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 Optical
Communication Systems
 Optical
Communication Systems
Limits and Possibilities

edited by
Andrew Ellis
Mariia Sorokina
Published by
Jenny Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
Level 34, Centennial Tower
3 Temasek Avenue
Singapore 039190

Email: [email protected]
Web: www.jennystanford.com

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Optical Communication Systems: Limits and Possibilities

Copyright © 2020 Jenny Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.

All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or
to be invented, without written permission from the publisher.

For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee

through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive,
Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not
required from the publisher.

ISBN 978-981-4800-28-0 (Hardcover)

ISBN 978-0-429-02780-2 (eBook)
 Contents

Preface xiii

1. Modelling High-Capacity Nonlinear Transmission

Systems 1
Hadrien Louchet, Nikolay Karelin, and André Richter

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Nonlinear Fibre Propagation: From Single to
Multimode 2
1.2.1 Wave Equation 2
1.2.2 Linear Propagation Effects 4
1.2.2.1 Loss 4
1.2.2.2 Chromatic dispersion 5
1.2.2.3 Birefringence 7
1.2.3 Nonlinear Propagation Effects 9
1.2.4 The Scalar Nonlinear Schrödinger
Equation 11
1.2.5 The Manakov-PMD Equation 12
1.2.6 Extension to SDM Systems Using
Multimode Fibre 14
1.3 Solving the Manakov-PMD Equation 17
1.3.1 Signal Representations 17
1.3.2 Numerical Methods 19
1.3.2.1 The split-step (Fourier) method 19
1.3.2.2 Step-size control 22
1.3.2.3 The coarse-step model 24
1.3.3 Simulation Framework for SDM Systems 25
1.4 Accurate Modelling of System-Level Nonlinear
Impairments 29
vi Contents

1.4.1 Self-Phase Modulation 29

1.4.2 Intra-Channel Cross-Phase Modulation
and Four-Wave Mixing 30
1.4.3 Cross-Phase Modulation 31
1.4.4 Four-Wave Mixing 32
1.4.5 Signal-Noise Interaction 33
1.4.6 Cross-Polarization Modulation 34
1.4.7 Stimulated Raman Scattering 36
1.4.8 The Nature of the Nonlinear Interference
Noise 37
1.5 Guidelines for Modelling High-Capacity
Nonlinear Systems 38
1.5.1 Overview of System Performance
Criteria 38
1.5.1.1 Bit-error-rate 39
1.5.1.2 Signal-to-noise ratio 39
1.5.1.3 System penalty and system
margin 40
1.5.1.4 Error-vector magnitude 42
1.5.2 Estimating the Bit-Error-Rate 43
1.5.2.1 Error-counting 43
1.5.2.2 BER estimation techniques 44
1.5.3 Estimating System Average Performance
and Outage Probability 45
1.5.3.1 System-level components
modelling 45
1.5.3.2 Transmission link modelling 47
1.5.3.3 Deterministic propagation 49
1.5.3.4 Modelling stochastic propagation
effects 50
1.6 Summary and Outlook 52

2. Basic Optical Fiber Nonlinear Limits 63

Mohammad Ahmad Zaki Al-Khateeb, Abdallah Ali,
and Andrew Ellis

2.1 Nonlinear Behavior of Optical Fibers 65

 Contents vii

2.1.1 Kerr Nonlinear Effects in a Single-Span

Transmission System 67
2.1.2 Kerr Nonlinear Effects in a Multi-Span
Transmission System 69
2.2 Noise Accumulation Optical Transmission
Systems 74
2.2.1 Total Nonlinear Kerr Noise 75
2.2.2 Total Linear ASE Noise 80
2.2.3 Total Signal-ASE Nonlinear Noise 81
2.3 Performance of Coherently Detected Optical
Transmission Systems 85

3. Fiber Nonlinearity Compensation: Performance

Limits and Commercial Outlook 95
Danish Rafique

3.1 Fiber Nonlinearity Compensation 96

3.2 Digital Back Propagation 98
3.2.1 DBP Performance Scaling 103
3.2.2 DBP Performance Limits 107
3.3 Phase Conjugation 110
3.3.1 Pre-Dispersed PC 111
3.3.2 Comparison of Single-Channel DBP and
PC 112
3.4 Commercial Applications and Perspective 114

4. Phase-Conjugated Twin Waves and Phase-Conjugated

Coding 123
Son Thai Le

4.1 Introduction 123

4.2 General Principle 125
4.2.1 Phase-Conjugated Twin Waves 126
4.2.2 Nonlinear Noise Squeezing 128
4.2.3 Connection between NLNS and PCTW 129
4.2.4 Generalized Phase-Conjugated Twin
Waves 131
4.3 Benefit and Limitation of PCTW 132
viii Contents

4.3.1 SNR and Capacity Gain in PCTW-Based

Transmissions 132
4.3.2 Benefit and Application Range of PCTW 135
4.4 Phase-Conjugated Pilot 140
4.4.1 Principle 140
4.4.2 Performance Benefit of PCP 142
4.5 Phase-Conjugated Subcarrier Coding 148
4.5.1 Principle of PCSC 148
4.5.2 Performance of PCSC 151
4.6 Other Variants of PCTW 156
4.6.1 Temporally Multiplexed PCTW 156
4.6.2 Modified PCTW 158
4.6.3 PCTW for Multimode and Multi-Core
Fibers 159
4.7 Conclusion 159

5. Information-Theoretic Concepts for Fiber Optic

Communications 165
Mariia Sorokina and Metodi P. Yankov

5.1 Communication Channel 165

5.2 Fiber Optic Communications 167
5.3 Shannon Capacity and Mutual Information 170
5.4 Information-Theoretic Channel Modeling 172
5.5 Numerical Calculations of Lower Bounds on
Shannon Capacity 174
5.6 Probabilistic Shaping 176
5.6.1 Optimization for the Optical Fiber
Channel 178
5.6.2 Probabilistic Shaping of Binary Data 181
5.7 Concluding Remarks 185

6. Advanced Coding for Fiber-Optics Communications

Systems 191
Ivan B. Djordjevic

6.1 Introduction 192

6.2 Turbo-Product Codes 193
 Contents ix

6.3 LDPC Codes 197

6.3.1 LDPC Codes Fundamentals and Large-Girth
Code Design 197
6.3.2 Decoding of Binary LDPC Codes 202
6.3.3 Nonbinary LDPC Codes: Quasi-Cyclic Code
Design and Decoding Algorithms 207
6.3.4 Rate-Adaptive LDPC Coding
Implementations in FPGA 210
6.4 Coded Modulation for Optical Communications 215
6.4.1 Coded Modulation Fundamentals 216
6.4.2 Multilevel Coded Modulation and
Unequal Error Protection 219
6.4.3 Bit-Interleaved Coded Modulation 225
6.4.4 Hybrid Multidimensional Coded
Modulation Scheme for High-Speed
Optical Transport 226
6.5 LDPC Coded Modulation for Optical
Communications Enabling Quasi-Single-Mode
Transmission over Transoceanic Distances
Using Few-Mode Fibers 230
6.6 Concluding Remarks 236

7. Nonlinear Fourier Transform-Based Optical

Transmission: Methods for Capacity Estimation 243
Jaroslaw E. Prilepsky, Stanislav A. Derevyanko,
and Sergei K. Turitsyn

7.1 Introduction 243

7.2 Main Model and Basics of NFT 246
7.2.1 Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation 246
7.2.2 NFT Operations 248
7.3 General Expressions for Noise Autocorrelation
Functions inside NF Domain 250
7.3.1 Perturbed Evolution of NF Spectrum 250
7.3.2 Noise Autocorrelation Functions for the
Continuous Part of NF Spectrum 251
7.4 Capacity Estimates for the Nonlinear Inverse
Synthesis NFT-Based Method 253
 Contents

7.4.1 NIS Basics and Continuous Input-Output

Channel Model 253
7.4.2 Discrete Input-Output Model 257
7.4.3 Capacity Estimates for WDM/OFDM NIS
Transmission 258
7.4.4 Applicability of Results 261
7.5 Conclusion 262

