at the rising and setting of the body .It depend on altitude.
(ynh.mmmc)

Semi- diameter is the half of an angular diameter of the sun and the moon measured between the upper limb and the
lower limb .Since the sun and the moon do not appear as points, the altitude of upper or lower limb is measured
with the sextant. Therefore, in order to find altitude of the center, semi-diameter must be added or subtracted .If
 lower limb is observed SD must be added, and if upper limb is observed SD must be subtracted .The semi
diameter of the sun is varied monthly during the year from 15.8’ to 16.3’. Because the earth obeys the kepler’s
law in orbiting round the sun. Therefore, the earth reaches closest point to the sun at the beginning of January
(perihelion) and furthest point to the sun at the beginning of July (Aphelion). So semi diameter of sun is
increasing from July to January and decreasing from January to July. But for the moon, semi diameter is varied
from 14.5’ to 17’ in about 14.5 days.(half of the sidereal month ). (ynh.mmmc)

Augmentation of moon’s semi-diameter is the difference between SDof moon measured from the earth’s
center and SD of moon measured from the earth’s surface.SD of the moon seen from the earth’s surface is varied
increasingly from rising to merpass and decreasing from merpass to setting due to the earth’s rotation. SD of the
moon measured from the earth’s center is given in the daily page of nautical almanac and always less than SD of
the moon from the surface. Therefore, augmentation must be always added to the SD of the moon given in the
daily page of nautical almanac .The value of augmentation is tabulated in the nautical table( Norie’s Table or
Burton’s table).The moon is the nearest body to the earth. Therefore its SD must be augmented to obtain SD of
moon seen from the earth’s surface. Ynh.IMT(1993)

Augmentation of moon's SD
Due to the Earth's rotation the observer gets closer to the moon from rising to merpass therefore, moon's semi
diameter is augmented.
Augmentation of moon's semi diameter is the difference between semi diameter of moon measured from the
earth's center(<C) and semi diameter of a moon see from the observer on the earth's surface (<O).
Semi diameters of moon given to the daily page of Nautical Alumnae are measured from the Earth's center.
Therefore, to obtain semi-diameter of moon seen from observer on the earth's surface augmentation must be
added to the semi-diameter of moon give in the Nautical Alamance.
The value of augmentation never exceeds 0.3.
<O=SD of moon seen from the earth's surface (Actual SD of Moon, seen from earth's surface)
<C = SD of moon measured from the earth’s center (given in the daily page of NA)
Augmentation =< C ~< O
<O = <C + Augmentation
For the sun, Augmentation is not necessary because the sun is very far distance from the earth.
Artificial horizon In some circumstances a pool of mercury or even a saucerful of treacle may be used as an artificial
horizon. The reflection in such plane surface appears to be as far behind the mirror as the object is in front .The
altitude measured is twice the apparent altitude. Therefore there is no dip required to applied.
(ynh.mmmc)

Back angle observation Occasionally the horizon below the body may be obscured by land, another ship or a fog bank.
And in this case, it is necessary to measure the altitude to the opposite clear horizon, (over 90*)This horizon is
known as back horizon. This kind of sight is called back angle observation .Unless the altit is very high, a back
angle is difficult to observe and in any case the sextant will

not usually measure greater than 120* . (ynh.mmmc)

Relationship between HP of the moon and parallax in altitude of the moon

Par in alt = HP X cos apparent altitude of the moon.

Earth’s radius./ distance between moon and the earth’s center= sin HP (ynh.mmmc)

Why do the sun’s diameter appear oval shape at the time of rising and setting?
(ynh.mmmc)

The refraction changes rapidly for low altitude because the rays of light is passing obliquely through the layer of the
atmosphere. Therefore the refraction for altitude 0* is 33’ and refraction for altitude 35’ is about 28’. This causes
the sun to appear oval in shape at the time of rising and setting because the effect of refraction is to produce a
difference of about 5’ between its upper limb and lower limb, so that its vertical diameter is shortened by that
amount and the disc of the sun appear to be flattened instead of truly circular.

Taking sights.(meridian passage of the sun)

The meridian altitude of a body is its maximum altitude for the day. The process of obtaining it is briefly ,as follows.
About quarter of an hour before the body comes to the meridian, that is before it bears true north or south, the
observer gets the contact of its lower limb and the horizon with his sextant. He swings the sextant with pendulary
motion from side to side and notes, when doing so, that the body sweeps through the arc of a circle and just
touches the horizon . The observer turns the tangent screw and closes up the slightest streak of daylight.
Whenever it appear thus keeping the lower limb in contact with visible horizon. The change of altitude gets
slower as the body approaches the meridian; it then hangs for a little time, the observer sweeps the horizon and
gets contact of lower limb as the image of the body skims the edge of the horizon. This is the maximum or
meridian altitude for the day, and immediately thereafter the body begins to dip below the horizon. (ynh.mmmc)

)
Nautical Astronomy YNH.mmmc (2013)

Solar system – refers to the sun and his satellites. The center of gravity of the system is situated near the center of
the sun and planets revolve around the sun in their orbits. The sun is more than 700 times the total size of the others
and radiates energy mostly in form of heat and light into the space. The planes of orbits of planets are nearly same
plane to each other. Some of the planets have satellites similar to moon revolving round their planets. In order of
distances from the sun, the name of planets are mercury, venus, earth, mars, Jupiter, satern, Uranus, Neptune
and Pluto. Between the orbit of the mars and Jupiter there is an asteroid which is believed to be broken pieces
of planets and it is also orbiting the sun in own orbit.

Inferior planets are those whose orbits lie inside of the earth's orbit. They are mercury and venus.

Superior Planets are those whose orbits lie outside of the earth’s orbit. They are mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, Neptune and Pluto .Of these, Venus, mars, Saturn and Jupiter are used in practical navigation, because
they can be seen by naked eye.

Real(true) and Apparent or relative (Diurnal) MotionThe actual change of position of a body's position is called
real motion. But arising from a change in position of the observer and not from the body itself. This motion is called
apparent or diurnal motion. The earth revolves around the sun in its orbit and the moon revolves round the
earth is called real motion.

Magnitude of star (Stellar magnitude) Ancient astronomers discovered that faintest stars just visible by naked eye
are grouped into sixth magnitude and brightest stars are 100 times brighter than 6th magnitude stars(faintest stars).
Therefore, by light ratio, 1th magnitude stars are 2.51 times brighter than 2nd magnitude stars and there are 0,-1,-2,-3,
……,-27(-26.9) is the sun. The lesser the number of magnitude, the brighter the star. The star of magnitude less than
1 are grouped into 1st magnitude star.

Absolute magnitude of star is the actual brightness of the star emitted by their intrinsic(own) light into space.

Apparent magnitude of star is apparent brightness of star seen by observer on the earth's surface.
 11

Differences between star and a planet;

star Planet

Star are emitting with their intrinsic 1, Planets are seen by the reflected rays of
light. sun light.

Stars are practically in a fixed 2, Planet are orbiting in their Orbit and
position. changing their position.

Stars are only members of the 3, Planets are both member of universe and
universe. member of the solar system.

Stars can be seen everywhere in the 4,Planets can be seen only in the zodiacal
heaven. belt.

Stars are twinkling in the sky. 5, Planet are shinning with steady light.

Star cannot be magnified by 6, Planet can be magnified by a telescope.

telescope.

Ynh.mmmc2013

Elongation of body is an angle at the earth's center always measured clockwise or anticlockwise from the direction
of the sun to the direction of the body. If it measured clockwise, it is called westerly elongation and if it measured
anticlockwise, it is called Easterly elongation. In other words, it is the difference between longitude of sun and
longitude of the body.

Maximum elongation of the body occurswhen body reaches a point where line of the sight from the earth is tangent
to the orbit of the body. At that time the sun and the earth are right angled at the body.

Sidereal period of body is the interval of time taken by the body to complete once around in its orbit (to
complete360*)measured from a fixed star back to a same fixed star.

Synodic period of a body is interval of time taken by the body to make same phase back to same phase or same
conjunction back to same conjunction.
Conjunction When elongation of body is zero, the body is said to be in conjunction. when the body and sun are in
same straight line with the earth in same side of the earth, the body is said to be in conjunction.

12

Opposition when elongation of the body is 180*, the body is said to be in opposition. When the body and the sun are
inline with the earth in opposite side, the body is said to be in opposition.

Quadrature. When elongation of the body is 90*, the body is said to be in quadrature. When the body and the sun
are right angle at the earth, the body is said to be in quadrature. Yuh.mmmc2013

Why Venus is sometime referred to as a morning star or sometime referred to as a evening star?

Why Venus never be seen at mid night in normal navigable latitude?

Being a inferior planet, Venus reaches its maximum easterly elongation and maximum westerly elongation (V2 and
V4)

In figure, there are 4 successive position of Venus in its orbit.

A is the observer at noon.

B is the observer at sunset.

C is the observer at Venusset(V4). D is at midnight. E is the observer at Venus rise (V2). F is the observerat sunrise.

When Venus is in easterly elongation, (V3 to V1) it can be seen asevening star only after sunset (from B to C)

When Venus is in westerly elongation, (V1 to V3) it can be seen as morning star only before sunrise (from E to F)

Therefore, Venusnever seen at midnight in normal navigable latitude as the bulge of the earth is in the way of line of
the sight of an observer.

What is the 'V' correction?

V correction is the difference between hourly rate of change of GHA of moon or planet tabulated in the increment
table of Nautical almanac(constant rate)and actual rate of them. In otherwords, it is the difference between rate of
change of SHAsun and rate of change of SHA planet. The rate of change of SHA sun is 02.46'per hour. "V
"correction for planet is

+/-ve but V correction for the Moon is always +ve.

Direct motion and retrograde motion of a planet. When apparent movement of a planet is moving westward on
the celestial sphere, it is said to be direction motion. At that times, rate of charge of SHA planet is decreasing. When
apparent movement of a planet is moving eastward on the celestial it is said to be retrograde motion. At that time, rate
of charge of SHA planet is increasing.
 13

(Laws of planetary Motion) Kepler’s Law

First Law state that orbiting bodies are revolving round their parent body in elliptical orbit in anti clockwise
direction with parent body at its one of the foci(focus).

Second law state that orbiting body sweep out equal area in equal time.

Third lawstate that the time taken for a body to go once around in its orbit(sidereal period of a planet), when
squared is propotional the cube of its distance from the parent body.

Ecliptic is an apparent path of the sun around the earth it represents as a great circle inclining 23*27' to the
equinoctial(celestial equator).

First point of aries(or) Spring equinox (vernal equinox)is the one of the points of intersection of ecliptic to the
equinoctial when the sun crosses the equinoctial from south to north. At that, point, declination of the sun is zero on
21st march each year.

first point of Libra (or) Autumnal equinoxis the one of the point of intersection of ecliptic to the equinoctial when
the sun crosses the equinoctial from north to south. At that point, declination of the sun is zero on 23rd September each
year.

Ynh.mmmc2013

First point of cancer (or) summer solstice is northerly highest point on the ecliptic when declination of sun is
maximum N'ly of 23*27'N. the sun reaches that point on 22nd June each year.

First point of Capricorn (or) winter solstice is southerly highest point of the sun in the ecliptic. When the sun
reaches that point declination of the sun is maximum of 23*27’S on 22nd December each year.( Solstice means stand
point)

Year - is an interval of time taken by the earth to complete once around the sun in its
orbit .
Sidereal year is the interval of time taken by the earth to complete once around the sun in its orbit. measured a fixed
star back to the same fixed star. The length is 365d6h09m09s in mean solar time.

Tropical year is the interval of time taken by the in the sun to travel once around the earth in the ecliptic, measured
from the first point of aries back to first point of aries. The length is 365d 5h 48m46 in mean solar time.

Civil or calendar year must keep in step with the tropical year to recur same season at the same time during each
civil calendar year. But 365d is introduced in calendar for first 3 year and366d is used in 4th year.
Ynh.mmmc2012
Anomalistic year is the interval of time taken by the earth measured, from Perihelion back to perihelion in the
earth's orbit. The length is 365d 6h 13m53s.

