X Reg

Branch office: Opp Shah ji Dairy, Noor Manzil , Dodhpur , Aligarh

Life Processes

The process by which an organism consumes food is called nutrition, which

are then utilized by the body for various functions.

Autotrophic Nutrition: The term ‘autotroph’ is derived from the

Greek word ‘Auto’ meaning self and ‘trophos’ meaning nutrition.

In this mode of nutrition, organisms prepare or synthesize their own food

with the help of inorganic raw materials in the presence of sunlight. These
organisms are known as autotrophs. All green plants and some bacteria
are autotrophs.

Heterotrophic Nutrition: The term ‘heterotroph’ is derived from the

Greek words ‘Heteros’ meaning different or other, and ‘trophos’ meaning
nutrition.

In this mode of nutrition, organisms obtain energy from the intake of

complex organic substances, generally from plant and animal sources.

These organisms are known as heterotrophs. All fungi and animals and
some bacteria are heterotrophs.

Herbivores: These are the animals that feed directly on plants. For
example, cow, goat, rabbit etc.

Carnivores: The animals that feed on herbivores are known as carnivores.

For example, tiger, lion etc.

Omnivores: This includes the animals which eat both plants and
animals. For example, humans etc.

Saprophytes: These are the organisms that feed on dead and decayed
organic matter. For example, bacteria, mushroom etc.

Parasites: These are the organisms that live inside or on the body of other
living organisms called the Host and obtain food from them. For example,
Cuscuta plant that obtains food from green plants, Ascaris that lives in the
intestine of humans etc.
Insectivorous plants: Some plants live in the areas where the soil is deficient in
nitrogen. These plants trap insects and obtain nitrogen from them. These plants are
called as insectivorous plants

differences between autotrophs and heterotrophs

Autotrophs Heterotrophs
They obtain energy by preparing food from They obtain energy from complex organic
inorganic substances such as CO2 and substances by consuming
water in the presence of sunlight. plants or other animals.
These organisms are called producers as they These organisms utilize the food
manufacture their own food. manufactured by producers. Hence, they
are called consumers.
Green plants, algae are autotrophs. Animals and fungi are heterotrophs.
 Plants do not always have an autotrophic mode of nutrition. They can be parasitic,
carnivorous, or saprophytic.
Rafflesia is a root parasite. It draws water and minerals from the roots of other plants.

Autotrophic Nutrition in Plants

The sun is the ultimate source of energy on Earth. Energy from the sun is captured by
plants and converted into usable form. Thus, the origin of all foods is the food
prepared by plants. This food is also consumed by animals.

Autotrophs such as green plants and some bacteria prepare or synthesize their own
food. They are capable of trapping solar energy with the help of a green pigment
called chlorophyll. This trapped solar energy is then converted into chemical energy
of food using CO2 and H2O.

Photosynthesis is the process by which chlorophyll-containing cells present in leaves

synthesize food in the form of carbohydrates by using carbon dioxide, water and
sunlight.

Therefore, the raw materials required for photosynthesis are CO2 and H2O and the
products formed are carbohydrates and O2.

Hence, the process can be represented as:

 The raw materials required for photosynthesis are CO2 and H2O and the products
formed are carbohydrates and O2.

 Plants obtain water through their roots. Water is then transported to all plant parts
with the help of the xylem.
 Exchange of gases (entry of CO2 and release of O2) occurs through the stomata.

Stomata are tiny pores present mainly on the surface of leaves. They are also present
on the surface of young stems and roots.

Stomata consist of a stomatal opening or stoma, which is surrounded by two distinct

epidermal cells known as guard cells.

Two phases of photosynthesis

The process of photosynthesis occurs in two phases – Photochemical

Phase and Biosynthetic Phase.

Photochemical Phase - A series of chemical reactions take place in the presence of

light, as light behaves as catalyst is called as photochemical phase. The light reactions
take place in thylakoids of the chloroplasts.

Light reactions – As the name suggests, this reaction takes place in the presence of
light. Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll molecules and is utilized for splitting
water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. Additionally in this phase, assimilatory
power in the form of ATP and NADPH are produced.

Light reactions occur in the membranes of thylakoids.

 Events occurring during light reactions:

 Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll molecules

 Splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen atoms
 Formation of ATP and NADPH2

Reactions involved in Photolysis:-

(i) ADP + Phosphate -------------- ATP(phosphorylation)

(ii) 2H2O ------------- 2H2 + O2 ( Photolysis)

Enzymes
(iii) NADP+ + e- + H+ -------------- NADPH

Biosynthetic Phase - It includes the reactions that are not dependent on light (but
may happen during day time as well). It results in synthesis of carbohydrates, or
'food', using the energy produced through light reactions.
Dark reactions – This reaction does not require direct light and occurs in the stroma
of chloroplasts. During this phase, ATP and NADPH2 (formed during light reactions)
are utilized for the reduction of CO2 to carbohydrates (food).

Event occurring during dark reaction:

 Reduction of CO2 to form carbohydrates

 Transformation of glucose molecules to 1 mole of Starch is called polymerisation.
 * Do you know that the total amount of O2 produced by an acre of trees per year
is equal to the amount consumed by around 18 people annually!

* One tree produces nearly 260 pounds of O2 annually.

