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Rapid virtual prototyping of electric vehicles using DQ behavioral model of a

brushless DC motor

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RAPID VIRTUAL PROTOTYPING OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES USING BEHAVIORAL MODELING, VERSION 1.00, JANUARY 2012 1

Rapid Virtual Prototyping of Electric Vehicles Using

DQ Behavioral Model of a Brushless DC Motor
Ian Cooper, Peter Wilson, Senior Member, IEEE, and Andrew D. Brown Senior Member, IEEE,

Abstract—This paper presents a system level for the effective plants (petrol + electric), and a complex control mechanism
and rapid design and evaluation of a complete electric vehicle to manage both [6].
system. Several critical components are examined including The long term automotive trend is clearly towards purely
the mechanical model of the vehicle, the electric motor (with
its associated power electronic components) and the energy electric vehicles, with the prospect of much cheaper running
storage system.A Brushless DC (BLDC) motor Saber model costs and significantly simpler manufacturing and maintenance
that integrates the DQ axis transformations within the electro- due to the reduction in complex moving parts [7], [8].
mechanical motor model is developed that facilitates fast and The key elements in a purely electric drive-train, as illus-
accurate characterization of the behaviour of the vehicle with
trated by Fig 1, are the motor, power electronics and energy
a realistic drive cycle and aerodynamic model. The simulated
results presented show that the novel Saber model can be a storage. There is already a plethora of research into different
viable solution for behavioural high speed analysis of an electric power sources, see [9]–[12], including batteries and alternative
vehicle drive train. The impact on total vehicle simulation times fuel options such as hydrogen. Quickly changeable battery
is significant, with a major reduction in simulation times allowing packs have also been researched, as in [13], which would
multiple scenarios and optimization of both the system and
allow the vehicle to be operated by the driver in a similar
electronic control to be rapidly undertaken.
fashion to filling up with petrol, resulting in effective increased
Index Terms—Electric Vehicles, Mixed Domain Simulation, range. While this is a useful step forward, the actual form of
Behavioural Modelling
electricity storage is beyond the scope of this paper, however
it does strengthen the argument that Electric Vehicles are
I. I NTRODUCTION becoming increasingly viable and will have a larger share of
the automotive market as a result.

P ETROL and diesel engines are currently the default

choice for traction in transport systems in automotive, rail
and static applications; including remote power generation. In
the automotive industry this is primarily due to a combination
of factors such as fuel energy density, availability and existing
supply infrastructure. Petrol (Gasoline) has an extremely high
energy density of 13kWh/kg and is therefore able to provide
ranges far in excess of the current electric vehicles on the mar-
ket, due to the relatively low energy density of current battery
technology. For example, even modern lithium ion batteries
have a considerably lower energy density of approximately
100Wh/kg [1], [2]. In addition, despite much effort being
expended in aerodynamic improvements and vehicle weight
reduction to improve efficiency, fossil fuel based vehicles are
still incredibly inefficient with a large amount of energy being Fig. 1: Jaguar C-X75 Electric Vehicle Concept, modified
wasted through heat loss and mechanical friction within the from [14]
engine [3].
In spite of the apparent drawbacks of moving to electric Obviously, the most important moving part in an Electric
drives for automotive power, there is clear legislative motiva- Vehicle (EV) drive-train is the electric motor itself, and it is
tion for the adoption of electric vehicles to reduce the carbon vital that the motor is carefully selected in order to utilise
footprint of transportation and, there has been a global drive to- the stored energy as efficiently as possible. Electric motors,
wards electric vehicles as a result [4]. Recently, commercially powered by on board batteries, have the potential to revolu-
available hybrid technology has provided a stepping stone to tionise vehicle drive systems by increasing efficiency and even
purely electric vehicles [5]. However, while this has been a delivering a higher power to weight ratio over their internal
progressive step and a viable solution for a practical day-to-day combustion engined equivalents. The reduction in complexity,
car, there are clear cost disadvantages in having multiple power particularly of moving parts, is also a huge advantage, so the
benefits to the motorist are potentially wide ranging.
P.R. Wilson and A.D. Brown are with the School of Electronics and
Computer Science, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ There are numerous potential options for electric mo-
(email:[email protected]) and I. Cooper is with Jaguar Land Rover, UK tors including DC permanent magnet (DCPM), AC Induc-
RAPID VIRTUAL PROTOTYPING OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES USING BEHAVIORAL MODELING, VERSION 1.00, JANUARY 2012 2