Leap year is the year of civil year of 366d divisible by 4 for ordinary year, but divisible by 400 for century year. In
each civil year, there is Oh 11m14s odd. Therefore, 3leap year must be omitted and the years chosen are those
centuries which are not divisible by 400.

14

What is Leap year? Why is it introduced and what would be the result if it were omitted from our calendar?

If leap year were omitted, We reckon our seasons from the Vernal equinox(spring equinox), so that if we always
reckoned our year as 365d we would find that the date of vernal equinox would be a day later every 4 years –that is,
our seasons would commence a day later every 4 years; suppose that the season from 2011 leap year were omitted;
then in 2015, spring season would commence on march 22; in 2019on 23 march; in 2023 on 24 march ; and so on.

Zodiac or Zodiacal Belt is a belt of 8* on each side of the ecliptic and within which the the sun ,the moon and
the planets are always found. It is divided into twelve region and 12 signs, each of 30* in length as follows:

(Spring) Aries Taurus Gemini (A,T,G)

(Summer) Cancer Leo Virgo (C,L,V)

(Autumn) Libra Scorpio Sagittarius (L,S,S)

(winter) Capricorn Aquarius Pisces (C,A,P)

Cause of unequal day and night ynh.mmc2011

Due to the change of declination of sun throughout the year, there is unequal duration of day and night. The half of
the earth turned towards the sun receives the rays of the sun light, the other half is in darkness.

There are four parallel of latitude. Arctic circle (66.5* N); Tropic of cancer (23.5*N); Tropic of Capricorn (23.5*S);
and Antarctic circle (66.5*S).

When the sun is at summer solstice (declination 23.5*N),on 22nd June

There will be equal day and night on the equator.

There will be longer length of daylight in northern hemisphere and shorter length of daylight in southern
hemisphere.
In latitude 66.5*N and above, there will be midnight-sun and continuous daylight.
In latiudes 66.5*S and above, there will be continuous darkness.
 When declination of sun is 0*(on 21st march and 23rdseptember), there will be equal day and night in all places
over the world.

When declination of sun is 23.5*S (at winter solstice)On 22nd December

There will be equal day and night on the equator.

There will be longer length of daylight in southern hemisphere and shorter length of day light in northern
hemisphere. In latitude 66.5*S and above, there will be midnight sun and continuous daylight. In latitude
66.5*N and above, there will be continuous darkness.

Theoretical sunrise and Visible sunrise ynh.mmmc 2011

Theoretical sunrise occurs when the sun's center is touching the rational horizon. At that time, true altitude
of sun is 0*00 and ZX (TZD of sun )is 90*. For an observer, lower limb of the sun is about SD (32’) above
the visible horizon.
Visible sunrise occurs when the sun's upper limb touching the visible horizon.At that time ,observed altitude
of sun’s UL is 00*00’.
Theoretical moon rise or moon set occurs when the moon’s Upper limb is touching the visible horizon.
Length of the day light is an interval of time from the time of sunrise to the time of sunset.
Length of Visible Day light is an interval of time from time of visible sunrise to the time of visible sunset.(V
to V1).
Length of theoretical Day light is an interval of time from time of theoretical sunrise to time of theoretical
sunset. Therefoer visible daylight is longer than theoretical day light. (T toT1).

Twilight is the transitional period from daylight to darkness after sunset and darkness to daylight before
sunrise. It is caused by the reflection and refraction of rays of the sunlight after sunset and before sunrise.
There are three kinds of Twilight. They are (1) Civil twilight (2) Nautical twilight (3) Astronomical twilight.
Civil Twilight begins or ends when sun's center reaches 6*below the rational horizon. Therefore, TZD will be
96*(90+6*)
Nautical Twilight begins or ends when sun's center reaches 12*below the rational horizon. Therefore, TZD
will be 102*(90+12*)

Astronomical Twilight begins or ends when the sun's center reaches 18*below the rational horizon. Therefore,
TZD will be 108* (90+18)

Why do the duration of twilight in torrid zone shorter than duration of twilight in temperate
zone?
The rate of charge of altitude of sun depends on the surface speed of the earth's rotation. Thus the surface
speed of the earth's rotation in low latitude (torrid zone)is faster and slower in high latitude(in Temperate
Zone) .Therefore, rate of change of altitude of sun is faster in Torrid zone and slower in the temperate zone.
Ynh.mmmc2011
 The apparent path of the sun across the horizon in torrid zone is nearly right-angle to the horizon. Thus length
of twilight in torrid zone is shorter. But apparent path of the sun across the horizon in temperate zone is very
obliquely to the horizon and therefore, the length of twilight in temperate zone is longer.
The time taken by the sun with slower rate of charge of altitude to cross longer length of twilight is longer
duration of twilight in temperate zone.
The reason are (1) rate of change of altitude of sun (2) length of twilight. (direction of apparent path of sun
across the horizon)

Geographical position of heavenly body

If a line is drawn from the earth's center to the body on the celestial sphere, it will cuts the earth's surface at a point
where it is directly vertically beneath (under) the body. This position on the earth's surface vertically beneath the
body is called" Geographical position of body".

Therefore. GP latitude of body is directly correspond to The declination of body and GP longitude (W)of body is also
directly correspond to GHA body.

Declination of body= GP latitude of body

GHA body= GP longitude( W) of Body

To find

(i) Latitude where there will be continuous daylight[midnight sun] =(90*- dec of sun), same name as dec of sun

(ii) latitude where there will be a twilight to last all night (TAN)= 90*-(Dec of sun +18*) ,same name as dec
of Sun

(iii) Latitude where there will be a complete darkness all day= (90*- dec of sun), name opposite to Dec of sun

16

Laws of planetary motion or Kepler's Laws

First law state that the path of a planet (orbiting body )around the sun(parent body) describes an ellipse having the
sun at one of the foci.

Second Law state that a radius vector( is a line joining parent body and orbiting body) sweeps out equal area
in equal time.
Third lawstate that the time taken for a body to go once around in its orbit(sidereal period of a planet), when
squared is proportional the cube of its distance from the parent body.

The earth and the Moon system

moon's orbit is nearly circular in shape around the earth, and it is inclining about 5 1/4* to the ecliptic. The moon is
only one satellite to the earth at the distance of about 240000 miles, which varies to the earth at the distance of about
250000 miles,and 220000 miles, having diameter 2134 miles. (Ynh.mmmc1993)

Apogee and perigeeWhen the moon is at its greatest distance from the earth at about 250000miles. and is
then said to be in opogee. When the moon is at its least distance from the earth at about 220000 miles, and is
then said to be in perigee.The line joining the apogee and perigee is called line of apsides.
Sidereal monthis the interval of time taken by the moon to makes(360*) once around the earth in its orbit
from a fixed star back to the same fixed star. It is about 271/3 days (27d 7h 43m 11s)
Synodic monthis the interval of time taken by the moon to pass from same phase back to same phase, i.e
between two successive conjunction or opposition(full moon back to full moon or new moon back to new
moon). It is also known as Lunation.the length is about 29.5 days.
Nodal points are the points of intersection of moon's orbit to the ecliptic.

...Ascending node is the point of intersection of moon's orbit to the ecliptic when the moon crosses the
ecliptic from south to north.
Descending node is the point of intersection of moon's orbit to the ecliptic when the moon crosses the ecliptic
from north to south. These nodal points are not fixed points, moving westward along the ecliptic once in
18.6 year due to the gravitational forces of other bodies to the moon. Therefore nodal points are changed in
about 9.3 year. During this period, maximum and minimum declination of moon is changed.

Phases of the moon During one lunation, phases of the moon can only be seen by the reflected rays of the
sun. The ratio of light from the moon and received from the sun is knows as Albedo.It is about 0.7.
The phases of the moon are called as follows; NEW MOON, CRESCENT, DICHOTOMIZED, GIBBOUS and
FULL moon .

17
 New Moonoccur when sun and moon are in conjunction.(elongation 0*)

Crescentoccur when age of the moon is about 3 or 4 day and 24 or 25.

Dichotomize occur when the moon is in quadrature(elongation 90*). Then half potion of the moon is visible
at LAT 1800hrs and 0600 hrs( merpass of the moon.)

Gibbousoccur when more than half potion of the moon is visible and it can be seen about age of the moon 11 or
12day and 18 or 19.day

Full moon occu r when the sun and moon are in opposition(elongation 180*).

Eclipses and occultation of body

There are solar and lunar eclipse. When the sun and the moon are at or near the same Nodal point, solar
eclipse occur and they are at or near opposite nodal point, lunar eclipse occur.

Waxing From New Moon to Full Moon, since the visible area of the Moon's illuminated surface is increasing,
the Moon is said to be Waxing. It is the western portion of the Moon's disc that is visible then.

Age of the Moon is the period of time elapsed, since the last New Moon.

Harvest Moon the full Moon which occurs nearest the autumnal equinox (September equinox)is called the
Harvest Moon. The following Full Moon is called the Hunter's Moon.

Daily Retardation of the Moon.At New Moon, when the sun and the Moon are in conjunction, they
would culminate at the same time. During the course of one day, the moon would have moved eastward by
12.2* (360*/29.5 day)in its orbit around the earth, with respect to the sun. Thus the moon culminates about 50
mins later each day. If declination of the moon is unchanged, it would rise and set approximately 50 mins later
each day. Therefore, average length of the lunar day is about 24h 50m of mean solar time.

Lunar day is an interval of time elapsed between two successive transit of the Moon over the same observer's
meridian. The length is about 24h 50 m in mean solar time.(36o*/14*19 +v'/hr)
Solar Day is an interval of time elapsed between two successive transit of the sun over the same observer's
meridian. The length is 24hrs00m 00s in mean solar time.(360*/15*/hr=24h00m00s)
Sidereal day is an interval of time elapsed between two successive transit of a fixed star or first point of aries
over the same observer's meridian. The length is 23h 56m04s in mean solar time .
(360*/15*02.46'/hr=23h56m04s)

Solar eclipse when the Moon is in conjunction with the sun and the centres of the three bodies are nearly in
line, the Moon appear directly over the sun as viewed from the earth. Then, the surface of the sun is not
visible and such an occurance is called a solar eclipse.
Necessary conditions to occur Solar eclipseare – (1)the sun and the moon must be at the same nodal point –
(2)the Moon must be in conjunction(new moon day) – (3)GHA and declination of the sun and the Moon must
have same value and same name at the same time. – (4)The observer on the earth's surface must be under
shadow of the moon.

18

Three Kind of Solar eclipse.(1)If diameter of the moon is greater than that of the sun(observer is under the
umbra), Total eclipse occur.(2) If the sun and the Moon are not same straight line with the earth(under the
penumbra), partial eclipse occur.(3)If diameter of moon is less than that of the sun'(under the antumbra) then
annular eclipse will occur.

Explain why a solar Eclipse need not occur on all New Moon days.A solar Eclipse can takes place only on
a New moon day. However it is not necessary that it must take place on each New Moon day. This is so,
because, though the condition regarding their GHA or SHA is fulfilled on each New Moon day, the condition
regarding their Declination may not satistified simultaneously, because the orbit of the Moon is inclined at
51/4* to the ecliptic. A solar eclipse will take place, only if the Moon is near or on the ecliptic i.e at or near
same Nodal point on the New Moon day.

Umbra and PenumbraThe shadows cast by the Moon or the earth is conical shape. The tapering shadow
cone within which no light from the reaches is called the Umbra. The widening cone shaped region around the
umbra, where a part of the sun's rays reach, is called the Penumbra.

Lunar Eclipse occurs when the moon is under the cast shadow of the earth (umbra or penumbra) on full
Moon day(opposition). Therefore the Moon passes through the earth's shadow and the Moon can not be seen
because the Moon is not self luminous.

Necessary conditions to occur Lunar Eclipse are : - (1)The Moon and the sun must be in opposition _(2)
They must be at or near opposite Nodal point _ can take place on full Moon day_(3)The GHA of sun and the
Moon must be differ by 180* and Declination of sun and the Moon must have same value but must have
different name. _(4) the Moon passes through the earth's shadow.(umbra or penumbra)

Three types of Lunar eclipse.