End Results of Products Of Photosynthesis

 Glucose: Simple glucose is utilised by plants in the following ways:

 For consumption by plant cells
 For storage as insoluble starch
 For conversion into sucrose
 For synthesis of fats, proteins, etc
 Water: It can be re-utilised in the continuance of photosynthesis.
 Oxygen: Some of it is used in respiration of leaves and rest diffuses out.

Nutrition in Human Beings

Human digestive system consists of two components: alimentary canal (that include mouth, oesophagus, stomach,
small intestine and large intestine), and digestive glands (that include salivary glands, liver and pancreas).

The Mouth
In holozoic nutrition, food is taken inside the body through mouth. This process is
known as ingestion. Inside the mouth, teeth, tongue and salivary glands are present.
Each of them play significant role in the digestion of food.

Teeth
The mouth or the buccal cavity has teeth, which mechanically break down the food
into smaller pieces. Teeth are rooted in separate sockets in the gums.

Humans grow with two sets of teeth. The first set of teeth begins to grow during
infancy. This set of teeth is called milk teeth. These fall off between the ages of six
and eight. The second set of teeth, which replaces the milk teeth, is called the
permanent teeth. This set lasts throughout our life, unless it falls off during old age.
1. Incisors are the teeth present at the front portion of the mouth. There are four
incisors in each jaw. They are used for biting and cutting food.

2. Canines are located next to the incisors. There are two canines in each jaw. They are
used for tearing and piercing food.

3. Premolars lie next to the canines. There are four premolars in each jaw. They are
used for chewing and grinding food.

4. Molars lie next to the premolars at the end of the jaw. There are six molars in each
jaw. They are also used for chewing and grinding food.

 In herbivores, canine teeth are absent and the incisors are sharp to cut the grass.
 In carnivores the incisors are strong and pointed while canines are enlarged.
 In omnivores, all four kinds of teeth are well developed.

Dental Formula

 Dental formula for milk teeth in humans is 2120/2120. It means that each half of
upper jaw and lower jaw has 2 incisors, 1 canine and 2 premolars. Molars are absent
in milk teeth. There are 20 teeth in the milk teeth set.

 Dental formula for permanent teeth in human is . It means that each half of
upper jaw and lower jaw has 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars, and 3 molars.

Structure of Tooth

The vertical section of tooth shows the following parts

 The crown − the part lying above the gums

 The neck − it connects the crown with the root
 The root − it lies buried inside the gums and supports the tooth
The white part of the tooth is called the enamel, it consists of calcium salts.

Inner to the enamel is the dentine which is a solid tissue and contains microscopic
tubules/tubes.

The dentine encloses a cavity known as the pulp cavity. This cavity supplies the tooth
with nerves and blood capillaries.

At the root of the tooth is a bone like material called the cement which holds the tooth
firmly to the socket.

Tooth decay

Irregular and improper cleaning of teeth can lead to the growth of several harmful
bacteria in our mouth. These bacteria form a yellow coloured film on the tooth-
surface, called plaque. Also, they break down the sugar present in leftover food
particles and release acids in the mouth, which damage the teeth and form cavities
(caries). The bacteria can enter the tooth pulp through these caries and cause
infection. This is known as tooth decay. This condition can lead to severe toothache.
It can also result in untimely loss of teeth. Tooth decay can occur because of
consuming chocolates, sweets, cold drinks, and other sugar products.

Tooth decay can be prevented by maintaining oral hygiene, which includes the proper
cleaning of teeth. Teeth must be brushed twice a day after meals using dantun or
dental floss.

Tongue

Tongue is a muscular organ present in the buccal cavity. The tongue mixes food with
saliva during chewing. It also aids in swallowing food.

The tongue has a large number of taste buds, which tell us the taste of different types
of food items. The different regions of the tongue are shown in the given figure.
Salivary glands

Apart from the tongue and the teeth, the buccal cavity also has salivary glands, which
secrete saliva.

The enzymes present in saliva break down or digest the starch present in the food we
eat.

Humans produce about 1.7 litres of saliva everyday!

Digestion in Mouth
Saliva contains enzymes salivary amylase, lysozyme, and electrolytes. Salivary
amylase basically helps in starch digestion up to 30%.

Two of the basic functions performed by buccal cavity are mastication of food and
facilitation of swallowing.

From buccal cavity, food reaches the stomach through a process called peristalsis.

Peristalsis is the process of wave-like muscle contractions of the alimentary tract that
moves food along.

Pharynx
It is a common passageway for food and air. It opens into the oesophagus (which leads
to the stomach) and trachea (which leads to the lungs).

However under certain conditions like swallowing too fast, talking or not chewing the
food properly, some of it may enter the trachea. This may cause the airways to get
partially blocked, which is called as choking. Total blockage may result in the death of
the individual.

The stomach

After the food pipe, the food enters the stomach. The stomach is a thin-walled bag. It is
flattened, J- shaped, and is the widest part of the alimentary canal. It opens into the
small intestine.

Digestion in Stomach

Food is stored in the stomach for about 4-5 hours. During its stay in the stomach, it is
mixed with acidic gastric juices by churning movement of muscular wall and is called
chyme at this stage.
Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid. Mucous and two enzymes - pepsin and
rennin. The function of the acid is to convert inactivated form of pepsin into the
activated form.

Small amount of protein digestion (by pepsin) occurs in the stomach.

Rennin (proteolytic enzyme) in infants helps in milk digestion.