8. Spatial Multiplexing: Technology 273

Yongmin Jung, Qiongyue Kang, Shaif-ul Alam,
and David J. Richardson

8.1 Introduction 274

8.2 SDM Transmission Fibres 275
8.2.1 Few-Mode Fibres 277
8.2.2 Multi-Core Fibres 279
8.3 SDM Multiplexers and Demultiplexers 281
8.3.1 Mode MUXs/DEMUXs for Few-Mode
Fibres 281
8.3.2 Fan-In/Fan-Out Devices for Multi-Core
Fibres 283
8.4 SDM Optical Amplifiers 284
8.4.1 Strategies to Minimize Differential Modal
Gain in Few-Mode EDFA 286
8.4.2 Core Pumped 6-Mode EDFA 287
8.4.3 Cladding Pumped 6-Mode EDFA 289
8.4.4 Future Prospects to Increase the Number
of Spatial Modes in FM-EDFAs 290
8.5 Conclusion 292

9. Spatial Multiplexing: Modelling 297

Filipe Ferreira, Christian Costa, Sygletos Stylianos,
and Andrew Ellis

9.1 Introduction 298

9.2 Coupled-Mode Theory for Few-Mode Fibers 300
9.2.1 Coupled-Mode Equations 301
9.2.2 Coupled-Mode Equations Solution for
Two-Mode Fibers 303
 Contents xi

9.3 Semi-Analytical Solutions for Higher-Order

Modes 304
9.3.1 Analytical Expressions for the
Three-Modes Case 306
9.3.2 Analytical Expressions for More Than
Three-Modes 306
9.3.3 Algorithm Complexity 308
9.4 Single-Section Modelling 309
9.5 Multi-Section Modelling 312
9.5.1 Setting Mode Coupling Strength and
Correlation Length 312
9.5.2 Mode Coupling Accumulation over
Transmission Length 314
9.5.3 Polarization Mode Coupling 315
9.6 GD Statistics in Non-Delay-Managed Links 316
9.6.1 GD Standard Deviation and Intensity
Impulse Response 317
9.6.2 GD Probability Density Function and
Maximum GD Spread 320
9.7 GD Statistics in Delay-Managed Links 323
9.8 Nonlinear Propagation Modelling 326
9.8.1 Modified Split-Step Fourier Method 327
9.8.2 Extreme Coupling Strength Regimes 328
9.8.3 Intermediate Coupling Strength Regime 328
9.8.4 Total Nonlinear Noise: Analytical
Integration 329
9.9 Linear Coupling Impact Nonlinear Noise for
Delay Uncompensated Spans 331
9.10 Linear Coupling Impact on Nonlinear Noise for
Delay Compensated Spans 333
9.11 Manakov Approximation vs. Fully Stochastic
Propagation 336
9.12 Conclusions 342

Index 347
 Preface
Optical fiber systems are the backbone of the global tele-
communication networks. Optical fibers enable information
transmission from dense ultrashort cables in data-centers to
transoceanic distances around the globe, connecting billions of
users and linking cities, countries and continents. It is hard to
overstate the impact that fiber-optic systems have made on the
economy, healthcare, public and government services, society, and
almost every aspects of our lives.
The exponential surge in the global data traffic driven by
the skyrocketing proliferation of different bandwidth-hungry
online services brings about the escalating pressure on the speed
(capacity) and quality (bit error rate) characteristics of information
flows interconnecting individual network participants. Examples
for these bandwidth-hungry online services include cloud
computing, on-demand HD video streams, online business analytics
and content sharing, sensor networks, machine-to-machine traffic
arising from data-center applications, the Internet of Things, and
various other broadband services. It is well recognized nowadays
that rapidly increasing data rates in the core fiber communication
systems are quickly approaching the limits of current transmission
technologies, many of which were originally developed for
communication over linear channels (e.g., radio). However, optical
fiber channels are fundamentally different.
Nonlinear effects in optical fiber have a major effect on
transmission speed in modern fiber-optic communication systems.
Unlike wireless communications, where signal quality can be
enhanced by increasing the optical power at the transmitter, in
fiber-optics the increase of power leads to stronger nonlinear
signal impairments. Consequently, there is a clear need for the
development of radically different methods for signal processing.
This book gives an overview of the current research by
experts in this field. The first chapter, by Hadrien Louchet,
Nikolay Karelin, and André Richter from VPIphotonics, covers
key requirements and challenges for accurate modeling of
xiv Preface

nonlinear effects for achieving high-capacity transmission. In

Chapter 2, Mohammad Ahmad Zaki Al-Khateeb, Abdallah Ali, and
Andrew Ellis from Aston University discuss theoretical models
that can predict the maximum performance and discuss optical
fiber nonlinear limits.
This is followed by Chapter 3 by Danish Rafique from Adva
Optical Networking, who reviews different methods of fiber
nonlinearity compensation. Chapter 4 is focused on the method
of phase-conjugated twin waves and phase-conjugated coding,
presented by Son Thai Le from Nokia Bell-Labs.
The information-theoretic treatment, focused on channel
models and their limits for estimating transmission throughput
of fiber-optic channels, is given in Chapter 5 by Mariia Sorokina
and Metodi P. Yankov from Aston University and Technical
University of Denmark, respectively. In Chapter 6, Ivan B. Djordjevic
from the University of Arizona reviews coding algorithms for
fiber-optic systems, one of the key enabling technologies to
improve the spectral efficiency and extend the transmission
distance. The nonlinear Fourier transform method is described in
Chapter 7 by Jaroslaw E. Prilepsky, Stanislav A. Derevyanko, and
Sergei K. Turitsyn from Aston University and Ben-Gurion University
of the Negev, who discuss challenges and advantages of its
application on communication systems.
Finally, spatial multiplexing is considered here (i) from the
technology perspective in Chapter 8 by Yongmin Jung, Qiongyue
Kang, Shaif-ul Alam, and David J. Richardson from the University
of Southampton, who discuss the prospects of scaling as well
as potential energy and cost savings of this technology and
(ii) from the modeling perspective by Filipe Ferreira, Christian
Costa, Sygletos Stylianos, and Andrew Ellis from Aston University,
who overview different modeling approximation and their limits.
To conclude, the book presents a broad overview of the
contemporary research on communications limits of fiber-optic
systems, discussing different approaches and their challenges
and prospects.
We wish to thank the authors and the Jenny Stanford
Publishing staff, who made this book possible.
Chapter 1

Modelling High-Capacity Nonlinear

Transmission Systems

Hadrien Louchet, Nikolay Karelin, and André Richter

VPIphotonics, Berlin, 10587, Germany
[email protected]

1.1 Introduction
In 1966 Charles Kao and George Hockham [1] predicted that
silica-based fibre could be a very effective medium for
communication offering huge bandwidth and potentially very
low loss compared to co-axial cables and copper wires despite of
the very high attenuation of the first optical fibres (1000 dB/km).
As early as 1970 a team at Corning [2] managed to produce
about 100 m of fibre with characteristics close to the one
predicted by Kao and Hockham. Since then fibre fabrication
The well-documented history of optical fibre can be found at http://opticalfibre-
history.co.uk as well as in Hecht, Jeff. City of Light: The Story of Fiber Optics. Oxford
University Press on Demand, 2004.

Optical Communication Systems: Limits and Possibilities

Edited by Andrew Ellis and Mariia Sorokina
Copyright © 2020 Jenny Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
ISBN 978-981-4800-28-0 (Hardcover), 978-0-429-02780-2 (eBook)
www.jennystanford.com
 Modelling High-Capacity Nonlinear Transmission Systems

and design have been improved thriving to design fibres with

characteristics as close as possible to the ones of an ideal
transmission channel with identity transfer function. All deviations
from this ideal channel such as loss, chromatic dispersion (CD),
polarization mode dispersion (PMD) and nonlinearities are
usually called transmission impairments. Notable exceptions to this
approach are Soliton systems (see Chapter 7) that explicitly
make use of the dispersive and nonlinear nature of the optical
fibre. Erbium-doped fibre amplifiers (EDFAs) [3–4] and dispersion
compensating fibres [5] (DCF) have been introduced in the 1980s
and 1990s, respectively, to compensate for the fibre attenuation
and CD unlocking the optical fibre potential for long haul
high-capacity transmission.
Nowadays the digital coherent optical technology, as
introduced by Nortel Networks, allows to compensate all linear
effects (CD, PMD, polarization rotation) at the receiver. Consequently,
the remaining deviations from the identity channel are due to
amplified spontaneous emission, ASE, modelled as additive white
Gaussian noise, filtering effects and cross-talk resulting from optical
add-drop multiplexers and complex interactions between linear
and nonlinear propagation effects. While filtering and cross-talk
effects can be modelled easily, accurate modelling of nonlinear
interactions and their impact on the system performance remains
an important challenge. This is especially true for high-capacity
systems operating in the nonlinear regime and approaching
or exceeding the nonlinear Shannon limit (see Chapter 5). Key
aspects for accurate modelling of nonlinear effects in such
systems are reviewed in this chapter.