tion, Switched Reluctance [15] and DC Brushless. Brushed time in comparison to a high level system model. A potentially
(DCPM) and Brushless DC motors (BLDC) are both con- interesting alternative approach is to implement an integrated
sidered to be viable options to use to replace an internal motor/driver model; alleviating the need for many complex
combustion engine, each has advantages and disadvantages transforms by implementing the resulting DQ axis model
within the context of an electric vehicle [16], although most directly. [24].
forms of electric motor have been attempted in some form of Given these requirements, the purpose of this paper is
electric vehicle conversion in recent years. therefore to design and implement a fully integrated model
BLDC motors have several key advantages over brushed for fast system simulation whilst being able to integrate
DC motors. BLDC motors are not mechanically commutated mechanical, control and electronic aspects. The proposed DQ
by brushes and a commutator; this offers some attractive BLDC motor model implemented in this paper is compared
characteristics for electric vehicle use. Higher efficiency and against a conventional 3 phase model. Simulation results are
reliability, higher power density, reduced noise and a longer given to illustrate the performance of the proposed model from
lifespan due to the design having less components that wear. a system designer’s perspective.
Recent research indicates the viability and flexibility of DC This paper will therefore introduce the key concepts in
Brushless Motors for this application [17], [18]. Brushless DC Motor operation and control in Section II,
DC PM motors are still a viable option, however, an Section III will develop the new BLDC model including a
obvious important disadvantage to consider is that the design comparison with previous models, Section IV will show how
uses brushes. Degradation of performance over time, and the this can be used for rapid evaluation of electric vehicle system
reduced time between maintenance are important aspects to models and finally Section V will provide a conclusion.
consider when designing a vehicle that is to run for a long
time. Therefore, this paper will focus on BLDC motors, as a
suitable target technology for electric vehicle power trains.
In the automotive industry, there are several options for II. E LECTRIC V EHICLE S YSTEM M ODEL
predicting electric vehicle power train performance, including
simulators such as Matlab, Saber and SPICE. In practice, In order to establish the basic vehicle performance at
Matlab and other system level simulators are focussed on the system level, a behavioral model of the motor, power
a macro level simulation of vehicle performance and drive electronics and mechanical system is required. The initial
cycles; the SPICE type simulators are used to carry out model created in Saber to establish the key elements of the
detailed level simulations of electronic components [19], [20]. vehicle behavior is shown in Fig 2. The model has an initial
Other options are also available, including the use of mixed- assumption of an ideal energy store (in other words, although
technology simulators such as Saber, a standard for many in reality the battery voltage would ”droop” under load, and
automotive companies including GM and Ford, and these have the power electronics would need to compensate for this, at
the advantage that it is possible to analyse all aspects of the this initial stage the model assumes a relatively ideal starting
EV power train from system down to device level [21]. An point. The power electronics is modelled as an ideal power
important aspect to consider is that using a mixed-technology system, with no switching, but with time constants and loop
level means that a true energy conserved model is analysed behaviour. The outer control loop is based on speed control,
which aids in the understanding of the efficiency of the entire where the speed demand will be one of the European Union
system. standard cycles (for example ECE15 [25] which is the light
This mixed domain context it is extremely valuable in urban test cycle.
modelling and simulation of the electric vehicle power train The motor is represented by an ideal system level model
from source to wheel [22], [23]. It is therefore important to be of a motor using ideal motor equations, and is therefore
able to model not only the control and system aspects of the not intended at this stage to accurately reflect the physical
power train, but also the electrical and mechanical behaviour behaviour or detailed control requirements of the individual
accurately. Due to the industry requirement to simulate vehicle motor. The mechanical model includes the mass of the vehicle,
dynamics under varying conditions for long periods it is aerodynamic drag and rolling resistance, with calculations of
important that simulations be run quickly. Simulation of motor the vehicle speed, acceleration and distance. The resulting
performance for changing external conditions such as high simulation of this model shows how the system level model
acceleration and high speed demands is essential. This can can be used to predict the speed (against the demanded ECE
be a particular issue when detailed cycle by cycle modelling profile), distance travelled (in meters) and power required at
of power electronics are required, however for system level each stage.
design and optimization rapid simulation is essential. This initial model is therefore useful in establishing the
Conventional methods of modelling motor drive systems power budget of the vehicle, however it does not really
have used equivalent models based on the well known Park and offer a particular step forward in itself over previous system
Clarke transforms, which combine the DQ axis control model level models, in particular in improving the model of the
with three phase motor models, however this still requires motor without resorting to excessive detail. The next section
a full multi-phase model of the motor and the associated of this paper will therefore introduce the design issues in
power electronics to be simulated. While this approach is using brushless DC motors and the challenge for accurately
relatively accurate, it has a significant impact on simulation modeling them quickly and efficiently.
RAPID VIRTUAL PROTOTYPING OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES USING BEHAVIORAL MODELING, VERSION 1.00, JANUARY 2012 3

