The Science of Religion, Spirituality, and Existentialism 1st
Edition
Visit the link below to download the full version of this book:
https://medidownload.com/product/the-science-of-religion-spirituality-and-existe
ntialism-1st-edition/
Click Download Now
The Science of Religion,
Spirituality, and
Existentialism
Edited by
Kenneth E. Vail III
Department of Psychology, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH, United States
Clay Routledge
Department of Psychology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, United States
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom
525 B Street, Suite 1650, San Diego, CA 92101, United States
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with
organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website:
www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be
noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding,
changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information,
methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their
own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury
and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of
any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN: 978-0-12-817204-9
For Information on all Academic Press publications
visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
Publisher: Nikki Levy
Editorial Project Manager: Barbara Makinster
Production Project Manager: Bharatwaj Varatharajan
Cover Designer: Miles Hitchen
Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
Contents
List of Contributors xvii
Preface xix
Part 1
Death
1. Dwelling forever in the house of the lord: on the terror management function of
religion 3
Jeff Greenberg, Peter J. Helm, Mark J. Landau and Sheldon Solomon
Terror management theory 4
The ontogeny of terror management 6
A brief phylogenic history of terror management 7
The experimental research supporting terror management theory 8
Research directly focused on the terror management function of religion 9
The association between religiosity and death anxiety 9
Mortality salience and investment in religiosity 10
Evidence that strong or bolstered religious belief reduces defensive responses to mortality salience 11
Summary of the evidence 13
Broad implications of a terror management analysis of religion 13
Conclusion 16
References 16
Further reading 20
2. Death anxiety and religious belief: a critical review 21
Jonathan Jong
Are people afraid of death? Pt 1: Evidence from lists 23
Are people afraid of death? Pt 2: Evidence from scales 24
Are people afraid of death? Pt 3: Death anxiety and proximity to death 25
Are people afraid of death? Pt 4: Death anxiety and mortality salience 26
Are people afraid of death? Coda 28
Are death anxiety and religiosity correlated? 28
Does mortality salience increase religious belief? 31
Concluding remarks 32
References 33
3. Face to face with death: the role of religion in coping with suffering 37
Daryl R. Van Tongeren
How do people usually cope with existential concerns? 37
v
vi Contents
The existential and individual functions of religious beliefs 38
Conceptualizing God 40
When beliefs fail 40
Suffering elicits existential concerns 41
Facing death 41
Disasters 42
Terminal and chronic illness 42
Trauma 43
Religion and suffering: fighting, freezing, fleeing, or flourishing 43
Toward existentially resilient religion 45
Concluding thoughts 46
Acknowledgment 47
References 47
4. Near-death experiences: the mystical feeling of “crossing over” and its impact
on faith and spirituality 51
Natasha Tassell-Matamua and Janice Miner Holden
Near-death experience phenomenology 51
Defining near-death experiences 52
Historical reports and estimated incidence of near-death experiences 53
Disclosure of near-death experiences 54
Explanatory models for near-death experiences 55
Physiological explanations 55
Psychological explanations 56
Psychopathological explanations 57
Nonmaterialist explanations 57
Impact of near-death experiences 58
References 61
Part 2
Freedom
5. Reactance and spiritual possibilities: an application of psychological reactance
theory 67
Benjamin D. Rosenberg and Jason T. Siegel
Psychological reactance theory 67
Historical roots 68
Psychological reactance theory framework 68
Psychological reactance theory and religion 70
Question 1: Threats to religious freedom and reactance 70
Psychological reactance theory predictions 70
Supporting evidence 71
Summary: Question 1 73
Question 2: Restrictive faith-based regulations and reactance 73
Psychological reactance theory predictions 73
Supporting evidence 74
Summary: Question 2 74
Question 3: Avoiding or minimizing reactance 75
Contents vii
Psychological reactance theory predictions 75
Supporting evidence 75
Summary: Question 3 77
Future directions 77
Moderators 77
Expanding catalysts of reactance 77
Expanding outcomes of reactance 78
Conclusion 78
References 79
6. Understanding the psychology of religion: the contribution of
self-determination theory 83
Maria Brambilla and Avi Assor
The core concepts of self-determination theory 83
How self-determination theory helps us understand different forms of religiosity 84
Self-determination theory’s perspective compared with other conceptualizations about religiosity 84
Different religious motivations correspond to different ways of approaching religious contents 85