1.2 Nonlinear Fibre Propagation: From Single

to Multimode

1.2.1 Wave Equation

The propagation of an optical field, which is particular case of an
electromagnetic wave, in an optical fibre is governed by Maxwell’s
equations. In a dielectric medium like fused silica, nonlinear
effects are weak and can be treated as perturbation. In this
framework, the wave equation takes the following form:
 Nonlinear Fibre Propagation 

w2 
2E + n 2 E = 0, (1.1)
c2
w2 
where 2E +isn 2the2 EFourier
= 0, transform of the electrical field vector E
expressed c
in the time domain, c is the light velocity in vacuum
2  w2  w2 
E + n 2the2 E
and = 0,
(complex) 2E + n 2is 2related
refractive index of the waveguide. E = 0,
c c
to the medium relative permittivity er and electric susceptibility
ce as follows: n = er = 1 + c e . In an isotropic medium, i.e.
w2 
2E + n 2 is 2independent
when E = 0, of the position or direction, the simplest
c
solution for (1.1) is the single harmonic (i.e. monochromatic)
plane wave:

E(t , z )= E0 exp( j( w0t – bz )), (1.2)

where z is distance along the direction of propagation, b  n w c

is the complex propagation constant of the wave and w0 is the
wave angular frequency. For a circular waveguide like the optical
fibre the solution of (1.1) becomes [6]:

E(r , j, z , t )= A( z , t )E t (r , j)exp( j( w0t – bz )), (1.3)

where Et(r, j) is the transverse field, i.e. the spatial distribution of

the field in the waveguide cross-section, z the position along the
fibre axis and A(z, t) is the slowly varying complex envelope of
the wave, describing, for instance, modulation or noise process
affecting the monochromatic wave. The angular frequency is
related the optical carrier wavelength in vacuum as w0 = 2pc/l0.
In multimode fibres, several solutions (i.e. pairs of Et
and b)exist
n w c (see Fig. 1.1) and can be well approximated as
linearly polarized modes (LP modes). So-called single mode fibres
are designed to support only a single degenerate solution, the
fundamental mode LP01, which presents an intensity profile
similar to that of a Gaussian beam. The term degenerate relates
to the fact that the optical field propagation can be represented
as a superposition of two waves having the same propagation
constant but orthogonal orientations for E (see Section 1.2.2.3)
usually referred to as X and Y. Exact values for b  depend
n w c on the
refractive index profile of the fibre. The review of linear and
nonlinear effects reported below is restricted to the LP01 mode
but can be extended to higher-order modes.
 Modelling High-Capacity Nonlinear Transmission Systems

Figure ϭ͘ϭ
&ŝŐƵƌĞ 1.1 ‡ˆ”ƒ
Refractive index ’”‘ϐ‹Ž‡
–‹˜‡ ‹†‡š profile ‘ˆ
of ƒ
a ˆ‡™Ǧ‘†‡
few-mode ϐ‹„”‡
fibre •—’’‘”–‹‰
supporting ˆ‘—”
four
LP ‘†‡•Ǥ
 modes. Š‡
The ‡ơ
effective refractive
‡ –‹˜‡ ”‡ˆ”ƒ indexes ‘ˆ
–‹˜‡ ‹†‡š‡• of –Š‡
the ‘†‡•
modes ƒ”‡
are ‹†‹
indicated
ƒ–‡†
for 1550 nm.
ˆ‘”ͳͷͷͲǤ

1.2.2 >ŝŶĞĂƌWƌŽƉĂŐĂƚŝŽŶī
ϭ͘Ϯ͘Ϯ Linear Propagation Effects
ĞĐƚƐ
Here the –‡”
‡”‡ –Š‡ term Ž‹‡ƒ”
linear ”‡ˆ‡”•
refers –‘
to ϐ‹„”‡
fibre characteristics that ”‡ƒ‹
Šƒ”ƒ –‡”‹•–‹ • –Šƒ– remain
independent ‘ˆ
‹†‡’‡†‡– of –Š‡
the ’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‹‰
propagating •‹‰ƒŽ
signal ƒ†
and –Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡
therefore ƒŽŽ‘™
allow –Š‡
the
propagation along the fibre to be described
’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‘‰–Š‡ϐ‹„”‡–‘„‡†‡• using a linear transfer
”‹„‡†—•‹‰ƒŽ‹‡ƒ”–”ƒ•ˆ‡”
function.
ˆ— –‹‘Ǥ

1.2.2.1 >ŽƐƐ
ϭ͘Ϯ͘Ϯ͘ϭ Loss
Optical
’–‹ waves ’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‹‰
ƒŽ ™ƒ˜‡• propagating ‹ in ‘’–‹
optical fibre ƒ”‡
ƒŽ ϐ‹„”‡ are ƒ––‡—ƒ–‡†
attenuated †—‡
due –‘
to
•scattering
ƒ––‡”‹‰ ‡ơ effects and ‘Ž‡
‡ –• ƒ† molecule absorption. ƒ›Ž‡‹‰Š
—Ž‡ ƒ„•‘”’–‹‘Ǥ Rayleigh •scattering
ƒ––‡”‹‰
is caused
‹• by ‹–”‹•‹
ƒ—•‡† „› intrinsic ˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘
variation ‘ˆ of –Š‡
the ”‡ˆ”ƒ
refractive index ƒŽ‘‰
–‹˜‡ ‹†‡š along –Š‡
the
fibre. It– ‹•
is ’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒŽ
proportional –‘ to ͳȀO 4 and ‹•
1/l  ƒ† is –Š‡
the †‘‹ƒ–
dominant Ž‘••
loss ‡ơ
effect
ϐ‹„”‡Ǥ Ͷ
‡ –
at •Š‘”–
ƒ– short ™ƒ˜‡Ž‡‰–Š
wavelength ȋ„‡Ž‘™
(below ͺͲͲ800 ȌǤ
nm). ‘Ž‡
Molecule absorption ‹•
—Ž‡ ƒ„•‘”’–‹‘ is
mostly †‘‹ƒ–‡†
‘•–Ž› dominated „› by ‹ˆ”ƒ”‡†
infrared ƒ„•‘”’–‹‘
absorption ƒ– at ™ƒ˜‡Ž‡‰–Š
wavelength ƒ„‘˜‡
above
1600 
ͳ͸ͲͲ nm ƒ†and „›
by ™ƒ–‡”
water ‹‘•
ions ƒ–
at ͻ͹ͷǡ
975, ͳʹͷͲ
1250 ƒ†
and ͳͶͲͲ
1400 Ǥ
nm. ‘–‡
Note
that –Š‡
–Šƒ– the ƒ„•‘”’–‹‘
absorption ’‡ƒ•
peaks †—‡
due –‘to ™ƒ–‡”
water ‹‘•
ions can be ”‡†—
ƒ „‡ reduced via
‡† ˜‹ƒ
improved ˆƒ„”‹
‹’”‘˜‡† fabrication processes
ƒ–‹‘ ’”‘ ‡••‡• ƒ† and ƒ”‡
are “—ƒ•‹Ǧƒ„•‡–
quasi-absent ‹ in
low-water-peak or zero-water-peak fibres standardized
Ž‘™Ǧ™ƒ–‡”Ǧ’‡ƒ ‘” œ‡”‘Ǧ™ƒ–‡”Ǧ’‡ƒ ϐ‹„”‡• •–ƒ†ƒ”†‹œ‡† ƒ• Ǧ as ITU-T
G.652.C and G.652.D.
Ǥ͸ͷʹǤ ƒ† Ǥ͸ͷʹǤǤ In the ˆ”ƒ‡™‘”
 –Š‡ framework ‘ˆ of ‡Ž‡
electromagnetic
–”‘ƒ‰‡–‹ 
wave –Š‡‘”›ǡ
™ƒ˜‡ theory, –Š‹•
this Ž‘••
loss ‹•
is †‡•
described
”‹„‡† „›by –Š‡
the ‹ƒ‰‹ƒ”›
imaginary ’ƒ”–
part ‘ˆ
of –Š‡
the
complex
‘’Ž‡š ”‡ˆ”ƒrefractive index, ‹Ǥ‡Ǥ
–‹˜‡ ‹†‡šǡ i.e. „›
by –Š‡
the ‹ƒ‰‹ƒ”›
imaginary ’ƒ”–
part ‘ˆ
of –Š‡
the
complex the electric
‘’Ž‡š–Š‡‡Ž‡ susceptibility
–”‹ •—• ‡’–‹„‹Ž‹–›Fc‡eǣ:
‚ȋ F ‡ Ȍ
  α Ϊ‹ ™‹–Š  α ƒȋ F ‡ ȌȀʹ (1.4)
ȋͳǤͶȌ
ʹ
 Nonlinear Fibre Propagation 

and with this, the complex

ƒ†™‹–Š–Š‹•ǡ–Š‡ propagation constant
‘’Ž‡š’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‹‘ becomes
‘•–ƒ–„‡ ‘‡•

