Study Notes

Introduction to Vegetable
Science
Introduction to Vegetable Science

Oleris Pot herbs

Olericulture
culture cultivation

Olericulture is the science and practice of growing, handling, storing,

processing and marketing of vegetables.

• Vegetable are known to be the cheapest source of natural “Protective food”.

• They are an essential part of a balanced diet, providing a wide array of vitamins,
minerals, dietary fiber, and phytonutrients that contribute to overall health and well-
being.
• ICMR recommendation for Balanced Diet:
o Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA): 300 g of Vegetables/day, 125 g
Green Leafy Vegetable, 100 g Root and Tuber Crops, 75 g other vegetables

Classification of vegetable crops

A. On the basis of Parts used:

Plant parts Vegetables
Flower Agathi, male flowers of pumpkin
Flower head Broccoli, Globe artichoke
Prefloral apical meristem Cauliflower
Modified above ground Knolkhol, Asparagus
stem
Modified stem Potato, Jerusalem, Artichoke, Yam, Elephant foot yam, Taro,
Onion, Garlic
Modified root Radish, Carrot, Beetroot, Turnip, Sweet potato
Modified taproot Chinese Artichoke
Modified Adventitious Chinese potato
root
Fruits Brinjal, Tomato, Okra, Peas, Beans, Watermelon, Pumpkin,
Chillies
Corm Colocasia

B. Botanical Classification

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Introduction to Vegetable Science

1. Monocot Vegetable crops

1. Family- Alliaceae (Amaryllidaceae)
Common Botanical name Ch No. (2n) Origin Edible part
name
Onion Allium cepa 16 Central Asia Bulb
Garlic Allium sativum 16 Central Asia Cloves
Leek Allium porum 32 Central Asia Stem &
leaves
Shallot Allium ascalonicum 16 Central Asia Bulb
Chive Allium schroenoprasum 16 Central Asia Stem &
leaves
2. Family- Lilliaceae
Asparagus Asparagus officinalis 20 Europe Spears
3. Family- Araceae
Elephant Amorphophalus 26 Tropical Asia Corms
foot yam companulatus and Africa
Arvi Colocasia esculenta 28 Srilanka Corms
4. Dioscoreaceae
Lesser yam Dioscorea esculenta 40 Indo Burma Tuber
Greater yam Dioscorea alata 40 Indo Burma Tuber
White yam Dioscorea rotundata 40 Indo Burma Tuber

2. Dicot Vegetable crops

Common name Botanical name Ch No. (2n) Origin Edible part
Solanaceae
Tomato Solanum lycopersicum 24 Peru-Bolivia Fruit
Brinjal Solanum melongena 24 Indo-Burma Fruit
Chilli Capsicum annum 24 Mexico Fruit
Capsicum Capsicum annum 24 Mexico Fruit
Potato Solanum tuberosum 48 South America Tuber
Cucurbitaceae
Cucumber Cucumis sativus 14 India Fruit
Long Melon Cucumis melo var utillisimus 24 Tropical Africa Fruit
Musk melon Cucumis melo 24 Tropical Africa Fruit
Water melon Citrullus lanatus 22 Tropical Africa Fruit
Pumpkin Cucurbita moschata 40 Mexico Fruit
Summer squesh Cucurbita pepo 40 Mexico Fruit
Winter squesh Cucurbita maxima 40 Mexico Fruit
Bottle gourd Lagenaria siceraria 22 South Africa Fruit
Bitter gourd Momordica charantia 22 Indo-Burma Fruit
Ridge gourd Luffa acutangula 26 Asia Fruit
Sponge gourd Luffa cylendrica 26 Assam Fruit
Pointed gourd Trichosanthus dioca 22 India Fruit
Snake gourd Trichosanthus anguina 22 India Fruit
Wax gourd Benincasa hispida 24 Java, Japan Fruit
Chow chow Sechium edule 28 Mexico Fruit
Spine gourd Momordica chochichinensis 28 - Fruit

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Introduction to Vegetable Science

Brassicaceae
Cabbage Brassica oleracea var. 18 Mediterranean Head
capitata region
Cauliflower Brassica oleracea var. 18 Mediterranean Curd
botrytis region
Knol khol Brassica oleracea var. 18 Mediterranean Knob
gongylodes region
Broccoli Brassica oleracea var. 18 Mediterranean Flower bud
italica region
Brussel’s Brassica oleracea var. 18 Mediterranean Head
sprout gemmifera region
Kale Brassica oleracea var. 18 Mediterranean Leaves
acephala region and
shoot

C. Based on Edible portion of Vegetable crops:

Edible Part Vegetable
Placenta Cucumber, Water melon
Endocarp Ridge gourd, Sponge gourd, Ash gourd
Mesocarp and pericarp Pumpkin, muskmelon

D. Based on Climacteric pattern

Climacteric Vegetable Tomato, Brinjal, Muskmelon
Non- Climacteric Vegetable Pumpkin, Cucumber, Chilli, Pointed gourd, Capscicum

E. Based on Photoperiodism
Type Example
Short day plants Sweet potato, spinach, clusterbean, winged bean, hyacinth bean,
(SDP)
Long day plants Potato, onion, lettuce, cabbage, cauliflower, knolkhol, radish, Carrot,
(LDP) turnip, beetroot,
Day neutral plants Tomato, brinjal, chilli, cowpea, okra, French bean, cucurbits
(DNP)

F. Based on Inflorescence
Type of Inflorescence Example Plants
Raceme Cole crops (cabbage, cauliflower), cucurbits, radish
Cyme Tomato, brinjal (eggplant), chilli, potato, spinach, sweet potato, broccoli
Panicle Moringa, palak (spinach)
Spike Beetroot
Compound Umbel Carrot, coriander
Capitulum Lettuce

G. Based on tolerance to soil acidity

Soil Acidity Example Plants
Tolerance
Less Tolerant Okra, onion, cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, Chinese cabbage, musk

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Introduction to Vegetable Science

melon,
Moderately Tolerant Brinjal, tomato, chilli, radish, carrot, summer squash, winter squash
Very Tolerant Potato, sweet potato, rhubarb

H. Based on tolerance to soil salinity

Soil Salinity Example Plants
Tolerance
Less Tolerant Brinjal, sweet pepper, potato, sweet potato, pea, radish, snake gourd, beans
Tolerant Tomato, chilli, watermelon, cucumber, summer squash, bottle gourd,
cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, muskmelon, onion
Highly Tolerant Kale, turnip, bitter gourd, ash gourd, palak (spinach), lettuce, asparagus

I. Based on Respiratory Activity

Respiratory Rate of Example Plants
Activity Respiration (mg
of CO2/kg/hr)
Very Low 5 Potato, onion
Low to Moderate 5-10 Sweet potato, turnip, cucumber, cabbage
Moderate to High 10-20 Tomato, chilli, sweet pepper, carrot, beet
High 20-40 Radish, Indian bean, french bean, peas, lettuce, lima bean
Very High 40-60 Green onion, muskmelon, watermelon, cauliflower, broccoli,
okra, Brussels sprout
Extremely High >60 Spinach, asparagus, green peas, mushroom

Vegetable Gardening
Vegetable gardening is the practice of growing vegetables for personal consumption or for
small-scale or large scale commercial purposes. There are different types of vegetable
gardening.

Types of Gardening

1. Kitchen gardening.

2. Market gardening.

3. Truck gardening.

4. Garden for Vegetable processing.

5. Garden for vegetable seed production.

6. Vegetable forcing

7. Floating garden.

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Introduction to Vegetable Science

1. Kitchen gardening.
• Growing of vegetable crops in the backyard of
residential houses to meet the requirement of
vegetables of a family all the year around.
• Most ancient type of vegetable gardening.
• Practiced in cities where land is the limiting factor

2. Market Gardening
• Practiced around the cities to supply vegetables for local market.
• The cropping pattern of these gardens depend on the demand of the
local market.
• Intensive methods of cultivation are followed as the land is very costly.
• Located upto 15-20 km distances from the cities.

3. Truck gardening
• Here the word Truck is derived from French word “Troquer” which means
“to barter”.
• Production of special crops in relatively large quantities for distant market.
• Follows more extensive and less intensive method of vegetable production.
• Relatively cheap labour and land, mechanical cultivation and high yield result
in low production cost in a truck garden.

4. Garden for Vegetable processing

• Such gardens ensure regular supply of the vegetables to the factories.
• Getting popular due to establishment of processing industries by the
corporate sector.

5. Garden for vegetable seed production

• Vegetable seed production is a highly specialized field
• A thorough knowledge of the crop, its growth habit, mode of pollination,
proper isolation distance are of prime importance for quality seed
production.
• Specialized knowledge is required to handle the seed crop i.e. curing,
threshing, cleaning, grading, packing and storage.

6. Vegetable Forcing
• Vegetables are produced out of their normal growing season under
protected condition.
• These structures provide ideal environment required by a crop for proper
growth and development.

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Introduction to Vegetable Science

• Generally, tomato, cucumber and capsicum are grown.

• Main purpose – highest return of the produce by growing them during
off season.

7. Floating Garden
• Typical example of floating gardens is the Dal lake of Kashmir valley. Most
of summer vegetables are supplied to Srinagar from these gardens.
• A floating base is made from the roots of typha grass.
• Once this floating base is ready, seedlings are transplanted on leaf
compost made of vegetation growing wild in the lake.
• All the inter-cultural operations and occasional sprinkling of water are done

from boats.

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 Study Notes
Vegetable Crops
Vegetable Crops

Solanaceous Vegetable Crops

Family : Solanaceae
Crop Sc. name Origin Edible part
Potato Solanum tuberosum South America Stem tuber
Brinjal Solanum melongena India Fruit
Chilli Capsicum annum Tropical America Fruit
Capsicum Capsicum annum Tropical America Fruit
Tomato Lycopersicum esculentum South America Fruit

POTATO
 It is also known as king of vegetables, poor man’s
friend, poor man’s strength
 It is staple food of Ireland
th
 In India it was introduced by Portuguese in 17 Century
 Edible part – Stem Tuber
 Type of inflorescence – Cyme
 It is shallow rooted (30-60 cm)
 It contains carbohydrates (22%) and also rich in
fibres.
 It is self pollinated crop but propagated vegetatively through tubers.
 Seed rate- 800-1500 kg/ha of seed tubers.
 True potato seed rate – 100-120g/ha
 It is mainly cultivated in Indo-gangetic plains on alluvial soils.
 Mainly grown during October- March in North Indian Plains.
 Most popular planting method – Ridge and furrow
 Potato is unfit for consumption if solanine (glycoalkaloid) content is more than 20mg/
100g.

Temperature requirement for potato cultivation

Maximum day temperature below 350C.

Maximum night temperature below 200C
Optimum temperature for tuberization 20℃
Harvesting below 30 ℃ to avoid Charcoal rot disease.
Suberization 25℃ & RH 95%
Warehouse potato storage 8-10℃ & 80% RH
Seed potato storage 2-4 ℃

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Vegetable Crops

Seed plot technique (SPS)

It was developed by Pushkarnath in which healthy seed crop is raised during low aphid
population period in northern plains.

True potato seed (TPS)

 TPS concept was given by S. Ramanujan.

 The cost of seed tubers and spread of viral diseases can be minimized by TPS.
 The seeds are raised in nursery beds and seedlings are transplanted 30 days after
sowing.
 For raising one hectare of crop, a quantity of 100g seed is required.

Important diseases
 Late blight – It is caused by fungus Phytophthora infestans. It is most serious disease
of potato. Great Irish Famine that occurred in Ireland in 1845 was caused due to late
blight of potato.
 Potato wart – It is tuber borne disease that is caused by fungus Synchytrium
endobioticum. It is endemic in Darjeeling hills.
 Black Scurf – caused by fungus Rhizoctonia solani
 Dry rot – It is storage disease caused by fungus Fusarium spp.
 Bacterial wilt – caused by bacteria Ralstonia solanacerum
 Soft rot – It is bacterial disease caused by Erwinia carotovora
 Potato Scab – It mainly occurs where soil is alkaline and caused by bacteria
Streptomyces spp
 Latent or Faint mosaic – It is caused by virus and transmitted by Aphids. Severe
mosaic – viral disease transmitted by Aphids.
 Leaf roll – viral disease transmitted by Aphids.
Important pests of potato
 Potato tuber moth (Pthorimea opercullela) – It causes 30-70% damage during
storage
 Aphids- It is vector of potato virus
 Golden cyst nematode (Globodera rostochinensis). It is major problem in southern
hills

Physiological disorders of potato

 Internal Brown Spot – It occurs due to moisture deficiency
 Greening – It occurs when tubers are excessively exposed to sunrays. ∙

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Vegetable Crops

 Black heart- It is caused due to poor ventilation

 Hollow heart – It is caused due to excessive nitrogen
 Chilling injury and freezing injury – It occurs due to low temperature
Important Institutes of potato
 International Potato Centre (CIP) - It is located at Lima in Peru and started in 1971. ∙
 Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI) - It is located at Shimla, Himachal Pradesh
and was established in year 1949.

Important Varieties
Early maturing Mid maturing Late maturing Clonal
(80-90 days) (90-100 days) (100-110 days) Selection
Kufri Kufri Badshah Kufri Deva Kufri Red
Chandramukhi
Kufri Lauvkar Kufri lalima Kufri Megha Kufri Safed
Kufri Ashoka Kufri Chipsona
Kufri Jawahar Kufri Swarna
Kufri khyati Kufri Girdhari
Kufri Surya Kufri Sutlej

Special Practices done in Potato

 Earthing up – The first earthing-up should be done when the plants are about 15-
25 cm high. Further two or three earthing up should be done at an interval of 15-
20 days.
 Dehaulming – It is done 10-15 days before harvesting. It is pre-harvesting
practice that involves detaching the vegetative part of plant above the ground.
 Curing – The harvested potatoes should be cured before storage. A temperature
of 25℃ with 95% RH is ideal for curing.
 Potato tuber dormancy- It is the inability of potato tubers to sprout. Potatoes
require a period of 8-10 weeks after harvest before they will sprout. Tubers are
treated with 1 % thiourea+ 1ppm GA3 for 1 hour to break dormancy.

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Vegetable Crops

BRINJAL
 It is also known Eggplant, baigan, Aubergine
 Edible part – fruit
 Type of fruit – fleshy berry
 Type of inflorescence – Cyme
 It is moderately deep rooted crop (60-90 cm).
 It is often cross pollinated crop due to heterostyly
 It is day neutral plant
 Seed rate- 300-400 g/ha
 Hybrid seed rate- 150-200g/ha
 Glycoalkaloid found in brinjal – Solasodine
 Serious weed of brinjal – Orobanche (total root parasite)
 White brinjal is rich in fibre and good for diabetic patients.
 Longest shelf life – green brinjal
 Purple brinjal colour is due to anthocyanin pigment.

Important diseases
 Little leaf of brinjal- It is most serious disease of brinjal caused by
mycoplasma and transmitted by leaf hopper (Cestius phycitis)
 Phomopsis blight of brinjal- It is caused by the fungus Phomopsis
vexans. It is serious disease in seed production.

Important pests of brinjal

 Fruit and shoot borer (Leucinodes arbonalis) - It is the most serious pest
of brinjal
 Stem borer (Euzophera perticella)
 Ash weevil (Myllocerous subfaseiatus)
 Epilachna beetle or hadda beetle (Epilachna vigintictopunctata)

Important brinjal varieties

 Pusa Purple Long, Pusa Purple Round, Pusa Purple Cluster, Pusa
Kranti.
 Pusa Bhairav, Pusa Anupam, Florida market - Resistant to
Phomopsis fruit rot
 Pusa Bindu, Pusa Upkar
 Arka Kusumkar – It is cluster bearing green type.
 Arka nidhi, Arka Keshav, Arka navneet
 Pant Samrat (developed through selection and resistant to blight
and wilt)
 Pant Rituraj (Hybrid round type)
 Hissar Jamuni – ratoon cropping
 Annamalai- Aphid resistant.