Total lunar eclipse occurs when no light of sun reaches any part of the Moon. The entire Moon then becomes
invisible (when the moon is under the umbra).
Penumbral Eclipse occurs when the Moon is entirely within the penumbra of the earth's shadow.
Partial eclipse occurs when the moon is partly within the umbra and partly within penumbra.
Why is it that a Lunar eclipse may not take place on each Full moon day? lunar eclipse need not take
place only on all full Moon days, because, though the condition regarding their SHA or GHA is satisfied on
each full Moon day, the condition regarding Declination may not be simulatinously satisfied, as the moon's
orbit is inclined to the ecliptic by about 51/4*. A lunar eclipse will take place only if the Moon is on or near
the ecliptic or at or near opposite nodal point on Full Moon day.

19

Though more solar eclipses occur each, more people on the earth see Lunareclipses.Give two reasons for
this. This is so, because, during a Lunar eclipse, the entire hemisphere of the earth facing the moon sees the
eclipse but a solar eclipse is however seen only over a comparatively small area of the earth facing the sun
under shadow of the Moon (umbra or penumbra). Another reason is that Lunar eclipse caused by the moon
passing through the large shadow cast by the earth lasts longer than a solar eclipse, which is caused by the
smaller shadow cast by the moon.

Occultation of Heavenly body (star/ planet) .Execept the sun and the Moon, when any other heavenly
bodies is obscured by another larger body passing in front of it. The body (star or planet) is said to be
occulted. For an occultation to occur the SHA or GHA of larger body (sun or moon) and the occulted body
should be equal and their declination must have same value and same name at the same time..

On a certain day when the SHA of Sun and Moon are 185* and their declinations 2*N, the semi-
Diameter of sun and Moon were 16.1' and 15.9' respectively. What occurrence would take place? Since
their declination and SHA are the same solar eclipse would take place. Since apparent Diameter of sun is
greater than that of the Moon, it will be annular eclipse. Ynh.mmmc(2012)

Phases of the Moon at spring Tide and Neaptide.Spring tide occurs when the sun and the moon are in
opposition and conjunction. When the moon is at the opposition, elongation of Moon is 180* and the Phase of
the Moon will be Full and when the Moon is at the conjunction, elongation of the Moon is 0* and the phase of
the Moon will be New Moon. Neap tide occurs when the sun and the Moon are in Quadrature and elongation
of Moon will be 90* and the Phases of the Moon is said to be Dichotomised i.e Half potion of the moon will
be visible. [email protected]

Maximum Altitude and Meridian Altitude of Heavenly Body.Ynh.mmmc (2012) Maximum altitude will
occur when the rate of change of altitude of body due to the earth's rotation is equal and opposite sign to the
combined rate of change of latitude and declination. Meridian altitude occurwhen body is on the observer's
meridian. For a stationary observer, maximum altitude and meridian altitude are the same. But if the body is
on the meridian, the declination or latitude of observer are changing, the meridian altitude will not be the
maximum altitude. If the combined effect of a change of latitude and declination is to bring the observer
 closer to the GP of body, the Maximum altitude will occur after mer pass. If the combined effect of a change
of latitude and declination is to open out the observer and GP of body, then maximum altitude will occur
before Mer pass. In practice, when observing meridian altitude, in fact, the maximum altitude will be obtained
(b' cause, taken at long stand, no upward movement). In normal Navigable Latitudes, the Difference between
the Two is very small and negligible. Therefore, maximum altitude is used as meridian.altitude and in
practical navigation and when taking mer pass sight, maximum altitude is used as meridian altitude

TIME systems (OOW) ynh, mmmcc (1993)

20

True sun is an apparent sun (visible sun) which is moving in an ecliptic at an average speed. It is not used as a
accurate and constant time keeper. Because rate of change of SHA sun is not constant of 2.46' per hour. There are two
reasons (1) elliptical orbit of the earth (2) obliquity of ecliptic. The rate of change of SHATS is maximum at
Perhelion and minimum at Apehlion and At the solstice, rate of changes SHATS is maximum and At the equinoxes, it
is of minimum.

Dynamical mean sun(DMS) The irregularity caused by elliptical or bit of the earth is smoothed out by introducing
an imaginary sun which is considered to move in an ecliptic at constant rate which is mean speed of TS for the year.
This is called Dynamical mean sun.

Astronomical mean sun(AMS)The irregularity caused by obliquity of the ecliptic is smoothed out by introducing
another imaginary sun which is considered to move in the equinoctial at same rate of DMS. This is called
astronomical mean sun and it is used in mean solar time.

Mean Solar Time, If mean sun(imaginary sun moving in the equinoctial) is used as a time keeper, it is called Mean
time(MT). (GMT/LMT)

Apparent Solar Time If True sun(apparent sun ,moving in ecliptic) is used as a time keeper, it is called Apparent
time (AT). (GAT/LAT or time by the sun dial)

Sidereal time If first point of aries ()is used as a time keeper, it is called sidereal time (ST).

Solar Time (AT and MT) are always measured clockwise (westward) from the opposite meridian of Greenwich or
observer's meridian to the meridian of TS or MS along the equinoctial.

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) it can be defined as an angle at the celestial north pole, measured clockwise
(westward) from the opposite meridian of Greenwich to the meridian of MS along the equinoctial.But it is always
expressed in unit of time (Hour, minute and second).
Local Mean Time (LMT) it can be defined as an angle at the celestial north pole, measured clockwise (westward)
from the opposite meridian of observer to the meridian of MS along the equinoctial.It is always expressed in unit of
time (hr,min and second)

Greenwich apparent Time (GAT) it can be defined as an angle at the celestial north pole, measured clockwise
(westward) form the opposite meridian of Greenwich to the meridian of TS along the equinoctial. It is always
expressed in unit of time (hr,min and second)

Local apparent Time (LAT) it can be defined as an angle at the celestial north pole, measured clockwise (westward)
from the opposite meridian of Observer to the meridian of TS along the equinoctial. It is always expressed in unit of
time (hr,min and second)

Local sidereal Times (LST) it can be defined as an angle at the celestial north pole, measured clockwise (westward)
from the meridian of Observer to the first point of aries along the equinoctial. It is correspond to LHA aries in
Time(LHA aries/15*/hr=LST)

Greenwich sidereal Time (GST) it can be defined as an angle at the celestial north pole, measured clockwise
(westward) from the meridian of Greenwich to the first point of aries along the equinoctial. It is directly correspond
to GHA aries in time.(GHA aries /15*/hr =GST)

21

Equation of Time (ET) is the difference between AT and MT. Some time TS is a little ahead of MS and sometime a
little behind the MS. If TS is ahead of MS, it is – ve and if TS is behind the MS, it is + ve. (_minus to Greater + plus
to lesser) The value of ET is varied due to the following reasons: (a) elliptical orbit of the earth (b) obliquity of the
ecliptic. (GMT~GAT= ET ) (LMT~`LAT=ET ) ( RAMS~RATS=ET )

Universal Time (UT) This is a time system used internationally and based upon atomic time It represents as GMT
but it is measured by atomic time system not by the radio wave time signal.

Zone Time and Standard Time On land masses it would be inconvenient if neighboring places kept their clocks
strictly to local time. It more usual to keep time according to a standard meridian which is a multiple of 15*, in other
words local time to the nearest hour. This is called standard time, When this practice is adopted at sea it is called
Zone time.

Time Zone (TZ) To convert GMT into Standard Time or Zone Time, TZ must be applied. There are 2 patterns of TZ:
(1) TZ of nearest hour of LIT for ZT and (2) std time zone for Std time, can be obtained from NA page 262 and
ALRS Volume 2 (Legal times). Summer time and daylight saving time must be taken into account for some
countries.
International Date line It does not coincide with the 180th meridian exactly being bent around some of the south sea
island and Bering sea in order to avoid local complication. To keep the local time in step with the calendar, one day
should be changed when crossing the date line. For Eastbound vessel, one day must be retarded and for Westbound
vessel one day must be advanced.

(GMT = LMT + /- LIT), (LMT = GMT + / - LIT), (GAT = LAT + / - LIT), ( LAT = GAT+/LIT)

GMT = (GHAMS+/_180*)/:15*/hrs, GHAMS = (GMT+/-12hrs)x15*/hrs

GAT = (GHATS+/_180*)/:15*/hrs, GHATS = (GAT+/_12hrs) x 15*/hrs

LAT = (LHATS+/_180*)/:15*/hrs, LHATS = (LAT+/_12hrs)x15*/hrs

LMT = (LHAMS+/_180*)/:15*/hrs, LHAMS = (LMT+/_12hrs)x15*/hrs

GST = (GHA aries /: 15*/hrs) , GHA aries = (GST x 15*/hrs)

LST = (LHA aries /: 15*/hrs) , LHA aries = (LST x 15*/hrs)

(GMT (UT) = STD Tme +/_TZ from Nautical almanac) UT= universal Time same as GMT TZ= time
zone

GMT= ZoneTime +/- TZ, nearest hour of LIT)

STD Time= GMT+/- std TZ from NA or ALRS vol 2

Zone Time= GMT+/- TZ of nearest hour of LIT

Ship Time = ZT at sea (or) STD Time in Port (territorial water) = Time kept by ship's clock. Ynh.mmmc

Measurement of position of heavenly body on the Equinoctial

1.Greenwich Hour Angle of Body (GHA body) it is an angle at the celestial north pole measured westward
(Clockwise) from the meridian of Greenwich to the meridian of body along the Equinoctial. It is always expressed in
unit of degree, minute and second.

22

2.Greenwich Hour angle of First point of aries (GHA aries) It is an angle at the celestial north pole measured
westward (clockwise) from the meridian of Greenwich to the first point of aries along the equinoctial. It is always
expressed in unit of degree minute and second Ynh. mmmc (1993)

3.Local Hour angle of body (LHA body)It is an angle at the celestial north pole measured westward (clockwise)
from the meridian of observer to the meridian of the body along the equinoctial. It is always expressed in the unit of
degree minutes and second.

4.Easterly hour angle of body (EHA body) It is an angle at the celestial north pole measured eastward (anti-
clockwise) from the meridian of observer to the meridian of body along the equinoctial. It is complemantary of 360*
to LHA body.

LHA body = 360* - EHA body EHA body = 360* - LHA body (LHAbody +EHA body=360*)

5.Sidereal Hour Angle of body (SHA body1) It is an angle at the celestial north pole measured westward
(clockwise)from the first point of aries to the meridian of body along the equinoctial. It is always expressed in unit of
degree minute and second. SHA body+RA body= 360*

6.Right Ascension of body (RA body) It is an angle at the celestial north pole measured eastward (anti-clockwise)
from the first point of aries to the meridian of body along the equinoctial. It is always expressed in unit of time ,hour
minute and second. And it is complemantary of 360* to SHA body.( Hrs,min, sec X 15*/hrs)

7.Local hour angle of first point of aries (LHA aries) It is an angle at the celestial northpole measured westward
(clockwise) from the meridian of observer to the first point of aries along the equinoctial. Ynh. mmmc.(1993).

Hour Angle of Body (HA body) It is an angle at the celestial north pole measured westward (clockwise) or eastward
nearest direction from the meridian of observer to the meridian of body along the equinoctial. It is less than 180* of
LHA or less than 180* of EHA body, always expressed in unit of degree minute and second. Ynh.mmmc(1993)

1
 EHAMS

360°

LHA M S RA M S
LONG 360°

GMT GHA M S = GHA ARIES + SHA M S

GP
LONGwest
GHA STAR = GHA ARIES + SHA STAR
of star
LONG
360°
LHA STAR RA STAR
360°

EHA STAR

LHA body = GHA body +\- Long

LHAbody= 360*-EHA body

EHAbody= 360*- LHA body

SHA body = 360* -RA body

RA body= 360*-SHAbody

GHA body = GHAaries +SHA body

LHA aries = GHA aries +/- Long ( long W G best/ Local least) ( Long E ,G Least /Local best)

Long = GHA <> LHA (body / Aries)

When the body is on the observer’s meridian (maximum altitude ) LHA body = 360*

GP long West = GHA body.