‚ȋ F ‡ Ȍ Z
 E α Z Ϊ ‹ ˜ α E Ϊ ‹ D ʹǡ (1.5)
ȋͳǤͷȌ
ʹ

where
™Š‡”‡ a D is
‹• the
–Š‡ fibre
ϐ‹„”‡ attenuation
ƒ––‡—ƒ–‹‘ parameter,
’ƒ”ƒ‡–‡”ǡ usually
—•—ƒŽŽ› measured
‡ƒ•—”‡† in ‹
dB/km as a[dB/km] = –10*Log(PȀ
†Ȁƒ•Dȏ†ȀȐαȂͳͲȗ‘‰ȋ /P )/L
ȌȀ , where
ǡ™Š‡”‡
L Ͳ 0 km P and
ƒ†
Ͳ 0 
P are
ƒ”‡–Š‡
L
the transmitted
–”ƒ•‹––‡† ƒ†and measured
‡ƒ•—”‡† signal
•‹‰ƒŽ powerƒˆ–‡”
’‘™‡” afterL ǡ
km, respectively.
”‡•’‡ –‹˜‡Ž›Ǥ
Converting
‘˜‡”–‹‰ a D in
‹ linear
Ž‹‡ƒ” units
—‹–• gives DȏͳȀȐ =α a[dB/m]*10
‰‹˜‡• a[1/m] Dȏ†ȀȐȗͳͲ log(e)
Ž‘‰ȋ‡Ȍ
~ Dȏ†ȀȐȀͳ‡͵ȗͶǤͶ͵ͶǤ The
̱ a[dB/km]/1e3*4.434. Š‡ factor
ˆƒ –‘” 1/2
ͳȀʹ in
‹ (1.5)
ȋͳǤͷȌ is
‹• introduced
‹–”‘†— ‡†
as
ĥ the
–Š‡ attenuation
ƒ––‡—ƒ–‹‘ coefficient
‘‡ˆϐ‹ ‹‡– a D is
‹• defined
†‡ϐ‹‡† for
ˆ‘” the
–Š‡ optical
‘’–‹ ƒŽ power
’‘™‡”
not for the optical field. The wavelength dependency
‘– ˆ‘” –Š‡ ‘’–‹ ƒŽ ϐ‹‡Ž†Ǥ Š‡ ™ƒ˜‡Ž‡‰–Š †‡’‡†‡ › ‘ˆ a of D is
‹•
displayed
†‹•’Žƒ›‡† in ‹ Fig.
‹‰Ǥ 1.2
ͳǤʹ for
ˆ‘” two
–™‘ fibre
ϐ‹„”‡ types.
–›’‡•Ǥ The
Š‡ so-called
•‘Ǧ ƒŽŽ‡† “optical
Dz‘’–‹ ƒŽ
wavelengths bands” are indicated
™ƒ˜‡Ž‡‰–Š•„ƒ†•dzƒ”‡‹†‹ as well.
ƒ–‡†ƒ•™‡ŽŽǤ


Figure 1.2 Fibre
&ŝŐƵƌĞϭ͘Ϯ attenuation for standard single mode (ITU-T
‹„”‡ƒ––‡—ƒ–‹‘ˆ‘”•–ƒ†ƒ”†•‹‰Ž‡‘†‡ȋ ǦG652.A), low
͸ͷʹǤȌǡŽ‘™
water
™ƒ–‡” peak
’‡ƒ (G652.B)
ȋ ͸ͷʹǤȌ and
ƒ† zero
œ‡”‘ water
™ƒ–‡” peak
’‡ƒ fibres.
ϐ‹„”‡•Ǥ The
Š‡ ITU-T
Ǧ wavelengths
™ƒ˜‡Ž‡‰–Š•
bands
„ƒ†• and
ƒ† operating
‘’‡”ƒ–‹‰ range
”ƒ‰‡ of
‘ˆ Raman,
ƒƒǡ erbium-
‡”„‹—Ǧ andƒ† ytterbium-doped
›––‡”„‹—Ǧ†‘’‡†
fibre and semiconductor
ϐ‹„”‡ƒ†•‡‹ optical
‘†— –‘”‘’–‹ amplifiers are indicated
ƒŽƒ’Ž‹ϐ‹‡”•ƒ”‡‹†‹ as well.
ƒ–‡†ƒ•™‡ŽŽǤ

1.2.2.2
ϭ͘Ϯ͘Ϯ͘Ϯ Chromatic dispersion
ŚƌŽŵĂƚŝĐĚŝƐƉĞƌƐŝŽŶ
In•‹Ž‹
silicaƒϐ‹„”‡ǡ̱ͳǤͶͷǡ‹Ǥ‡Ǥ–Š‡•‹‰ƒŽ–”ƒ˜‡Ž•ƒ–ƒ’’”‘š‹ƒ–‡Ž›͹ͲΨ
fibre, n ~ 1.45, i.e. the signal travels at approximately 70%
of
‘ˆ the
–Š‡ speed
•’‡‡† of
‘ˆ light.
Ž‹‰Š–Ǥ Because
‡ ƒ—•‡ of
‘ˆ the
–Š‡ fibre
ϐ‹„”‡ refractive
”‡ˆ”ƒ –‹˜‡ index
‹†‡š profile
’”‘ϐ‹Ž‡
and material properties n is frequency-dependent.
ƒ†ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ’”‘’‡”–‹‡•‹•ˆ”‡“—‡ As a result, the
›Ǧ†‡’‡†‡–Ǥ•ƒ”‡•—Ž–ǡ–Š‡
signals
•‹‰ƒŽ• propagating
’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‹‰ at ƒ– different
†‹ơ‡”‡– wavelengths
™ƒ˜‡Ž‡‰–Š• travel
–”ƒ˜‡Ž at
ƒ– different
†‹ơ‡”‡–
speeds,
•’‡‡†•ǡ an ƒ effect
‡ơ‡ – called
ƒŽŽ‡† chromatic
Š”‘ƒ–‹  dispersion.
†‹•’‡”•‹‘Ǥ The
Š‡ frequency-
ˆ”‡“—‡ ›Ǧ
dependency
†‡’‡†‡ › of ‘ˆ the
–Š‡ propagation
’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‹‘ constant
‘•–ƒ– canƒ be
„‡ expressed
‡š’”‡••‡† using
—•‹‰
 Modelling High-Capacity Nonlinear Transmission Systems

–Š‡Taylor
the
–Š‡ ƒ›Ž‘”series
ƒ›Ž‘” •‡”‹‡•expansion
•‡”‹‡• ‡š’ƒ•‹‘around
‡š’ƒ•‹‘ ƒ”‘—†the
ƒ”‘—† –Š‡centre
–Š‡ ‡–”‡angular
‡–”‡ ƒ‰—Žƒ”frequency
ƒ‰—Žƒ” ˆ”‡“—‡ ›
ˆ”‡“—‡ ›
‘ˆ–Š‡
of ‘•‹†‡”‡†•‹‰ƒŽǡZ
the considered
‘ˆ–Š‡ signal, w0ͲͲ:ǣǣ
‘•‹†‡”‡†•‹‰ƒŽǡZ