Connection between different motivations for religious behaviors and well-being and social outcomes 85
The antecedents of religious internalization in the family 86
How larger social context could predict self-determined religiosity 87
Discussion and conclusion 87
Some practical implications 88
References 88
7. A goals perspective on religion and spirituality 91
Ross Rogers
The existential relevance of goals 91
Religion and spirituality through the lens of goals: ultimate existential concerns and subjective well-being 92
Subjective well-being 92
Sanctifying the “everyday” 93
Sanctifying objects 93
Sanctifying locations 95
Sanctifying behavior 96
Goal frustration, conflict, and religious zeal 98
Are religious and spiritual goals optimal for existential security? 99
References 101
8. Religion and spirituality, free will, and effective self-regulation 103
Adam S. Hodge, Courtney J. Alderson, David K. Mosher, Cameron W. Davis, Joshua N. Hook,
Daryl R. Van Tongeren, Jeffrey D. Green and Don E. Davis
What is free will? 104
Philosophical terminology 104
The psychological construct of free will belief 105
The social-cognition of free will 105
Moral judgments and responsibility 105
Punishment and retributive versus restorative justice motives 106
Self-other bias in free will perceptions 107
viii Contents
Effects of free will beliefs 107
Prosocial behavior 107
Conformity 108
Gratitude 108
Religion, spirituality, and motivated action 109
Self-control 109
Rational choice 109
Planful behavior 110
Taking initiative 111
Religion and self-regulation 112
Self-regulation as a limited resource 112
Religion’s influence in facilitating effective self-regulation 113
Concluding remarks 114
References 114
Further reading 117
9. Authenticity and the true self in religion and spirituality 119
Andrew G. Christy, Grace N. Rivera and Rebecca J. Schlegel
The historical emergence of authenticity concerns and their ties to religion 119
The true self and authenticity: perspectives from existential philosophy and psychology 120
The interplay of religion and authenticity: conceptual and empirical considerations 121
Having religious experiences 122
Holding religious beliefs 124
Participating in religious communities 130
Morality: the key to understanding the relationship between religion and authenticity? 132
Concluding thoughts: is religion uniquely relevant to authenticity? 133
References 133
10. Freedom as a cross to bear: choice overload, the burdens of freedom,
and the benefits of constraint 141
Barry Schwartz
Choice overload and paralysis 142
“Freedom,” “choice,” “autonomy,” and the “self” 143
Sincerity and authenticity 144
From “You Are What You Do” to “You Are What You Own” 145
Freedom, choice, and welfare: a nonmonotonic relation 146
Religion, spirituality, freedom, and choice 146
References 147
Part 3
Isolation and social identity
11. Social ostracism, religion, and existential concerns 153
Andrew H. Hales, Eric D. Wesselmann and Kipling D. Williams
Temporal need-threat model of ostracism 153
Reflexive stage 153
Contents ix
Reflective stage 154
Resignation stage 154
Religion and ostracism 155
Religion as a potential source of ostracism 155
Religion as a potential response to ostracism 157
Ostracism and extremism 159
Concluding remarks 161
References 161
Further reading 166
12. The holy grail of connection: I-sharing, existential isolation, and religion 167
Elizabeth C. Pinel, Geneva C. Yawger and Young Chin Park
Existential isolation 167
I-sharing 168
Faith-based practices and existential connection 169
I-sharing, intergroup outcomes, and faith 171
Summary 172
References 172
13. An attachment theory perspective on religion and spirituality 175
Pehr Granqvist, Mario Mikulincer and Phillip R. Shaver
Attachment theory: basic concepts 175
Religion and attachment: normative aspects 176
Points of departure 177
Seeking and maintaining proximity to God 177
God as a safe haven 178
God as a secure base 179
The attachment figure is perceived to be stronger and wiser 179
Summary 179
Religion as attachment: individual differences 180
The correspondence pathway 180
The compensation pathway 182
Coda 183
References 184
14. A social identity approach to religion: religiosity at the nexus of
personal and collective self 187
Kenneth I. Mavor and Renate Ysseldyk
Religion, prejudice, and collective action 188
Religious orientations 188
Religious ideology: orthodoxy, fundamentalism, and components of right-wing authoritarianism 189
Specificity of prejudice targets and social identity 190
Social identity and the religious self 190
Social identity and religious opinion based groups 191
SIMCA and EMSICA models of social identity and collective action 191
The normative alignment model of social action and opinion-based group interventions 192
Ideology-based social identities 193
x Contents
A tripartite social identity normative model of religious fundamentalism 193
Summary of group-based models 195
Religion, self-structure, and personal well-being 195
The salience model of self-categories 195
Convergent perspectives from theories of the personal self 196
Self-complexity and the multiple self-aspects model 196
Complexity versus coherence 197
Convergent perspectives of the self from social identity theorizing 197
Religious identity and personal well-being 198
Summary of person-based models 199
Final summary and conclusion 199
References 200