GMT<> GAT = Equation of Time

LMT <> LAT = Equation of Time

RATS <>RAMS = Equation of time ( Minus – to Greater , Plus+ to lesser )

GMT +/- ET = GAT GAT +/- ET = GMT

RATS +/- ET = RAMS RAMS +/- ET = RATS , (rules must be reversed)

GHA aries : 15*/hr = GST LHA aries : 15*/hr = LST

LHA aries = GHA aries+/-Longitude GHA aries = LHA aries+/-longitude

LHA aries ~GHA aries = Long Long WEST G Best, Long EAST G least Local best

GHA body = GHA aries + SHA body

GHA body = GHA aries + SHA body

Long Long 360°

LHA body RA body

LHA aries(LST)
24
360* mmmcIMT1993

EHA body
 SUN

Apparent sun Visible Dynamical Mean Sun Astronomical Mean Sun

Imaginary Sun

True sun Moving in the ecliptic Moving in the equinoctial

Moving in the ecliptic Equal to the Constant Rate

Average Speed of Constant Rate; Equal
at average rate
TS to the rate of DMS

EHA body –360*--LHA body---long—( GHA body= GHA aries+ SHA body)
LHA aries RA body
GHA Aries in Time[GHA aries/15*/h]=GST
LHA Aries in Time[LHA aries/15*/h=LST

Mmmc[IMT 1993]

25
Steaming Time

Dist
Steaming Time=
Speed

Steaming time =Arrival GMT-Departure GMT

Steaming time = (Arrival LMT-Departure LMT)+/-D-long in time

Steaming time = (Arrival STD time –Dep STD Time) +/- TZ Diff

Steaming time =(Arrival LAT – Dep LAT) +/- D long In time

Amount of Clock Alteration = Dlong in time or TZ Difference

LAT +/- LIT = GAT GHA TS GMT

ET

LMT +/-LIT = GMT

STD +/- TZ = GMT or Zone time +/- Time zone =GMT

ETD,DepStd Time (Local Time) =

Dep Time Zone = From NA page 262,265 orALRSVol (2)

Departure GMT =

Steaming time =+

Arrival GMT =

Arrival Time Zone = -/+ From NA Page 262,265 or ALRS vol (2)

ETA, Arrival Std Time (Local time) =

26

Exercise
 1. On 24th June 1988 vessel at Vigo (Spain)(42*14’N 8*44’W) at Std Time 1500hrs.Find (i) Time Zone(takes
into account of Summer Time , Daylight saving) (ii) GMT (iii) Equation of Time (iv) Greenwich sidereal
Time.(v) LAT.
2. On 20th November 1988 at ship at the berth of Newcastle ,New south wale, Australia(32*56’S151*46’E) at
UTC 1340hrs. Find (i) Time Zone (ii) Local Time (iii) Equation of time (iv) GST.(v)LAT.
3. On 14th April 1988 vessel at Vancouver , British Columbia, Canada (49*20’N 123*06’W. at Standard Time
2000hrs Find (i) GMT (ii) Equation of time (iii) GST (iv) RATS (v)LAT
4. On 27th September 1988, ship at off YOKOHAMA ,Japan in Lat35*27’N Long 139*39’E at Standard Time
1000 hrs. Ship is to make T.Co 146*T at 16 knots. Find necessary alteration of ship’s clock in order to correct
on next day apparent noon.(LMT sun ‘s Mer Pass 1151hrs on next day 28th Sept)
5. On 12th January 1988 vessel at San Francisco California, USA at Standard Time 1800hrs. Find (i) GMT (ii)
Equation of Time (iii) L A T (iv) GST(v)RATS

Circumpolar Body is a body always above the observer’s horizon and never set.
To be a circumpolar, followings conditions are necessary;
(i) Latitude and declination of the body must have same name
(ii) (ii) 90*-Dec = PX= Polar distance must be equal or less than observer’s latitude
.Then the body will cross the observer’s meridian two times; above the pole and below the pole (maximum Altitude and
Minimum Altitude).

For Same Bearing, (Declination >Lat), PX = ½ (max Alt – Min Alt) (will be at its Max azimuth,<X=90*)
For Diff Bearing (Lat> Dec) PX = ½ ( 180*-( Max Alt +Min Alt)) (will cross PVC, <Z=90*)
Latitude =PX + Min Alt (name of Latititude, Declaintion and Brg of Min Alt are the same)

To find observer’s Latitude by using Minimun Altitude

Latitude = PX + Min Altitude , (name of min Alt)
To find Observer’s Latitude by using Maximun Altitude
Latitude = ( 90* - True Alt) = MZD , ( MZD+/- Declination )= ? (same /Greater name)
 27
Exercise
1. A star with declination 56*S had minimum altitude of 18*. Find its maximum altitude of that star and
observer’s latitude with the aid of the sketch.
2. For an observer in a certain position observed a star when on the meridian above the pole and below the were
80*12’S and 20*12’N. Find True altitude of that star when on the prime vertical.
3. For an observer a star was observed to be bearing 180*T with True altitude of 16*50’ and again bearing
000*T with T. Alt 86*20’. Find observer’s Latitude and Declination of a star.
4. For a stationary observer, T Alt of a star at upper transit was found to be 78*40’ N and at Lower transit was
12*50’N. Find observer’s Latitude .
5. For a stationary observer in Latitude 30*N observed True altitude of a star at lower transit 12*. Find its
maximum Westerly Azimuth and its true altitude at maximum azimuth.

Exercise (V correction )
1. On a certain day , At GMT 2200hrs GHA venus was 233*00’ and at GMT 2300hrs GHA venus was
248*01.5’. Find V corr.ofvenus.
2. On a certain day, At GMT 1500hrs GHA moon was 100*10’ and At GMT 1600hrs GHA moon was 114*40’.
Find Length of the Lunar Day.and V corn for themoon .
3. At GMT 1000hrs GHA venus was 357*39.2’ and at GMT 1100hrs GHA venus was 12*38.4’. Find the
interval
4.
5.
6. time elapsed between two successive of the venus over the same observer’s meridian.
7. The interval of time elapsed between two successive transit over the same observer was 24h 25m 30s. Find V
corn and its actual rate of change of LHA venus.
8. On a certain day , at apparent Noon, LMT was 1205hrs and on the following day at apparent noon, LMT was
1212hrs. Find the length of the apparent solar day. And ET on each day.

Exercise. (Twilight and day light )

1. Find the length of the day light in latitude 35*N when declination of the sun is 20*30’N 2.
2. Find the duration of the length of Nautical twilight in latitude 35*S when declination of the sun was 10*35’N.
3. Find LAT of end of civil twilight in Latitude 44*50’N when declination of the sun is 20*50’S.
4. Find the length of day light in latitude 48*20’S when declination of the sun was 15*48’N..
5. Find LAT and GMT of sun rise in latitude 46*55’N Long 113*35’E when declination of the sun was 18*40’S
if equation of time was +ve 5mins.
 Position Elongation Phase Age Tide Day
M1 0°Conjunction New 0/1 Spring Waxing day
M2 Crescent 3/4 Priming ။
M3 90° Quadrature Dichotomize 7/8 Neap ။
M4 Gibbous 11/12 Lagging ။
M5 180° Opposition Full 14/15 Spring ။
M6 17/18 Priming Waning Day
M7 90° Quadrature Dichotomize 21/22 Neap ။
M8 Crescent 24/25 Lagging ။
M1 0°Conjunction New 28/29 Spring ။

New Crescent Dichotomize Gibbous Full Gibbous Dichotomize Crescent New

46
Interval of time taken by the moon from same phase back to same phase (Full to Full or New to New) is called
Synodic month or lunation or lunar month. The length is about 29.5 days.

Phase of the moon during waxing day can be seen in the western sky in the evening. Phase of the moon during
waning day can be seen in the eastern sky in the morning.

LAT When full moon merpass is 0000hrs

LAT When New moon merpass is 1200hrs

LAT When Crescent merpass is 2100hrs or 0300 hrs

LAT When Dichotomize merpass is 0600hrs and 1800 hrs

LAT When Gibbous merpass is 0900 hrs or 2100 hr

Position Elongation Phase Age Tide Day

M1 0°Conjunction New 0/1 Spring Waxing day
M2 Crescent 3/4 Priming ။
 M3 90° Quadrature Dichotomize 7/8 Neap ။
M4 Gibbous 11/12 Lagging ။
M5 180° Opposition Full 14/15 Spring ။
M6 17/18 Priming Waning Day
M7 90° Quadrature Dichotomize 21/22 Neap ။
M8 Crescent 24/25 Lagging ။
M1 0°Conjunction New 28/29 Spring ။

New Crescent Dichotomize Gibbous Full Gibbous Dichotomize Crescent New

Interval of time taken by the moon from same phase back to same phase (Full to Full or New to New) is called
Synodic month or lunation or lunar month. The length is about 29.5 days.

Phase of the moon during waxing day can be seen in the western sky in the evening. Phase of the moon during
waning day can be seen in the eastern sky in the morning.

LAT When full moon merpass is 0000hrs

LAT When New moon merpass is 1200hrs

LAT When Crescent merpass is 2100hrs or 0300 hrs

LAT When Dichotomize merpass is 0600hrs and 1800 hrs

LAT When Gibbous merpass is 0900 hrs or 2100 hrs

Calculations (Self Examiner)

1. Find the difference in the speed of the earth's rotation between places in latitudes 25º and 48º.
2. Ship A is on the equator steaming 090º T at 16 knots and ship B is on a parallel of north latitude steaming 270º T.
at 12 knots. While A makes a D. Long of 1º, B makes a D. Long of 48'. Calculate B 's latitude.

3. From Lat. 59º 40' a vessel sailed on a certain course until the M.D. Lat. was twice the D. Lat. Calculate the latitude
reached.

4. A vessel steers a course of 060ºT., making a D. Lat. of 31 and a D. Long.of 1º 6'. Find the latitude reached.

5. In the southern hemisphere a vessel sailed on a course of 042º T., making a Dep. of 200' and a D.M.P. of 240'.
Find the latitude left.

6. The D.Long. between A and B in Lat. 31 ºN is 41', B being East of A. If A steams 030 º T. and B steams 330 ºT.
both at the same speed until they are 10 miles apart, find the latitude reached.

7. If a liner in Lat. 57 ºN. is steaming 300 ºT. at 24 knots , find her rate of change of longitude.

8. A and B are two ships on the same meridian, A being on the equator and B on a parallel of south latitude. If both
ships now steam 270 ºT., keeping due North and South of each other and if B's speed is ¾ A's speed, find B 's
latitude.

9. From position 55 º40' N., 15 º00' W., a course was set to reach position 56 º08' N., 15 º00' W . After steaming for
28 miles it was discovered that the compass error had been applied the wrong way and that the position was then 56
º07'.8 N., 14 º54' W. Find the amount and name of the compass error.

10. The position 30 º10' N., 35 º10' W., was obtained from two celestial observations. The stars used bore 140 ºT.
and 240 ºT. It was then discovered that an index error of 1½ 'off the arc had not been applied Find the true position .

11. An A.M. sight (sun) when with Lat.51 º55' N. gave Long .20 º04' W and when worked with Lat. 52 º05' N. gave
Long . 19 º54½ ' W. What was the sun's true bearing ?

12. Using a chosen position of Lat. 50 ºN., Long. 8 º15'W., a sun sight when worked Intercept Method gave an
intercept of 4' away, sun's bearing 142 ºT. If the vessel now steams 052 ºT., how far will she pass off a point of land
in Lat. 50 º 16½' N., long . 7 º26' W.?

13. In fog a vessel anchors in D. R. Lat. 40 ºN . When the fog clears a sun sight is taken and when worked longitude
by chronometer method using Lat. 40 ºN. gives a certain longitude. At the same time s position found by sextant
angles of shore objects puts the vessel 6 nautical miles farther North and 5 nautical miles farther East. Find the sun's
true bearing.

14. In fog a vessel anchors in D.R. Lat .60 ºN. When the fog clears a sun sight is taken and when worked longitude by
chronometer method using lat. 60 ºN. gives a certain longitude. Sun bearing 130 ºT. A bearing of a lighthouse 000 ºT.
shows that the vessel's longitude is 3' farther East. Find the error in latitude.