ͳͳ ͳͳ ǤǤǤ  (1.6)
 EEȋȋZ Ȍα EEͲͲ ΪΪ EEͳͳȋȋZ
ZȌα ZȂȂ Z ȌΪ EEʹʹȋȋZ
ZͲͲ ȌΪ ZͲͲȌȌʹʹ ΪΪ EE͵͵ȋȋZ ȂȂ Z
ZȂȂ Z ZͲͲȌȌ͵͵ ΪΪǤǤǤ ȋͳǤ͸Ȍ
ȋͳǤ͸Ȍ
ʹʹ ͵͵
bEE0ͲͲ is
‹• aƒ
‹• ƒ frequency-independent
ˆ”‡“—‡ ›Ǧ‹†‡’‡†‡–
ˆ”‡“—‡ ›Ǧ‹†‡’‡†‡– phase ’Šƒ•‡ offset.
’Šƒ•‡ ‘ơ•‡–Ǥ
‘ơ •‡–Ǥ bEE1ͳͳ refers
”‡ˆ‡”• to
”‡ˆ‡”• –‘ the
–‘ –Š‡
–Š‡
œ‹˜‡”•‡ of
zinverse
œ‹˜‡”•‡ ‘ˆ the
‘ˆ –Š‡ group
–Š‡ ‰”‘—’ velocity
‰”‘—’ ˜‡Ž‘ ‹–› v˜˜g‰‰ describing
˜‡Ž‘ ‹–› †‡• ”‹„‹‰
†‡• ”‹„‹‰ the –Š‡ speed
–Š‡ •’‡‡† of
•’‡‡† ‘ˆ the
‘ˆ –Š‡
–Š‡
‘†—Žƒ–‡† envelope,
modulated
‘†—Žƒ–‡† ‡˜‡Ž‘’‡ǡ i.e.
‡˜‡Ž‘’‡ǡ ‹Ǥ‡Ǥ the
‹Ǥ‡Ǥ –Š‡ speed
–Š‡ •’‡‡† at
•’‡‡† ƒ– which
ƒ– ™Š‹ Š
™Š‹ Š pulses
’—Ž•‡• propagate
’—Ž•‡• ’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‡
’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‡
–Š”‘—‰Š
through –Š‡
the ϐ‹„”‡
fibre ƒ†
and –Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡
therefore ‰‘˜‡”•
governs
–Š”‘—‰Š –Š‡ ϐ‹„”‡ ƒ† –Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ ‰‘˜‡”• ‹–‡”Ǧ‘†ƒŽ †‹•’‡”•‹‘ ‹–‡”Ǧ‘†ƒŽ
inter-modal †‹•’‡”•‹‘
dispersion
in‹ —Ž–‹‘†‡
‹ multimode
—Ž–‹‘†‡ fibres ϐ‹„”‡• ȋ•‡‡
ϐ‹„”‡• (see ‡ –‹‘
ȋ•‡‡ Section ͳǤʹǤ͸ȌǤ
‡ –‹‘ 1.2.6).  ‹•
ͳǤʹǤ͸ȌǤ bE2ʹʹ is
E –Š‡
‹• the ‰”‘—’
–Š‡ group ˜‡Ž‘ ‹–›
‰”‘—’ velocity
˜‡Ž‘ ‹–›
†‹•’‡”•‹‘ȋ
dispersion
†‹•’‡”•‹‘ȋ Ȍƒ†ƒ
(GVD) ‘—–•ˆ‘”–Š‡Ž‹‡ƒ”ˆ”‡“—‡
and accounts
Ȍƒ†ƒ for the linear frequency›†‡’‡†‡
‘—–•ˆ‘”–Š‡Ž‹‡ƒ”ˆ”‡“—‡ ›†‡’‡†‡
dependency› ›
of‘ˆ v˜˜g‰‰.ǤǤ GVD
‘ˆ  leads
 Ž‡ƒ†• to
Ž‡ƒ†• –‘ pulse
–‘ ’—Ž•‡ broadening
’—Ž•‡ „”‘ƒ†‡‹‰ or
„”‘ƒ†‡‹‰ ‘” channels
‘” Šƒ‡Ž• walk-off
Šƒ‡Ž• ™ƒŽǦ‘ơ in
™ƒŽǦ‘ơ ‹
‹
™ƒ˜‡Ž‡‰–Š division
wavelength
™ƒ˜‡Ž‡‰–Š †‹˜‹•‹‘ multiplexing
†‹˜‹•‹‘ —Ž–‹’Ž‡š‹‰ (WDM)
—Ž–‹’Ž‡š‹‰ ȋȌ systems.
ȋȌ •›•–‡•ǤbEE3͵͵ is
•›•–‡•Ǥ ‹• referred
‹• ”‡ˆ‡””‡†
”‡ˆ‡””‡†
to–‘ as
–‘ ƒ• the
ƒ• –Š‡ slope
–Š‡ •Ž‘’‡ of
•Ž‘’‡ ‘ˆ the
‘ˆ –Š‡ GVD
–Š‡  or
 ‘” the
‘” –Š‡ second
–Š‡ •‡ ‘†
•‡ ‘† order
‘”†‡” GVD.
‘”†‡” Ǥ It–– plays
Ǥ ’Žƒ›• aƒ
’Žƒ›• ƒ
”‘Ž‡
role ‹
in ™‹†‡Ǧ„ƒ†
wide-band –”ƒ•‹••‹‘
transmission ™Š‡”‡
where
”‘Ž‡ ‹ ™‹†‡Ǧ„ƒ† –”ƒ•‹••‹‘ ™Š‡”‡  ‹• ‘– ‘•–ƒ– ȋ•‡‡GVD ‹•
is ‘–
not ‘•–ƒ–
constant ȋ•‡‡
(see
Fig. ‹‰ǤͳǤ͵Ȍ‘˜‡”ƒŽƒ”‰‡ˆ”‡“—‡
1.3) over a large frequency›”ƒ‰‡Ǥ
‹‰ǤͳǤ͵Ȍ‘˜‡”ƒŽƒ”‰‡ˆ”‡“—‡ ›”ƒ‰‡Ǥ
range.

&ŝŐƵƌĞ 1.3
Figure
&ŝŐƵƌĞ ϭ͘ϯ Chromatic
ϭ͘ϯ Š”‘ƒ–‹  dispersion
Š”‘ƒ–‹ †‹•’‡”•‹‘ of
†‹•’‡”•‹‘ ‘ˆ standard
‘ˆ •–ƒ†ƒ”† single
•–ƒ†ƒ”† •‹‰Ž‡ mode
•‹‰Ž‡ ‘†‡ (ITU-T
‘†‡ ȋȋ Ǧ
Ǧ G652),
͸ͷʹȌǡ
͸ͷʹȌǡ
‘Ǧœ‡”‘dispersion
non-zero
‘Ǧœ‡”‘ †‹•’‡”•‹‘shifted
†‹•’‡”•‹‘ •Š‹ˆ–‡†(G655)
•Š‹ˆ–‡† ȋȋ ͸ͷͷȌ
͸ͷͷȌand
ƒ†dispersion
ƒ† †‹•’‡”•‹‘shifted
†‹•’‡”•‹‘ •Š‹ˆ–‡†(G653)
•Š‹ˆ–‡† ȋȋ ͸ͷ͵Ȍ
͸ͷ͵Ȍfibres.
ϐ‹„”‡•Ǥ
ϐ‹„”‡•Ǥ
ƒŽ—‡•ˆ‘”ƒ†E
Values ƒ”‡‹†‹
for D and b2ʹʹƒ”‡‹†‹
ƒŽ—‡•ˆ‘”ƒ†E ƒ–‡†ˆ‘”ͳͷͷͲǤ
are indicated for 1550 nm.
ƒ–‡†ˆ‘”ͳͷͷͲǤ

‘–‡–Šƒ––Š‡–‡”•ϔ‹„”‡†‹•’‡”•‹‘ȋȌƒ††‹•’‡”•‹‘•Ž‘’‡ȋȌ
Note that the terms fibre dispersion (D) and dispersion slope (S)
‘–‡–Šƒ––Š‡–‡”•ϔ‹„”‡†‹•’‡”•‹‘ȋȌƒ††‹•’‡”•‹‘•Ž‘’‡ȋȌ
†‡• ”‹„‹‰ the
describing –Š‡ propagation
’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‹‘ constant
‘•–ƒ– dependency
†‡’‡†‡ › on
‘ wavelength
™ƒ˜‡Ž‡‰–Š
rather than frequency›ƒ”‡”‡Žƒ–‡†–‘E
”ƒ–Š‡”–Šƒˆ”‡“—‡ ƒ†E
are related to b2ʹʹƒ†E ƒ•
and b3͵͵ƒ•
as

ww ͳͳ ʹʹSS  ȋʹ
ww SȌȌʹʹ
ȋʹS ʹʹ
  αα
 αα ȂȂ ʹʹ EEʹʹ  αα αα ͶͶ
EE͵͵ ȂȂ ǤǤ ȋͳǤ͹Ȍ
(1.7)
ȋͳǤ͹Ȍ
wO ˜˜‰‰
wO OO wO
wO OO OO
 Nonlinear Fibre Propagation 

Standard single mode fibre (ITU-G652) presents zero

dispersion at approximately 1320 nm, while b2 ~ –20 ps²/km
(D ~ 16 ps/nm-km) at around 1550 nm [7]. When the transmitted
fibre distance is larger than the dispersion length, defined as
2
LD = T0 /| b2 |, which is the distance over which a pulse of width T0
has broaden over one symbol interval, the propagation is
considered to be in the dispersive regime. Note that not only
the local dispersion but also the accumulated dispersion
GVDacc = ∫b2(z) . dz play an important role for determining the
signal propagation regime.