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Vegetable Crops

CHILLI
 Edible part – fruit (pericarp and placenta)
 Type of fruit – multi-seeded berry
 It is deep rooted crop (90-120 cm).
 It is often cross pollinated crop
 Protogyny is present in chilli.
 It is day neutral plant
 Pungency in chilli is due to capsaicin which is
present in placenta of fruit.
 Red color of chilli is due to capsanthin
 It is rich source of Vitamin C
 Seed rate- 1-1.5 kg/ha
 Hybrid seed rate- 200-250g/ha

Important diseases and disorder of Chilli

 Anthracnose or Dieback or fruit rot– It is a seed borne disease caused by fungus
Colletotrichum capsici
 Chilli Leaf curl- It is viral disease transmitted by white fly + thrips
 Chilli mosaic – It is viral disease transmitted by Aphids
 Frog eye leaf spot – It is more prevalent in nurseries and caused by fungus
Cercospora capsici
 Blossom end rot – It is physiological disorder that occurs due to excess
nitrogen and water stress.

Important pests of Chilli

 Chilli Thrips (Scirtothrips dorsalis) are serious pests of chilli that transmit
chilli leaf curl disease
 Meloidogyne arenaria is most harmful nematode species for
chilli crop
Important Chilli varieties

 Pusa Jwala, Pusa Sadabahar, Pant C-1 – These three varieties are resistant to
leaf curl
 Punjab Lal, Arka Lohit, Arka Suphal, Arka abir
 F1 Hybrid varieties- Arka Shweta, Arka Meghana, Arka Harita, Kashi
Surkh, Konkan Kirti
 Mutant Variety- MDU-1 (gamma-ray mutant of K-1)

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Vegetable Crops

CAPSICUM
 Capsicum is also known as Bell Pepper or Sweet
Pepper.
 Edible part – Fruit
 It is often cross pollinated crop
 It is day neutral plant
 Seed rate- 1.25 kg/ha
 Hybrid seed rate- 200g/ha

Important Capsicum Varieties

 Sweet Banana, California Wonder, Yolo Wonder,
King of North ∙ Arka Mohini, Arka Gaurav, Arka
Basant
 F1 Hybrid- Pusa Deepti, Bharat (First F1 hybrid)

TOMATO

 It is also known as Wolf Peach, Poor Man’s Orange,

Love of Apple, Protective food ∙
 Edible part –fruit (pericarp and placenta)
 Type of fruit- multi-seeded berry
 Type of inflorescence – Cyme
 Cluster of flower is known as truss
 It is very deep rooted (120 - 180 cm) crop.
 Indeterminate type of tomato requires Staking.
 Red colour of fruit is due to Lycopene
 It is self pollinated crop due to homomorphism and
chasmogamy ∙
 Genetically modified tomato – Flavr Savr developed by Calgene company ∙
 Seed rate- 400-500 g/ha
 Hybrid seed rate – 100-150 g/ha

Important diseases of Tomato

 Tomato leaf curl- Viral disease transmitted by whitefly
 Tomato mosaic – Viral disease transmitted by seeds
 Fern leaf – Viral disease transmitted by Aphids
 Tomato spotted wilt- Viral disease transmitted by thrips

Important pests of Tomato

 Tomato fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera)
 Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)
 Serpentine leaf miner (Liriomyza trifoli)

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Vegetable Crops

Important varieties
Hybrids Mutants Others
Pusa Ruby- best Pusa Lal Meeruti Sel 120 – 1st Variety resistant to root knot
combiner variety nematode
Pusa Gaurav PKM 1 Hissar Gaurav and Hissar Anmol – resistant
to leaf curl
Pusa Sheetal Pant Bahar – Verticillium wilt and Fusarium
wilt resistant
Pusa Uphar Hissar Aruna – Extremely early variety
Arka Meghali – Suitable for rainfed
condition
Arka Vikas – Suitable for drought condition
Arka Samrat – Triple disease resistant
Sel 120 – 1st Variety resistant to root knot
nematode

Important Physiological Disorders of Tomato

 Fruit cracking – It occurs due to deficiency of Boron. Radial cracking is most

damaging.
 Blotchy ripening - It occurs due to deficiency of potassium
 Blossom end rot - It occurs due to deficiency of calcium
 Golden flake - It occurs due to excessive calcium oxalate and low K: Ca
ratio ∙
 Puffiness or pocket - – It occurs due to low or high temperature as well as
lack of fertilization
 Cat face – Malformation of fruit caused due to various physiological factors.

Cruciferous Vegetable Crops

Cole Crop Scientific Name Chromosome Economic Part
Number
Cabbage Brassica oleracea var. 2n=2X=18 Modified Terminal Bud
capitata
Brussels Brassica oleracea var. 2n=2X=18 Enlargement of Axillary Bud
Sprouts gemmifera
Cauliflower Brassica oleracea var. 2n=2X=18 Modified Inflorescence
botrytis
Broccoli Brassica oleracea var. 2n=2X=18 Modified Inflorescence
italica
Knol-Khol Brassica oleracea var. 2n=2X=18 Swollen Stem

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Vegetable Crops

gongylodes
Kale Brassica oleracea var. 2n=2X=18 Modified Leafy Organs
acephala

CABBAGE
 Cabbage is more hardy than cauliflower and can
withstand frost and extreme cold weather
 Edible part of cabbage: Head
 Chinese cabbage and kale are resistant to downy
mildew.
 Cabbage hybrids are popular due to heat tolerance,
uniformity, field staying capacity, strong
 Flavour in cabbage leaves is due to the glucoside
"Sinigrin.
 Sauerkraut is fermented product of
shredded cabbage.
 It requires a pH ranging from 5.5 to 6.5 for higher
production.
 Self-incompatibility is present.
Season of sowing
 Hills: January – February, July – August and
September – October.
 Plains: August – November.
Varieties
 Compenhagen Market
 Golden Acre
 Pride of India
 Pusa Mukta: Resistant to black rot
 Pusa Ageti: Tropical Variety, developed for cultivation under high temperature
conditions
 Pusa Drum Head: Resistant to black leg
Important Pests and diseases
 Aphids: Install yellow sticky trap @12 no/ha to monitor “macropterous adults
(winged adult).
Spray neem oil 3 % with 0.5 ml Teepol/lit
 Diamond backmoth
 Club root
 Leaf spots
 Leaf Blight

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Vegetable Crops

 Ring spot
 Downy mildew
 Black rot

CAULIFLOWER
 The name cauliflower originated from Latin word 'Caulis
(cabbage) and 'Flori (Flower)
 Cauliflower curd is a prefloral fleshy apical meristem
 Thermosensitive crop
 Edible part of cauliflower is known as "curds".
 Cauliflower was introduced to India in 1822 by Dr. Jemson
 Climate and Soil: It requires cool moist climate. Deep
loamy soils are good with high organic matter and good drainage. It can be
grown in a pH range of 5.5 to 6.6.
 Season and sowing: The early varieties may tolerate higher temperature and
long days. This can be grown in plains during September to February. Late
Varieties Snowball types can be grown in hills
 Type of inflorescence: Racemose
 Seed rate: 375 g/ha
 At high temperature > 25 °C most of the cultivars, the curds are small, loose and
creamish or yellow in colour.

Important practices in Cauliflower

 Blanching is common practice in cauliflower for protect curd from yellow colour
after their direct exposure to sun and to arrest enzymatic activity.
 Scooping is special operation done in cauliflower for initiation of flower stalk.
Scooping means removal of central portion of curd for easy initiation of flower stalk.

Varieties
 Pusa Betakesari: orange coloured (B-carotene) cauliflower variety (mid-late
group)
 Self-blanched variety of cauliflower: Pusa Deepali
 Self-blanched and offseason variety: Pusa Himjyoti and Hisar-1
 Tolerant to curd and inflorescence blight: Pusa Synthetic

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Vegetable Crops

 Highly resistant to black rot and free from riceyness: Pusa Katki
 Resistant to black rot, curd and inflorescence blight: Pusa Shubhra and Pusa
Snowball K-I
 Resistant to black rot: Pusa Snowball K-1
 Tropical cauliflower variety from IIHR: Arka Kanti
 Synthetic variety: Pant Gobhi-3
Disorder Symptoms Reasons
Riceyness Premature initiation of floral buds on Excess N2 Fluctuation in
upper surface of curds temperature and high humidity
Fuzziness Velvety appearance of pedicels Cultivation in abnormal
time,
Blindness Without terminal bud & fail to form low temperature (Frost), or injury
curd by insects and pests

Leafyness Small green leaves in the curds High temperature

Buttoning Development of small curds in Low N₂, high
young plant temperature
Whip tail Mid rib development Mo deficiency, Common
in acid soil
Browning/Red Boron deficiency
rot/Brown

Cucurbitaceous Vegetable Crops

Cucurbitaceous Scientific Name Chromosome Economical Parts
Crop Number
Cucumber Cucumis sativus 2n = 2X = 14 Fruit, Young Shoots,
Seeds
Watermelon Citrullus lanatus 2n = 2X = 22 Fruit, Seeds
Muskmelon Cucumis melo 2n = 2X = 24 Fruit, Seeds
Pumpkin Cucurbita pepo 2n = 2X = 40 Fruit, Seeds
Squash Cucurbita pepo 2n = 2X = 40 Fruit, Young Shoots,
Seeds
Bottle Gourd Lagenaria siceraria 2n = 2X = 22 Fruit, Seeds
Bitter Gourd Momordica charantia 2n = 2X = 22 Fruit, Young Shoots,
Seeds
Ridge Gourd Luffa acutangula 2n = 2X = 26 Fruit, Young Shoots,
Seeds

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Vegetable Crops

Sponge Gourd Luffa cylindrica 2n = 2X = 26 Fruit, Young Shoots,

Seeds
Snake Gourd Trichosanthes 2n = 2X = 22 Fruit, Young Shoots,
cucumerina Seeds
Ash Gourd Benincasa hispida 2n = 2X = 24 Fruit, Seeds
Loofah Luffa aegyptiaca 2n = 2X = 26 Fruit, Young Shoots,
Seeds

CUCUMBER
 Season and sowing: Sow the seeds during June or
January to April at 2.5 kg/ha.
 Varieties: Japanese Long Green, Straight Eight and
Poinsette.
 Day neutral plant, Thermophilic crop
 Prefers slightly low temperature than watermelon and
muskmelon
 Tolerates cooler weather than melons
 Most common sex form: Monoecious
 Most temperature for cucumber: 18-24°C
 Temperatures required for the seed germination of cucumber ranges between
15-35°C
 In cucumber bitterness in fruit is due to "cucurbitacins" (tetracyclic
triterpenes).
Pest and diseases:
 Fruit fly is very serious pest of most of the cucurbitaceous vegetables
 Cucumber mosaic is transmitted by aphids
 Bacterial wilt of cucumber is caused by bacterium (Erwinina tracheiphila)
transmitted by striped cucumber beetle.
 Gummy Stem Blight: Didymella bryoniae, resistance source- C. hystrix
 Powdery mildew of cucumber: Sphaerotheca fuligenea
 Angular leaf spot (bacterial disease) (Pseudomonas lachrymans)
 Pillow is the physiological disorder of cucumber due to calcium deficiency.
 Chilling injury as a physiological storage disorder of cucumber when
exposed to below 15°C.

12
Vegetable Crops

PUMPKIN
 Sowing Season: June - July and January – February.
 Seed rate: 1 kg/ha.
 Vitamin-A rich: 1600 IU
 Pumpkin is highly cross pollinated-entomophily due to monoecious nature.
Varieties
1. Kashi Vishesh: A variety known for its early maturity and resistance to
diseases.
2. Pusa Unnat: This variety is favored for its high-yielding potential and good fruit
quality.
3. Arka Bahar: Known for its excellent keeping quality and good adaptability to
various regions.
4. Pant Kaddu-1: A hybrid variety with vigorous growth and high yield potential.
5. Rupali: This variety is known for its uniform fruit shape and attractive
appearance.

BOTTLE GOURD
 Shallow rooted crop
 Prefers a hot and humid climate for the best growth
 It withstand cold climate better than muskmelon and
watermelon
 Short day and humid climate produce female flowers
 Bower system of training practised in Maharashtra
 Optimum temperature for seed germination: 25-30°C
 Cross pollinated crop
 Female: Male ratio: 2:1 or 3:1
 Pinching of male flowers on female plant is commercially practised for hybrid
seed production MH @ 400 ppm promotes the female flower production and
increases fruit set
 Increase fruit set: Ethrel 100-150 ppm, MH 400 ppm, TIBA 50 ppm
 Seed rate: 6-8 kg/ha

Vegetable Root Crops

Crop Scientific name Origin Edible part
Carrot Daucus carota South West Asia Taproot
(Afghanistan)
Radish Raphanus sativus Mediterranean region Swollen primary root

13
Vegetable Crops

Turnip Brassica rapa Mediterranean region Tap root

Beetroot Beta vulgaris Mediterranean region Taproot

CARROT
 Family- Umbelliferae
 It is a cool season crop also known as Poor Man’s
Ginseng.
 Moderately deep-rooted crop (60-90 cm)
 Edible part- Taproot
 Type of inflorescence- compound umbel
 Fruit type - Schizocarp
 Bitter flavor in carrot is due to Isocoumarin
 Beverage prepared from carrot - Kanji
 Seed rate - 5-6 kg/ ha
 Carrot seeds has germination inhibitor called Carrotal
 It is highly cross-pollinated crop
 Protandry is present in carrot
 There are two groups of carrot - Asiatic carrot and European carrot
 Asiatic carrots are deep red or purple in color while European carrots are orange in color
 Red color of carrot is due to lycopene
 Orange color is due to alpha and beta carotene
 Purple color is due to anthocyanin
 Yellow color is due to Xanthophyll (Lutein)
 Optimum temperature for carrot root formation - 18-22℃
 Best temperature for orange color development - 15-21℃
 Carrot is an annual herb for root production and biennial for flowering

and fruit set.