15. From a vessel steering 118 ºC., Var 13 ̊W., Dev. 5 ºE., a lighthouse in Lat. 51 º31½' N., Long 5 º01' W., bore 078
ºC., and after steaming for 4 miles it bore 043 ºM. Find the vessel's position when the second bearing was taken.
16. On October 25, 1958. at G.M.T. 25d. 23h. 53m. 28s. a vessel's position was 43 º12' N., 167 º20'W. After
steaming for 325 miles the position at apparent noon on October 26 was found to be 39 º3' N., 172 º5.5' W. Find the
steaming time and speed.

17. In what latitude will one minute of the latitude scale on a Mercator's chat equal 2.5 minutes of the longitude scale.

18. When measuring the distance on a Mercator's chart between two places in lat. 50 º51' N., the longitude scale was
used by mistake. If the measured distance was 32', find their actual distance apart.

19. On a Mercator's chart 1' of longitude measures 4.2 inches. If two positions in Lat. 51 º11' N. are 8.4 inches part,
find the actual distance between them.

20. (a) If 1 ºof longitude is 2 inches on Mercator's chart, find the scale of Lat. in 50 ºN.

(b) Find the length of 1 ºof longitude if the distance between Lat. 50 ºN. and 60 ºN. on a Mercator's chart
measures 5 inches.

(c) If in Lat. 45 ºS. one mile of distance measures 1.4 inches on a Mercator's chart, what will be the length of one
minute of longitude ?

21. Give that the distance between the moon's centre and the earth's centre is 60 R, where R is the radius of the earth,
calculate the moon's horizontal parallax.

22. Assuming the earth's radius to be 3960 miles and the moon's horizontal parallax to be 58.0', calculate the distance
of the moon from the earth.

23. Give sun's Decl. 17 º06' N. and Right Ascension 3h. 0m. 46s, calculate the Obliquity of the Ecliptic.

24. The Obliquity of the Ecliptic being 23 º26.8', sun's Decl. 18 º0' N. and increasing, calculate the Right Ascension
of the True Sun.

25. Give R.A.M.S. 8h. 10m. 11s. Equation of Time +2m. 19s, sun's Decl. 19 º58' N, calculate the Obliquity of the
Ecliptic.

26. Give G.H.A sun 269 º17 ́, G.H.A. Aries 5 º49 ́, sun's Decl. 23 º20'N. calculate the Obliquity of the Ecliptic.

27. Given Lat. 49 º10' N., sun's Decl. when rising 23 º26' N., G.H.A. sun 286 º06', find the longitude.

28. In lat. 20 ºS. a star bore 070 ºT., true altitude 20 º30' . Find its declination.

29. To an observer in north latitude Arcturus (Decl. 19 º25 ½' N .) bore 000 ºT when on the meridian. If the true
altitude at maximum azimuth has 24 º29' , find the observer's latitude.

30. Find the sun's true altitude at maximum azimuth to an observer in Lat. 10 ºN. sun's Decl. 22 ºN.

31. The rhumb line distance between two places in Lat. 55 ºN. is 1274 miles. What is the shortest distance between
them?
32. The sun rose bearing 084 ºT. when its declination was 5 º10'N. Calculate the observer's latitude.

33.To an observer in Lat.43 º59' N., Long 20 º05' W., the true altitude of the sun, east of the meridian, was found to
be 61 º33' . If the decl . at this instant was 20 º55½' N., find the sun's geographical position.

34. In Lat. 46 º03'N., Long. 22 º20'W., the true altitude of the sun, west of the meridian , was 34 º32', Decl. 20 º03'N.
Find the sun's geographical position.

35. Find the observer's position if the sun's true altitude is 44 ̊10'when bearing 090 ºT. and its geographical position at
this instant is 11 º13'N., 0 º06.3'W.

36. In Lat.33 ºN. Long 74 ºW. the true altitude of a star was 37 º04'when bearing 255½ ºT. Decl. 9 º15' N. If the
G.H.A Aries at this instant was 209 º20', find the star's R.A.

37. To an observer the true altitudes of a star when on the meridian above and below the pole were found to be 70 ºS
and 21 º23' N. respectively. Calculate the star's declination.

38. Find two latitudes in which a star having Decl. 68 º51' S. will bear 180 ºT. when the true altitude is 11 º50'.

39. In Long 15 ºW. at 22h. 08m. 07s. G.M.T. the longitude of the geographical position of a star was 24 º32½'W,
R.A.M.S. 5h. 46m. 03s. Find the star's R.A.

40. Two vessels steering 180 ºT. at the same speed are in Lat. 36 º10'S. and 382 miles apart. What will be their
distance apart when Lat. 39 ºS. is reached.

41. In Lat. 39 º31½' N. a vessel steams 120 miles due West thence a certain distance due North, thence 100 miles due
East and is then in the Long. from which she started she started. Find the Lat. reached.

42. A position 34 º10'N, 30 º20' W. was obtained from observations of two stars. A and B. A bearing 144 ºT,
Intercept 5 away, B bearing 228 ºT. Intercept 3½ towards. It was then discovered that the intercept of 5' away had
been laid off as 5' towards. Find the true position.

43. In Lat 48 º20 'N. the sun's declination was 23 º6' N. and G.H.A. when on the rational horizon East of the observer
was 287 º. Find the observer's longitude.

44. Define " Convergency " Find the convergency between two places in 20 º22' N., 09 W.and 14 º10'N., 23 º54'W.

45. On Dec. 18 th, 1958, in Long. 20 ̊W. the Easterly Hour Angle of the True Sun was 1h. 20m. Find the R.A.T.S.

46. Two observers on the same meridian observe the sun simulataneously when it is on the meridian. If the difference
in the altitudes is 9 º35'10'', find the distance between them. Assume the earth to be a sphere of radius 3960 miles.

47.The D Long between two ships , A and B ,in Lat. 35 ºS, is 60 º. Both ships now steam towards each other along
the great circle track joining them.

A at X knots and B at ½X knots.

How far will B have steamed when they meet?

48. Find the limiting latitude for twilight to lasts all night when the sun's decdlinations is 19 º17' N. Twilight lasts
until the reaches a position 18 ºvertically below the horizon.

49. Two observers A and B. on the same meridian and 793 miles apart have 11 º27' 10'' difference in the meridian
altitude of the sun. Find the earth's radius.

50. At apparent noon on 23 rd Sept a vessel was in Long.160 º10' W. On 29th Sept at 23h 31m 50s. L.M.T. the Long
was found to be 169 º15' E. If the vessel had made good a distance of 1694 miles, find the steaming time and average
speed.

51. Two vessels are 150 miles apart in 10 º15' S. If they both steam 000 ºT. at the same speed until they are 120 miles
apart, find the latitude reached.

52. The true altitude of a star upper and lower transit were found to be 77 º58'S and 18 º08'S. respectively. Find the
star's declination and the observer's latitude.

53. The times of upper meridian passage of Vega and the sun taken from a sidereal clock were 18h 31m 10s and 23h
24m 20s respectively. If the R.A of Vega was 18h 35m 10s find the clock error and the sun's R.A.

54. When the horizon below the sun was hazy the following back altitude was taken :

Obs. Alt. 122 º20'.

Ht. of eye 40 ft.
Semi – diameter 16.1'.
If the limb nearest to the clear horizon was used, find the true altitude when on the meridian below the pole , what
observer's latitude?

55. If on the longest day the sun's centre just touches the rational horizon when on the meridian below the pole, what
is the observer's latitude?

56. From a vessel moored between two buoys , the sun rose bearing 107 ºC and set bearing 247 ºC. If the variation is
4 ºE., find the deviation.

57. In what latitude will the period of darkness be twice the period of daylight when the sun's declination is 23 º25'S ?

58. In latitude 43 ºS .the time of the theoretical sunrise was 4h. 40m L.A.T. At what L.A.T. should a sight of the sun
be taken in order that there would be no longitude correction ?

59. On a certain day the sun's R.A. was 5h .57m .4s when the G.H.A of Arise was 343 º53.4'. If the obliquity of the
Ecliptic was 23 º27', find the sun's geographical position.

60.The longitude scale of a Mercator's Chart is 1 º= 3'. The length of the latitude scale between the parallel of latitude
38 ºS and the parallel of latitude X to the North is 11'.15. Find latitude X.

61. In D.R. latitude 52 ºS., sun's declination 23 ºS ., in a vessel steaming 220 ºT., by means of the A.B.C. Tables
only , find the best L.A.T. to take a sight of the sun in order to obtain apposition line to ensure a safe passage through
a channel running N.N.W. (T).
62. A star with declination 56 º17' N had a true altitude at lower transit of 26 º17'. Find the sextant altitude at upper
transit if the height of eye was 42 ft and index error 2' off the arc.

63. A vessel left Halifax (lat. 44 ̊40' N., long 63 ̊34' W.) at 22h. 10m. Standard Time on October 25th,1958 . If course
was set 080 ºT., speed 15 knots. find the amount the clock should be altered to be correct for apparent noon the next
day.

64.At Brisbane the sun was on the meridian at 12h. 04m 36s. standard Time, when its G.H.A. was 215 º10'. Find the
Equation of Time.

65. At moon's true altitude at the North Pole was 19 ̊10 ́. In what latitude should the meridian altitude of the moon be
double this?

66. A vessel left Freemantle ( Lat. 32 º03'S., Long 115 º44' E) at 1700 hours Standard Time on January 11th, 1958.
The course was set 318 ºT., speed 16 knots. Find the necessary alteration of the clock to be correct for Apparent Noon
the following day.

67. At what G.M.T. and on what day in the year 1958 will two clocks –one keeping G.M.T., other Greenwich
Sidereal Time – exactly coincide? Explain why this can only occur once in a year.

68. In Lat. 52 ºN a star with a Sidereal Hour Angle of 149 º02' had a true altitude of 52 º20' when on the Prime
Vertical. If this altitude were increasing. Find the local Sidereal Time.

69. In Lat. 52 ̊a distance on a Mercator Chart was measured with the longitude scale and found to be 16.4 which was
taken to be 16.4 miles. Using Meridional Parts, find the different between the true and false distance.

70. A star is overhead on the Tropic of Capricorn. Calculate the speed its Geographical Position is travelling across
the earth's surface.

71. On a certain day in Long 20 ºW. the sun had an Easterly Hour Angle of 35 ºwhen the G.H.A of Arise was 269
º50'. Find the sun's Sidereal Hour Angle.

72. Find the true sun's Sidereal Hour Angle at the instant when the First point of Arises crossed the meridian of
longitude 80 ̊E. If on that day the sun's G.H.A. was 49 º15.3' at the same instant when the G.H.A. of Arises was270
̊46'.

73. On a certain day at G.M.T.08h.00m 00s. the sun's G.H.A. was 300 º53.6 ́. Find the Equation of Time and state
whether + ve or – ve to Mean Time.

74.A ship was moored to buoys forward and aft. The sun was observed to rise bearing 107 ̊C and to set bearing 237
ºC. If the Magnetic Meridian were10* ̊to the right of the True Meridian, what was the deviation?

75. In Lat. 25 ̊N the sun's declination was 21 ̊. Using A.B.C. Tables only, find the Local Apparent Time when a sun
sight taken and worked by the longitude method would produce the same longitude irrespective of what D.R. latitude
was used.
76. On a Mercator Chart 1 ºof the longitude scale measures 3.5 in. Using Meridional Parts, find the length in inches
between the parallels 53 ºN and 54 ºN, and between 54 ºN and 55 ºN.

77. On a certain day when the sun's declination was 16 ºN and increasing the R.A.M.S. was 2h, 40m, 02s. Calculate
the Equation of Time.

78. At 6 p.m. in D.R. Position Lat. 49 º24' N., Long 7 º30' W an observation of a star bearing 230 ̊T. gave a long. 7
̊39'W. At 9p.m. Bishop Rk. Lt.(Lat. 49 º52' N., Long 6 º27' W.) came into view bearing 060 ̊T. If vessel's course were
078 ̊T., speed 12 knots, find ship ship's position at 9p.m.