1.2.2.3 Birefringence

Under ideal conditions, the two degenerate modes of a single

mode fibre have identical propagation constant b(w) and signals
propagating in these modes do not couple. However, small
fluctuations in material anisotropy (e.g. refractive index variations)
and small deviations from the cylindrical geometry make the fibre
birefringent, i.e. degenerated LP modes have slightly different
propagation constants [8]. Locally or for a short piece of fibre
it is possible to define the fast and slow birefringence axes of the
fibre (X and Y in the following) corresponding to the orientation
of the supported modes LP01X and LP01Y by adapting the
propagation constants bX/Y as follows:

p
b0, X/Y = b0 ± Db0 with Db0 = (1.8)
2Lb

Lb is called the fibre beat length defined as the distance for which
the accumulated phase difference between the two modes
reaches 2p, i.e. where a polarized monochromatic signal retrieves
its initial polarization state. Lb is typically between 1 and 20 m
for transmission fibres [8, 9].
Fibre birefringence varies along the fibre due to asymmetries
introduced during the fabrication process already and also in
time due other sources such as vibrations, bending, twisting and
temperature. Therefore, not only Db0 but also the orientation
of the fibre birefringence axes (X and Y) evolve randomly along
the fibre. This leads to mixing between orthogonal modes as well
 Modelling High-Capacity Nonlinear Transmission Systems

as a random dispersion phenomenon called polarization-mode

dispersion (PMD). For longer fibre spans random birefringence
is modelled by adjusting the propagation constant by introducing
b1X/Y = b1 ± Db1 with

DPMD
Db1 = . (1.9)
2 2Lc

Lc is called the fibre correlation length characterising the power

transfer between the two orthogonal polarisations resulting
from random coupling processes. For transmission fibres, typical
values for Lc are between 30 and 300 m [10]. DPMD is the fibre
PMD coefficient, which ranges from 1 ps/km1/2 for old fibres
(installed prior to the 1990s) down to 0.01 ps/km1/2 for recent ones
(installed after 2010). It is related to the mean of the differential
group delay (DGD), Dt, between the fastest and slowest
polarization of a fibre of length L as follows:

Dt
DPMD = (1.10)
L

Dt varies randomly in time (and thus in optical frequency) and

presents a probability density function close to the Maxwellian
distribution [10] (see Fig. 1.4). PMD leads to pulse broadening
and possibly to system penalty and outage in direct and differential
detection-based transmission systems [11, 12]. In digital coherent
optical transmission, slowly varying PMD-induced changes of
DGD and signal state of polarisation (SOP) lead to channel crosstalk
that can be corrected using an digital multiple input multiple
output (MIMO) filter [13]. Therefore, in coherent systems the
main impact of fibre birefringence is due to the interaction of
PMD and nonlinear propagation effects leading to fast changing
channel cross-talk, to penalty for nonlinearities compensation
schemes such as digital-back-propagation and to polarization-
dependent gain when distributed Raman amplification (DRA) is
employed [122].

Note: Besides amplification-induced noise, fibre birefringence is the only fully

stochastic process taking place during fibre propagation.
 Nonlinear Fibre Propagation 9

Figure 1.4 (Top) DGD distribution for a 100 km fibre with

DPMD = 10 ps/km1/2. (Bottom) BER of a 28 Gbaud DP-16QAM vs. received
optical power after 200 km span with distributed Raman amplification
(0.6 W polarized backward pump) for 400 fibre birefringence profiles
(DPMD = 0.7 ps/km1/2).

1.2.3 Nonlinear Propagation Effects

The term nonlinear refers to the wave equation that becomes
nonlinear when the transmission medium characteristics become
signal-dependent. The induced polarization, i.e. the polarization
resulting from the applied optical field E of the electrical dipoles
constituting the dielectric, can be written as

P = ε0 ( χ(1)
e
. E + χ(2) (3)
e : EE + χ e #EEE + ...)= PL + PNL .
(1.11)

In silica fibres, PL = ε0 ( χ(1)

e E)
. is the dominant contribution
(2)
χ
to P, while e is zero because of the symmetry of the SiO2
10 Modelling High-Capacity Nonlinear Transmission Systems

molecule such that nonlinear effects are governed by the third-

(3)
order susceptibility c e of the fused silica. The response of the
silica medium to the applied field is of electronic and molecular
origin [14, 15]. The electronic response is very fast (~60 fs) and
can be considered as instantaneous if the variations of the signal
envelope A(z,t) are slower than 1 ps. The delayed molecular
response is related to the Raman and Brillouin scattering
processes. The impact of stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS)
is neglected in the present chapter as its threshold (~2 mW/
20 MHz = 1e–10 Watt/Hz) is well above the power spectral density
of modulated signals (~1e–14 to 1e–12 W/Hz). Considering both
electronic and molecular responses of the media, (1.4) can be
rewritten as:

n = n0 + n2 ((1 – fr )| E |2 + f r  hr ( t ) |E( z , t – t )|2 dt ) (1.12)

3
with n0 = ( c e ) 2 and n2 = ( c(3)
e ),
(1.13)
8n

where n2 is the fibre nonlinear refractive index, and hr and fr

represent the normalized response and fractional contribution
of the delayed Raman response, respectively. n2 is approximately
2.4–2.6e–20 m²/W, fr is typically 17–19% and the characteristic
time of hr is 30 fs [15] in silica fibres. The dependency of
the material refractive index on the signal intensity due to the
electronic contribution is called the Kerr effect. It induces an
intensity-dependent phase shift to the signal, the impact of
which will be discussed in Section 1.4.
The impact of the molecular contribution is more complex
to describe as it affects both real and imaginary parts of the
refractive index n( w) expressed in frequency and leads therefore
to power-dependent phase modulation (molecular contribution
to cross-phase modulation, XPM) and power transfer (Raman
scattering). Raman-induced power transfer is governed by
the imaginary part of Hr(w), the Fourier transform of hr(t).
The power transfer taking place frequency components fk and fi
is governed by the Raman-gain, gr:

gr ( f k , f i )= 2g f r ( H r ( f k – f i )) (1.14)
 Nonlinear Fibre Propagation 11

Signals at long wavelengths (Stokes waves) are pumped by

signals at shorter wavelength (anti-Stokes waves) with maximal
power transfer (Raman peak) occurring at frequency difference of
about 12 THz. Similarly to n, a also exhibits a power dependency
called two-photon absorption. However, this effect is very small
in silica fibre and usually neglected.

1.2.4 The Scalar Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation

The nonlinear Schrödinger equation (NLSE) describes that

birefringent-independent unidirectional propagation of light in
single-mode fibre. With U(z, t) = A(z, t)*exp(i(b0 – b1 . w0)z – w0t),
where the slowly varying amplitude A(z, t) of the optical field E
is expressed in the frame moving at the group velocity (e.g.
following the pulse), the NLSE can be written as follows [16]:

U( z , t ) ˆ ˆ (1.15)
=[L + N ]U( z , t )
z

a b 2 b 3 (1.16)
Lˆ = – + j 2 2 + 3 3
2 2 t 6 t

Nˆ = – j g(1 – f r ) U( z , t ) – j gf r  hr ( t ) U( z , t – t ) dt
2 2
(1.17)

with g being the fibre nonlinear coefficient defined as

2pn2
g= . (1.18)
lAeff

Aeff is the fibre effective core area describing the wave intensity
distribution in the fibre cross-section (I = P/Aeff ). Note that Aeff
and therefore g is slightly frequency-dependent. When two
different frequencies interact Aeff could be estimated as follows:

Aeff ( wi , w j )=
 |E ( w )| dxdy  |E ( w )| dxdy ,
t
i
2 t
j
2
(1.19)
2 2
 E ( w ) E ( w ) dxdy
t
i
t
j
12 Modelling High-Capacity Nonlinear Transmission Systems

where Et(w) is the transverse field of the fundamental mode

at frequency w. For modern transmission fibres Aeff is typically
in the range of 50 to 100 µm² but can also be as low as 20 µm²
for DCF fibre. At 1550 nm the resulting fibre nonlinear
coefficient g is approximately 1–1.5 W–1 km–1 for transmission
fibres and up to 3 W–1 km–1 for DCF [17]. When the fibre length
is larger than the fibre nonlinear length defined as LNL = 1/(gP0),
where P0 is the signal peak power at the fibre input, the
propagation is said to be in the nonlinear regime. This is the case
for most of all high-capacity systems requiring large signal powers.