Why are they secreted? Do they have any importance? The mucous secreted by
the stomach protects its inner lining. The hydrochloric acid secreted by the stomach
kills the bacteria that enter the stomach through food. It also makes the medium of
the stomach acidic. The digestive juices secreted by the stomach take part in the
process of digestion by breaking down the food into smaller substances for example,
pepsin breaks proteins into polypeptides, rennin changes soluble milk proteins into
curd which is insoluble.

The small intestine

The stomach empties its contents into the small intestine. The small intestine is a highly coiled,
tube-like structure. It is about 7.5 metres in length. It receives secretions from the liver and the
pancreas in the form of bile and pancreatic juice. Apart from this, the wall of the small intestine also
secretes juices.

Digestion in Small Intestine

The digestion of food takes place in duodenum, which is the first part of small
intestine.

The bile juice is secreted by the liver and stored in gall Bladder . It does not contain
any enzyme, but still is essential for digestion since it breaks the fats into smaller
droplets. This process is called as emulsification of fat.

Three of the major enzymes present in the pancreatic juice are − trypsin, amylase and
lipase.

Action of pancreatic juice results in:

 Hence, it is the small intestine where

 carbohydrates are broken down into simple sugar such as glucose

 fats are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol
 proteins are broken down into amino acids

Nutrients from the digested food pass into blood vessels, which are present in the
walls of the small intestine. This process is known as absorption. This absorption
is aided by small finger like projections called as villi.

The large intestine

The digested food gets absorbed into the blood
vessels in the small intestine and is transported to all
parts of the body by these blood vessels. This process
is known as assimilation.

The undigested food material from the small

intestine enters the large intestine. The large
intestine is wider than the small intestine, but is
shorter in length. It is 1.5 metres long.

The large intestine absorbs water and remaining salts from the undigested food
material.

The remaining waste material then enters the rectum. It is stored there in the form of
semi-solid faeces. The faecal material is finally removed from the body through
the anus. This process is known as egestion.

Nutrition In Amoeba

Amoeba is a single-celled organism found in puddles, lake water, pond water etc. It
has a cell membrane, a round nucleus, and many small vacuoles.

Amoeba can constantly change its shape. It forms finger-like projections

called pseudopodia (meaning false feet). Pseudopodia help Amoeba in moving and
capturing food.

When
an Amoeba senses its
prey, it pushes out its
pseudopodia around
its prey and engulfs it.
The food thus gets
trapped in the food
vacuole. An Amoeba feeds on algae, rotifers, protozoans, and even other
small Amoeba.
Digestive juices such as amylase and protease are secreted inside the food vacuole
in Amoeba. These juices act on the food and break it down into smaller
components.. The digested food is later absorbed by Amoeba for growth,
maintenance, and multiplication. The waste material or undigested food is then
expelled out of the body using pseudopodia.

Respiration
Respiration is the bodily process of inhalation and exhalation.

The oxygen inhaled is used to burn/oxidize/break down the food (glucose). This
reaction produces energy required for all activities. Water and carbon dioxide are by-
products of this reaction. This process occurs inside the mitochondria and is
called cellular respiration. It is exactly opposite to the process of photosynthesis. It
can be represented as:

Thus, cellular respiration is the process by which energy is released from the
breakdown of organic substances (glucose).

Respiration can occur both in the presence and absence of O2. On this basis, it can be
classified into two types: aerobic and anaerobic.

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

It occurs in the presence of O2. It occurs in the absence

of O2.
It involves the exchange of gases between an organism and Exchange of gases is
outside environment. absent.
It occurs in the cytoplasm and mitochondria. It occurs only in the
cytoplasm.
It always releases CO2 and H2O. End products may vary.

It yields 38 ATP. It yields 2 ATP.

Glucose is the simplest molecule that enters a series of reactions called Glycolysis
and the Krebs cycle to produce energy.

Aerobic respiration: It involves four main steps:

Step 1: The first step is called glycolysis. It occurs in the cytoplasm of a cell. It does
not require oxygen. Here, the 6-carbon molecule glucose is partially broken down into
a 3-carbon molecule, pyruvate or pyruvic acid. In this step, one glucose molecule
produces 2 molecules of pyruvate.

Glucose 2 Pyruvate

Step 2: The two pyruvic acid molecules enters the mitochondria, which is the site for
further reactions.

Step 3: These pyruvate molecules enter the mitochondrial matrix and take part in
the Krebs cycle. This occurs in the presence of O2.

Step 4: In this step, the energy released in all the above steps is converted to ATP by
ATP synthase enzyme.

In aerobic respiration, a total of 38 ATP molecules are produced from one molecule of
glucose.

Anaerobic respiration: It is a two step process.

Step 1: The first step, glycolysis, is the same as that of aerobic respiration.

Glucose 2 pyruvic acid

Step 2: Pyruvic acid is not transported to the mitochondria. It remains in the
cytoplasm. It is then broken down into alcohol and carbon- di- oxide . This entire
process occurs in the absence of oxygen.

Glucose Pyruvic acid

Anaerobic respiration occurs in the roots of some species of water logged plants,
parasitic worms, yeast, animal muscles, and microorganisms.

In some microorganisms such as yeasts, anaerobic respiration is called fermentation.

In muscle cells, when there is a lack of oxygen, anaerobic respiration occurs where
pyruvic acid is converted into lactic acid. This accumulation of lactic acid causes
muscle cramps.