79. At 0100 in D.R. Lat. 47 º46' N. an observation of a star bearing 075 ºT. gave Long . 5 º51' W., vessel steaming
035 ºT., speed 10 knots. At 0400 Ushant Is. Lt. ( Lat. 48 º28' N,Long 5 º08' W)bore 062 ºT. Find ship's position at
0400.

80.On a certain day in Long 125 º50' W.,a start with Sidereal Hour Angle 259 ̊10' had a Local Hour Angle of 221 ̊15'.
If the Mean Sun's Right Ascension were 17h. 15m. 10s., Find the G.M.T. at this instant.

81. A vessel left port at 0930 G.M.T. on a certain day and after steaming 423 miles to apparent Noon on the
following day was in Long.24 º19' W. If at 1300G.M.T. the sun's G.H.A. was 19 º04', find her steaming time and
average speed.

82. In D.R. Position Lat. 45 ºN., Long .42 º10'W. an observation of the sun bearing 210 ºT. gave a Long. 42 º20' W.
In what longitude would the position line thus obtained, cross the parallel of latitude 45 º05' N?

83. Find the Local Apparent Time at Cape Town (Lat. 33 ̊56'S., Long 18 ̊29'E.) on Oct. 26th, 1988, at 1400 Standard
Time.

84. Explain why the star Dubhe is circumpolar to an observer at Glasgow (Lat. 55 º52' N., Long. 4 º15' W.)
Determine the Greenwich Sidereal Time of both Upper and Lower Transit of Dubhe on Oct. 17 th, 1958.

85. If the Greenwich Sidereal Time of the Upper Transit of the star Dubhe were 11h. 18m.10s. on Oct. 17th, 1958,
what was the G.M.T. at this instant?

86. 2 buoys in Lat. 52 ºN. on a Mercator Chart are 5 ins. apart. If the actual distance between them is 6.16miles, find
the length of 1 ̊of the Long scale.

87. If the sun's Amplitude at the summer Solstice was E. 29 ̊N., find its true altitude when on the Prime Vertical.

88. An observer A in Lat. 50 º05' N .,Long 9 º55' W. and another observer B in Lat. 49 º55' N., Long 10 º08'
W .observe the sun bearing 145 ºC. and 141 ºC. respectively. If the true altitude is the same at each observer, and the
variation is 11 ºW., find the deviations for the directions of the ship's heads at A and B.

89. If on a certain day at 23 hours G.M.T, GHA sun was 169 º06', find the Equation of time and state its correct sign.

90. In a chosen position Lat.44 ̊59'S., Long 179 ̊55 ̊E., an observation of the sun bearing 053 ̊T. gave an intercept of
1.9'towards. By means of plotting ,find the intercept which would have been obtained if position Lat. 45 ̊01'S.,
Long .179 ̊59'W. had been used.
91. To an observer, the true altitude of a star when on the meridian at upper and lower transits were 80 ̊09'S. and 11
̊45'N. respectively. Calculate its true altitude when on the Prime Vertical.

92.From a position in Lat 35 ̊N. a vessel steamed 100 miles East, thence 12 hours South, thence 100 miles West,
thence 12 hours North. If the position arrived at was 3mile east of original position, , find the vessels speed.

93. Find the G.M.T. when Venus will rise on July 25th 1958, the observer being in Lat. 45 ̊N., Long 50 ºW.

94. Ships X and Y are on the same course X travels at twice the speed of Y but only makes 1½ times the d. long of Y.
If X is in Lat. 15 ̊45'N. Find the Lat .of Y.

95.On Dec.3 rd the Standard Time at Marshall Islands was 4h. 20min. Find the corresponding Standard Times at
Cook Islands.
 Time System

Solar Time Sidereal Time

Apparent Sun Mean Sun G.S.T L.I.T L.S.T

(T.S) (AMS)

LHA aries in time

G.H.A aries in time
Apparent Solar Time Mean Solar Time

L.I.T L.I.T
L.A.T G.A.T G.M.T L.M.T

ET
E.T
From NA P262
G.M.T /UT
T.Z Time Zone = Nearest hour of L.I.T

From ALRS VOL 2 STD Time Zone Time

(Legal Times)
SHIP TIME

In port in
At Sea in Ynh.JMTC (2014)
Territorial water
international water
 1.

Principle of Navigation Questions Bank(DMA)

SAILING EXERCISE

1. If a liner in Lat. 57N. is steaming 300T at 24 knots, find her rate of change of longitude.

2. The D long between A and B both in north latitude , is 340’ , A being to the West and to the South of B. If D.lat between them is

230’ , and the departure 110’ , find the latitude of A and B.

3. The Rhumb line distance between two places in Lat. 55N . is 1274 miles. What is the shortest distance between them ?

4/.From a position in Lat 35 ̊N. a vessel steamed 100 miles East, thence 12 hours South, thence 100 miles West,
thence 12 hours North. If the position arrived at was 3mile east of original position, , find the vessels speed.

4.

5. In certain Northerly latitude the sun rose bearing 059T to an observer in long 45W, in the month of May. The ship then ran

050T for 140 nautical miles until sunset. The sun’s declination was 2010’N at sunrise and changed 5’ interval. Find the sun’s

bearing at sunset.

6. Shortst distance between two places on the same parallel is 2000 Nautical Miles. If the D. long. Between the places is 36. Find

the Rhumb line distance between them.

7. Two ships A and B doing equal speeds are both in Lat. 30S. B being to the East of A. The D. Long. Between two ships is 230’ . A

steer 150T . while B steers 210T . Find the Latitude reached when they are 20 miles apart.

8. In what Lat . will earth’s rotational speed be exactly double when it is in Lat. 75N ?

9. A ship sails from Lat. 5812’ N . Long. 43 40 W’ on South-Easterly Course and arrives in Longitude 4012’W . If her DMP is

520. Find Course and Distance Made good also Latitude of arrival.
 2.

Hour Angle Exercises

1. On a certain day in Long . 12550’ W . a star with Sidereal Hour Angle 25910’ had a Local Hour Angle of 22115 ‘ . If the
Mean Sun’s Right Ascension were 17h 15m 10s. Find the G.M.T at this instant.
2. In Long. 15W at 22h 8m 7s G.M.T, the Longitude of the geographical position of a star was 2432.5’W , R.A.M.S 5h 46m
03s. Find the star’s R.A .
3. Draw a figure and from it prove each of the following equation:
(i) G.H.AS.H.A Star- long W = L.H.A Star
(ii) G.H.A = G.H.AS + R.A.M.S
(iii) L.H.A Star - S.H.A Star = L.H.AS + R.A.M.S
(iv) Long = G.M.T ~ L.M.T show whether E or W
4. At a certain position a star whose R.A was 14h 12m 58s was at its maximum altitude when the R.A.M.S was 18h 42m 15s. If
the G.M.T at this instant was 07h 53m 23s, what was the longitude of the position?
5. a) Find G.M.T when LMT in lolgitude 12530’E was 5d 03h 15m 04s.
b) Find LAT in longitude 085 34’W, when G.A.T was 5d 03h 04m 06s.
c)December at 07h 33m 15s G.M.T the S.M.T at place was 02h 45m 30s on the same date. Find the longitude .
d) Find the S.M.T at place in Long . 088 E at 0600 ZT .
6. On a certain Day in long 40E, the Sun had an Easterly Hour Angle of 50*’ when Greenwich sidereal Time 3hr 40m 20s . Find
RATS with the aid of reasonable sketch.
7. At Brisbane, the sun was on the meridian at 12hr 04m 36s Standard Time when it’s GHA was 21510’ .Find equation of Time
and its correct sign.

3.

Spherical Triangle

1. In what latitude will a star whose declination is 2230’ change its azimuth by 40between crossing the prime vertical

and setting.
2. A star of declination 2114’N . takes two hours to change its bearing from 180T to 270 to a stationary observer. Find

the latitude of the observer and the star’s altitude when it crosses the prime vertical.

3. In Lat. 20S, a star bore 070T. True altitude 2030’ .Find its declination.

4. In what latitude will the period of darkness be twice the period of daylight when the sun’s declination is 2325’S ?

5. If the sun’s amplitude at the summer solstice was E 29N , Find its true altitude when on the prime vertical.

6. Find the L.A.T at which a position line obtained from a morning sight of the sun would run 000180for an observer in

latitude 35N . if the declination of the sun is 2327’N.

7. On a certain day at G.M.T 06h 50m 14s, the apparent Sun’s L.H.A was 32214’.8. at longitude 40E. Find the value of

equation of time whether +ve or –ve to the mean time.

8. On a certainday the Sun’s R.A was 5h 57m 4s when the G.H.A of Aries was 34353.4’.If the obliquity of the Ecliptic was

2327’ ,Find the Sun’s geographical position.

9. In Lat,52N a star with Sidereal Hour Angle of 14902’ had a true altitude of 5220’ when on the prime vertical. If this

altitude is increasing/decreasing. Find the Local Sidereal Time.

10. To an observer in North latitude Arcturus. (Decl. 1925.5’N) bore 000T when on the meridian. If the true altitude at

maximum azimuth has 24 29’ .Find the observer’slatitude.

11. Given Lat. 4910’N, Sun’s declination when rising 2326’N, G.H.A Sun 28606’,Find the longitude.

12. Position A Lat, 6040’N ,Long 13020’ E a star bore 060T on the rational horizon. From position B the star bore

180T with true altitude 55. What is the position B?

13. To an observer in Lat. 4359’N . Long. 2005’W. the true altitude of the sun, east of the meridian, was found to be

6133’. If the declination at this instant was 2055.5’N,Find the Sun’s geographical position.

14. In what latitude will the period of darkness be twice the period of daylight at Winter solstice?

15. Find the observer’s position if the Sun’s true altitude is 4410’ when bearing 090T and its geographical position at

this instant 1113’N , 006.3’W.

16. In latitude 43S the time of theoretical sunrise was 4h 40m L.A.T. At what L.A.T should a sight of the Sun be taken in

order the there would be no longitude correction?

17. The Sun rose bearing 084T. when its declination 510’N .Calculate the observer’s Latitude.

18. At the September Equinox, the Sun bore 236T to an observer in position 4718’N 14905’E. Find GHA of first point of

Aries.
 4.

Obliquity Exercise

1. If the obliquity of the ecliptic is 2327’, calculate the declination of the Sun when its S.H.A is 14535’.

2. Given R.A M.S 8h 10m 11s, Equation of Time +2m 19s , Sun’s declination 1958’N, calculate the obliquity of eh Ecliptic.
 5.

Position line Exercise

1. Using a chosen position of Lat. 50N, Long 815’W , a Sun sight when worked Intercept Method gave an intercept of 4’ away,

Sun’s bearing 142T. if the vessel now steams 052T, how far will she pass off a point of land in lat. 5016.5’N, Long

726’W ?

2. At 6 p.m in D.R. position Lat . 4924’N . Long 730’W. an conservation of a star bearing 230T, gave a long 739’W . At 9.p.m.

Bishop Rk. Lt.( Lat. 4952’N , Long 627’W) came into view bearing 060T. If the vessel’s course were 078T ,speed 12

knots, find the ship’s position at 9 .p.m .

3. In D.R. position Lat 45N. Long .4210’W . an observation of the Sun’s Bearing 210T .gave a Long.

4220’W . In what Longitude would the position line thus obtained, cross the parallel of latitude

4505’N?

4. In working a sight the chronometer error was taken a 20 seconds slow instead of 20 second fast, in D.R. position 35N , 70W

.The bearing of the body was140T and the obtained intercept was 1.8’ away. What was the correct intercept?
5. At noon on a certain ship steaming at 15 knots, the true course for next four hours was 315 . At 4 p.m. it was discovered that

the compass error of 9W had been allowed the wrong way. Calculate how far the ship from the excepted position using the

traverse tables.

6. The position 3010’W .was obtained from two celestial observations. The stars used bore 140T and 240T . It was then

discovered that an index error of 1.5’ off the arc had not been applied Find the true position.