15. Religion and the construction of identity 207
Roman Palitsky, Daniel Sullivan, Isaac F. Young and Harrison J. Schmitt
An existential perspective on religion and the construction of identity 207
Existential perspectives on identity and religion 207
Psychological approaches to the relation between religion and identity 210
Common psychological approaches to religion and identity 212
Experimental existential psychology research on the religious identity 214
Toward an integrative model of religion and identity 216
A closing note on the origin 219
References 219
Part 4
Systems of meaning
16. Truth and significance: a 3N model (needs, narratives, networks) perspective on
religion 225
Ewa Szumowska*, Aneta Czernatowicz-Kukuczka*, Małgorzata Kossowska, Szymon Król and
Arie W. Kruglanski
Need(s) 226
The epistemic need to know 226
The need for personal significance 228
Joint working of the two needs 229
Narrative 230
Common characteristics of religious narratives 230
Differences between narratives 231
Personal narratives 232
Network 233
Religion as a social phenomenon 233
Religious groups as a source of shared reality 234
Religious identification as a source of certainty and significance 234
Uniqueness of religious groups 235
Interplay between the 3Ns 236
Conclusion 236
References 236
Further reading 241
Contents xi
17. Existential uncertainty and religion 243
Holly R. Engstrom and Kristin Laurin
What is religion, and what is uncertainty? 244
Religion 244
Uncertainty 244
Why does religion help people deal with uncertainty? 245
Uncertainty-identity theory 246
Identifying with social groups helps alleviate uncertainty 246
Entitative groups are especially good at alleviating uncertainty 246
Why are religions useful? 246
Reactive approach motivation theory 247
Uncertainty related to goal pursuit is anxiety-inducing 247
Zealously approaching a different goal can quell this anxiety 247
Why are religions useful? 248
Compensatory control theory 249
Personal and external control reassure people that the world is orderly 249
Why are religions useful? 249
System-justification theory 249
Construing the system in a negative light causes dissonance 249
Reconstruing the system in a more positive light reduces dissonance 250
Why are religions useful? 250
Integrating the four perspectives 251
How is each type of uncertainty alleviated by religion? 251
Future directions for this field 252
Considering religion’s influence on uncertainty 252
Conducting cross-cultural investigations 253
The relationship between uncertainty and religious fundamentalism 254
Conclusion 255
References 255
18. Cosmic Dad or Cthulhu: why we will always need (religious) absolutes 261
Travis Proulx
Anxiety gives rise to the (religious) Absolute 262
Kierkegaard and cosmic horror 262
Anxiety dissolves the (religious) Absolute 264
Freud and cosmic delusions 264
Anxiety gives rise to and dissolves (any) Absolute 266
Camus and absurd heroes 266
Neuroscience of the Absolute 268
Your brain is a meaning-making machine 268
Your brain is a meaning-maintenance machine 269
Anxiety is everywhere 269
The eternal recurrence of the Absolute 270
References 270
19. Religiousness and meaning making following stressful life events 273
Crystal L. Park
The meaning making model 274
xii Contents
Religiousness and global meaning 275
Religion and meaning in stressful life circumstances 276
Religiousness and initial appraisals of stressful events 276
Religiousness and discrepancy/distress 278
Religiousness and meaning making coping 278
Religiousness and meanings made 279
Religiousness and stress-related growth 280
Future directions in research on religiousness and meaning making 281
References 282
Further reading 284
20. Meaning, religious/spiritual struggles, and well-being 287
Nick Stauner, Julie J. Exline and Joshua A. Wilt
Overview of the positive psychology of religions and spirituality 287
The mixed blessing of supernaturalism 288
R/S struggles 290
Divine struggle 291
Demonic struggle 292
Interpersonal struggle 292
Moral struggle 293
Doubt struggle 293
Ultimate meaning struggle 294
Review of recent research relating R/S struggles to well-being and R/S meaning 294
Potential for growth and spiritual maturity 297
Conclusion 298
References 298
Further reading 303
Part 5
Mechanisms, variations, and individual differences
21. In his own image: an existential evolutionary perspective on the origins and
function of religion 307
Tom Pyszczynski and Mark J. Landau
Terror-management theory’s perspective on religion 308
Integrating terror management and evolutionary perspectives on religion 310
Theory of mind 311
Fear and anxiety 312
Disgust 312
Inability to imagine nonexistence 313
Mind body dualism 313
Elaborating concepts of powerful deities to transcend death 314
Conceptual metaphor 315
Moral intuitions 316
Social aspects of religion 317
Religion as social signal 317
Evangelism, missionary activity, and the spreading of religious beliefs 318
Religious specialization and social power 318
Contents xiii
Social cohesion and summing up 319
The costs of religion 320
Concluding thoughts 320
References 321
Further reading 323
22. Fear not: religion and emotion regulation in coping with existential concerns 325
Allon Vishkin and Maya Tamir
Forms of coping with fear of death 325
Religion and problem-focused coping with fear of death 327
Belief in supernatural beings 327
The afterlife and mind body dualism 328