Exchange of gases in plants

Plants exchange gases through stomata. This exchange of gases occurs through the
process of diffusion.
When CO2 is present in high concentration inside the plant body, it moves out into the
atmosphere (where its concentration is low) and allows O2 to enter the plants.

Breathing in Humans

The human respiratory system supplies our body with O2 and also helps in
removing CO2, which is a waste product formed during cellular respiration. The intake
of O2 and exit of CO2 involves two processes:

1) Inhalation: It involves bringing in air from outside the body into the lungs. When
we breathe in, the size of our chest increases.
This happens because when air enters, the lungs expand and the ribs move outwards.
Simultaneously, the diaphragm contracts and becomes flat. Thus, the size of our chest
increases.
2) Exhalation: It involves removal of CO2 from the body. When we breathe out, the
size of our chest decreases. This happens because when air moves out of our lungs,
the lungs contract, the ribs move back, and the diaphragm curves upwards into the
chest decreasing the size of the chest.

Organs involved in respiration:

The organs of the respiratory system extend from the nose to lungs. They include
the nose, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and lungs.

1) Nostrils: The air from outside first enters the nostrils, which is divided into the left
and the right nostril. These nostrils lead to open spaces in the nose called the nasal
passage. This passage contains hair and mucus, which perform the functions of
filtering, moistening, and warming the air entering the nasal passage.

2) Pharynx: Air travels from the nasal passage to the pharynx, which is commonly
known as throat. The pharynx is lined with a protective mucus membrane and cilia,
which removes the impurities entering with air.

3) Larynx: The air from the pharynx enters the larynx or voice box. It contains two
true vocal cords, which are made up of cartilage and fibres. When air passes through
this area, the vocal cords vibrate and this produces different sounds. Human beings
can control this vibration. Thus, they can make various sounds and are capable of
speech.

4) Trachea: From the larynx, the inhaled air moves into the wind pipe or trachea.
The trachea is a long narrow tube, which is lined with ciliated mucus membrane. The
trachea branches into two tubes, the left and right bronchi. The cilia move the mucus
containing dust particles back to the pharynx, where it is swallowed.

5) Bronchi and bronchioles: The air from the trachea moves into the bronchi,
which are formed because of the division of the trachea. Each bronchus enters one of
the lungs. Inside the lungs, the bronchi further divide into bronchioles. The air moves
through these bronchioles.

6) Lungs: The lungs are bag-like structures situated on either sides of the ribcage.
They are the chief respiratory organs in the human body. In the lungs, the bronchiole
divides many times to create smaller branches. These branches ultimately terminate
into tiny air-sacs known as alveoli. These cells are surrounded by many blood
capillaries. Alveoli provide surface for the exchange of gases.
Each lung contains 300 – 350 million units called alveoli, making a total of 700
million in both lungs
Alveoli transfers O2 into the blood cells.

In aquatic animals, gas exchange takes place by the process by diffusion, directly
through the body wall.
However, complex aquatic animals have gills for the diffusion of gases. For example, in
fishes, the water enters through their mouths and quickly moves to the gills. In the
gills, O2 gets mixed with blood. The blood then transports this oxygen to all the body
cells for respiration.

The oxygen source i.e., water is about 800 times denser than air. It contains less O2 as
compared to air. Since the content of O2 in water is low, aquatic animals breathe faster
to get as much oxygen as possible, resulting in a faster rate of breathing. Therefore,

aquatic animals breathe faster than terrestrial animals and also show different
adaptations for better gaseous exchange.
Transportation In Plants
Transportation is a life process where substances synthesised or absorbed in one
part of the body are carried to other parts of the body.

The transportation system in plants consists of two different types of conducting

tissues.

Xylem conducts water and minerals obtained from soil (via roots) to the rest of the
plant. Phloem transports food materials from the leaves to different parts of the plant
body.

Transport of water
Components of the xylem tissue (tracheids and vessels) of roots, stems, and leaves are
interconnected to form a continuous system of water-conducting channels, which
reaches all parts of the plant.

Root hair with adhering soil particles

Roots absorb water and mineral salts from the soil. Each soil particle is surrounded by
a continuous film of water, loosely held to it by a force known as capillary force. This
is known as capillary water. Therefore, water molecules adhere to soil particles with
the capillary force. The capillary water is also present in spaces between the soil
particles. This capillary water, along with the minerals dissolved in it, is absorbed by
the cells in the root hair.

Absorption of water from the soil

The cells in the root hair are deficient in water because they continuously supply the
absorbed water to the stems and leaves. Thus, the concentration of water in the root
hair is less than the water present in soil particles. This creates a concentration
gradient, which allows the root hair cells to uptake water actively. As a result, there is
a steady movement of water into the root xylem creating a column of water, which is
steadily pushed upwards. This upward movement of water and minerals is
called ascent of sap.
Due to the continuous inflow of water, a pressure is developed inside the root cells.
This root pressure helps in pushing the plant cell sap upwards through xylem
vessels.

However, this pressure by itself cannot move the water over greater heights. In order
to fulfil this requirement, plants utilise some other stronger force such
as transpiration pull or suction pressure. Let us explore what transpiration pull is.

Some interesting facts:

* Do you know that only 1% of the water absorbed by plants is used in

photosynthesis? The rest 99% is lost through transpiration.