7. Position A Lat 6040’N Long. 13020’E a star bore 060T on the rational horizon .From position B the star bore 180T with

true altitude 55 .What is the position of B?

8. An observer A in Lat 5005’N Long 955’W and another observer B in Lat 4955’N Long 1008’W

observe the Sun bearing 145C and 141C respectively. If the true altitude is the same at each observe,

and the variation is 11W, Find the deviation for the direction of the ship’s heads at A and B.

9. In certain northerly latitude the sun rose bearing 059T to an observer in Long 45W, in month of May. The ship then ran

050T for 140 nautical miles until sunset. The sun’s declination was 2010’N at sunrise and changed 5’ in the interval. Find

the sun’s bearing at sunset.

10. From a vessel steering 118C., Var. 13W., Dev. 5E., a light house in Lat 5131.5’N. Long, 00501’W., bore 078C and after

steaming for 4 miles it bore 043M. Find the vessel’s position when the second bearing was taken.

11. In D.R. position latitude 45N longitude 42 10’W , observation of sun’s bearing 150T gave longitude

4220’W . In what longitude , would the position line thus obtained, cross the parallel of latitude

4455’N?

12. In D.R. Latitude 43N , Longitude 60W an observation of star gave intercept 2.5 miles towards with T. Azimuth 136T.

Then, it was discovered that I.E 2’ had been added instead of subtracted and chronometer error 20sec fast had also been

applied wrong way. Find correct intercept.

 6.

Circumpolar Body

1. During evening twilight on a stationary observer noted that the star A ( S.H.A 29123.0’ Decl. N. 1627.5’ ) was on the

merdian bearing 180T with a true altitude of 5230’. After 1hr 21m 15s a second star was on the meridian bearing

000T. with true altitude of 1525’.Find the S.H.A and declination of the second star.

2. The true altitudes of a star upper and lower transit were found to be 7758’S . and 1808’S. respectively. Find the star’s

declination and the observer’s Latitude.

3. When the horizon below the Sun was hazy, the following back altitude was taken:

Obs. Alt. 12220’

Ht. of eye 12m

Semi-diameter 16.1’

If the limb nearest to the clear horizon was used, find the true altitude.

3 .If on the longest day the sun’s center just touches the rational horizon when on the meridian below the Pole, what is the

observer’s latitude?

4. A star which declination 5617’N., had a true altitude at lower transit of 2617’ . Find the sextant altitude at upper

transit if the HE was 13m and I.E 2’ off the arc.

5. To an observer the true altitudes of a star when on the meridian at upper and lower transit were 8009’S. and 11

45’N. respectively. Calculate its true altitude when on the Prime Vertical.

6. Find maximum Easterly azimuth of a star whose true altitude at lower transit is 10, to an observer in latitude 35N.
 7.

Miscellaneous

1. The sextant altitude of the Sun’s lower limb was observed to be 4205.7’. Index error 3’.0 on the arc. Height of eye

12meters. If the observation was made on April 21st , find the true altitude.

2. A ship was moored to buoy fore and aft. The Sun was observed to rise bearing 107C. and to set bearing 237C. If

the magnetic meridian was 10to the right of true meridian, what was the deviation.

3. Two observers on the same meridian observe the Sun simultaneously when it is on the meridian. If the difference in

the altitudes is 935’ 10’ . Find the distance between them. Assume the Earth to be a sphere of radius 3960miles.

4. A planet whose declination is 19N . is bearing 090T. at L.M.T 17h 00m from the observer in latitude 43N. At

what L.M.T will it cross the observer’s meridian if the ‘v’ correction is +3’ .

5. A vessel left a position : Lat .3203’S. Long. 11544’E. at 1700hrs Standard Time on a certain day. The course was

set 318T. at speed 16 knots. Find the necessary alteration of the ship’s clocks to be correct for Apparent Noon the

following day if L.M.T meridian passage of the Sun on the following day is 12h 08m.

6. A vessel left port at 0930 GMT, on a certain day and after steaming 423 miles to apparent noon on the following day

was in longitude 2419’W . If at 1300 GMT. The Sun’s G.H.A was 1904’ . Find The steaming time and average

speed.

7. The sextant altitude of Aldebaran was 4317’ . Index error 1.5’ on the arc. Height of eye 57 feet. Find true altitude.

8. Assuming the earth’s radius to be 3960 miles and moon’s HP to be 58’ .0. Calculate the distance between earth’s and

moon’s centre.

9. Two observers, X and Y , on the same meridian and 793 miles apart have 1127’ 10” difference in the meridian

altitude of the sun. Find the earth’s radius.

1. Find true sun’s Sidereal Hour Angle at the instant when the First point of Aries crossed the meridian of longitude 80W.

If on that day the sun’s G.H.A was 26020’ at the time instant when the G.H.A of Aries was 7046’ .

2. When the horizon below the Sun was hazy, the following back altitude was taken:
 Obs. Alt. 12220’

Ht. of eye 12m

Semi-diameter 16.1’

If the limb nearest to the clear horizon was used, find the true altitude.

1. Define (a) Latitude

(b) Longitude
(c) D lat
(d) D long
(e) V corrn
2. Define (a) Sextant Altitude
(b) Observed Altitude
(c) Apparent Altitude
(d) True Altitude
(e) D-corn
3. Define (a) Great Circle
(b) Rumb line
(c) MP
(d) DMP
(e) C-corn
4. Define (a) Vertical Circle
(b) Prime Vertical Circle
(c) Declination Circle
(d) Altitude Circle
(e) Long correction
5. Define (a) Apparent Sun
(b) DynamicalMean Sun
(c) AstronomicalMean Sun
6. Define (a) LMT
(b) LAT
 (c) GMT
(d) GAT
7. Define (a) Visible Horizon
(b) Sensible Horizon
(c) Rational Horizon
(d) Back Horizon
(e) GMT Error
8. Define (a) Summer Solstice
(b) Winter Solstice
(c) Vernal Equinox (First point of Aries)
(d) Autumnal Equinox (First point of Libra)
9. Define (a) Azimuth
(b) Amplitude
(c) T.Alt of Body
(d) T.Z.D(True Zenith Distance)
(e) Max Alt
10. Define (a) LMT
(b) GMT
(c) LIT
(d) State relation between them
11. Define (a) National mile
(b) Refraction
(c) Dip
(d) Augmentation
(e) Max Azimuth
12. Define (a) Civil twilight
(b) Nautical twilight
(c) Astronomical twilight
13. Define (a) Solar day
(b) Lunar day
(c) Sidereal day
14. Define (a) Elongation
 (b) Conjunction
(c) Sidereal Period
(d) Synodic Period
(e) Quadrature
15. Define (a) Variation
(b) Deviation
(c) C/E, T.Co, C.Co, M.Co
16. Define (a) SHA
(b) LAT
(c) Vertical Circle
(d) Rational Horizon
17. Define (a) Interior conjunction
(b) Superior conjunction
(c)Max cognation
18. Define (a) Parallax in Act
(b) Horizontal parallax
(c) State relationship b/w them
19. Define (a) Solar day
(b) ApparentSolar day
(c) Mean Solar day
(d) App Time and Mean Time
(e) Equation at Time
20. Define (a) G.C
(b) Vertex of G.C
(c) Pole of G.C
(d) Convergency
21. Define (a) Sidereal day
(b) Solar day
(c) Lunar day
22. Define (a) Synodic Period of the moon
(b) Sidereal Period of the moon
(c) Explain why they are not the same length
23.Define (a) Spring tide
(b) Neap tide (c) Bore tide (d) Priming (e) Lagging

Latitude
It is an angle at the Earth's center measured northward (or) southward from the equator to the given place
along the meridian, up to 90o N/S.

Longitude
It is an angle at the Earth's center or North pole measured Eastward (or) Westward from the Prime meridian to
the meridian of given place along the equator, up to 180o E/W.

D-Lat
It is an arc of the meridian between two parallel of latitude of the given two places.
D-long
It is an arc of the equator between two meridians passing through the given two places.
V-correction
V corn is the hourly difference between hourly rate of change of GHA of moon and planet and constant rate
used in increment table of Natural Alamance.
In other words, v-correction is the difference between hourly rate of change of SHAT S and that of the planet
or moon.

V-correction = Rate of change of GHA moon ~ constant rate (14o 19'/ hr.)
V-correction = Rate of change of GHA planet ~ Constant Rate (15o/ hr.)
V-correction = Rate of change of SHATS ~ Rate of change of SHA planet
V-correction = Rate of change of SDHATS ~ Rate of change of SHA moon
SextantAltitude
It is an angular height of an object above the visible horizon as directly read from sextant.
ObservedAltitude
It is an angular height of an object above the visible horizon corrected for index Error.
ApparentAltitude
It is an angular height of an object above the sensible horizon.
True Altitude
It is an angular height of an object above the rations horizon.
d-correction
d-corn is the hourly rate of change of declination of heavenly body. It can be obtained from daily page of
Nautical Alamance.
Great Circle
Great circle is a circle on a sphere whose plane passes through the center of the sphere and its diameter is
equal to that of the sphere.
Rumb Line
It is a line which cuts all meridians at the same angle. It appears as a spiral curve on the earth's surface and as
a straight line on a Mercator chart.
MP (Meridional Part of latitude)
It is the number of longitude minutes measured from the equator of the chart to the given latitude on the
latitude scale or an increased length of the meridian of chart.
DMP (Difference between MP for two latitudes)
To obtain DMP, MP for each latitude must be applied as to obtain D-lat.
'C' correction (Also known as longitude corn)
Error in lat × C = Error in Long
Error∈ Long
∴ C=
Error∈lat
1
C=
tan Azi× cos Lat
Vertical Circle
Vertical Circles are the great circles joining observer's Zenith and Nadir.
Prime Vertical Circle
Prime Vertical Circle is a particular vertical circle drawn passing through East and West point of the observer.
Declination Circle
Declination Circle is a small circle drawn parallel to the equinoctial and passing through the heavenly body. It
is also known as parallel of Declination.
Altitude Circle
Altitude Circle is a small circle drawn parallel to the Rational Horizon and passing through the heavenly
body. It is also known as circle of equal Altitude.
Long correction
Long corn is the error in longitude and equal to the d-long between DR long and correct long.
Long correction = C x lat correction
Apparent Sun
Apparent Sun is a visible sun moving in the ecliptic at an average rate throughout the year.
Dynamical mean sun
The irregularly caused by the elliptical of earth's orbit can be smoothed out by introducing an imaginary body
which moves around the ecliptic at a constant rate, which is the mean speed of true sun for the year. This body is
given by the name of Dynamical Mean Sun.
Astronomical Mean Sun
The irregularity caused by obliquity of ecliptic can be smoothed out by introducing a further imaginary body
to move in the equinoctial at the some constant rate as dynamical mean sun on the ecliptic. This body is called
Astronomical mean sun.
The mean sun used in Solar Time System is Astronomical Mean Sun.
LMT
It can be define as an angle of the celestial North Pole always measured westward (clockwise) from the
opposite median (lower meridian) of observer to the meridian of mean sun(MS) along the equinoctial. It is always
expressed in unit of time. (hr. min and sec)
LAT
 It can be defined as an angle of the celestial North Pole always measured (clockwise) from the opposite
meridian (lower meridian) of observer to the meridian of true sun(TS) along the equinoctial. It is always expressed in
unit of time. (hr. min and sec)
GMT
It can be defined as an angle of the celestial North pole always measured westward (clockwise) from the
opposite meridian (lower meridian) of Greenwich to the meridian of mean sun(MS) (astronomical mean sun) along
the equinoctial. It is always expressed in unit of time (hr. min and sec)
GAT
It can be defined as an angle of the celestial North pole always measured westward (clockwise) from the
opposite meridian (lower meridian) of Greenwich to the meridian of True sun(TS) along the equinoctial. It is always
expressed in unit of time (hr. min and sec)
Visible Horizon
Visible horizon is a circle bounding the observer's view at sea.
Sensible Horizon
Sensible Horizon is a plane of a circle drawn passing through the observer's eye and perpendicular to the
observer's vertical.
Rational Horizon
Rational Horizon is a plane of GC drawn passing through the Earth's center and parallel to the sensible
horizon. It is 90o away from Zenith and Nadir.
Back Horizon
Back Horizon is a visible horizon but opposite to the horizon below the body when horizon below the body is
obscured by hazy or landmarks or ship.
GMT error
It is the difference between True GMT and calculated. If True GMT is less than calculated GMT, long error
will be fast.
If True GMT is more than calculated GMT, long errors will be west. GMT error.
Summer Solstice
 Summer Solstice is the Northerly highest point of the sun on the ecliptic when the sun reaches that point the
declination of the sun is maximum of 23° 27’ N on 22nd June each year.
It is a beginning of summer time in the Northern Hemisphere.
Longest day occurs in Northern Hemisphere.
Winter Solstice
Winter Solstice is the Southerly highest point on the ecliptic when the sun reaches that point the declination
of the sun is maximum of 23° 27’S on about 22nd December each year.
It is a beginning of winter season in the southern Hemisphere.
Shortest day occurs in Northern Hemisphere.
Vernal Equinox (Spring Equinox)
It is one of intersection point of Ecliptic to the equinoctial when the sun crosses the equinoctial from south to
North.
The point is also known as 1st point of Aries. When the sun reaches this point Dec of sun is 0 o on about 21st
March
Day and Night is equal in all latitudes.
It is a beginning of spring season in Northern Hemisphere.
Autumnal Equinox
It is a one of the intersection point of Ecliptic to the equinoctial when the sun crosses the equinoctial from
North to South.
The point is also known as 1st point of Libra.
When the sun reaches this point, Dec of sun is 0o on about 23rd September.
Day and Night is equal in all latitudes.
It is a beginning of autumn season in Northern hemisphere.
Azimuth
It is an angle at the Zenith always measured between observer's celestial meridian and vertical circle passing
through the body.
It is always measured from the Elevated pole to the direction of body.
Amplitude
It is an angle at the observer's Zenith measured between Prime Vertical Circle and Vertical circle passing
through the body when rising or setting.
True Altitude of body
It is an angular height of an object above the rational horizon.
Zenith Distance of Body
It is an angular distance measured from the Observer's Zenith to the body's center.
It can be obtained by subtracting true altitude from 90o.
Maximum Altitude
Maximum altitude across when body is on the observer's meridian at upper transit or above the pole.
At maximum altitude, LHA body will be 360o or 0o.