Human uniqueness 328
Summary 328
Religion and emotion-focused coping with fear of death 329
Selecting emotion-focused coping 329
Enacting emotion-focused coping 330
Summary 333
Religion and coping with fear of death: reinterpreting existing findings 333
Conclusion 334
References 335
Further reading 338
23. Existential givens, religion, and neuroscience 339
Johannes Klackl
Death awareness 340
The neuroscience of death awareness 340
Death awareness and religion 341
Freedom, choice, and responsibility 341
Freedom and neuroscience 342
Freedom and religion 342
Isolation 342
Neuroscience of isolation 343
Isolation and religion 343
Meaning 344
Religion, neuroscience, and meaning 344
A goal perspective on meaning and religion 344
Conclusion 345
Outlook 345
References 346
24. The existential implications of individual differences in religious defensive
and growth orientations: fundamentalism, quest religiosity, and intrinsic/extrinsic
religiosity 351
Andrew A. Abeyta and Elizabeth N. Blake
The existential function of religion 351
Religious orientations: maintaining faith and managing existential concerns 352
xiv Contents
The fundamentalist orientation 352
The religious quest orientation 353
The conventional religious orientations 354
Conclusion 355
References 355
25. Existential therapy, religion, and mindfulness 359
Louis Hoffman, Benjamin Ramey and Danielle Silveira
Introduction 359
Understanding mindfulness 359
Defining mindfulness and variations of mindfulness 359
Research on mindfulness 361
Comparison between mindfulness and existential-humanistic psychology 361
Here-and-now focus 361
Accepting and exploring emotions and their meaning 362
Embodied meditation 363
The ego and self in existential psychology and mindfulness 363
Quieting the ego 363
Ego, self-esteem, and self-acceptance in existential psychology and mindfulness 364
The self in existential psychology 365
The role of meaning 365
Conclusion 366
References 367
Further reading 369
Part 6
Applications and controversies
26. Science and religion: a rocky relationship shaped by shared
psychological functions 373
Bastiaan T. Rutjens and Jesse L. Preston
Science and religion: a brief history 373
Science and religion: key shared functions 374
Need for explanation 374
Need for control 375
Need for existential meaning 376
Differences in processes: assumptions and biases 377
Science and religion in action: morality and mortality concerns 379
Morality 379
Mortality 380
Conclusion 382
References 382
27. Of flesh and blood: death, creatureliness, and incarnational ambivalence
toward the Divine 387
Cathy R. Cox, Robert B. Arrowood and Julie A. Swets
Terror management and human corporeality 387
Contents xv
Death, creatureliness, and incarnational ambivalence toward the Divine 390
Dehumanization and objectification of women 394
Conclusion 397
References 398
28. Religion: more essential (and existential) nutrient than opiate for the masses 405
Jaı̈s Adam-Troı̈an and Matt Motyl
Motivating religion 405
The belief in an afterlife exorcizes death 406
Religion provides global meaning and significance 406
External agents are in control so we can feel free 407
I believe, therefore I am 408
Religion, morality, and identity 409
Religion and morality 409
From morality to community 410
Grave questions for future research 412
Conclusion 413
References 414
Further reading 419
29. Politics and religion: commutable, conflicting, and collaborative systems for
satisfying the need for order 421
Steven Shepherd and Aaron C. Kay
Compensatory control theory 422
God as a source of control and order 422
Secular and sociopolitical systems as a source of control and order 423
The substitutable nature of god and government 425
Symbolic alignment between sociopolitical and religious sources of control and order 427
Conclusion 430
References 430
30. The paradox of faith: how existential concerns motivate both prosocial and
antisocial religious behaviors 435
Spee Kosloff and Sheldon Solomon
Terror management and the motivational underpinnings of religion 435
Empirical evidence for the death-denying function of pro- and anti-social religious behaviors 437
Testing for the existential allure of faith 437
Religious tribalism as the default response to mortality salience 438
The moderating role of intrinsic religiosity 439
The curious case of fundamentalism 441
Who, then, follows the light? 443
Can religious worldviews be deinstitutionalized? 444
Changes at the societal level 444
Changes at the individual level 447
Conclusion 450
References 450
xvi Contents
31. Religion and health: building existential bridges 455
Tyler Jimenez, Michael N. Bultmann and Jamie Arndt
The framework of an existential religion health perspective 455
Using the awareness of mortality to bridge religion and health 456
Basic processes for managing awareness of mortality 456
Terror management health model 457
Death, religion, and health 457
Using the search for meaning to bridge religion and health 459
Meaning and health 459
Religion, meaning, and health 460
Using existential isolation to bridge religion and health 461
Religion as a solution 462
God as a bridge and ravine 462
Using freedom to bridge religion and health 463
Freedom and the health benefits of religion 463
Freedom, religion, and health behavior change 463
The burden of freedom 464
Looking forward 465
References 465
Index 469