1.2.5 The Manakov-PMD Equation

In their papers from 1982 [18, 19], Botineau and Stolen have
characterized the impact of signal polarization on the nonlinear
Kerr effect. Based on these results, Menyuk derived a vectorial
form of the NLSE called the coupled nonlinear Schrödinger
equations (CNLSE) accounting for the impact of PMD on the
linear and nonlinear signal propagation [20, 21]:

U( z , t ) ˆ ˆ   U 
x
=[L + N ] U( z , t ) with U =  (1.20)
z U
 y

a b 2 b 3  
Lˆ = – + j 2 2 + 3 3 ± Db0 ( w)+ jDb1 ( w) Sˆ ( z ) (1.21)
2 2 t 6 t  t 
  1   
Nˆ = – j g| U |2 – U * sˆ 2 U sˆ 2 ,
 3  

where * is the transpose conjugate and sj are the Pauli matrices.

S is given by S = s3 cos(2q) + s1 sin(2q) with q(z) being the
orientation angle of the fibre local birefringence axis. As q(z)
randomly changes along the fibre and in time, it can only be
described statistically. In numerical simulation this can be
accomplished using the coarse-step approach (see Section 1.3.2.3).
Ignoring the random rotation of the local birefringence axis
exaggerates the interaction between PMD and nonlinear effects
especially for cross-polarization modulation, XpolM (see Fig. 1.5
and Section 1.4.6).
 Nonlinear Fibre Propagation 13

Figure 1.5 Time-domain Poincaré representation illustrating XpolM-

induced depolarization of a CW signal after propagation over 20 × 80 km
SSMF-based non-DM link according to the CNLSE (constant birefringence)
and Manakov-PMD equation (random birefringence) for DPMD = 0.005
(left), 0.05 (centre) and 0.5 ps/km1/2 (right). The CW signal is launched in
the X polarization while the pump signal is a depolarized 28 GB signal
with 6 dBm input power.

For constant birefringence and assuming linear signal polariza-

⎡ 2 ⎤
tion, the nonlinear terms reduces to Nˆ = – j γ⎢ | Ux , y|2 + | Uy ,x |2 ⎥.
⎣ 3 ⎦
The factor 2/3 accounts for linear birefringence [18, 19], which is
a good approximation for a short piece of transmission fibre.
Even if the CNLSE describes correctly the signal evolution in
presence of PMD, it is not suitable to describe optical transmission
using numerical simulation. The reason for this is that contrary
to the NLSE, where the nonlinear operator is proportional

to
1
the signal power |U|², it is proportional to 3 (U * σˆ 2 U )σˆ 2 in the
CNLSE. This term is dependent on the signal phase, which varies
very rapidly (even in the slowly varying envelope framework)
because of the Δβ0 term in the linear operator. As discussed
in Section 1.2.2.3, Δβ0 is related to LB which can be as low as
one meter. Therefore much smaller steps (~cm scale) would
be required to solve the CNLSE using the common numerical
14 Modelling High-Capacity Nonlinear Transmission Systems

techniques, such as the split-step Fourier approach (see Section

1.3.2.1). However, it is possible to express the CNLSE by another
form where the nonlinear operator consists of two terms:

8  1 1     8 
Nˆ = – j g | U |2 – j g  (U * sˆ 2 U )sˆ 2 –| U |2  – j g | U |2 (1.22)
9 9 3  9

nonlinear PMD

Menyuk showed [22] that the second term referred to

as nonlinear PMD vanishes after uniform averaging over the
Poincare sphere. The averaging takes place in random birefringent
fibre when the nonlinear propagation transmission length is
much larger than LB and LC. With this, the nonlinear operator
depends only on the signal power (and not field). Further,
Db0 can be removed from the linear operator L̂ , as this term
only leads to a constant phase shift, which is not relevant
for propagation and does not affect the nonlinear operator.
Summarizing, the linear and nonlinear operator of the so-called
Manakov-PMD equation are given by

a b 2 b 3 
Lˆ = – + j 2 2 + 3 3 ± jDb1 ( w) Sˆ ( z ) (1.23)
2 2 t 6 t t
8 
Nˆ = – j g | U |2
9

Furthermore, it is necessary to consider the polarization

dependency of the molecular contribution to the nonlinear
response of the material. Since the nonlinear interaction between
orthogonal polarization is very low compared to the one between
co-polarized signals (hr << hr//), usually it can be neglected and
ˆ 8 
N is –adjusted
j g (1 – as U(t )|2 – j gf r  dt(hr// ( t )– hr( t ))| U(t – t )|2
follows:
f r )|
9
8  
Nˆ  – j g (1 – f r )| U(t )|2 – j gf r  dt(hr// ( t )– hr( t ))| U(t – t )|2
9
(1.24)

1.2.6 Extension to SDM Systems Using Multimode Fibre

In the case of multimode fibres where the index contrast between
core and cladding is low (weakly guided assumption), the
 Nonlinear Fibre Propagation 15

supported modes are well approximated by LP modes with the

following transverse field E t(r, j):

cos l 
E t (r , j) = yl ,m (r ) , (1.25)
sin l  

where yl,m(r) contains the radial dependence [23]. Each {l,m}

combination with l ≥ 0 and m ≥ 1 corresponds to one LP mode.
The number of supported modes depends on the refractive index
profile of the fibre and on the wavelength. The modes transverse
field and propagation constant are the solutions of the wave
eigenvalue equation obtained by replacing (1.3) in (1.1) and
can be found numerically using a mode solver [24] or estimated
experimentally.
When l ≥ 1, four degenerated modes (with same b) exist for
a LP mode: two spatial modes with different radial dependency
each supporting two polarizations. Each LP mode presents a
different linear propagation constant blm leading to inter-
modal dispersion, while CD and the velocity difference between
degenerated modes (modal birefringence) lead to intra-modal
dispersion. Attenuation also depends on the fibre design and
can vary between LP modes [23]. Nevertheless, main sources of
mode-dependent-loss in classical multimode fibre are non-ideal
splices and fibre bending, which affects stronger higher order
mode that propagate in the cladding. Similarly to single mode
fibres, nonlinear effects affect the signal propagation in
multimode fibres: noting Ui(z, t) the slowly varying envelope of
the i-th degenerated LP mode containing two polarizations
the system of coupled Schrödinger equations for a multimode
fibre supporting n degenerate LP modes has been derived by
Poletti [25]. Expressed in a moving frame with group velocity vgr
and neglecting the molecular contribution to the nonlinear effect,
it is expressed as [26]:
  
U i   1 U i b2,i 2 U i 
= j( b0,i – br )U i + b –  – j – ai U i (1.26)
z  1,i 
vgr  t 2 t 2

g  T   *   *   
+ j  f lmni U n U m U l + 2U i U m U i ,
lmn 3    
16 Modelling High-Capacity Nonlinear Transmission Systems

where br is the reference propagation constant (usually b1 = b01)

and bn,i the n-th frequency derivative of bi at the central
angular frequency of the signal (see Section 1.2.2.2). g is the
fibre nonlinear coefficient defined for the fundamental mode
in Section 1.2.4 and flmni are the nonlinear coupling factors
between spatial modes [26]:

f lmni =
 E E E E drd j
t*
l
t
m
t
n
t*
i
(1.27)
 |E |  |E |  |E |  |E |
t 2
l
t 2
m
t 2
n
t 2
i

The system of coupled equations described in (1.26) is

extremely challenging to solve in practice because the nonlinear
terms depends on the phase difference between modes which
evolves rapidly due to modal dispersion. Using the split-step
Fourier algorithm, this would require the use of extremely small
steps (~mm). However, fibre birefringence leads to random and
uncorrelated rotation of the state of polarization of the LP modes
along the fibre averaging the cross-terms in (1.26) to zero after a
certain length (modes correlation length). Under this condition
the nonlinear term in (1.26) becomes independent of the
phase relation between modes and varies much slower.
The resulting system of coupled Manakov equations describing
the propagation of LP mode in the fibre in the weakly coupling
regime becomes [26]:

Ui ( z , t ) ˆ ˆ 
=[Li + Ni ]Ui ( z , t )
z
 1  b 2
Lˆi = j( b0,i – br )+ b1,i –   – j 2,i 2 – ai (1.28)
 vgr t 2 t
8  4  
Nˆ i = j g fiiii |Ui |2  fmmii | Um|2 
9 m 3 