drive system due to their relatively high efficiency and low

maintenance. Fig 4 shows the equivalent circuit of a typical
BLDC motor. The rotational speed of a BLDC motor is
directly proportional to the applied voltage across the motor
coils. In a DC motor the brushes and commutator act like
a rotary switch, selecting which of the coils to power to
achieve rotation through mechanical commutation. Unlike DC
motors, BLDC motors require external electronics to control
motor commutation, adding an extra level of complexity to the
system [26].
Driver circuits are required by BLDC motors to provide the
correct commutation sequence to make the motor turn [27]. Fig
5 shows the driver circuit for a typical BLDC motor. In order to
operate the motor and produce rotational torque at the output
shaft each coil must be electrically excited synchronously with
the current rotor position. The equivalent circuit, shown in Fig
5, is connected to a three-phase full-bridge circuit. This circuit
is used to provide electrical excitation of the motor coils in
a given direction and acts as the DC link between the motor
Fig. 3: Electric Vehicle Simulation Results
and the controller. Each transistor is driven independently by
an external controller; the commutation sequence shown in
Fig 6 is performed to allow the motor to turn. To vary the
rotational speed of the motor the transistors in each pair can
be pulse width modulated, varying the average DC voltage
across the motor winding [28]. The motor will be running at
full speed if the transistors are driven for the full time period
of the 120 electrical degrees. Since only 2 phases of the 3
are excited at any time trapezoidal back-EMF is generated
Fig. 4: BLDC Motor in the unexcited winding. This is an effect of the generating
properties of electric motors. This back-EMF, is aligned with
the phase current and this can be utilised in sensorless control.
The electronic control of BLDC motors requires rotor
position feedback in order to operate. This is approached either
with sensors, or without, known as ’sensor-less’ feedback.
Both methods allow the control circuit to synchronise with
the motor, and are occasionally used to provide an external
RPM (revolutions per minute) value. Typically Hall sensors are
Fig. 5: BLDC Equivalent circuit used to detect where in the commutation cycle the rotor is by
detecting the different magnetic fields as the magnetic poles of
the commutator pass. However, Hall sensors have a maximum
operating temperature and increase the cost and size of the
motor. The sensors are also fragile and, mounting inaccuracies
in manufacture can affect switching accuracy. [27]–[30].
Sensor-less control techniques for BLDC motors have been
a highly researched area in recent years and a number of
approaches have been proposed [30], [31]. Sensorless oper-
ation involves detection of the terminal voltage of the motor
poles in conjunction with the switching sequence; using the
generated trapezoidal back-EMF to synchronize and control
the motor [28]. Multiple methods exist for sensorless motor
control. Algebraic, equation based control techniques exist,
which utilise calculated flux linkages or model predictions to
calculate rotor position and speed [31]. Through monitoring
Fig. 6: BLDC Commutation Sequence
of the back-EMF in the silent phase, the zero crossing point
can be detected. The measured commutation points are then
III. B RUSHLESS DC M OTOR O PERATION AND C ONTROL phase shifted by 30◦ , requiring a speed-dependant time delay
Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) Motors, as already dis- citeControlTechniques:Paper. The BLDC motor can then be
cussed, are an excellent choice for use in an electric vehicle synchronized without the need for sensors [28]. Several tech-
RAPID VIRTUAL PROTOTYPING OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES USING BEHAVIORAL MODELING, VERSION 1.00, JANUARY 2012 4