Varieties
 Pusa Kesar - Tolerant to high temperature
 Pusa Meghali- It contains highest Vitamin A
 Pusa Yamdagini Chanteney- excellent for canning and storage
 Pusa Nayanjyoti- First temperate carrot hybrid
 Pusa Vasuda- First tropical carrot hybrid
 Pusa Asita- First black colour carrot in India

Insect Pest and Diseases

 Carrot Yellows - It is viral disease transmitted through six spotted hopper (Macrosteles
fascifrons)
 Root knot nematode, Meloidogyne spp.can be prevented by application of neem cake

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Vegetable Crops

@ 1t / ha at planting
 Lygus Bug - It is serious pest of carrot for seed crops

Physiological Disorders of Carrot

 Carrot splitting - It occurs due to excessive nitrogen, boron deficiency as well

as change in soil moisture
 Forking - It occurs due to undecomposed manure and hard soil pan
 Bitterness - It is caused due to excess ethylene production
 Cavity spot - It is caused due RADISH
to deficiency of calcium, excess nitrogen and
 Family- Cruciferae
change in soil moisture
 Origin - Mediterranean region/Europe
 Shallow rooted crop
 Edible part- Root (Fusiform root form)
 Pungency in radish is due to glucosinolates
(isothiocyanate)
 Fruit type - Siliqua
 Seed rate - Tropical - 8-10 kg/ha and Temperate - 10-
12kg/ha
 It is rich in Vitamin C
 Red colour in radish is due to Pelargonidin (raphanusin)
 Purple colour is due to cyanidin
 Best temperature for root development - 10-15℃

Physiological disorders, diseases and pest of Radish

 Akashin - It occurs due to boron deficiency
 Hollow rot - It occurs due to high temperature during 16-30 days of sowing
 Pithiness - It is caused due to excess NPK and soil moisture stress.
 Wart - It occurs due to low soil moisture
 Phyllody - It is a disease of radish seed crop which appears at the time
of flowering
 White rust - It is caused by fungus Albugo candida
 Aphids - It is the most serious pest of radish
 Mustard saw fly - It is most commonly occurring radish pest (Athalia
lugens proxima)
Varieties

 Arka Nishant - Multiple disease resistant variety

 Pusa Himani - It can be grown throughout the year
 Pusa Sagarika - First purple fleshed variety in India
 Pusa Reshmi
 Pusa Chetki
 Pusa Safed
 Scarlet Globe
 Hill Queen

15
Vegetable Crops

TURNIP
 Family- Cruciferae
 Origin - Mediterranean region/Indo China
 Deep rooted crop
 Edible part- Root (Napiform root form)
 Turnip greens are rich in Lutein
 Sporophytic self incompatibility is present in turnip
 It is cross pollinated through honey
bees
 Optimum temperature for root development - 10-
15℃
 Seed rate - 3-4 kg/ha
Physiological disorders and diseases Turnip

 Brown heart - It occurs due to deficiency of

boron
 Phyllody - It is a major problem in seed
production
 Turnip yellow mosaic virus - It is transmitted by flea beetle
 Turnip crinkle - It is viral disease
Varieties
 Pusa Kanchan (Red colour skin)
 Pusa Sweti (off season)
 Pusa Swarnima
 Pusa Chandrima
 Snowball
 Golden ball
 Purple top white globe
 Early Milan red

BEETROOT
 Family- Chenopodiaceae
 Origin - Mediterranean region
 Moderately deep-rooted crop
 Edible part- Taproot
 Inflorescence type - Spike
 Seed rate - 7-9 kg/ha
 Seeds are multigerm
 It is rich in folic acid
 Red color in beetroot is due to beta-cyanins yellow
color is due to beta-xanthins
 Optimum temperature - 20-22 ℃

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Vegetable Crops

Physiological disorders and diseases

 Heart rot/crown rot - boron
deficiency
 Speckled Yellow - Manganese deficiency
 Zoning - High warm weather
 Beet mosaic yellow virus is
transmitted by aphids
 Curly top virus transmitted by hoppers

LEAFY VEGETABLES
Crop Scientific name Origin Edible part
Desi Palak Beta vulgaris Indo-China Leaves
Vilayati Palak Spinacea oleracea
Amaranthus Amaranthus spp. India Tender leaves
Lettuce Lactuca sativa L Asia Minor Leaves and head
Celery Apium graveolens Mediterranean Fleshy leafstalk

PALAK

 Desi Palak: Beta vulgaris

 Vilayati Palak: Spinacea oleracea
 Family: Chenopodiaceae
 Its leaves are rich in mineral and hence can be called as "Mines
of minerals".
Vilayati Palak: Spinacea oleracea

Varieties:
Variety Characteristics

All Green Uniform Green leaves, development of seed stalk take

about 75 days
Pusa Palak Uniform Green Leaves, Late bolting
Pusa Jyothi Leaves are brittle and large in size in nature,grow
throughout the year
Pusa Harit Hybrid sugarbeen x local palak,Well suited for hilly
region, Thick green and big size
Jobner Green Large thick and tender leaves
Pusa Bharati It produces green and tender leaves. High in vitamin C.
 Cultivars are classified in 3 groups on the basis of leaves:
 Savoy
 Semi savoy
 Smooth
 Spinach are more tolerant to saline soils

17
Vegetable Crops

 Female and vegetative male plants are preferred because they are
larger, slower bolting and higher yielding.
 Spinach is sown throughout the year, 2-3 seasons
 In hills areas sowing time: April
 Grows well during moderate winter season: 17°C-24°C
 Seed Rate-25-30kg/ha Desi Palak: Beta vulgaris
 Frequent irrigations required at 3-4 days interval in summer and 10-15 days interval in
winters
 Foliar spray of Urea (1.5%)+ GA3(15ppm) produce large leaves and higher yield

Harvesting: Starts at 25-30 DAS, continues to 15-20 days interval

 In winter crops given more cuttings than summer crop varieties

 Yield:120-300 quintals/ha

Pests and Insects:

 Leaf miner (Liriomyza trifoli)
 Spinachcrown mite (Rhizoglyphus sp.)
 Spodoptera exigua: Installation of pheromone trap,Spray NPV @250LE/ha un 400-500
litre of water
 Diseases:
 Downy Mildew
 Anthracnose
 Cladosporium leaf spot

AMARANTHUS

 Family: Amaranthaceae
 Amaranthus blitum and A. tricolor are most
commonly grown in India
 Leaves and stems are good source of iron, calcium,
vitamin A and Vitamin C.
 Calcium absorption is poor from Amaranthus
 Two varieties green and red. The green variety is more
common.
 Grows well under warm situations temperature
ranging from 22°C to 30°C.
 The seed is sown broadcast after mixing with fine earth for uniform distribution.
 Seed rate:2-3 Kg /Ha
 Sowing Time: March to September

18
Vegetable Crops

 Ammonium sulphate or urea can be mixed with irrigation water and applied when the
seedlings are about 4 inch high to push vegetative growth.
 Usually starts in about 3-4 weeks after sowing
 The top may also be cut leaving the lower leaves to produce new shoots in their axils.

Species of Amaranthus:
 Leaf type species: A. tricolor/ganetious A. blitum, A. tristis
 Grain amaranth species: A. caudatus A. hypochondriacus. A. cruentus, A. edulis.

Leaf type species Grain amaranth species

Varieties of Amaranthus:
Variety Characteristics
Chhoti Chaulai Plant erect, dwarf and small green leaves, sowing early summer
Badi Chaulai Thick stem and longer leaves
Pusa Chaulai Thick, tender and medium to large sized leaves
Pusa Kiran Well suited for growing in rainy season
Pusa Keerthi Suited for growing in summer season
Arka Suguna Pure line selection from Taiwan, light green and broad leaved
Arka Samraksha High yielding with high antioxidant varieties, pulling type variety
 Irrigation: three days once or weekly irrigation
Harvesting: Young seedlings are pulled out with roots and tied to bundle and sent to market
 Crops become ready for harvesting after 25-30 days after sowing
 Yield : 25 tonnes/ha in leaf types

LETTUCE
 Ancestor: Lectuca serriola L.
 Lettuce is rich in vitamin A and Minerals like Ca and Fe
 Slightly tolerant to acid soil (pH 6.0 -6.8) but highly susceptible to acidic soil.
 Temperature above 22°C promotes bolting causing bitterness in leaves and
accelerates the development of tip burn and rot.
 Seeds become dormant and fail to germinate when the soil temperature is above 22°-
30°C

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Vegetable Crops

Varieties / hybrids:
 1. Crisp Head: heading types with wrinkled non wrapper leaves, brittle textured and
tightly folded. Example: Great Lakes and Pennlake, New York 515, Imperial 44.
 2. Butter Head: cultivars form relatively small, loose heads with broad oily, crumbled,
soft textured leaves.
 3. Non-heading: Cos or Romaine (var. longifolia): cultivars have elongated leaves
forming a loaf shaped head, Outer leaves are dark with heavy nobs, inner leaves are
finer and lighter in colour coarse.
 Examples are Eiffel Tower, Paris Island and Paris White
 Leaf or Bunching (var. crispa): The cultivars are non-heading or leaf type. Colour, heat
sensitivity and quality vary but all produce a rosette of leaves. Example: Black-seeded
Simpson, Prizehead, Australian, Salad Bowl and Grand Rapids
 Asparagus or Stem (var asparagina): known as celery lettuce cultivars have thick
stem which is peeled and eaten raw e.g. Celtuce.
 The leaves are also edible but inferior in quality than other types.eg Lettuce
 Other Varieties
 Punjab Lettuce No.1: Leaves light green, shiny and crisp. non- heading variety
 Great Lakes: large firm heads with green leaves, outer leaves are blistered
 Alamo-1: Leaves are crisp, cup shaped, bending and dark green in colour, solid Heads

 Recently developed Lettuce cultivars: Cultivars 9547 and 9542, Salma, Svetlana
(Nathasha), Impact, Magnum, Marksman, Diamond, Elisa, Florida and Buttercrips
 H
a
r
v
e
s
t
i
n
g Crisp Head Butter Head Non-heading
:
The leafy variety become ready for harvesting within 50-60 days of sowing and
harvested when the leaves attain full size but remain tender.
 Head type variety takes 60-70 days to harvest. Heads are harvested when they attain a
good size and become solid.
 Lettuce can be stored for about 3 to 4 weeks at 0°C with 90 to 95 % relative humidity.

20
Vegetable Crops

CELERY
 Hardy biennial in hills and annual plant in plains
 Cultivated for fleshy leafstalk as vegetable
 Seeds contains 2-3% essential oil and 17-18% fatty oil
 Essential oil contains d-selenene, sedlanolide and
sedanoic acid and anhydride and 60% d-limonene
 Seeds used for flavouring agent, as a remedy for
rheumatism
 Introduced in India in 1940 from France
 Wild Form-Smallage
 Varieties: Green, Yellow and Golden Self Blanching
 It is winter crop and needs warm days and cool nights and low humidity with long hours
of sunshine
 Seed sown: July-September
 Seed Rate-300-400g/ha
 Seedlings are transplanted after two months
 Irrigation: Fortnightly interval
 Intercultural operations: Blanching: Excluding
light from the stalks while the plants are still growing
makes them devoid of chlorophyll and are known as
blanched
 Blanching is done by wrapping around the leaf
stalks or by earthing up the seedlings (at 40 cm
height)
 Harvesting: After 4-5 months of sowing, each
plant is cut just below the surface with sharp knife
 Yield: 2500kg/ha

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Vegetable Crops

ONION
 Primarily consumed raw or cooked along with spices and vegetables.
 Rich in minerals like phosphorus and calcium, carbohydrates, protein, and Vitamin C.
 The flowering shoot known as Scape is also used as a vegetable.
 Cultivars of common onions are long day plants in respect of bulb formation.
 The typical flavor of onion is due to the presence of a volatile oil known as “Allyl
propyl disulphide,” and the red color is due to the presence of another pigment
“Quercetin.”
 Onion is best suited as a tropical crop.
 Relatively high temperature and long photoperiod are essential for bulb formation.
 Grows best in light soils such as sandy loam or silt loam.
 Optimum pH of the soil should range from 5.8 to 6.5.

Varieties:
 Pusa Red, Bellary Big, Bellary Red, Poona Red, Nasik Red, Patna Red, Arka Kalyan,
Arka Niketan, and Arka Pragati.

Green bunch onions Mature onions

Sowing Season:
 North India: November
 Tamil Nadu: June to October
 Maharashtra: October to January
 Near Bengaluru: June to October
 8-10 kg of seed for transplanting seedlings for 1 Ha.
 25 tonnes of FYM, 60-100 kg N, 40-60 kg P2O5, and 60-80 kg of K2O.
 FYM should be incorporated at the time of field preparation.
 Requires 14-18 irrigations from planting to harvest.
 Essential irrigation at bulb formation stage.
 Harvesting and Curing: Green bunch onions are harvested when they are lead
pencil thickness with a small bulb.

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Vegetable Crops

 Mature bulbs should be harvested when the tops drop just above the bulb, and the
leaves are still green.
 Bulbs should be cured in the field under shade for 4 days for better storage.
 Onions should be stored in well-ventilated areas with good air circulation.

Bolting in Onions:
• In terms of managing the bolting issue, MH 40 formulation proved to be more successful
than MH 30, 40.
• A species of 5% MH 40 in water decreased the proportion of bolting to roughly 3%
control when applied two and a half months after replacement.

BEANS
Crop Scientific name Family Origin
French Bean Phaseolus vulgaris Leguminaceae Central America
Cluster Bean Cyamopsis tetragonolobus Leguminaceae India
Garden Pea Pisum sativum Leguminaceae Ethiopia
Cow Pea Vigna unguiculata Leguminaceae India
Dolichos Dolichos lablab Leguminaceae India
Bean

FRENCH BEANS
 French bean is a cool season crop
 Cultivated varieties of beans are mostly vine types,
except for the French bean, which has bush types.
 French bean is sensitive to frost and has cultivars
of long day, short day, and day-neutral varieties.
 Seeds will not germinate in very high
temperatures or during continuous rains.
 French bean can be grown on a wide range of soils,
with sandy loams being the best.
 Ideal pH range is between 6 to 7.

Varieties:
 Arka Komal, Blue Pod Medium, Bountiful, Contender, Kentucky Wonder, Pant
Anupama, Pusa Parvathi.

23
Vegetable Crops

 Sowing is done twice a year, first in July to September and second in January to
February.

Seed Rate and Spacing:

 Bush type cultivars: 95 kg/ha with a spacing of 60 x 15 cm.
 Pole type cultivars: 25 to 30 kg/ha with a spacing of 1 m x 60 – 75 cm x 30 cm.
 Well decomposed FYM up to a dosage of 20 to 30 t/ha, along with 60 kg N, 40 kg P, and
K.
 Nitrogen is applied in two splits.
 French bean is drought-resistant but requires proper moisture supply for better growth
and yield.
 Irrigation is essential during blooming and pod development periods.
 Shallow cultivation is done at early stages of crop growth to keep down the weeds.
 Weedicides can be applied, and support is provided to climbing varieties with bamboo
sticks.

Harvesting:
 Pods are harvested when they are young, tender, and delicate, preferably 2 to 3
weeks after the first blossom.
 Dry beans are harvested when pods are fully ripe and about to shatter.
 Average yield of bushy varieties is 4 to 5 t/ha, and pole varieties yield 7 to 10 t/ha.

Storage: Completely dried seeds are stored in glass containers with tight-fitting lids or
polythene bags.

CLUSTER BEAN
 Pods are rich in protein, minerals, vitamin A, and vitamin
C.
 Tender pods are used as vegetables and can be
dehydrated and stored.
 Seeds are used as nutritious fodder for cattle.
 The crop can be used for soil improvement and in
medicine.
 Guar gum, derived from the mucilaginous seed flow, is
used in textiles, paper, cosmetics, and oil industries as
an adsorbent for explosives.

Varieties:
 Durga Bahar, IC 11521, Pusa Mausami, Pusa Nav Bahar, Pusa Sada Bahar.

 A hardy plant tolerant to drought, grown widely in the sub-tropics and tropics of India.

24
Vegetable Crops

 Prefers long-day conditions for growth and short-day conditions for flowering.
 Grows well in alluvial soils and sandy loams and can tolerate a pH of 7 to 8.
 Cluster bean can be grown three times in a year: spring, summer, and rainy season.
 Seed rate varies, generally 30 to 40 kg per ha with a spacing of 45 x 15 cm.
 For Sada Bahar, spacing of 60 x 15 cm is adopted.
 Requires less manures and fertilizers, but well-decomposed FYM is applied up to 20
t/ha. Nitrogen, P, and K are also applied, with nitrogen given in two splits.
 Rainy season crop is grown as rainfed, while irrigation is necessary for the spring
season crop.
 Shallow intercultural operations are done to provide good growing conditions and control
weeds.
 Harvesting and Yield: Starts pod bearing 40 days after sowing, with average yields
of green pods at 50 Q per ha and dry seeds at 10 Q per ha.

GARDEN PEA
 Abundant in easily digestible protein, vitamins A
and C, along with essential minerals such as
calcium, potassium, iron, and phosphorus.
 Often undergoes processing such as canning,
freezing, or dehydration for human consumption.
 The pea straw can serve as valuable, nutritious
fodder for animals.
 Moderately deficient in sulphur-containing
amino acids methionine and cysteine, pea
protein contributes to a well-rounded diet.

Varieties:
 Alderman, Arkel, Asauji, Bonneville, Early Badger (resistant to Fusarium wilt).

 Thrives in cooler climates, with optimal seed germination occurring at around 22°C,
while warmer weather accelerates maturation.
 Not vulnerable to cold conditions, but severe frost can damage flowers and young
pods.
 Adaptable to various soil types, from light sandy to clay soils, but sensitive to saline and
alkaline conditions.
 Typically cultivated as a rabi (winter) crop, sown from early October to mid-
November.
 Seed rate varies based on the growth habit of varieties.
 Early varieties require 100 to 120 kg per hectare, while mid-late varieties demand 80
to 90 kg per hectare.
 Recommended spacing is 30 cm x 5 cm.