Fibre imperfections also lead to linear random coupling

between modes, which should be accounted for in the modelling.
Furthermore, Mecozzi et al. [27] showed that the propagation
equations reported in (1.28) can be simplified in presence of
coupling. These aspects will be discussed in Section 1.3.3.
 Solving the Manakov-PMD Equation 17

1.3 Solving the Manakov-PMD Equation

1.3.1 Signal Representations
Time-resolved or time-averaged representations can be used to
describe the signal propagation along an optical link [28, 29].
In the classical time-resolved representation, the signal
propagation is described by updating the slowly varying envelope
of the optical field U along the link according to the Schrödinger
or Manakov-PMD equations. U(t, z) is represented over a
certain duration (time-window, Tw) and discretized at a certain
sample-rate, fs. The sample-rate is the bandwidth of the discrete
signal spectrum and Dt = 1/fs the time-resolution. Similarly, the
frequency resolution, i.e. spacing between the spectral components
of the discrete signal is Df = 1/Tw. An accurate representation
of the signal envelope requires a large sample-rate (to ensure,
for instance, that the Nyquist–Shannon sampling criterion is
met and that FWM products can be properly generated).
Gathering robust statistics (e.g. long bit sequences for accurate
BER estimation) or accurately representing “slow” effects
(e.g. laser noise processes) requires a long time-window. The
number of complex samples used to describe U is equal to
p × time-window × sample-rate, p being equal to 1 or 2 depending
on whether the scalar or vector (for PMD) representation is
used. When the amount of samples is too large, computational
issues (e.g. limited RAM of CPU or GPU) may prevent from
solving efficiently the Manakov-PMD equation. In such case it
is possible to switch from a single to a multiple frequency bands
signal representation [28], where the Manakov-PMD equation is
solved for each frequency band separately while nonlinear cross-
terms are introduced to account for inter-band (Kerr, Raman)
interactions [30]. In the time-averaged [31] or parameterized
representation U is described using signal characteristics
that are assumed constant (or averaged) over the time-window.
For instance, this includes central wavelength, power, bandwidth,
OSNR, state-of-polarization, accumulated GVD, accumulated DGD,
accumulated nonlinear phase shift. These characteristics and
their uncertainties can be tracked along the transmission line to
An optical sample (1 polarization) requires 16 bytes memory for 64 bits (double)

floating point arithmetic.

18 Modelling High-Capacity Nonlinear Transmission Systems

characterize the signal propagation or analysed at the receiver side

to estimate the system performance according to certain design rules
(required received power, required OSNR, maximal accumulated
dispersion). This approach is used, for instance, in commercial
link engineering solutions such as VPItransmissionMaker
Optical Systems (see Fig. 1.6) and VPIlinkConfigurator.
Tracking of these parameters along the link as well as the
knowledge of the signal characteristics can be used to estimate
independently from each other the impact of CD, SPM, XPM
or FWM [33–37] or the aggregate nonlinear interference noise
(NLIN) [38] at the receiver side using analytical or semi-analytical
models such as the Gaussian or Extended Gaussian Noise
models [39, 40].

Figure 1.6 (Top) spectrum of WDM signal (C+L band) modelled using time-
discretized and -averaged representations. (Middle, bottom) tracking of
signal characteristics along the link.

The time-averaged representation is computationally very

efficient and can be used to predict roughly the performance.
 Solving the Manakov-PMD Equation 19

It allows, for instance, to model slow dynamic effects, which

can be assumed to be constant over a single time-window, such
as the evolution of EDFA transients in meshed-networks [41].
Further representing ASE noise using the parameterized
representation is also very useful as its particular waveform
is governed by its statistical characteristics (e.g. variance, SOP,
spectral shaping). Of course the time-average representation
does not account for the pattern-dependency of effects such as
(i) FWM and (ii) XPM or for the stochastic nature of the interaction
of nonlinear and polarization effects and is therefore limited to
the prediction of the expected or average system performance.
In addition the validity domain of most analytical models is
restricted to specific modulation formats [33–36] or link design
(for instance, long, non-dispersion managed links are assumed
in [39, 40]).
Note that it is possible to combine different signal
representations in simulation: In systems with distributed Raman
amplification, for instance, the pump can be described using
the time-averaged approach and the probe (e.g. WDM channels)
using the time-resolved one. While the calculations of the
Raman-induced power transfers and Raman spontaneous
emission is not affected by this simplification, effects such as noise
transfer between pump and probe are neglected. We restrict
the following discussion to the time-resolved representation of
the signal. Detailed discussion of system modelling using the
parameterized representation can be found, for instance, in [42].

1.3.2 Numerical Methods

Noting Dˆ = Nˆ + Lˆ the combination of the linear and nonlinear
operator, the general solution of the Manakov equation is given
as x(L, t) = x(0, t) . exp(∫Dˆ dz).
= Nˆ +Even
Lˆ Dˆ = ND
if the operators ˆˆ +=and
LˆNˆ + Lˆ are
analytically integrable, there are not commutative and thus the
full propagation operator Dˆ =isNˆusually
+ Lˆ not integrable [43]. For this
reason, there is no general solution for the Manakov equation
for arbitrary links and propagated signals.

1.3.2.1 The split-step (Fourier) method

The split-step approach [44] addresses the problem of solving
differential equations of the form x( z , t ) z = ( Aˆ + Bˆ )x( z , t ) where
20 Modelling High-Capacity Nonlinear Transmission Systems

individual solutions exist for the z, tx)( z,zt )= ( zAˆ =+and
x(operators (BˆAˆ)+
x(Bzˆ .), txThis
)( z , t )is the
case for the NLSE and Manakov-PMD equations, where simple
Dˆ =for
solutions exist Nˆ + Lˆ and
Dˆ = Nˆ +inLˆ the frequency and time domain,
respectively:
b2 2
L ˆ –j w z
U( z , w)   U(0, w)e 2

2
N ˆ – j g U 0, t  z
U( z , t )   U(0, t )e (1.29)

When considered over a small step Dz, Dˆ = Nˆ + Lˆ can assumed

to be constant and a closed-form solution is given as

 l+Dz 
x( z + D z , t )= exp  Dˆ (l )dl . x( z , t )
 l 
ˆ
 exp( D( z )Dz ). x( z , t )+ ( Dz 2 )
 exp( Lˆ Dz ) . x(z , t ) . exp( Nˆ Dz )+ ( Dz 2 )
 exp( Lˆ 2 . Dz ). [ x( z , t ) . exp( Nˆ Dz )] . exp( Lˆ /2. Dz )+ ( Dz 3 )
(1.30)

The limit O(Dz²) of the truncation error can be found by

developing the exponential term using Taylor series expansion
and reduces to O(Dz³) by using the symmetric split-step approach.
Note that splitting the nonlinear operator instead of the linear
operator leads to a different error term but with same accuracy
O(Dz³). As mentioned above applying Dˆ = Nˆ + Lˆ and
Dˆ = Nˆ + separately
Lˆ
requires simple multiplication in the frequency and time domain,
respectively. Switching between the time and frequency can be
performed very efficiently using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
as described in Fig. 1.7. This implementation of the split-step
approach is called the split-step Fourier method (SSF). Note that
the split-step method can be efficiently solved and dramatically
sped up by taking advantages of modern graphics processing
units (GPU) [45–47].
In principle, switching from the time to frequency domain
using the FFT requires either finite or periodic signals. This
assumption can lead to numerical errors like spectral leakage
or generation of erroneous spectral components. This is the
case for random but non-ergodic signals (e.g. in presence of slow
Other documents randomly have
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alone,' till, having attained her eightieth year, 'she was again joined
unto her husband in this place.'
'So,' said Wantley, very soberly, 'would you wish our poor Penelope
to be. She has been left alone, and now you would condemn her to
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whose conduct she so thoroughly understood and approved.
As they walked through the church gate, a boy came running up
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'Oh, it's addressed to you,' said Wantley, handing it to his wife.
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The message, which had been sent from Simla, consisted in the
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'Penelope and I were married to-day by Archdeacon of Lahore.

Please have proper announcement put in Times.—Your
affectionate son, David Winfrith.'

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about in his pocket, the young man finally handed the astonished
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They walked along in almost complete silence, till suddenly Wantley
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'If you make half as good a wife as you are friend,' exclaimed
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THE TEMPLE PRESS, PRINTERS, LETCHWORTH

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