The transportation of food from the leaves to other parts of the plant occurs in the
vascular tissue, namely the phloem. This process of transporting food is known
as translocation. The phloem also transports amino acids and other substances to
storage organs of the plant (along with the growing organs) such as roots, fruits, and
seeds. The phloem consists of companion cells, sieve tubes, phloem parenchyma, and
fibres.

The translocation of food occurs in the sieve tubes with the help of companion cells.

Translocation in the phloem, unlike the xylem, is achieved by utilizing energy from
ATP. For example, a food material such as sucrose is transported into the phloem
tissue using ATP energy. As a result, the osmotic pressure in the tissue increases,
causing the water to move into it. This pressure moves the material in the phloem to
the tissues, which have less pressure. This is helpful in moving materials according to
the requirements of the plant.

Circulatory System

The system that transports nutrients and collects waste materials for disposal in the
body is the circulatory system. The circulatory system consists of the central organ
i.e., the heart, blood vessels, and circulating fluid i.e., blood. Another system, called
the lymphatic system, transports immune cells.

Blood vessels

Arteries are tough, elastic tubes that carry blood from the heart and supply it to
various organs of the body. As the arteries move away from the heart (i.e., on reaching
organs and tissues), they divide into smaller vessels. The smallest vessels
called capillaries have very thin walls. Arteries are red in colour because they carry
oxygenated blood.
Capillaries (in organs and tissues) join together to form veins. Veins collect blood
from different organs and tissues. Veins are thin-walled as compared to arteries. This
is because they bring back blood from the organs to the heart and blood is no longer
under pressure. These veins carry deoxygenated blood into the heart.

Components of blood:

Blood consists of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets (present in the blood
plasma).

Blood is red because of the presence of haemoglobin.

The main function of haemoglobin molecule is to transport oxygen molecules to body

cells for cellular respiration. When we breathe in, we take in O2, which reaches the
lung alveoli. O2 then diffuses into blood of the surrounding capillaries from the alveoli,
which has a high concentration of O2. The haemoglobin pigment present in the blood
gets attached to four O2 molecules and forms oxyhaemoglobin, oxygenating the blood.

This oxygenated blood is then distributed to all the body cells by the heart.

After supplying O2 to the body cells, the blood collects CO2, which is produced after
cellular respiration in the cells. Thus, the blood becomes deoxygenated.

The haemoglobin pigment has less affinity for CO2. Therefore, it is mainly transported
in the dissolved form. This deoxygenated blood brings back CO2 to lung alveoli.
 The lungs have a high concentration of O2. Therefore, it diffuses into the blood. Blood,
on the other hand, has more concentration of CO2, which moves into the area of its
lower concentration in the lung alveoli. Thus, the exchange of gases occurs in the
alveoli. The oxygen inhaled is transported to all parts of the body while the
CO2 produced in the cells is collected from the cells and exhaled out.

How does the heart distribute oxygenated blood?

In human beings, the heart is a

muscular organ. It is divided into four
chambers – right auricle, right
ventricle, left auricle, and left ventricle.
The walls of these chambers are made
up of a special muscle
called myocardium, which contracts
continuously and rhythmically to
distribute blood to all the body cells.

Flow of blood in the human heart

 The heart has superior and inferior vena cava. They carry deoxygenated blood from
the upper and lower regions of the body respectively and supply the deoxygenated
blood to the right auricle of the heart.

 The right auricle contracts and passes the deoxygenated blood to the right ventricle,
through an auriculo-ventricular aperture (tricuspid valve).
 The right ventricle contracts and passes the deoxygenated blood into the two
pulmonary arteries, which pumps it to the lungs where the blood is oxygenated. From
the lungs, the pulmonary veins transport the oxygenated blood to the left atrium of
the heart.
 The left atrium contracts and through the auriculo-ventricular aperture (bicuspid
valve), the oxygenated blood enters the left ventricle.
 The blood passes to aorta from the left ventricle. The aorta gives rise to many arteries
that distribute the oxygenated blood to all the regions of the body.

Since the blood goes twice through the heart, it is known as double circulation.
Warm-blooded animals such as mammals have this type of blood circulation.

* The body temperature of cold-blooded animals is the same as that of their

surroundings. In hot environments, their blood becomes warm and in colder
environments, their blood becomes cold.

Two chambered heart of fishes:

Circulatory system of fishes: The oxygenated blood from the gills does not enter the
heart. It is directly distributed in the entire body. Only the deoxygenated blood enters
the auricle and then the ventricle. The deoxygenated blood enters the gills for
oxygenation from the ventricle.

Thus, in fishes, the blood passes through the heart only once during one cycle of
passage. This type of circulation is referred to as single circulation.
Blood pressure

Explanation of the activity:

Systolic blood pressure. It is the pressure of blood inside the artery during
contraction of ventricles of the heart. The diastolic pressure is the pressure of blood
inside the artery during relaxation of the ventricles. The normal systolic pressure is
about 120mm of Hg and normal diastolic pressure is 80mm of Hg.

Some interesting facts:

* That the pressure created by the human heart to pump blood is enough to eject
blood up to a distance of around 30 feet?

* Aorta is the largest artery in the human body.

Lymphatic system

Lymph is another fluid connective tissue, which helps in the process of transportation.

In addition to blood vessels, the body contains lymphatic vessels. Some pores are
present in the walls of the capillaries and through these pores, small amounts of
plasma, proteins, and blood cells flow out in intercellular spaces in the tissues.