LMT (SMT) Local mean time (or) ship mean time

It can be define as an angle of the celestial North Pole always measured westward (clockwise) from the
opposite median (lower meridian) of observer to the meridian of mean sun measured along the equinoctial. It is
always expressed in unit of time. (hr. min and sec)

GMT
It can be defined as an angle of the celestial North pole always measured westward (clockwise) from the
opposite meridian (lower meridian) of Greenwich to the meridian of mean sun along the equinoctial. It is always
expressed in unit of time (hr. min and sec)

LIT
(Longitude in time) Long /15*

State Relation between them

GMT=LMT +LIT,
LMT=GMT+/-LIT ,
LIT=GMT-LMT

Nautical Mile
It is the length of an arc of the meridian subtending 00 o 01o at the center of curvature of the meridian. Due to
the irregularity of shape of the earth, the length is increasingly varied from the Equator toward poles. But for the
practical purpose, 6080 feet = 1852 meter is adopted as 1 Nautical mile.
Refraction
Refraction is an angle at the observer’s eye measured between actual object and the visible object. It is caused
by the rays of the light passing into the denser layer of atmosphere, bent toward the normal .Therefore visible object
is appeared to be higher than actual object .There are
(a) Terrestrial refraction
(b) Astronomical refraction.
Dip
It is an angle of depression of visible horizon below the sensible horizon.
It depends on height of eye of observer.
Dip must be subtracted from observed Altitude to obtain Apparent Altitude.

Augmentation of moon's SD
Due to the Earth's rotation the observer gets closer to the moon from rising to merpass therefore, moon's semi
diameter is augmented.
Augmentation of moon's semi diameter is the difference between semi diameter of moon measured from the
earth's center(<C) and semi diameter of a moon see from the observer on the earth's surface ,(<O).
Semi diameters of moon given to the daily page of Nautical Alumnae are measured from the Earth's center.
 Therefore, to obtain semi-diameter of moon seen from observer on the earth's surface augmentation must be
added to the semi-diameter of moon give in the Nautical Alamance.
The value of augmentation never exceeds 0.3.
<C = SD of moon measured from the earth’s center (given in the daily page of NA)
Augmentation = <C ~<O
<O = <C + Augmentation
Maximum Azimuth
Maximum Azimuth occurs when body reaches a position where vertical circle passing through the body and
hour circle of body are perpendicular to each other.

Civil twilight
It begins (or) ends when the sun reaches the position 6 o below the rational Horizon. The T.Z.D of the sun will
be 96o.

Nautical twilight
A begins (or) ends when the sun reaches the position 12 o below the rational Horizon. The T.Z.D of the sun
will be 102o.

Astronomical twilight
It begins (or) ends when the sun reaches the position 18 o below the Rational Horizon. The T.Z.D of the sun
will be 108o.
Solar day
It is an interval of time elapsed between two successive transit of the sun over the same observer's meridian.
The length is 24:00:00 in mean solder time.
Lunar Day
It is an interval of time elapsed between the successive transit of the moon over the same observer's meridian.
The length is 24:50:00 in mean solar time.
Sidereal Day
It is an interval of time elapsed between two successive transit of the first point of Aries (or) a fixed star over
the same observer's meridian. The length is 23:56:04 in mean solar time.
Elongation of body
Elongation of body is the angle at the earth's center measured between the direction of sun and direction of the
body. It is always measured clockwise (or) anticlockwise from the direction of sun to the direction of body. It is
measured clockwise (westward) from the direction of sun, it is called w'lyElongation. If it is measured anticlockwise
(eastward) from the direction of sun, it is called E'ly Elongation. Therefore, it is a difference between longitude of sun
and longitude of body.
Conjunction
When elongation of body is 0o, the body is said to be in conjunction. At that time, the sun and body are in line
with the earth in the same side.
Sidereal Period
Sidereal Period is the time interval taken by the body to go 360o around its orbit.

Synodic Period
Synodic Period is the time taken by the body to go from conjunction to next similar conjunction (or) same
phase back to the some phase.
Quadrature
When elongation of body is 90o, the body is said to be in quadrature. At that time, the sun and body are
perpendicular at the earth.
Opposition
When elongation of body is 180o, the body is said to be an opposition. At that time, the sun and body are in
line with the earth in opposite side.
Variation
It is an angle between true north and magnetic north.

Deviation
Deviation is the angle of deflection of ship's compass needle from magnetic meridian due to the ship's magnetic
including forces on the needle.
Compass error
It is the angle between True North and Compass North due to the combination of variation and deviation.
True Course
If it is measured from True North, it is called True course.
Compass Course
If it is measured from compass north, it is called compass course.
Magnetic course
If it is measured from magnetic north, it is called magnetic course.

SHA
It is an angle at the celestial north pole measured westward (clockwise) from the first point of Aries to the
meridian of the body along the equinoctial.
It is always expressed in (deg; min; sec).

LAT
It can be define as an angle of the celestial North Pole always measured westward (clockwise) from the opposite
median (lower meridian) of observer to the meridian of true sun measured along the equinoctial.
It is always expressed in unit of time. (hr. min and sec)

Vertical circles They are great circles joining zenith and nadir.
Rational horizon It is great circle drawn passing the earth’s center, and parallel to the sensible horizon, 90° away
from zenith and nadir.
Inferior conjunction
When elongation of planet is 0* and planet is in line between sun and the earth, the planet is said to be in inferior
conjunction
Superior conjunction
When elongation of planet is 0º and planet is in line with sun and the planet is opposite side of the earth, the planet is
said to be in inferior conjunction

Maximum Elongation
Maximum Elongation of the body occurs when the body reaches a point where line of sight from the earth is tangent
to the orbit of the body.
Parallax in Altitude
Par in Alt is an angle at the body measured between the line drawn from the body to the observer and to the
earth's center. Its value is depends on the following:
(a) Distance between body end the earth's center
(b) Earth's radius
(c) Altitude of the body

Horizontal Parallax of the moon

Horizontal Parallax of the moon is the parallax in altitude of the moon when the moon is on the rational
horizon (or) sensible horizon.

State relationship between them It is par in alt=HP×cos apparent altitude

Solar day
It is an interval of time elapsed between two successive transit of the sun over the some observer's meridian.
The length is 24:00:00 in mean solder time.
Apparent Solar day
It is an interval of time elapsed between two successive transit of the true sun over the some observer's meridian. The
length is 24:00:00 in apparent solar time.
Mean solar day
It is an interval of time elapsed between two successive transit of the mean sun over the some observer's meridian.
The length is 24:00:00 in mean solar time.

Apparent time and mean time

If true sun is used as time keeper ,it is called apparent time .
If mean sun(astronomical mean sun) is used as time keeper it is called mean time.
If first point of aries is used as time keeper it is called sidereal time.

Equation of time
Equation of time is the difference between true sun and mean sun.

Great Circle
It is a circle on a sphere, whose plane passes through the center of a sphere and its diameter is equal to that of
the sphere.
Vertex of Great Circle
It isa point on a great circle, nearest to the pole .

Pole of Great Circle is a point 90* away from great circle.

Convergency
It is the change of direction of a great circle at the meridians.In other word, except the equator, a great circle
crosses all meridians at the different angles.
The differences between these angles are shown as convergencies between them.
to obtain convergency , following formula can be used.
 Conv .
= sin mean Lat. Conv. = D. Long × sin mean Lat.
D. Long .

Synodic period of the moon

It is an interval of time taken by the moon from conjunction to next similar conjunction or phase back to same phase. It is the
length of about 29.5 days.

Sidereal period of the moon

1
It is a interval of time taken by the moon to go 360*around its orbit. It is the length of about 27 days.
3
Explain why they are not same length
During sidereal period, the earth has advanced about 29* in its orbit. So the moon must make about two days more to
get next similar conjunction. Therefore, synodic period of the moon is longer than sidereal period of the moon.
Spring tideIt occurs on new moon and full moon day when the moon is at conjuction and opposition. It is the
greatest range between highest HW and lowest LW.
Neap tide occurs when the moon is at the quadrature (dichotomise) and it is the least range between lowest HW and
highest LW.
Bore tide is the tidal wave of manyhight that advances up by the normal tide in narrow and shallow rivers yangon
river, seine,trent and other rivers. It forms mostly at the time of spring tide.
Priming is the high tide which occur before moon's mer pass .
Lagging is the high tide which occur after moon's mer pass

.
Course is the direction of ship’s head always measured from direction of north ( datum point). If true north is used as
datum point, it is called true course. If compass north is used as datum point, it is called compass course. If gyro north
is used as datum point, it is called gyro course.
Bearing is direction of object seen from ship always measure from direction of north (datum point). If true north is
used datum point, it is called true bearing. If compass north is used as datum point, it is called compass bearing. If
gyro north is used as datum point, it is called gyro bearing.
Relative Bearing is the direction of object seen from ship, but measure from ship’s head or ship’s stern or ship’s
beam. There are various methods for relative bearing. Port bow or star board bow, red or green, port quarter or
starboard quarter or abaft the port beam or starboard beam.
Variation is the angle between true north and magnetic north.
If magnetic north is to the right of true not, it is named EAST and to the left, it is name WEST.
Deviation is the angle between magnetic north and compass north (red end of needle of compass). If needle is
deflected to the right of magnetic north, it is name east and to the left of magnetic north, it is name west. If compass
direction is change to magnetic direction, deviation must be applied (easterly name add, westerly name,
subtract).Deviation is caused by the ship’s permanent and induced magnetism on the compass needle.
Nodal points are points of intersection of moon’s orbit to the ecliptic, inclining about 5.25*.
Ascending node is one of the point of intersection of moon’s orbit to the ecliptic when the crosses the ecliptic from
south to north.
Descending node is the one of the intersection of the moon’s orbit to the ecliptic when the moon crosses the ecliptic
from north to south.