niques utilise back-EMF voltage sensing to synchronise the same DQ axis. The basic approach of just the transforms and
motor. These include but are not limited to: Terminal Voltage BLDC model is shown in 7. The detailed magnetic behaviour
Sensing, Third Harmonic back-EMF voltage sensing and free- of the windings has not been included in this initial model,
wheel diode conduction [29], [31]. however the non-linear magnetics can be modelled using
Terminal voltage sensing provides a simple system in com- standard approaches such as the Jiles-Atherton model [33],
parison to others, with minimal extra hardware component [34], [35], with the ability to predict the effects of hysteresis
requirements. This simplicity at a hardware level means this on distortion [36] or losses [37]. The other important aspect
technique is widely used within industry [30]. However, since of modelling behaviour in electric vehicles would the effects
the 30◦ speed dependant phase delay can cause large differ- of temperature on the magnetic material performance which
ences in actual rotor position. This can limit the maximum can have a profound effect on the motor winding inductance
torque from the motor due to incorrect commutation sequence [38].
alignment. A study in to maximum torque generation using
terminal voltage sensing is presented here [27]. Terminal volt- The transformation of the ABC currents into the DQ axis is
age sensing is ideal for implementation on a micro controller transformed using the well known dq0 transformation using
as in [29], [30]. Built in A to D converters as well as PWM the relation defined in Equation 1 with the transformation
outputs commonly built in to modern micro controllers, make matrix defined in 2.
them a low cost solution to BLDC control. r   
A fuzzy logic control (FLC) implementation using a micro Ia
2
controller is [28]. This removes some computation required Idqo = T Iabc = DQ0   Ib  (1)
3
at run time by the micro controller, calculating values at Ic
programming time and placing them into a look up table
cos(φ − 2π cos(φ + 2π
   
(LUT) . This is similar in concept to that of the simulated novel cos(φ) 3 ) 3 )
BLDC motor model discussed in this paper. Switching instants  DQ0  =  −sin(φ) −sin(φ − 2π3 ) −sin(φ + 2π
3 )

√ √ √
2 2 2
can also be determined using the third harmonic of the back- 2 2 2
EMF. Measuring the voltage between the virtual neutral point (2)
and the negative voltage rail allows the third harmonic flux Conversely, the transformation from the DQ axis into the
linkage through integration of voltage. [30]. This technique is dq0 reference frame requires the opposite transformation as
not as susceptible to phase delay of conduction sequence as shown in Equation 3 and the inverse matrix in 4.
terminal voltage sensing [31]. r   
Id
While it is beyond the scope of this paper to descend into 2
Iabc = T −1 Idqo =  DQ0−1   Iq  (3)
the detail of designing a brushless DC motor controller, it is 3
Io
clear that while system level simulators such as Matlab are
ideally suited to the high level equations of a system level  √
2

−sin(φ)
 
description, the detail required for a switch level simulation cos(φ) √2
 DQ0−1  cos(φ − 2π
= ) −sin(φ − 2π 2
3 )

would lead to prohibitively long simulation times for any kind 3 √2

2π 2π 2
of cycle testing as described in the previous section of this cos(φ + 3 ) −sin(φ + 3 ) 2
paper, with test times measured in minutes or even hours. This (4)
is driving towards the use of a ”hybrid” level model that can Figure 8 shows the Saber schematic used to simulate a
encompass the basic system level behaviour and yet maintain standard Sine approach to BLDC control. The sensorless back-
enough detail to enable optimization and design of key motor EMF feedback is transformed via the dq0 transform, given by
and power electronic parameters. This will be developed in the equation below, so that 2 DC quantities can be used in the
the next section of this paper. control feedback [31]. The d and q values are then used in PI
type controllers which allow the motor to maintain constant
torque or speed. However, these calculated values must then
IV. DQ A XIS BLDC B EHAVIORAL S ABER M ODEL
have the reverse dq0 transform, given by the equation below,
There has been a significant effort into the development of applied in order to produce the ABC sinusoid values required
models for Brushless DC motor models, with the obvious use by the BLDC motor model. This is the conventional approach
of the DQ transformation to simplify the control and drive to BLDC motor modelling [23].
aspects of the system model. Recent work has also taken Figure 8 also shows the dq transform blocks used to
the approach of modelling the DQ axis behaviour in order to translate from the DQ0 axis models to the three phase volt-
accurately model the detailed harmonics in the system [32], ages and currents in a conventional model. These transforms
however this is not the main requirement of the model in are calculated for every simulation step. Variable time step
this case. The classic approach used to model and implement algorithms, such as those found in Matlab, SPICE or Saber
control in three phase BLDC systems is to transform the increase the frequency of simulation samples during areas of
demand and feedback current and voltages from the 3 phase high interest such as accelerations and decelerations, and in
domain into an equivalent DQ axis. This is extremely useful particular if the frequency of the drive system increases. This
for control algorithms, and also has the advantage from a means that simulations of electric vehicle drive cycles take
modelling perspective of simplifying the system model into the extra computing time to complete, slowing down the testing
RAPID VIRTUAL PROTOTYPING OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES USING BEHAVIORAL MODELING, VERSION 1.00, JANUARY 2012 5