25
Vegetable Crops

 Application of well-decomposed farmyard manure at a rate of 8 to 10 tonnes per hectare,

in combination with NPK fertilizer in a ratio of 30:50:25 kg per hectare.
 Foliar application of 0.1% ammonium molybdate can enhance root nodules, yield,
total soluble solids (TSS), and the number of grains per pod.
 Requires 2 to 3 irrigations, with the first irrigation administered at 40 days after
sowing (DAS) and the second at the bloom stage around 60 DAS.
 Manual or mechanical weed management is crucial, although chemical weed control is
becoming more prevalent.
 Various herbicides can be used for effective weed control.
 Harvesting and Yield: Typically involves 3 to 4 pickings per season, with careful
handling to avoid plant damage during harvesting.
 Yield can range from 30 to 70 quintals per hectare, influenced by the specific varieties
and agricultural practices.
 Storage: Fresh unshelled peas can be stored for up to 2 weeks at 0°C (32°F) with a
relative humidity of 85 to 90%.
 Pods are frozen at -10°C in crushed ice for about 2 to 3 weeks.

COWPEA
 Cowpea is a highly abundant in protein, calcium,
magnesium, and other essential minerals, suitable for
consumption in both its green and dry stages.
 Additionally, it is utilized as fodder, silage, and a source of
lysine-rich protein.

Varieties:
 Arka Garima: Tall and vigorous growth with lightweight pods.
 Pusa Barsati
 Pusa Dofasli: Pusa Phalguni x Philippines early. Suited for both summer and rainy
seasons and is photo-insensitive.
 Pusa Phalguni: Bushy type with a 60-day duration, ideal for cultivation in February-
March.
 Pusa Komal
 Pusa Rituraj: Photo-insensitive, suitable for immature growth in summer and rainy
seasons.

 Thrives as a warm-season crop and tolerates heavy rainfall.

 Flourishes within temperatures of 21 to 30°C.
 Cultivated in the rainy season as a pure crop or in combination with Jowar.
 Flourishes in various soil types and demonstrates favorable yields on loamy soils.
 Summer crop sown from February to mid-April.
 Monsoon crop from mid-June to the end of July.

26
Vegetable Crops

 Sowing also occurs in December to January on plains.

 Photo-insensitive varieties can be sown in both July and February to March.
 20 to 25 kg per ha for the summer season and 15 kg per ha for the rainy season.
 Recommended spacing for the rainy season crop is 60 x 15 cm.
 Seed treatment with Thiram at a rate of 4 g per kg of seed is advised.
 Requires less nitrogen; 10 to 20 kg nitrogen is incorporated before sowing.
 Phosphorus and potassium at 50 to 70 kg per ha are drilled into the soil.
 Zinc deficiency should be addressed with 10 to 15 kg ZnSO4 per ha.
 Light irrigation is recommended due to its shallow root system.
 Rainy season crops seldom require irrigation, while summer crops need weekly irrigation
during March to April.
 Effective weed control is crucial in the initial 20 to 25 days.
 2 to 3 weedings and hoeings are required.
 Treflan, at a rate of 1 kg a.i., is recommended for soil incorporation weed control.
Harvesting, Yield, and Storage:
 Pods are ready for harvest after 40 to 50 days, and frequent picking is advised.
 The crop matures in 75 to 125 days during Kharif planting.
 Grains should be stored in a cool, dry place with a moisture content of around 10%.

DOLICHOS BEAN
 Dolichos beans are a good source of protein, minerals,
and vitamins but are limited in methionine.
 The seeds contain trypsin inhibitor, phytic acid, and
polyphenol, as well as lectin, which can be made safe
by heating.
 Dolichos bean is primarily grown for its green pods,
which are cooked as a vegetable.

Classification:
 Dolichos lab lab Var. Lignosus: Semi-erect or bushy perennial, grown as a field crop
in South Central India.
 Dolichos lab lab Var. Typicus: Herbaceous vine type annual, cultivated as a vegetable
in kitchen gardens and small-scale market gardens.

Varieties:
 Arka Jay: Photo-insensitive variety with long, curved fruits, 75 to 80 days crop
duration, and bushy plants.
 Arka Vijay: Photo-insensitive dwarf plants with pulpy pods, 80 days crop duration.
 Pusa Early Prolific: Early-bearing variety suitable for both spring and autumn crops.
 DL.1428 (Arthanari): A hybrid cross between garden bean and field bean.

27
Vegetable Crops

 Dolichos bean can grow in both tropical and sub-tropical climates but is susceptible
to frost and extreme hot conditions.
 It can be grown on a wide range of soils but may show luxuriant vegetable growth at
the expense of pod yield in highly fertile soils.
 Indian bean is sown in July and August, and can be sown early in areas where rain
comes early.
 20 to 30 kg per ha, with spacing of 100 x 75 or 75 x 75 cm for a pure crop.
 Can be grown as a mixed crop with ragi, sorghum, and castor.
 Application of well decomposed FYM, N, P, and K during land preparation, and top
dressing of nitrogen at a later stage.
 Hoeing is done once or twice to control weeds and enhance crop growth.
 Occasionally light irrigation is given, and dolichos bean can tolerate dry conditions
during flowering.
 Harvesting: Pods are harvested when tender, typically in winter and early spring,
yielding 5 to 8 tonns per ha.
 Pods can be stored for two weeks at 0°C and RH 90%.

28
Vegetable Crops

29
 Study Notes
Spices and Condiments
 Spices and Condiments

Spices and Condiments

 Spices and Condiments' applies to such natural plant products or mixtures thereof, used in
whole or ground form, mainly for imparting flavour, aroma and pungency to food and also for
seasoning of foods and beverages like soups, etc.
 India has been known as the 'Land of Spices'.
 Major spices: Small cardamom, black pepper, chilli, turmeric and ginger. These spices
contribute about 75-90% of the total foreign exchange.
 Excluding these five major spices, rest are minor spices.

Crop Scientific name Family Origin

Black Pepper Piper nigrum Piperaceae Western Ghats of India
Small Elettaria Zingiberaceae South India and Sri Lanka.
Cardamom cardamomum
Large Amomum Zingiberaceae Eastern Himalayas
Cardamom subulatum,
Ginger Zingiber officinale Zingiberaceae Indo-China region
Turmeric Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae Indo-Malayan region
Garlic Allium sativum L. Alliaceae West China, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgystan
Fenugreek Trigonella foenum- Fabaceae Iran to North India
graecum
Cumin Cuminum cyminum Apiaceae Mediterranean and southern
Asia.
Coriander Coriandrum sativum Apiaceae Mediterranean region

Saffron Crocus sativus Iridaceae Mediterranean region

BLACK PEPPER
 Indian name: Kali Mirch (Hindi), Kare
 “King of spices” and “Black gold”
Climate:

 It grows well at 500-1500 m elevation, requires a

temperature of 10-40°C, below which the
pollination and fruit set will be adversely affected.
 An optimum rainfall of 1250-2000 mm per annum
distributed throughout the year is desirable.

Propagation:
 Pepper can be propagated by seeds as well as by vegetative means.
 Pepper is a cross- pollinated crop. It takes 7-8 years for first bearing.
 Single-node cuttings could be successfully grafted, either by means of side grafting or
inarching.
2
Spices and Condiments

 Micro-propagation of black pepper in vitro, using shoot explants both from mature and
juvenile plants, were standardized at the Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR),
Calicut. The multiplication rate is around six shoots per culture in 90 days.

Varieties:
 Cheriyakaniyakkadan: The leaves are small and elliptic; the spikes are of medium
length, closely set with medium-sized dark-green fruits
 Cheriakodi: The plant is a dwarf and sturdy type,
bearing in alternate years, and of a high quality. It
yields 38% dried pepper.
 Daddagya: The leaves are broad and the spikes are
long, and curved.
 Cheriyakaniyakkadan: It gives 9% oleoresin, 3.9%
piperine and 3.7% essential oil.
 Arakkulamunda: It yields regularly and comes to
maturity earlier than most other cultivars. This
cultivar gives 9.8% oleoresin, 4.4% piperine and 4.7% essential oil.
 Pournami: This variety was released in 1991 from NRCS, Calicut. It possesses
tolerance to nematode and drought and has a potential for high yields. The spikes bear
84% bisexual, 15% female and 1% male flowers. The average green berry yield is 4.7
kg per vine and dry recovery is 39%.

Planting and Aftercare:

 When pepper is grown as a mixed crop in coffee and coconut plantations or areca
gardens, there is no need to plant standards or shade trees.
 The coconut or areca trees themselves provide shade and serve as standards.
 Usually the planting of vines is done during June-July in pits of 50 cm3.
 The cuttings are planted with two nodes below the ground level.
 The pepper vine grows rapidly and after one year reaches a height of 2 m.
 As the vines grow they have to be tied to the standards at an interval of 30 cm.
 Circular blackspots on the leaves causing severe defoliation.
 Initially, brown or yellow spots appear on the lower leaves which then turn into black

spots.

Commercial Grades:

 Malabar Black Garbled - light green in colour with 11.7% oleoresin content.
 Malabar Black Ungarbled - light green in colour with 10.1% oleoresin content.

Piperine:
 The alkaloid piperine (3-6%) is the major constituent responsible for the biting taste of
black pepper. The other pungent alkaloids are chovicine and peiperidine.

Harvesting:

3
Spices and Condiments

 The spikes are ready for harvest when they start yellowing and in a spike 1 or 2 berries
become red. At this stage, the spikes are removed from the vines.
 The crop takes 6-8 months from flowering to harvest.

SMALL CARDAMOM
 English name : Small cardamom, Lesser
cardamom,Chhoti Elaichi
 Uses : Flavouring agent in cooking, confectionery.

Varieties

 Among the various cultivated types, three major

races viz., "Mysore" "Malabar" and "Vazhukka" are
most popular.

Cardamom Plant Panicle Fruit Elevational Characteristics

Type Height Type Shape Zone
Mysore/ 3 to 4 Erect Bold High Robust plants,
Erect meters Capsules elevations productive, suited for
high elevations and wind
exposure
Malabar/ 2 to 3 Prostrate Roundish 600-1200 Medium-sized plants,
Prostrate meters meters more productive, suited
for 600-1200m
elevations
Vazhukka/ Intermediate Semi- Bold Adaptable Hybrid of Mysore and
Semi-Erect Erect Capsules range Malabar types, robust,
adaptable to various
conditions

Commercial varieties:
 Mudigere-1: This is a high-yielding clonal selection from the Malabar type developed at,
Mudigere, and was released as a variety in 1984. It is a pubscent type and bears oval,
medium-sized capsules. It yields 250 to 300 kg of capsules per hectare.
 CL-37: This is clonal selection from the open-pollinated seedlings of the Malabar type
released by NRCS, Calicut. This is a high-yielding clone having a productive sucker and
a long panicle with a bold capsule.
 MCC-49: It is a high-yielding, prostrate type cultivar, suited for both irrigated and rain-fed
conditions. It has yield potential of 325 kg of capsules per hectare.

Propagation:
 Cardamom is generally propagated by vegetative means, using rhizomes but usually
seedlings are used for planting.

4
Spices and Condiments

 A micro propagation protocol for rapid multiplication and the synseed technology have
been developed.
 Seed Rate :, about 600 g/ha

Nutrient Management:
 The manure are applied in 2 doses, one in June-July and the other in September-
October. In the first year for plantations with irrigation facility, a dose of 37.5 kg N, 37.5
kg P205 and 75 kg K20 per hectare is applied in two equal splits.
Diseases:
 Katte or Marble disease: This is a virus disease and is transmitted by the banana
aphid Pentalonia nigronervosa f. caladii.
o The disease is characterised by general chlorosis, followed by slender
interrupted streaks on the leaves.
o The vector may be controlled by regular spraying with Parathion (0.2%) or with
systemic insecticides like Metasystox, Rogor or Dimecron at 0.5% concentration
or Bioneem (0.5%) and Margolin (1%).

LARGE CARDAMOM
 Indian Name: Badi Elaichi
Uses and Properties:
 The volatile oil present in the seeds is a principle
component responsible for its characteristic odor and is
used for flavoring various dishes, confectionery, and
beverages.
 The seeds are also used medicinally as tonics for the heart
and liver, astringents for the bowels, and aids for digestion
and appetite.
 Large cardamom is also used to treat dental and gum problems, as well as kidney
stones and digestive disorders. It is also used as an aphrodisiac and as an antidote to
snake or scorpion venom.
Botany:
 A herbaceous perennial with subterranean rhizomes, mature plant height ranging from
1.5 to 3.0 m, and trilocular, many-seeded capsules.
Cultivation:
 Propagation mainly through vegetative methods.
 Seed propagation involves collection, cleaning, and treating seeds for better
germination.
 Suitable soil should be well-drained with a pH of 5.8 to 6.5, and the crop grows best from
600 to 2300 m above sea level in a humid, subtropical natural habitat.

5
Spices and Condiments

Varieties:
 Bebo, Bharlangy, Golsey, Ram/a, Ramsey, and Swaney are the main varieties of
large cardamom.
Harvesting and Yield:
 Crops start bearing fruits 3-5 years post-planting, with economic yield lasting 12-15
years.
 Curing is required after harvesting, and dried capsules are stored in insect-proof bags.
Value-Added Products:
 The essential oil of the seeds and oleoresin are considered as value-added products of
large cardamom.
Cultivation Techniques:
 Large cardamom is propagated by seed as well as vegetative methods, preferable for
commercial plantation.
Vegetative Propagation:
 Propagated by planting a section of the rhizome, called a bulb or slip, from an
established clump.
Seed Propagation:
 Seeds for sowing in the nurseries should be collected from well-matured capsules.
 Primary and secondary nurseries are used for seedling development.
Land Preparation:
 Clearing of forest areas, planting shade trees like Utis, and planting bulbs or seedlings in
prepared pits.
Manures and Fertilizers:
 Fertilization is not a common practice due to the soil’s high inherent nutrient capacity.
However, applications of N, rock phosphate, and organic manures are advised.
Irrigation:
 Regular irrigation at intervals is important, especially during specific growth stages and
dry periods.
Shade Regulation:
 Tall-growing trees are trimmed regularly to provide uniform shade and higher quantity of
leaf-litter.
Replanting:
 Replanting is recommended after the 9th year to maintain economic viability.
Harvesting, Curing, and Yield:
 Harvesting span ranges from August to November, and the dried capsules are dark
pinkish-brown in color with a smoky odor. The economic yield period varies between 12-
15 years.
Storage and Value-Added Products:
 The cured produce is stored in insect-proof bags. Value-added products include the
essential oil of the seeds and oleoresin.

6
Spices and Condiments

GINGER

 The chief constituent is a sesquiterpene called

zingiberene.
 The pungent principle of ginger is zingerone.

Climate:

 Ginger is a warm, humid, tropical crop.

 It is usually grown from sea-level to 1,500 m
elevation. However, the optimum altitude is between
300 and 900 m.
 It is grown both as a rain-fed and an irrigated crop.
 An annual rainfall of 1250-1500 mm is sufficient for the crop.

Varieties
 Andhra Pradesh Local types - viz., Medak and Tuni Bihar Desi and Dorabhanya
 Himachal Pradesh - Himachal No. 1, SG 666 (Dhariga local) Jammu and Kashmir
Himachal No. 1
 Karnataka Wynad, Manathodi, Narasapatnam Kerala Thodupuzha, Rio de Janeiro,
Jamaica
Propagation:

 Ginger is propagated by rhizomes.

 The synseed technology protocols for rapid multiplication and also somatic
embryogensis and regeneration methods have been developed at the IISR, Calicut.
 Rhizomes or sets of 2.5 to 5 cm length, weighing 25 to 50 g, with a minimum of 1 or 2
good buds or growing points should be used.
 About 1,500-1,800 kg sets are required to plant one hectare area.