This forms the tissue fluid or lymph. It is a colourless fluid that contains less protein.
The lymph enters into tiny vessels situated in intercellular spaces. These capillaries
join to form the lymph vessels.
 Functions of the lymph:
 It acts as a reservoir of water, salts, and digested food.
 It carries digested food and fats from the small intestine. Lymphatic vessels present in
the intestinal villi absorb fatty acids.
 It contains phagocytes that can engulf and destroy bacteria and other foreign
particles.

* High blood pressure, smoking, consuming food items with high cholesterol, being
overweight, etc. are some causes that can result in a heart attack. Most heart attacks
are caused when blood vessels that bring blood and oxygen to the heart muscles are
blocked.

Excretory System in Humans Kidneys

They eliminate nitrogenous wastes from the body and are helpful in maintaining the
water balance of the body by removing excess fluids.

The various nitrogenous wastes such as urea, uric acid etc. are supplied from the
blood to the kidneys. Thus, the basic filtration unit of the excretory system lies in the
kidneys.

Structure of kidneys:
Kidneys are reddish brown bean shaped structures which are found in pairs. Each
kidney is divided into two parts - an outer dark region called cortex and inner lighter
region called medulla. Each kidney has several microscopic tubular structures called
nephrons.

The kidneys consist of a cluster of very thin-walled capillaries. Each cluster is

associated with a cup-shaped end of a tube, in which filtered urine is collected. These
basic filtering units of the kidneys are called nephrons. Each kidney possesses a large
number of nephrons (approximately 1- 1.5 million).
Structure of a nephron

The main components of a nephron are the glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, and a
long renal tube. The blood enters the kidneys through the renal artery, which
branches into many capillaries associated with the glomerulus. Water and solutes are
transferred to the nephron at the Bowman’s capsule.

In the proximal tubule, some substances such as amino acids, glucose, and salts are
selectively reabsorbed and unwanted molecules are added in the urine. The filtrate
then moves down into the loop of Henle, in which more water is reabsorbed. From
here, the filtrate moves upwards into the distal tubule, and finally to the collecting
duct. This duct collects urine from many nephrons.

The urine formed in each kidney then enters a long tube called the ureter. The ureters
move the urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. The urinary bladder is under
the control of the nervous system. This helps us to control the urge to urinate.

Dialysis

Sometimes, kidney(s) stops functioning because of an infection or an injury. This

leads to the accumulation of harmful wastes in the body, which can even cause death.
In such a condition, blood is filtered artificially. This process is known as dialysis. A
dialysis machine performs the function of a normal kidney, and thus helps an
individual to survive.

Excretion in Plants

Plants do not have specialized structures for the elimination of wastes like humans
have kidneys, lungs, etc. Plants use a variety of techniques to remove waste materials.
Oxygen, a by-product of photosynthesis is removed through stomata. The excess
 water absorbed from roots is also lost through stomata via transpiration. Cell
vacuoles, gum, resin etc. are stored in old xylem tissues. Waste products may be
stored in leaves that fall. Plant roots also sometimes excrete wastes materials.

 Plants get rid of the wastes by combining them with inorganic salts. The insoluble
crystals are formed in the product. These crystals are harmless. They get deposited
on the bark, dead wood, old leaves, etc of plants.
 Some of the waste products of plants are useful for human beings and we utilize such
products in our daily life. For example − tannins, resins, gums, essential oils, latex, etc.
 Stomata also serve as an excretory organ. During photosynthesis, oxygen is produced
as a waste product while in respiration, CO2 acts as waste products. Both of these
gases are eliminated through stomata.

Tannins are present in tea leaves and impart a slightly bitter taste to the tea.

Resins are used for making varnishes. Latex oozes out from the stems through cuts or
abrasions and is utilized in making rubber.

Excretion in Simple Organisms and Animals

Unicellular organisms like Amoeba, Hydra excrete the waste produced in their cells
directly into the surroundings by cell membrane with he help of the process of
diffusion.

Multicellular organisms have specific excretory parts for excreting wastes out of their
body. Earthworm excrete with the help of excretory tubules known as
nephridia. Planaria excrete with the help of flame cells and insects through
malphigian tubules.

Q1 What happens when food goes down the trachea instead of the oesophagus?

Ans If food goes down the trachea or wind pipe instead of the food pipe or
oesophagus, the person is not able to breathe and starts choking.

Our trachea (wind pipe) and oesophagus ( food pipe) are joined near the top and
separate as we go down towards the diaphragm. A thin flap of cartilage called the
epiglottis usually covers the trachea while we are swallowing, so that food does not
move inside the wind pipe.
Q.1 Useful materials filtered out in nephric filtrate are mostly reabsorbed in the area of -
(A) Bowman's capsule
(B) Distal convoluted tubule
(C) Loop of Henle
(D) Proximal convoluted tubule
Q.2 Contractile vacuole of Amoeba takes part in -
(A) Locomotion
(B) Digestion of food
(C) Ingestion of food
(D) Osmoregulation
Q.3 Tannins are deposited in -
(A) Bark (B) Old xylem
(C) Sieve tubes (D) Both A and B
Q.4 Every plant cell has a dump for waste products. It is -
(A) Cytoplasm (B) Central vacuole
(C) Golgi apparatus (D) Lysosome
Q.5 Basic filteration unit of kidney is -
(A) Ureter (B) Glomerulus
(C) Urethra (D) Collecting tubule
Q.6 Dilution of concentration of urine is determined by availability of -
(A) Hormone thyroxine
(B) Hormone thymosine
(C) Hormone ADH
(D) Both A and B
Q.7 Excretion means -
(A) Removal of substances present in excess
(B) Formation of those substances that have some role in the body
(C) Removal of such substances that have
never been part of the body
(D) All of the above
Q.8 Ureotelic animals are those that eliminate the nitrogenous wastes predominatly in the form of -
(A) Uric acid (B) Ammonia
(C) Amino acids (D) Urea