process [32]. To facilitate a solution, and reduce the time and frequent stops are included to provide a unified test to
taken to simulate complex drive cycles for electric vehicles assess vehicle performance [39]. Testing using drive cycle as
a novel BLDC motor model is presented in this paper. The a stimulus is a more accurate test than testing constant vehicle
model, like the sine model simulated above, takes in a speed speed simulation, as this condition would be impossible to
demand, however, the dq motor model uses the DC d and q achieve on real roads. The European driving cycle, ECE-
values as inputs, instead of ABC sinusoids. This negates the 15, can be used to get a good idea of an electric vehicles’
necessity to have transformations from and to a three phase performance and range [39].
model, reducing the time taken to simulate the given stimulus. In simulation the speed demand fed in to the motor con-
Although both models are behavioural, not monitoring the troller is provided by the drive cycle, testing the acceleration,
switching of transistors as in [33], they provide a significantly deceleration and fixed speed of the vehicle. The system model
faster simulation. Figure 9 shows the new DQ motor model is then used to connect the physical properties of the moving
based system. The result is that by not requiring to simulate the vehicle to the motor in order to properly simulate the motor
the actual sinusoidal wave shapes, the model becomes speed powering a car such as the University of Southampton Electric
and frequency independent and the simulation times are much MR2, shown in Fig 10. When a step change speed demand was
faster for equivalent accuracy. The approach is to implement applied to the vehicle, the resulting acceleration of the vehicle
the brushless motor equations directly in the DQ axis as shown was observed in the model and the simulation tie observed.
in Equations 5, 6 and 7. As can be seen in 11, the vehicle reaches the required speed
correctly,m however as can be seen in I, the simulation time
dIq is a fraction of that for the sinusoidal model.
Vq = Rs Iq + Lq + ωe Ld Id + ωe kt (5)
dt

dId
Vd = Rs Id + Ld + ωe Lq Iq (6)
dt

Tq = Iq kt (7)
The complete listing of the resulting model is given in
Appendix A.

V. C OMPLETE E LECTRIC VEHICLE S IMULATION M ODEL

Most practical testing of electric vehicle performance
through simulation requires the simulation to provide stimulus
similar to the conditions that may be found in a real world
environment. The simulation aids designers with choice of
motor since accelerations and high speeds are simulated to
find out if the motor and its gearing can provide the torque
as well as wheel RPMs required. In order to provide a useful Fig. 11: DQ motor test
reference vehicle for study, a Toyota MR2 was modified to an
electric drive as shown in 10.
Model Simulation Time (s)
New DQ Motor 5.54
Conventional three phase Brushless Motor Model 198.0

TABLE I: Results

VI. C ONCLUSIONS
A novel BLDC motor model has been simulated success-
fully in this paper using mixed domain simulation in Saber.
The results show that the behavioural simulation conducted
with a variable speed demand over a long period significantly
favour the new model over a more conventional sine model in
terms of calculation time.
The model in this paper, which eliminates the necessity for
Fig. 10: Fully Electric MR2 complex transformations at simulation run time, requires less
computation time for the same external conditions; an ideal
Typically a driving cycle is used to assess the emission level characteristic for electric vehicle simulation.
of a car engine. The cycle is made up from data points in time In comparison to other models the new model allows for
giving the speed of the vehicle; accelerations, decelerations longer simulations to be performed in shorter times, enabling
RAPID VIRTUAL PROTOTYPING OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES USING BEHAVIORAL MODELING, VERSION 1.00, JANUARY 2012 6

a high level of simulation to be performed and allowing iq: tq = iq*kt*efficiency

informed considerations of motor choice during the electric id: vd=rs*id + ld*diddt - we*lq*iq
vehicle design phase. diqdt: diqdt=d_by_dt(iq)
diddt: diddt=d_by_dt(id)
}
VII. A PPENDIX A: S ABER M ODEL L ISTING
template dqmotor q d t=rs,ld,lq,kt,p,eff short.1 n 0
electrical q,d }
rotational_vel t
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RAPID VIRTUAL PROTOTYPING OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES USING BEHAVIORAL MODELING, VERSION 1.00, JANUARY 2012 8

Fig. 2: Electric Vehicle Mixed Domain model

Fig. 7: BLDC and DQ transformation block diagram

RAPID VIRTUAL PROTOTYPING OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES USING BEHAVIORAL MODELING, VERSION 1.00, JANUARY 2012 9

Fig. 8: BLDC Sine cycle test

Fig. 9: BLDC novel DQ motor model

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