Harvesting:
 Ginger is a 7-8 months duration crop.
 It is ready for harvest when the leaves turn yellow and start withering, after which the
rhizomes become more fibrous and pungent and are better suited to the production of
dried ginger.
 If the crop is meant for green ginger, it is harvested in 5-6 months.
 An average crop of ginger may yield about 10-30 tonnes of fresh rhizomes per hectare.

TURMERIC

 It has a calorific value or food energy of 390 calories/100 g.

 The colouring principle in turmeric is curcumin.

7
Spices and Condiments

Origin:

 India or China or the Indo-Malayan region is the home of turmeric (a diploid form) from
which C. domestica is likely to have evolved by a process of triploidy, and subsequent
continued selection and cultivation by vegetative propagation.

Varieties

 Kasturi: The core of the rhizome is pale yellow to white in colour. It emits a sweet
fragrance after curing.
 Mundaga: The rhizomes are large and thick with many fingers.
 Balaga: The corns are not so thick, and the number of fingers are also fewer.
 Yalachaga: The rhizomes are small and few in number but have a larger number of
fingers.
 RH-10: released as a clonal selection, matures in 288 days and is resistant to leaf-
blotch.
 Pant peetabh is also an improved variety.

Propagation:

 Turmeric is generally propagated by using whole or split mother rhizomes.

 The synseed technology as well as micro-propagation protocols for rapid multiplication
have been developed for turmeric.

Harvesting and yield:

 Turmeric comes to maturity in 7-10 months after planting.

 The maturity indices are the complete yellowing of the leaves and the drying up of plants
including the pseudostem.
 The leafy tops are then cut off, the roots removed, and the rhizomes thoroughly washed
with water to remove the adhering earth. The fingers (daughter rhizomes) are separated
form the rounds (mother rhizomes) manually.
 The yield in turmeric has been observed to vary very greatly. However, a yield of about
20-25 t of raw turmeric per hectare in the case of irrigated and 6-9 t/ha in the case of rain
fed crops is considered satisfactory.
 After keeping aside the required quantity of rhizomes for planting, the rest of the bulk is
cured and polished.

GARLIC
 Garlic is a widely used and well-known culinary and medicinal
plant.
 It belongs to the Alliaceae family and is native to Central Asia.

8
Spices and Condiments

 Garlic has been cultivated for thousands of years and is valued for its pungent flavor and
various health benefits.

Varieties

 Ooty 1
 Singapore red
 Rajali
 Tabiti
 Cerole
 Madrasii

Soil:

 Garlic can be grown at elevation of 1200–2000 m.

 It requires short days, cool (12–18 °C) moist period during vegetative growth.
 Soil with pH range of 6 – 7 is ideal.

Season:

 It is grown in two seasons (June- July and Oct-Nov).

Seed rate: 500-600kg/ha.

Fertilizer application:

 During last ploughing incorporate 50 t/ha of FYM; Apply Azospirillum 2 kg and

Phosphobacteria 2 kg/ha, 40:75:75 kg/ha NPK.

Insect Pests:

 Thrips: Thrips can be controlled by spraying Methyl dematon 25 EC 1 ml/lit. ∙ Nematode:

Nematode can be controlled by the application of Carbofuran 3 G 1 kg a.i./ha 30 days after
planting.

Diseases:

 Clove rot: Before planting treat the cloves with Carbendazim 2 g/kg.

Harvest:

 Turning of tops to yellowish or brownish colour and starts drying is the ideal harvest index
for harvesting garlic.

Yield: 8 – 12 t/ha

9
Spices and Condiments

FENUGREEK
 Cultivated as a leafy vegetable, condiment, and medicinal
plant in India
 Grown in about 0.30 lakh hectares in India annually
Uses:
 Fresh tender leaves and stem consumed as a curried
vegetable
 Seeds mainly used as a spice for flavoring dishes
 High medicinal value, prevents constipation, removes indigestion, stimulates spleen and
liver, appetizing, and diuretic
Botany:
 Annual herb reaching a height of about 0.9 m
 Light green pinnately trifoliate leaves
 Papilionaceous flowers, legume fruits, containing small deeply furrowed seeds
 Two economically important species: T. foenum graecum (common methi) and T.
corniculata (kasuri methi)

Climate and Soil:

 Wide adaptability, successfully cultivated in tropics and temperature regions
 Tolerant to frost and freezing weather, does well in moderate or low rainfall areas
 Grown on a wide variety of soils, but clayey loam is relatively better

Varieties:
 CO 1, Rajendra Kanti, RMt – 1, Lam Sel. 1, with different special characters, durations,
and yields per hectare

Land Preparation and Sowing:

 Land prepared by ploughing thrice, beds of uniform size prepared
 Broadcasting or line sowing at 20-25 cm apart
 Sowing in the plains is generally taken up in Sep-Nov, in the hills from March
 Approximately 20 kg of seed required for one hectare

Manures and Fertilizers:

 Recommended: 15 tonnes of farmyard manure, fertilizer dose of 30 Kg N, 25Kg P2 O5,
and 40Kg K2O per hectare
 Additional nitrogen application after each cutting to promote leafy growth

Irrigation:
 First irrigation immediately after sowing, subsequent irrigation at 7 to 10 days interval

Intercultivation:
 Hoeing, weeding, and thinning required for proper growth
10
Spices and Condiments

 Young shoots nipped off 4’’ above ground level, subsequent cuttings of leaves taken
after 15 days
Yield:
 Approximately 500-700 kg of seeds and about 4000-5000 kg of leaves per hectare

Plant Protection:
 Root rot is a serious disease and can be controlled by drenching carbendazim 0.05%

CUMIN
 Cultivation Areas: Gujarat, Rajasthan, parts of Madhya
Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh
 Main Uses: Food flavoring, Ayurvedic medicine

Climate and Soil:

 Tropical plant, grows well in sub-tropical climate
 High humidity during flowering and fruit set can cause
fungal diseases
 Can be cultivated in all types of soils, but well-drained sandy loam and medium soils are
suitable

Varieties:
 Improved varieties: S-404, MC-43, Gujarat Cumin-1(GC-1), GC-2, GC-3, RS-1, UC-198,
RZ-19
 Maturity: 110 to 115 days depending on variety

Botany:
 Herbaceous annual plant
 Stem: Slender, branched, 20–30 cm tall
 Leaves: 5–10 cm long, pinnate or bipinnate, thread-like leaflets
 Flowers: Small, white or pink, borne in umbels
 Fruit: Lateral fusiform or ovoid achene, 4–5 mm long, with a single seed
 Cumin seeds are smaller and darker in color compared to fennel and anise seeds

Sowing and Seed Rate:

 Sowing: 1st week of November to 1st week of December
 Broadcasting or in drilled rows at 30 cm
 Seed rate: 12 to 15 kg / ha depending on sowing method and soil type
 Seed treatment with Ceresan, thiram, or Difoltan @ 3.0 g per kg is essential

Land Preparation:
 Soil brought to fine tilth with 2-3 ploughings

11
Spices and Condiments

 Removal of previous crop stubble and leveling of field

 Beds of 4 m x 3 m size with irrigation channels are prepared before sowing
Manures & Fertilizers:
 Recommended: 15 – 20 MT FYM, 30 kg Nitrogen, 15 kg Phosphorus per ha
 Application at the time of land preparation and as basal dose

Weeding:
 2-3 hand weeding to keep the crop free from weeds for proper growth
 Light intercultural operation is beneficial for drilled crops

Irrigation:
 Crop requires 4-6 irrigations based on soil type
 Specific intervals and timings for each irrigation

Plant Protection:
 Pest: Aphid - Control with recommended chemical solutions
 Pest: Leaf eating Caterpillar - Controlled by spraying recommended solutions
 Diseases: Fusarium wilt, Alternaria Blight, Powdery mildew - Symptoms and control
measures explained

Harvesting:
 Timing: 110-115 days
 Harvest when plants turn yellowish brown in the morning
 Drying and processing of harvested crop

CORIANDER
Uses:
 Fruits and tender green leaves consumed
 Fruits have fragrant odor and are used for flavoring
liquors, cocoa preparations, confectionery, and curry
powder
 Leaves and young plants used in chutney and seasoning
in various dishes
 Medicinal properties: carminative, diuretic, tonic,
stomachic, and aphrodisiac
Botany:
 Smooth, erect annual herb reaching a height of 30-70 cm
 Flowers small, white or pink in compound terminal umbels, fruits are ribbed with 2 seeds,
ripe seeds are aromatic
Climate and Soil:
 Tolerant to frost, dry and cold weather; avoids cloudy weather during flowering and
fruiting
12
Spices and Condiments

 Grown in almost all types of soils, black cotton soils with high moisture retentivity are
best under rainfed conditions
Varieties:
 CO 1, CO 2, CO 3, Gujarat coriander 1 and 2, Rajendra Swati, Rcr 41, Swathi, Sadhana

Field Preparation:
 Land ploughed 3 to 4 times following rains, immediate planting to break clods and avoid
soil moisture
 For irrigated crops, land ploughed twice or thrice, forming beds and channels

Season of Cultivation:
 Mostly grown as a rabi season crop in North and Central parts of India and Andhra
Pradesh
 Late sowing is recommended in places vulnerable to frost damage

Sowing:
 Seed rate of 10 to 15 kg per hectare, increased germination with 15-30 days of stored
seeds
 Seeds soaked in water for 12 to 24 hours before sowing, treated with thiram

Manuring:
 About 10 tonnes of farmyard manure is applied at the time of last preparation
 Additional application of fertilizers for both irrigated and rainfed crops

Irrigation:
 First irrigation given 3 days after sowing, subsequent irrigation at 10-15 days interval

After Cultivation:
 Hoeing, weeding, and thinning required for proper growth

Harvesting:
 Ready for harvest in about 90-110 days, some varieties allow additional income by
harvesting some leaves earlier
 Plants are cut or pulled, dried, and threshed for processing
 Rainfed crops yield 400 – 500 kg/ha, irrigated crops yield 600 -1200 kg/ha

Plant Protection:
 Attacks by leaf-eating caterpillars, semi-loopers, and aphids at different growth stages
 Powdery mildew and grain mold are serious diseases, controlled by spraying
recommended solutions

13
Spices and Condiments

SAFFRON
 Saffron thrives well in temperate dry climates at
altitudes ranging from 1500-2800 meters above
mean sea level.
 Temperature is crucial for its growth and
flowering, with an optimum temperature range of
23-27°C for flowering and corm development.

Soil:
 Sandy loam soil with a pH range of 6.8 to 7.8 is optimal for cultivation. Proper drainage
and porous texture are essential, and high-dose calcium carbonate supplementation is
desirable for crop growth.

Land preparation:
 Ploughing the field multiple times to create fine and porous soil.
 Raised beds and drainage channels may be necessary depending on soil type and local
conditions.

Spacing and planting depth:

 A spacing of 20 X 10 cm and planting depth of 10-12 cm is recommended for
commercial size corm production.

Irrigation:
 Water requirement is low, but critical irrigation is needed at specific intervals, especially
during the end of September to October.

Propagation:
 Saffron propagates only vegetatively through corms, with each corm producing 4-10
daughter corms and cormels.

Plantation time: Middle of September to October

Corm size:
 Flowering size corms should be more than 10 gm or 2.5 cm in diameter (Average
weight 10g) for higher yield

Planting of corms:
 Spacing of 20 X 10 cm is ideal for commercial size corm production

Nutrient management:
14
Spices and Condiments

 Basal dressing of farm yard manure (FYM) @ 15-20 t/ha and a fertilizer dose of
45:60:60 kg NPK/ha

Weed management:
 Pre-emergence application of pendimethalin @ 1.5 kg/ha or fluchloralin @ 1.0 kg/ha is
recommended

Corm production through tissue culture:

 Protocol standardized for production of disease-free corms of 5.5 to 6.0 g capable of
generating about 30,000 corms in one year

Harvesting:
 Flowers are harvested and stigmas are separated for drying

Post harvest technology:

 Dehydration process necessary for the conversion of stigmas into spice.
 Stigmas are solar dried for 3-5 days until the moisture content is reduced to 8-10%.
 Lower moisture content of at least below 12% is required for maintaining the quality
as well as shelf life of the spice.

Quality:
 Depends on color (crocin), taste (picrocrocin), and odor (safranal).
 The best quality spice has a pleasant, dominant floral, sweet spicy note and also a little
harsh acrid note.

Storage of corms:
 Corns are uprooted in May should be stored at 23°-25°C and 65-75% relative
humidity for 2 months and subsequently stored at 17°C for 50 days.
 Storage of corms at 2°C after flower initiation results in abortion of flowers.
 Storage at freezing temperature damages the corms.

Techno-economics:
 Cost of cultivation, gross returns, and net returns based on a five-year average

15
 Study Notes
Introduction to Floriculture
Introduction to Floriculture

Floriculture

• Floriculture is the branch of horticulture that focuses on the cultivation and

management of flowering and ornamental plants, particularly those used for
decorative purposes.
• It involves the commercial production of flowers, flower buds, and foliage plants,
which are primarily grown for their aesthetic value and beauty.

Cut flowers
• Cut flowers are harvested with stalk, especially for arrangement in vases, and
are lasting.
• Important cut flower crops are rose, carnation, chrysanthemum, orchid, gerbera,
lilium, anthurium, gladiolus, narcissus, bird of paradise, heliconia, anemone,
ranunculus, tulip, calla lily, etc.
• Uses: preparation of bouquets and floral baskets as corsages, flower
arrangements and for decoration purposes.

Loose flowers
• Loose flowers are plucked from plants without stalk just below the calyx.
• Uses: For making veni, rangoli, bracelets, hair adornments for women and
garlands, for garden displays, religious offerings and decorative purposes.
• Loose flowers comprise rose, chrysanthemum, marigold, jasmine, tuberose,
gaillardia, crossandra, barleria, chandni, kaner, hibiscus, spider lily and
geranthemum.

Cut greens
• Cut greens or cut foliages (leaves and stems), which are attractive in form,
colour and freshness, are lasting and in great demand.
• These are used as fillers along with cut flowers in flower arrangements and
elsewhere for increasing aesthetic value.
• These floral produce have various other uses in making attractive fresh floral
designs and floral arrangements, such as bouquets, wreaths, decoration of
house interiors, etc. Some of the cut foliage in demand are asparagus, ferns,
thuja, Cupressus, eucalyptus, etc.

Potted plants
• Potted plants are of importance for instant gardening and for indoor, as well as,
outdoor decoration.
• These can be easily carried to places, which need to be landscaped
immediately.
• The potted plant industry is growing enormously.
• Potted plants may be either ornamental foliage or flowering.
• Some examples of potted plants are aglaonema, aralia, azalea, begonia, calathea,

2
Introduction to Floriculture

• Classification of ornamental plants

A. Based on life span

Plant Type Features Examples
Annual Plants • Complete life cucle in China aster, coreopsis, marigold, petunia, tithonia,
one season verbena, zinnia, etc.
• require replanting
every season
• mostly grown through
seeds
Biennial Complete life cycle in Amaranthus, celosia, hollyhock, pansy, snapdragon,
Plants two seasons etc.
I. Woody Perennials: comprise most of the trees,
shrubs and vines, which have woody stems and
branches. E.g. Cassia siamea, C. fistula,
More than two Peltophorum, Cassia biflora, Lawsonia alba, Hibiscus
Perennial seasons produce rosa-sinensis, Petrea volubilis, Quisquallis indica,
Plants seeds or flowers every Vernonia eleagniaefolia, etc.
year II. Herbaceous perennials: include plants with soft
and herbaceous (non-woody) main stalk. E.g.
anthurium, bird of paradise, Geranium, gerbera,
heliconia, pelargonium, periwinkle, portulaca,
perennial balsam, sweet violet, viola, etc

B. Based on season of growth

Season Plant Examples Sowing Time Transplanting
Type Time
Winter Annuals Candytuft, Antirrhinum, Larkspur, September- October-
Season Nasturtium, Pansy, Petunia, Phlox, October November
Sweet Sultan, Verbena, etc.
Summer Annuals Cosmos, Gaillardia, Gomphrena, February-end End of March or
Season Kochia, Portulaca, Sunflower, or March April
Tithonia, Zinnia, etc.
Rainy Annuals Amaranthus, Balsam, Celosia, Cock’s June July
Season Comb, Gaillardia, etc.