Q.9 A mammal excretes nitrogen in the form of -

(A) Ammonium ions (B) Amino acids
(C) Urea (D) Uric acid
Q.10Which one of the following sets of animals produces the same substances as their chief excretory product ?
(A) Cockroach, camel and lizard
(B) Man, dog and camel
(C) Amoeba, ant and antelope
(D) Fowl, fish and frog
 Q.11A Malpighian tubule empties urine into the
(A) Gut (B) Coelom
(C) Lymph (D) Ureters

Q.12Kidneys are not only organs of excretion.Their work is supplemented by -

(A) Liver (B) Heart
(C) Large intestine (D) Skin
Q.13The conversin of protein waste, the ammonia into urea occurs mainly in -
(A) Kidney (B) Lungs
(C) Liver (D) Intestine

Q.14The Bowman's capsule functions as a

(A) Filter
(B) Suction pump
(C) Egestion
(D) All of the above
Q.15Which of the following is the part of kidney ?
(A) Pelvis (B) Ileum
(C) Fibula (D) Henle loop

Q.1 CO2 and O2 balance in atmosphere is due to

(A) Photorespiration (B) Photosynthesis
(C) Respiration (D) Leaf anatomy

Q.2 During photosynthesis the oxygen in glucose comes from

(A) Water
(B) Carbon dioxide
(C) Both from water and carbon dioxide
(D) Oxygen in air

Q.3 First stable compound in C3 cycle is

(A) Phosphoglyceraldehyde
(B) Phosphoglyceric acid
(C) Fructose-1-6 diphosphate
(D) Glucose-6-phosphate

Q.4 Dark reaction of photosynthesis occurs in the

(A) Stroma of the chloroplast outside the lamellae
(B) Space between the two membranes of the chloroplast
(C) Membranes of the stroma lamellae
(D) Thylakoid membrane of the grana

Q.5 A specific function of light energy in the process of photosynthesis is to

(A) Activate chlorophyll
(B) Split water
(C) Synthesis of glucose
(D) Reduce CO2

Q.6 Digestion within a digestive tract is

(A) Incomplete
 (B) Extracellular
(C) The same as absorption
(D) An irreversible process

Q.7 Dark reaction in photosynthesis is called so because

(A) It does not require light energy
(B) Cannot occur during daytime
(C) Occurs more rapidly at night
(D) It can also occur in darkness

Q.8 Phloem always flows from a

(A) Solar source to sugar sink
(B) Sugar sink to sugar source
(C) Leaf to the xylem to the phloem
(D) Leaf to a root

Q.9 With regards to natural eating habits, a human is

(A) An herbivore (B) A carnivore
(C) An omnivore (D) A Granivore

Q.10 Muscular contractions of alimentary canal are

(A) Circulation (B) Deglutition
(C) Peristalsis (D) Churning

Q.11 Which of the following regions of the alimentary canal of man does not secrete a digestive enzyme ?
(A) Oesophagus (B) Stomach
(C) Duodenum (D) Mouth

Q.12 A digestive enzyme, salivary amylase, in the saliva begin digestion of

(A) Protein (B) Nucleic acids
(C) Fats (D) Carbohydrates

Q.13 If you chew on a piece of bread long enough, it will begin to taste sweet because
(A) Maltase is breaking down maltose
(B) Lipases are forming fatty acids
(C) Amylase is breaking down starches to disaccharides
(D) Disaccharides are forming glucose

Q.14 In the presence of lactase, lactose breaks down into molecules of

(A) Glucose and galactose
(B) Glucose and fructose
(C) Galactose only
(D) Glucose only

Q.15 Saliva has the enzyme

(A) Pepsin (B) Ptyalin
(C) Trypsin (D) Rennin
Q.1 Which one is anabolic process -
(A) Respiration (B) Digestion
(C) Photosynthesis (D) Ascent of sap.

Q.2 A catabolic process is -

(A) Absorption of minerals
(B) Ascent of sap
(C) Respiration
(D) Assimilation

Q.3 Exchange of gasses ouccurs through

(A) Stomata
(B) Lenticles
(C) Root surfaces
(D) All of the above

Q.4 Glycolysis occurs in -

(A) Cytoplasm
(B) Mitochondria
(C) Chloroplasts
(D) Golgi complex

Q.5 Krebs cycle operates in -

(A) Endoplasmic reticulum
(B) Chloroplasts
(C) Golgi bodies
(D) Mitochondria

Q.6 Which one is a product of glycolysis -

(A) Oxaloacetate
(B) Pyruvate
(C) Ethyl alcohol
(D) Lactic acid

Q.7 Adam's Apple occurs in -

(A) Buffaloes
(B) Dogs
(C) Human males
(D) Human females

Q.8 Muscular partition present between thorax and abdomen is -

(A) Pericardium (B) Pleura
(C) Epiglottis (D) Diaphragm

Q.9 Covering of lungs is -

(A) Pleura (B) Pericardium
(C) Epiglottis (D) Capsule

Q.10 Gaseous exchange occurs in the lungs in the region of -

(A) Trachea (B) Bronchi
(C) Bronchioles (D) Alveoli
Q.11 Trachea and bronchi have -
(A) C-shaped cartilaginous rings
(B) Complete cartilaginous rings
(C) Complete chitinous rings (D) C-shaped chitinous rings
Q.12 Respiratory tract is lined by ciliated epithelium. The function of cilia is to -
(A) Trap dust
(B) Trap germs
(C) Push out mucus with trapped germs and
dust
(D) Push in air vigorously

Q.13 If the thoracic wall but not the lungs is punctured -

(A) The lungs get inflated
(B) The man dies as the lungs get collapsed
(C) The breathing rate decreases (D) The breathing rate increases
Q.14 Skin is an ideal respiratory organ in frog because it is -
(A) Highly vascular
(B) Kept moist
(C) Devoid of hair and scales (D) All the above
Q.15 Respiration is -
(A) Anabolic and exergonic
(B) Anabolic and endergonic
(C) Catabolic and exergonic (D) Catabolic and endergonic

A.Very Short Answer Type Questions

Q.1 Define excretion ?

Q.2 What are waste products ?

Q.3 What is excretory system ?

Q.4 What is the function of ADH ?

Q.5 What is unit of human kidney ?

Q.6 What is glomerulus ?

Q.7 Name the components of a Malpighian capsule.

Q.8 Name the structure which absorb glucose in nephron.

Q.9 Define micturition.

Q.10 What is Bownman's capsule ?

Q.11 Name a waste product of plants which is used as medicine.

Q.12 Where is urine stored in the body ?

Q.13 Write the name of membrane of vacuole.

B.Short Answer Type Questions

Q.14 Enumerate functions of kidney.

Q.15 Named the various waste products produced in human beings.

Q.16 Named the different waste products by plants.

Q.17 How are plants able to manage their waste products ?

Q.18 Write a short note on ultra filteration.

Q.19 Write a short note on secretion.

Q.20 Describe the mechanism of urine formation.

Q.21 Describe the mechanism by which human beings are able to regulate the concentration of urine.

C.Long Answer Type Questions

Q.22 Describe the various components of urinary system of man.

Q.23 Explain the structure of nephron with the help of a labelled diagram.

Q.24 Draw a diagram of the human urinary system and label in it

(i) Kidney (ii) Ureter (iii) Urinary bladder (iv) Urethra.

A.Very Short Answer Type Questions

Q.1 Define heterotrophic nutrition.

Q.2 What are heterotrophs ?

Q.3 Which types of organisms are called consumers ?

Q.4 What is saprophytic nutrition ?

Q.5 Define saprophyte.

Q.6 Define a hervivore.

Q.7 What is carnivore ?

Q.8 Which type of animal is called omnivore ?

Q.9 Define digestion.

Q.10 What is ingestion ?

Q.11 Define egestion.

Q.12 What is the mode of nutrition in Amoeba ?

Q.13 What type of digestion occurs in Paramoecium ?

B.Short Answer Type Questions

Q.14 Differentiate between autotrophic and heterotrohic nutrition.

Q.15 Distinguish saprophytes from parasites.

Q.16 Differentiate between photosynthetic and holozoic nutrition.

Q.17 How do saprophytic organisms obtain their nourishment ?

Q.18 What is the importance of saprophytes ?

Q.19 What is the action of hydrochloric acid of gastric juice ?

Q.20 Name a digestive juice that has no enzymes. What is the role of this juice ?

Q.21 Name the various parts of large intestine. What is the role of large intestine ?

C.Long Answer Type Questions

Q.22 Explain the mechanism of nutrition of Amoeba with the help of suitable diagram.

Q.23 Describe the various types of heterotrophic nutrition.

Q.24 Briefly describe the digestive system of humans.

Q.25 What happens to food in the small intestine ?

Q.26 Why chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis.

A.Very Short Answer Type Questions

Q.1 What is respiration ?

Q.2 What are stomata ?

Q.3 Name the energy currency of living system.

Q.4 What is respiratory organ ?

Q.5 What is diaphragm ?

Q.6 Define glottis.

Q.7 What is epiglottis ?

Q.8 Define breathing

Q.9 What is inspiration ?

Q.10 Define expiration.

Q.11 Name the common passage for food and air.

Q.12 What is the shape of diaphragm during expiration ?

Q.13 What is the shape of cartilaginous rings in trachea ?

B.Short Answer Type Questions

Q.14 Differentiate between photosynthesis and respiration.

Q.15 Distinguish between breathing and respiration.

Q.16 Differentiate between bronchioles and tracheoles.

Q.17 What is the composition of inhaled and exhaled air ?

Q.18 Differentiate between inspiration and expiration.

Q.19 What are the functions of nasal passage ?

C.Long Answer Type Questions

Q.20 Name the respiratory organs in the following :

(a) a fish (b) a bird (c) an earthworm

Q.21 How is respiration different from breathing ?

Q.22 Explain the processes of 'aerobic' respiration and 'anaerobic' respiration.

Q.23 Draw a diagram showing 'human respiratory system'. Label its following parts
(i) Larynx (ii) Trachea
(iii) Primary Bronchus (iv) Lungs.

Q.24 Why do the walls of the trachea not callapse when ther is less air in it & write its importance ?