3
Introduction to Floriculture

C. Based on plant type

Plant type

Climbers &
Herbaceous Shrubs Trees Creepers
Lilium, verbena, viola Bougainvillea, jasmine, Gulmohar, palash, Adenocalymma,
lawsonia, hamelia amaltas, kadamb antigonon, Rangoon
creeper

D. Based on vegetative propagules used

Vegetative Propagules

Bulb Corms Rhizome Tuber

Lily, narcissus, Crocus, gladiolus, Canna, hedychium,
tuberose, tulip, tritonia, watsonia iris, lotus Begonia, Dahlia

Corms Rhizome
Bulb

Tuber

4
Introduction to Floriculture

Flower arrangement
• The term ‘flower’ in flower arrangement includes fresh flowers, foliage,
dried twigs and fruits (dry and fresh).
• Veni: A special kind of flower arrangement is widely used in South
India to decorate the long plait of hair (Veni) at the time of Bharat
Natyam or during marriage ceremonies.
• Japanese style flower arrangement is called as “Ikebana”.

Japanese style of flower arrangement:

Styles Features Other name
Morimona Fruits, vegetables and English flower arrangement
flower are arranged
Moribana Piled flowers in shallow Natural Ikebana
containers
Nageire Flowers are 1.5 times taller than Western style
flower vase
Jiyubana Moribana+ Nageire styles Free flower arrangement
Zeneibana Beautiful sculpture using Depicting any natural
wood, stone, rocks and metals scenery
Zeneika Straight material with Abstract style and does not
uneven height simulate nature

Nageire
Morimona Moribana

Jiyubana Zeneibana Zeneika

5
Introduction to Floriculture

Other Flower
Arrangement style

Occidental or western Oriental or Eastern style

or British style Line arrangement with
Massing of flowers foliage and flowers

Propagation of Ornamental Plants

I. Sexual Propagation
A. Seed germination
Annual lost viability within 6-12 months
Lotus seed germinated after 150-200 days
Little moisture for germination Portulaca
Light inhibit germination Nigella
Slightly inhibit the germination Larkspur

II. Asexual Propagation

A. Cuttings
Softwood cuttings Carnation, Chrysanthemum,
Coleus, Delphinium, Jasmine,
Hibiscus
Soft hardwood cuttings Jasmine, Hydrangea
Hardwood cuttings Ficus bengalensis, Glyricidia
maculate, Erythrina

6
Introduction to Floriculture

Herbaceous cuttings Geranium, Chrysanthemum,

Coleus, Carnation
Semi- Hard wood stem cuttings Duranta, Hibiscus, Crotons

B. Layering
Simple layering Jasmine, Oleander
Mound or Stool layering Cestrum, Deutzias
Compound or Serpentine layering Jasminum sambac
Continuous or Trench layering Hydrangea, Dianthus
Suckers Shrubs: Ixora, Jasminum
Trees: Millingtonia hortensis

C. Grafting
Inarch grafting Rose (West Bengal, Bihar),
Allamanda violacea
Side grafting Camellias
Saddle grafting Rhododendron, Lilac
Flat grafting Scion for cactus, Cereus
Cleft grafting Prolonged in finger cactus

D. Specialized plant parts

Rhizome Canna
Stolon Chlorophytum
Tubers Begonia, Dahlia

E. Bulbs
i. Tunicate bulbs Daffodil, Tulip
ii. Non- tunicate bulbs Lily
Slabs Narcissus
Corms Gladiolus
Bulbils Narcissus

7
 Study Notes
Major Plantation Crops
Major Plantation Crops

Major Planation Crops

Crop Scientific name Family Origin
Arecanut Areca catechu Arecaceae Malayan , Archipelago/
Indonesia
Coconut Coccus nucifera Arecaceae South East Asia
Oil Palm Elaysis guineanssis Arecaceae West Africa
Tea Camellia sinensis Theaceae China
Coffee Coffea spp. Rubiaceae Ethiopia
Rubber Hevea brasiliensis Euphorbiaceae Brazil
Cashewnut Anacardium occidentale Anacardiaceae Brazil
Cocoa Theobroma cacao Malvaceae Brazil

ARECANUT (Betel nut/ Supari)

• Monoecious palm

Climate and soil requirement

• Temperature: the palm flourishes well within a
temperature range of 14°C to 36°C.
• Rainfall: It grows well in tracts of very high rainfall,
where annual showers may go up to or even more than
4500 mm.
• Soil: Arecanut cultivation is predominant in gravelly
laterite soils of red clay type of Southern Kerala and
Coastal Karnataka. It needs deep and well-drained soil
preferably not less than 2 meters, for development of
root system.
• Arecanut grown as a rain-fed crop in West Bengal, Assam and Southern
parts of Kerala
• Polyphenols and tannins are responsible for astringent taste of nuts
• Inflorescence: Spadix
• Fruit: Single seeded berry
• Spacing: 2.7m x 2.7m
• Cross pollinated; mainly by honey bees
• Propagation: Seeds

Varieties
• Mangla, Sumangla, Sreemangla, Sreevardhan, Sarwamangala,
Mohitnagar, SAS-1, CAL-7, VTLAH-1
• Indigenous popular cultivars: Thirthahalli and South Kanara, Kahikuchi,
SAS-1, Shreewardhanee
• Normal yield in any plantation: >10kg of ripe nuts/palm @10th year
• Most popular arecanut trades: Chali or Kottapak type
• Nuli is made from tender nuts
• Chali/ Kottapak: dried ripened (9 months old) arecanut; popular in
Northern and Western India

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Major Plantation Crops

• Kalipak: Dark green nut (6-7 months); popular in Kerala and Karnataka
• Iylon- well known trade in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh
• Major pest- Spindle bug (Calvalhoia areacae)

Major diseases
• Koleraga or Mahali disease- Phytophthora arecae
• Budrot- Phytophthora palmivora
• Yellow Leaf Disease-MLO
• Anab-e- Roga- Ganoderma lucidum

COCONUT
• King of Species/ Tree of Heaven/ Kalpavriksha/ Tree of life
• Fruit: One seeded Drupe
• Inflorescence: Spadix
• Propagation: Through seedlings

Climate and soil requirement

• Climate: Humid, tropical climate; perennial,
monoecious palm
• Temperature: 27 to 32 º C, Mean annual temperature
of 27 º C with a diurnal variations of 6 to 7 ºC is ideal.
• Rainfall: 1,800 to 2,500 mm per year, well distributed.
• Soil: Soils of coconut growing areas ranges between littoral sands to
the heaviest clays.
• Pure coconut garden spacing: 7.5m x 7.5m
• Genetically the dwarf palms are autogamous while tall types are
allogamous.
• Main pollinating agents: Wind and insects
• Yield: Average coconut yield: 44 nuts/palm/ year

Varieties:
• Dwarf types (for tender coconut)
• Chawghat Orange Dwarf (COD)
• Chawghat Green Dwarf
• Malayan Orange Dwarf
• Malayan Green Dwarf
• Malayan Yellow Dwarf
• Gangabondam
• Tall types (Largely grown in India)
• East Coast Tall
• West Coast Tall
• Laccadive Ordinary or Chandrakalp - VPM-3
• Hybrid types: Chandra Sankara, Chandra Laksha, Laksha Ganga,
VHC-1, VHC-2, VHC3, Kera Sankara, Kera Ganga

3
Major Plantation Crops

Pests:
• Rhinocerus beetle- Oryctes rhinoceros,
• Red palm weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus) - most destructive
pests of coconut
• Root grubs Eriophid mite
Diseases:
• Bud rot - Phytophthora palmivora
• Stem bleeding- Thielaviopsis paradoxa
• Pestalotia leaf spot /Grey leaf spot
• Thanjavar wilt / Ganoderma wilt: Ganoderma lucidum
• Root (wilt) disease: Phytoplasma
• Mahali or fruit rot and nut fall
Other physiological diseases:
• Crown choking or Button shedding- Immature nut fall due to lack of
pollination, fertilization; Boron deficiency
• Rosette or little leaf due to zinc deficiency

Important points about Coconut

• Coconut oil contains lauric acid

• Commercially manufacturing copra: Milling copra (popular in Southern India, Kerala:
60-65%)
• Coir is obtained from mesocarp
• Tapping of coconut is done for toddy.
• For enhancement of fruit set: NAA @200 ppm.
• Most profitable intercrop- Banana

OIL PALM
• American oil palm – South America
• Commonly also known as African oil palm, Red oil
palm
• Economic use: Gives important vegetable oil. These
are the highest oil yielding palms
• Yield: On an average, yields 2.5-4 t/ha
• Extensively cultivated in Malaysia, Indonesia and
Srilanka

Climate and soil requirement:

• Oil palm is considered as a tropical plant. It requires rainy tropical
climate.
• Grows well in areas having mean annual temperature of 20-35°C.
• The mean annual rainfall ranging from 100-1000mm. It requires plenty

4
Major Plantation Crops

of sun shine hours

• Deep loamy soils rich in humus are suitable.
Variants of oil
palm

Dura Pisifera Tenera

(shell is present) (shell absent) (Dura x Pisifera)

• Type of pollination: Cross pollination

• Mode of pollination: Weevil (Elaeidobius kamerunicus)
• Palm oil is extracted from the mesocarp of fruits
• Palm oil is rich in palmitic acid
• Palm kernel oil is extracted from the kernel of fruits.
• Crude palm oil on refining becomes palm oil commercially known as
palmolein.

Important practices in oil palm

Leaf pruning is commercially followed in oilpalm.

Ablation: is a removal of male and female flowers in early stage of plantation

Stripping: is a removal of berries from the bunches after harvest.

TEA
• Also known as Queen of Beverage crop
• Tea first introduced by Mr. Robert Kyd (1980)
• Evergreen shrub (China jats) or tree (Assam jats)
• Calcifuge crop; rainfed crop
• Soil pH: 3.2- 6.2
• Commercial propagation: Single node cuttings
• Tea astringent taste is due to tannins (polyphenols)
• Flowers: Bisexual and Fruit: Capsule

Varieties:
• UPASI-9 (Athrey): Most suitable for higher Ph UPASI-1, 2, 8: Biclonal
varieties.
• UPASI- 10 (Pandiyan)- Resistant to drought and winds, suitable for
higher elevations.

5
Major Plantation Crops

Pest and Diseases:

• Red coffee borer (Zeuzera coffeae) is the major pest of tea.
• Mites are serious problem; Major mite: Pink mite (Acaphylla theae)
• Blister blight of tea is caused by Exobasidium vexans
• Yellowing of tea is due to sulphur deficiency.

COFFEE

• Coffee is a popular beverage brewed from the roasted seeds

(beans) of the Coffea plant.
• Central Coffee Research Institute, CCRI is located at
Chikmagaluru, Karnataka
• Short day plant, Summer showers is important for flowering
• Fruit type: Drupe (2 seeds)
• Flowering time: September to March
• Planting time (16-18 months old): June or September-
October

Important species:

Coffee Type Arabica coffee Robusta coffee

Scientific Name Coffea arabica Coffea canephora
Chromosome Number 2n=4X=44 2n=2X=22
Pollination Type Self-pollinated Cross-pollinated
Origin Ethiopia Central Africa
Flavor Profile Mild, Smooth, Floral, Strong, Earthy, Bitter
Fruity
Caffeine Content Lower Higher
Cultivation Area Higher elevations Lower elevations

• Climatic requirement: Ideal temp. for cultivation

o Arabica: 22-25°C
o Robusta: 20-30°C
• Pollinator: Wind and bee
• Pruning system: Centering, Desuckering, Handling and
Nipping
• Training system: Single stem system
• Permanent shade for coffee is Grevillea robusta and
temporary shade is Indigofera teysanonii
Varieties:
o San Roman- Mutant variety

6
Major Plantation Crops

o Sln.795
o Sln.8
o Sln.9
o Sln.10
o Cauvery (Catura x Hybrido-de-Timor)- Resistant to coffee rust
o Blue Mountain- famous variety

Pests and Diseases

• Coffee leaf rust (Hemelia vestatrix)
• White stem borer (Xylosandrus quadriceps)
• Coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei)- Most serious pest in the
world.

Physiological Disorders
• Bean disorders in Arabica coffee: Black bean, black jollo and normal
jollo
• Die back is the physiological disorder in coffee
• Premature fruit drop.

RUBBER
• Deciduous tree
• Rubber is introduced in Asia: 1876
• Commercial cultivation of rubber in India was started in 1902.
• International Rubber Research and Development Board (IRRDB),
Kuala Lampur, Malaysia
• Rubber Research Institute of India (RRII-1955) is located at
Kottayam, Kerala.
• Most important commercial source of natural rubber: Para rubber Other
rubber species:
Common name Botanical name

Cera rubber Manihot laziovii

Indian rubber Ficus elastica

Panama rubber Castiolla elastica

Guayul rubber Parthenium argentatum

• RRII-105: Highest yielding hybrid clone in the world

Propagation methods:
• Commercial propagation: Forket budding
• Brown budding: Buds taken from one year old shoot
• Green budding: Buds taken from young shoot
• Crown budding: Replacing the undesirable crown of a high yielding
clone with a desirable crown

7
Major Plantation Crops

• Spacing: 4.9m x 4.9m

• Latex is obtained from the bark of the rubber tree by
tapping
• Tappable stage: 7th year onwards (75% of trees
attains tappable girth)
• Tapping depth: 1mm close to cambium
• Stimulation and increasing the latex yield: Ethrel or
Ethephone + Coconut oil @ 10% a.i. (Thrice a year)
• Tapping time: Early morning
• National average yield: 1.6t/ha/yr.
• Total life span of rubber plantation: 20-22 years of tapping
• Latex contains 32% dry rubber content.

CASHEWNUT
• Also known as Plough crop/ Gold mine of waste land/
Dollar earning crop/ Wonder nut/ Zero cholesterol nut
• Evergreen tree, hardy tropical plant
• Very sensitive to water logging
• Very hardy and drought resistant
• Rich source of Vitamin- C (261.5mg/100g) and sugar
• Predominant acid in cashew apple: Malic acid
• Cross pollinated crop
• Pollinators: Insects (Flies, bees) and wind
• Type of fruit: Drupaceous nut
• Type of inflorescence: Indeterminate panicle of
Polygamomonoecious (the sexual condition of a species
that bears staminate, pistillate, and bisexual flowers on the
same plant)
• Flowering period: November and extends up to February
• Propagated by epicotyl (50-60% success rate) and soft wood grafting
(40-70% success rate)
• Softwood grafting is recently recommended for commercial
adoption.
• Planting time: June-July
• Spacing: 7m x 7m or 8m x 8m

Varieties:

• BPP-1,2,3,4,5,6
• Vengurla-1,2
• VRI-1,3,4
• Ullal-1,2,3,4, Chintamani-1
• Annakayam-1, BLA-39-4, K-22-1
• Bhaskara, NRCC Selection-1, NRCC Selection-2
• Jhargam-1: commercially grown in West Bengal

8
Major Plantation Crops

• National Research Centre for Cashew- Puttur, Karnataka

• Cashewnut Research Station (CRS), TNAU, Tamil Nadu
• Peak time of harvest: March- April
• Yield: 6kg/tree (15 years old tree)
• Deblossoming is done in 1st two years and only 3rd year onwards
allow to flowering.

COCOA
• Cocoa is an important commercial plantation crop in India,
especially in the humid tropics.
• Introduced as a mixed crop in areas with suitable environmental
conditions, particularly in coconut and arecanut plantations, since
1970.

Varieties:

There are three varietal types in cocoa namely Criollo, Forastero and
Trinitario. Forastero types are known to perform well under Indian conditions.

CCRP – 1, CCRP – 2, CCRP – 3, CCRP – 4, CCRP– 5, VTLCC-1 Vittal Cocoa Clone 1, VTLCS-
1 Vittal Cocoa Selection 1

Climate and Soil Requirements:

• Suitable climatic conditions: Altitudes up to 1200 m above MSL, annual rainfall of 1000-
2000 mm, relative humidity of 80%, and temperatures between 15°C and 35°C.
• Thrives well on various soil types, with an optimum pH of 6.5-7.0, predominantly on red
laterite soils.

Planting and Shade Requirements:

• Cocoa is a shade-loving plant, needing around 50%

shade during the seedling period and 40% shade as it
grows.
• Often planted as an intercrop in coconut and arecanut
gardens.

Propagation

• Cocoa can be propagated by seeds.

• Patch budding and soft wood cutting can also be used to maintain true to types.

Management Practices:

Regular pruning helps maximize nutrient distribution, increase pod size, reduce Black Pod
disease, and improve air circulation.

9
Major Plantation Crops

Insect pests: Mealy bug, Tea mosquito, Aphids, Plant hoppers.

Diseases: Seedling blight, black pod rot, stem canker, Vascular streak dieback

10
Study Notes
Flower Crops
Flower crops

Important Flower Crops

Crop Scientific name Family
Rose Rosa sp. Rosaceae
Gladiolus Gladiolus sp. Iridiaceae
Marigold African Marigold - Tagetes erecta Asteraceae
French Marigold - Tagetes patula
Chrysanthemum Dendranthema grandiflora Asteraceae
Crossandra Crossandra infundibuliformis Acanthaceae
Carnation Dianthus spp. Caryophyllaceae
Jasmine Jasminum spp Oleaceae
Lily Lilium spp. Liliaceae
Tulip Tulipa spp. Liliaceae
Tuberose Polianthes tuberosa Asparagaceae
Orchid Orchid spp. Orchidaceae

ROSE
• It is universally acclaimed as the ‘King of Flowers’,
National Flower of England.
• The leading flower producing country in the world is
Netherland.
• Biggest importer: Germany.
• Ornamental shrub with pricky stem.
• Fruits are known as hips.

Climatic Conditions and Soil Requirements:

• It can’t bear humid conditions.
• At a temperature below 10° C flowering is affected and blind shoots and bull heads are
developed.
• Requires 8 hours sunshine.
• The soil pH of 6.0 to 7.5 is ideal for rose

Varieties:
• Hybrid Tea : Gladiator, Raktima, Grand gala, Aditya etc.
• Floribundas : Redfront, Olympic gold, Mother Teresa etc.

Propagation:

• Roses can be propagated by seeds, cuttings, layers and by budding.

• For commercial Propagation: Budding.
• Root stocks: Multiflora, Briar, Edward.

After Care:

• Stock sprouts should be frequently removed

2
Flower crops

• The off-shoot of the root-stock part will be seven leaved and odd pinnate which is to be
pinched off as soon as it comes up.
• Dust setting on the leaves should be washed by spraying water on the foliage.

Pruning:

• Wintering followed by pruning are the two important operation under the general
maintenance cares.
• First Pruning: 3-4 months after planting.
• Best time for pruning: First fortnight of October.
• In Tea roses strong shoots are pruned to 2/3 of their length.
• Roses takes about 35 to 60 days from pruning to flowering (depending on variety).

Harvesting:
• After initial planting in July- August rose starts blooming from october and plant will
yield on economic scale for 3 years.
• Plucking stage: bud stage (just prior to blooming).
• Packaging stage: Buds with long stalk are made to bundles of 100 as need may be and
put in the bamboo baskets which are kept floating on water so that the cut end touch the
water.

Plant Protection:

• Black spot: (Diplocarpon rosae)

o Circular blackspots on the leaves causing severe defoliation.
o Initially, brown or yellow spots appear on the lower leaves which then turn into
black spots.
• Die back: (Colletotrichum sp.)
o The stems die back from top down wards and gradually the whole plant.

GLADIOLUS
• Gladioli are popular ornamental plants known for their striking tall flower spikes and vibrant
colors.
• They are commonly grown in gardens, used as cut flowers in floral arrangements, and displayed
as potted plants.
• Attractive violet floret colour.

Varieties:

• Arka Amar
• White Prosperity
• Arka Naveen
• Arka Kesar
• Darshan
• Dhiraj
3
Flower crops
• Acc no- 7
• Kajol
• Shubangini
• American Beauty

Propagation:

• Propagated through corms (3-4cm diameter).

• 64,000 corms per acre are required.

Planting time:

• The best planting time is October.

• Recommended spacing for planting is 30 X 20cm.

Irrigation:

• Critical stages : Flower bud initiation and spike elongation.

Harvesting:

• Gladiolus takes 70 to 110 days to produce flower spikes.

• For proper development of the corms: harvest leaving at least 4 leaves on plant.
Post Harvest management:

• The cut spikes are kept in bucket of cool water and precooled for 2-3hours at room
temperature.
• The spikes are then packed into bundles of 12 and wrapped in newspapers.
• The gladiolus spikes are kept in upright position to avoid geotropic bending.
• Vase life of cut flowers can be extended by pulsing with 300 to 600 ppm solution of 8- HQC
(Hydroxy Quinoline Citrate) + 4 % Sucrose.
• After 50-60 days of harvesting of the flower spikes the leaves turn yellow and dry naturally,
withhold the water and dig out the corms along with cormels.

4
Flower crops

MARIGOLD
• African Marigold – Tagetes erecta
• French Marigold – Tagetes patula
• Flowers are sold in the market as loose or as
garlands.
• Used for cultural and religious purpose in India.

Varieties

1. African Marigold:
• The African Marigolds are generally tall (up to 90 cm).
• The important varieties are: Giant Double African Orange, Giant Double African
Yellow, Cracker Jack, Climax, Dubloon, Golden Age, Chrysanthemum Charm,
Crown of Gold, Spun Gold.

2. French Marigold:
• The French Marigolds are mostly dwarf, early- flowering and compact. ∙ The colour
flowers may be yellow, orange, golden yellow, primrose, mahogany, rusty red, tangerine
or deep scarlet or a combination of these colours.
• The important varieties are: Red Borcade, Rusty Red, Butter Scotch, Valencia,
Sussana.
• However, in the market mostly orange colour varieties are preferred and the variety
which is dominating is African Giant Double Orange.

Propagation:

• Marigold is generally propagated either by seed or by herbaceous cuttings.

• Seeds: 0.8 – 1 Kg per acre.
• Herbaceous cuttings: Apical shoots of 10cm long are usually used for vegetative
propagation.
• One month old seedlings with 3-4 leaves are fit for transplanting.

Spacing:

• African marigold: 60 X 30 cm or 45 X 30cm.

• French marigold: 20 X 20cm or 20 X15cm.

Pinching:

• Removal of apical portion of shoot is known as pinching.

• It is observed that pinching at 40 days after transplanting enhances flower yield.

Harvesting:

• Marigold flowers are plucked when they attain full size.

• Productivity of plants increases considerably by regular plucking of flowers.

5
Flower crops

Yield:

• Normally 4-6 tonnes of flowers per acre can be obtained.

• Seed Yield:
o African marigold: 120-150 Kg /ac
o French marigold: 400-500 Kg/ac.

Packaging:

• Flowers are packed in moist gunny bags or bamboo baskets covered with moist cloth or
polythene sheets.

CHRYSANTHEMUM
• Locally called ‘Chamanthi’/ ‘Guldaudi’, is a very popular
fragrant flower.
• Some have both disk and ray flowers in the heads.

Classification

On the basis of kind and arrangement of florets into five broad

groups

1) Singles

2) Anemones

3) Pompons

4) Decorative

5) Large flowered

Varieties:

• The small flower type known as Nakshatra Chamanti or Kasturi Chamanthi

• Medium flower types or Patnam Chamanti and
• Large flower types which are mostly used for flower decorations and for cut flowers.
• Popular local commercially cultivars are Sugandha white, Sugandha yellow, Marigold,
Chandamama yellow, chanadamama white & violet types.

Planting Time:

• Chrysanthemum is a short day plant and flowers during cool season. ∙ The best time for
planting is June- July while late varieties can be planted upto August.
Propagation:
• Chrysanthemum is commercially propagated by terminal cuttings (5-7 cms healthy
stock plant) or through micro propagation.

6
Flower crops

Important Practices done in Chrysanthemum

1. Staking: necessary for tall growing varieties.

2. Pinching: The terminal buds are removed at 4weeks after planting. This may be
repeated on lateral shoots after 7weeks of planting or 100 days before full bloom.

3. Desuckering: periodic removal of side suckers.

Harvesting:

• Plants start yielding flowers after 3-4 months of transplanting.

• Fully opened flowers are to be plucked by hand picking at 4 days interval with or without
pedicel (stalk) for loose flowers purpose.

CROSSANDRA
• Crossandra is native to India and Sri Lanka and is
commonly known by various names, including
Firecracker Flower, Orange Marmalade, and
Kanakambaram.

Varieties:

• Tetraploid types - Orange, Lutea Yellow, Sebaculis

Red.
• Triploid types - Delhi Crossandra.

Propagation: seeds or stem cuttings.

• Tetraploids: Seed rate is 5kg/ha.
• Triploids: Terminal cuttings of 10 - 15 cm length (41,700 cuttings/ha).

Intercultivation:

• The crop is top dressed 3-4 times with 25-20-45 kg/acre of N: P2O5 : K2O each time, at
3,6,9 and 15 months after transplanting. Immediately after planting, the crop has to be
irrigated twice a week and later irrigation is to be provided at 7-10 days interval.

Harvesting:

• Crossandra flowers within two to three months after planting and continues to bear
flowers throughout the year.

7
Flower crops
• Flowers will be available for picking for six months in a year.
• At each picking, an yield of 5 to 7 kg of flowers will be obtained. After 6 months, about
200-280 kg of flowers per hectare/year will be obtained.

Diseases:

• Wilt (Fusarium solani): Results in yellowing of leaves and death of the plants.
• Foot and Root rot (Phytophthora nicotianae): In young seedlings, symptoms appear as
brown lesions on rootlets followed by rotting of the entire rootlet.
• Flower blight (Alternaria sp.): Drying up of flowers during winter months are symptoms.
Young flowers fail to open on infection.

CARNATION
• Carnations are known for their sweet fragrance and are often used in floral arrangements, bouquets,
and as cut flowers due to their long-lasting nature.

Varieties

• Standard carnation - These have single large flower

on an individual stem used as cut flower.
• Spray carnation - bunch of flowers on short branches
of a single stalk. The flowers are small and compact on
each branch.
• Micro carnation - These have shorter stems and
higher production than spray varieties.
• Standard type: Gaudina, Aicardii, White Liberty, white
Dona, Pink Dover, Dumas, Charmant, Diana Kiro,
Liberty, Solar, Star, Malaga, Athena, Happy Golem. ∙
• Spray type: Red Eye, Red Vital, White Prestige, Milky way, Rosa Bebe, Spur, Stella, Sunshine,
Autmn, Fancy Fuego, Berry, Nadeja, Picaro.

Important practices done in Carnation

• Staking – providing support

• Pinching: When the plant attains six nodes, the first pinch is given. This is
referred as ‘single pinch’.
o one and half pinch: 2-3 of these lateral shoots are pinched again.
o double pinch: all the lateral shoots are pinched off
• Disbudding: removal of unwanted buds
o standard carnations: side buds are removed.
o spray carnations: terminal buds are removed.

Propagation and Planting:

• Plantlets/suckers can be used for planting. The terminal cuttings of 5-10 are used.
8
Flower crops
Harvesting:

• Flowering starts 110-120 days after planting.

• Harvesting stage:
• Standard types - paint brush stage
• Spray types - when two flowers are open and the remaining flower buds show colour.
Yield:

15 lowers/plant (350 - 375 flowers stems/m2) in 2 years period.

Disorders:

1. Calyx Splitting: Varying temperature and environmental conditions influences calyx

splitting. The calyx may split down either half or completely.
2. Curly tip: Tips of the young shoots fail to separate and continuation of growth results in a
characteristic curvature. Poor light and other adverse conditions. Water stress and
potassium deficiency.

JASMINE

• Native of tropical and subtropical regions and introduced

in the mid sixteenth century.
• Jasminum sambac is considered as a native of the East
Indies.

Jasmine Common Flower Fragrance Blooming Important Varieties

species Name Color Time
Jasminum Gundumalle White Single or Year-round Ramanadhapuram,
sambac Multi Motia, Virupakshi,
Whorled Suijmalli,
Petals Madanabanam,
Ramabanam

Jasminum Juhi White Scented Year-round Co-1 Mullai, Co-2

auriculatum Mullai, Long Round,
Short Point, Short
Round
Jasminum Kakada White Less or no November -
multiflorum to February
Jasminum Royal or white, delightfully March to CO-1, CO-2
grandiflorum Spanish often fragrant September.
Jasmine, tinged
with
purple

9
Flower crops
Propagation: Cutting and layering.

Planting distance:

• J.sambac : 1.2 x 1.2 m; J.auriculatum : 1.8 x 1.8 m; J.multiflorum : 1.5x 1.5 m

Planting is usually done during June – August.
Pruning:

• The pruning is usually done after 2 years of its planting.

• Jasminum sambac : December to January
• Jasminum auriculatum: February-March
• Jasminum multiflorum: August-September.

Harvesting:

• The plants starts flowering from 2nd year after planting and the commercial yields
commence from third year onward.

Yield:

• Species Flower Yield (t/ac)

• J.sambac 1.0-2.0
• J.auriculatum 1.8-3.6
• J.mutiflorum 1

LILY
Climate:
• Liliums are best grown in green houses. Day
temperature of 18-22°C and night temperature of
10-15°C are ideal.
Soil:
• Well drained sterile medium (preferably leaf mould,
cocopeat and FYM in equal parts) with pH 5.5 to
6.5 is ideal. Fumigate the beds with Dazomet @
30g/m2.
Propagation: Liliums are commercially propagated through bulbs. A six week cold storage period
at 2˚C to 5˚C is needed to break dormancy.
Spacing: 20 x 15 cm, 15 x 15 cm or 15 x 10 cm (plant density varies between 30 and 60/m2
depending on cultivar and bulb size)
Irrigation: 6- 8 litres/m2/day during summer and 5 - 6 litres/m2/day during winter
Varieties:
• Asiatic hybrids : Dreamland (yellow), Brunello (orange), Novona (white), Pollyanna (yellow),
Yellow Giant (yellow), Vivaldi (pink), Black Out (Deep red)
• Oriental hybrids: Star Gazer (Pink & white), Nerostar, Siberia, Acapulco (cyclamen pink)
and Casablanca
• Eastern lily (L. longiflorum): Elegant Lady, Ace, Snow Queen, White, American, Croft and
10
Flower crops
Harbor

Major insect pest: Aphids, mites, thrips

Major diseases: Foot rot & Root rot, Grey mould, Bulb and scale rot

TULIP

• Tulip is a popular bulbous ornamental plant known

for its colorful and exquisite flowers.
• Cultivated in various captivating shades, tulips
have created a significant bulb-growing industry.
Climate and Soil:
• Optimal growth in hills with night/day temperatures
of 5-10°C to 20-25°C during the growing season.
• Requires direct morning and evening sun but
partial shade during mid-day. Frost is harmful
during bulb emergence.
• Well-drained, light sandy loam soil is ideal. In heavy soils, well-decomposed manure should
be mixed thoroughly.
Varieties:
• Garden tulips categorized into early, mid, and late flowering classes with various hybrids and
species.
• Notable varieties include Single Early, Double Early, Mendal, Triumph, Darwin, Lily-flowered,
Parrots, and Species tulips.
Propagation:
• Propagated through bulblets, bulbs, and seeds (producing varied flower shades).
Planting:
• Plant bulbs at appropriate depths and spacings, depending on the altitude (mid-hills or high
hills).
• Staggered planting at 15-day intervals ensures a consistent flower supply.
Manures & Fertilizers:
• Well-rotted farmyard manure may be added, and micronutrient-rich solutions like Multiplex
can be sprayed.
Harvesting:
• Cut flowers when 25-50% color develops on petals, typically between February to June,
depending on the region.
• Harvest bulbs when leaves start turning yellow, 40-45 days after flowering. Air-dry bulbs in
partial shade.
Storage:
• Store bulbs at 7-9°C for 6-8 weeks during September-October to promote proper flower
development and prevent flower abortion due to temperature fluctuations.
Plant Protection:
• Control thrips with Rogor (0.05%) spray and prevent bulb rot using Bavistin (0.1%) or Dithane
M-45 (0.2%).
11
Flower crops

TUBEROSE
• Also known as Rajanigandha or Nishigandha
• Hardy, perennial bulbous plant
Climate and Soil:
• Thrives in mild climates without extreme temperatures.
Grows well in warm, humid areas with average
temperatures around 20°C to 35°C.
• High humidity aids lush growth, while temperatures
exceeding 40°C diminish flower quality. Frost and very
low temperatures can damage plants and flowers.
• Adaptable to a wide soil range but favors loamy or sandy
loam soils with a pH range of 6.5-7.5.
• Well-aerated and well-draining soils with ample organic
matter and moisture retention capabilities are ideal.
• Tolerant even in slightly saline or alkaline soils.
Varieties:
• Inflorescence- Spikes (opens acropetally)
• Flowers of single types are used for extraction of essential oils and loose flower industry
• Single type varieties are more abundant in concrete (0.08-0.14%)
• Varieties: Shringar, Prajwal, Arka Nirantara, Rajat Rekha
• Double types varieties are used for cut flowers, garden display and interior decoration
• Varieties:Vaibhav, Suvasini,Swarn Rekha
• Semi-double types- Flowers are 2-3 rows of tepals
Propagation:
• Primarily propagated through bulbs. Can also be propagated by division of bulbs or, less
commonly, through tissue culture for virus-free material or rapid multiplication.
Planting:
• Best planted in February-March in plains, April-May in hills. Sequential planting can ensure
continuous flowering. Replanting necessary after 3 years.
• Proper spacing significantly impacts flower and bulb quality. Higher plant density results in
increased yield of spikes, flowers, and bulbs.
• Spacing recommendations vary across regions, with suggestions ranging from 10-15cm
between bulbs and 25cm between rows, up to 30-38cm between rows and 15-20cm between
bulbs.
Manures & Fertilizers:
• Grows well in soils rich in organic matter. Suitable mixtures include garden soil, FYM, and
leaf mould. Regular manuring is essential for quality flower production.
Harvesting:
• Flowers are harvested by cutting spikes at the base. Harvesting in cool hours preserves
flower quality. A team can harvest a considerable amount in a few hours.
Storage:
• Post-harvest, retaining small clasping leaves on the flower stalk extends flower life.

Plant Protection:
• Bud Borer (Helicoverpa armigera):
• Eggs are deposited singly on growing spikes. Larvae bore into buds and flowers and feed on
12
Flower crops
them by making holes.
• Control: Setting up of light traps helps to control population by attracting them. Sprays of
Endosulphan 0.07% or Methyl Parathion 0.05% controls borer
.
• Aphids:
• These are tiny insects, soft bodied, green, deep purple or black in colour, occur in clusters
and feed on flower buds and young leaves.
• Spraying the infected plants with Malathion @0.1% at an interval of 15 days is effective.

ORCHID
• Orchidaceae is a large family of monocotyledons comprising about 800 genera and 25,000
species around the world.
• ORIGIN : Tropical Forests of Amazon & Indo - Malayan region.
• Flowers of orchids are perfect, terminal, solitary or in a spike or raceme or panicle
Climate and Soil:
• There are many orchids which are very beautiful belonging to different climatic zones and
these cannot grow under the same climatic conditions

Classification of Orchids:

Sr.
No.
Classification Description
1. Based on Growth habit Monopodial • These orchids do not make separate new
growths in each season.
• The growth of the axis stops at the end
of each flowering season and continues
in the next season by a newly grown axis.
• Do not have rhizome and where single
stem increases its height throughout the
life period,
Ex. Aerides, Rhynchostylis, Vanda,
Phalaenopsis, etc.
Sympodial • The plant grows continuously in one
direction only and their stems lengthen
from one season to another and produce
aerial roots along their whole length.
• Each new growth produces its own set
of roots
• Stems are generally thickened and
bulbous are named as pseudobulbs
Ex: Cattleya, Coelogyne, Epidenarum,
Laelia and Sophronitis.
• Rhizomes are found only in sympodial
types of orchids and are actually a primary
stem, from which arises the secondary
stem.
2. Based on their Habitats Terrestrial • Grow in soil, Sympodial and perennial
/Gound • Ex : Spathoglottis plicata, Arundina
Orchids graminifolia, Phaius tankervilleae,
Cymbidiums, Paphiopedilum
Epiphytic • Grow well on other plants
Orchids

13
Flower crops
• Abundant in humid tropical rain forests
of India. - Elevation upto 3000m.
• Ex : Vanda, Vanilla, Dendrobium,
Cymbidium, Cattleya, Oncidium
Saprophytic • Live on dead and decaying organic
Orchids matter
• Ex : Neottia, Galeola, Listera etc.
Lithophytic • Rarely found and they grow in moist,
Orchids shaded rocks and crevices of walls.
• Ex : Cymbidium munronianum,
Diplomeris hirsuta
Subterranean • Underground orchids, Found in
Orchids Australia
• Ex:Rhizanthetta and Cryptanthemis
3. Based on Temperature Warm orchids • 15.5ºC
requirement • Ex. Phalaenopsis, Vanda,
Rhynchostylis and some Dendrobium
Intermediate • 13ºC to 18ºC
Orchids : • Ex. Cattleya, Laelia, Brassavola, Oncidium,
Miltonia
Cool Orchids • 10ºC to 13ºC
• Ex. Cymbidium, plain leaf Paphiopedilum,
some species of Miltonia, Odontoglossum
and Dendrobium.

14
Flower crops

15
Flower crops

16
Flower crops

Propagation:
• Division of clumps, keikis, back bulbs and tissue culture plants.

Planting:
• Plant grown to a large clump with 2 or 3 old canes and new shoots, - divided
before repotting. Each division - at least one old cane of two years’ growth, one
new shoot & some new roots.

Harvesting:
• It is best to pick out flowers while they have completely opened because cut
flowers won't last long enough to reach the sellers. Harvesting the spike when 75
per cent of the flowers are open and remaining buds are unopen.
Plant Protection:
• Diseases:
1. Bacterial soft and Brown rot (Ervinia spp.): Application with Foliar spray of
Streptomycin Sulphate @ 0.5 g + Copper Oxy Chloride @ 2 g/l.

2.Bacterial Brown spot (Acidovorax sp.): Application with Foliar spray of Streptomycin
Sulphate @ 0.5 g + Copper Oxy Chloride @ 2

17
Study Notes
Bonsai
Bonsai

Introduction
• The art of bonsai first originated in China but thrived well in Japan.
• The word bonsai comes from the Japanese ‘bon’ meaning pan, and ‘sai’, a plant.
• It is the skill of shaping and dwarfing trees and shrubs, keeping them minimal replicas
of their original forms by growing them in shallow pots or trays.

Cultivation:
• Bonsai requires specialized techniques and tools for growth and long-term maintenance
in small containers.
• Techniques Include: Leaf trimming, pruning, wiring, clamping, grafting, defoliation, and
deadwood techniques (jin and shari) for simulating age and maturity.
• Young trees can be trained and given an appearance of old age by branch shortening or
training them to grow downward.

Classification of Bonsai:
A. Japanese Size Classification:

Size Classification Height Range

Miniature Bonsai 5cm to 15cm

Small Bonsai 15cm to 30cm

Medium Bonsai 30cm to 60cm

Big Bonsai Over 60 cm

B. Bonsai Styles:
➢ Formal Upright (Chokkan):
Straight, upright, tapering trunk with branches thick at the bottom, tapering towards the top.

➢ Informal Upright (Moyogi):

Visible curves in trunk and branches, with the apex above the trunk's entry into the soil line.

➢ Slant Style (Shakan):

Straight trunk emerging from the soil at an angle, apex located to the left or right of the root
base.

➢ Windswept Style (Fukinagashi):

Tree appears affected by continuous strong winds, reflecting a shaped tree atop a mountain
or on an exposed shoreline.

2
Bonsai

➢ Cascade Style (Kengai):

Modeled after trees growing over water or down mountainsides. The apex varies: in semi-
cascade, it extends just beneath the lip of the pot, while in full cascade, it falls below the base
of the pot.

➢ Shari or Sharimiki Style:

Depicts a tree's struggle to live with a significant part of the trunk being bare of bark.

➢ Root-over-Rock (Sekijoju) Style:

Tree's roots wrapped around a rock, entering the soil at the rock's base.

➢ Growing-in-a-Rock (Ishizuke) Style:

Tree's roots growing in soil within cracks and holes of a rock.

➢ Forest or Group (Yose-ue) Style:

Planting of several trees of the same species in a single pot.

➢ Multi-Trunk (Ikadabuki) Style:

Multiple trunks growing from one spot with a single root system, though visually appearing as
one tree.

➢ Raft Style (Netsuranari):

Mimics a tree that has toppled onto its side due to natural forces. Branches along the top side
continue to grow as new trunks.

Bonsai Styles

Formal Upright (Chokkan) Informal Upright (Moyogi) Slant Style (Shakan)

3
Bonsai

Windswept Style (Fukinagashi) Cascade Style (Kengai): Sharimiki Style

Growing-in-a-Rock (Ishizuke)
Forest (Yose-ue) Style
Root-over-Rock (Sekijoju) Style Style

Multi-Trunk (Ikadabuki) Style Multi-Trunk (Ikadabuki) Style

Shaping and Styling Bonsai:

• Bonsai plants aren't genetically dwarf; they're normal plants trained and
maintained to miniature sizes.
• Plan the final shape and size before planting, creating a sketch of the desired
style.
Plant Selection:
Conifers
• Examples: Abies alba, Cedrus spp., Chamaecyparis spp., Cryptomeria
japonica, Juniperus chinensis, etc.
• Evergreen with varying habits, some slow developers, distinctive foliage.
• Pruning: Before bud burst in spring or autumn, specific to each species.

4
Bonsai

Deciduous Trees:
• Examples: Acer palmatum, Betula nigra, Fagus crenata, Ginkgo biloba, Malus
spp., etc.
• Varied leaf shapes and colors, distinct seasonal changes.
• Pruning: Pre-bud burst in spring, or specific to autumn for certain species.
Ornamental Shrubs & Small Trees:
• Examples: Azalea, Camellia japonica, Cotoneaster spp., Crataegus spp.,
Jasminum nudiflorum, etc.
• Characteristics: Varied leaf shapes, flowers, and fruits across different species.
• Pruning: Post-flowering, spring, or specific to each plant's growth cycle.
Easy to Grow Bonsai Species:
• Lower maintenance species suitable for beginners: Portulacaria afra, Malphigia
coccigera, Ficus species, etc.
Succulent Bonsai:
• Suitable succulents for bonsai making: Adansonia digitata, Adenium obesum,
Crassula ovate, etc.
Techniques for Growing Bonsai:
• Pruning: Regularly done, mainly in the tree's upper parts during March and
September to encourage inner growth.
• Pinching: Reduces leaf area for artistic shape, but excessive pinching can lead
to wilting.
• Root Pruning: Essential during transplanting to maintain proportion and prevent
roots from bulging out.
• Wiring:Crucial for training bonsai trees; copper wire is pliable and used to bend
branches.
• Wire is wound around the trunk and branch but needs rewiring every six months
to prevent bark injury.
• Defoliation: Technique to promote new, smaller leaves; done on deciduous and
broad-leaved species

Bonsai Containers:
• Selection: Containers should be proportionate to plant growth, durable, and
visually appealing. Shape (round, oval, rectangular) depends on the tree style.
• Preference: Unglazed containers for better soil aeration; natural colors are
favored.

Care and Maintenance:

1. Soil Mix:
• Ideal mix: Loamy soil/Coco-Peat, coarse river sand, leaf litter in specific
proportions.
• Soil should not waterlog, become sour, or be too rich in manures.
2. Watering:
• Essential due to shallow containers; tap container sides to determine watering

5
Bonsai

needs: dull sound means no watering, ringing tone indicates a need.

3. Manuring:
• Done twice a year (spring and rainy season) for proper growth; excess manure
leads to soft, sappy growth.
4. Repotting:
• Frequency varies: fast-growing plants every year, slow-growing every 2-3 years.
• Remove plant gently, remove old subsoil, trim roots longer than the container,
reposition, fill with compost, and water immediately.

Bonsai Pots:
• Materials: Terra cotta, cement ceramic, plastic, mica, wood.
• Should comfortably house the tree and roots, have a drainage hole, match the
plant without dominating it.

Benefits of Bonsai
Therapeutic Value:
• Certain plants like Jade and Ficus religiosa have healing properties, promoting
relaxation and reducing physical and mental stress.
• Bonsai viewing acts as natural therapy, aiding in stress reduction and
relaxation, even for those unable to engage in vigorous activities.
Indoor Air Purification:
• Bonsai plants help combat indoor air pollution, contributing to a healthier indoor
environment by generating oxygen.
• They can significantly improve air quality, especially in urban settings where
space is limited and pollution is a concern.
Species Conservation:
• Growing bonsai helps preserve species facing extinction, such as the Moringa
hildebrandtii and threatened trees like Banyan and Peepal in India.
Stress Reduction & Mental Health Benefits:
• Bonsai positively impacts human psychology and physiology, enhancing
learning, reducing distress, and aiding in mental health restoration.
• Engaging with bonsai is likened to meditation, fostering contemplation and
serving as a form of relaxation.
COVID-19 Era Significance:
• During the pandemic, bonsai emerged as a deeply engaging pursuit, offering
substantial positive effects on physical, emotional, and mental well-being.
• Engaging in bonsai cultivation served as a coping mechanism, providing comfort,
relaxation, and a sense of purpose during challenging times.
Art Therapy & Holistic Well-being:
• Bonsai art intertwines ecological, spiritual, and emotional dimensions, offering
therapeutic attributes like creativity, resilience, and adaptability.
• It's been used in diverse settings, including psychiatric institutions and
rehabilitation centers, as a tool for mental health support and rehabilitation.

6
Bonsai

Conclusion & Future Prospects:

• Bonsai encourages mindfulness, reduces stress, enhances ambiance, and builds
community ties, contributing to holistic well-being.
• It offers an opportunity for urban dwellers to connect with nature and might evolve
further through biotechnology and research into its physiological and
psychological benefits.

7
Study Notes
GARDENS
 GARDENS

Garden Style
Garden style typically refers to the design and layout of a
garden, focusing on the overall theme and aesthetic choices
that create a specific atmosphere. There are various garden
styles, each with its own characteristics and elements. Some
popular garden styles include:

1. Formal Garden
• Symmetrical garden
• If there is a plant on the left hand side of a straight
road, a similar plant must be planted at the
opposite place on the right hand side i.e., mirror
image of each other.
• Square, rectangular shaped and roads cut at
right angles.
• It has a sort of enclosure or boundary.
• Flower beds are arranged in geometric designs.
• The arrangement of trees and shrubs is necessarily
geometrical and kept in shape by trimming and
training.
• Other features like fountains, water pools, cascades etc. are
used for further attraction
Examples:

Mughal Garden:
➢ Developed by Mughals in India.
➢ Special Features: Mostly square and rectangular in shape
➢ Architectural features like bird baths and fountains were
established.
➢ High walls with huge wooden gates, studded with pointed
iron spikes
➢ Artificial terraces mainly 8 in numbers.
➢ Running water source like canal, stream, ponds etc.
➢ Baradari:Masonry feature with permanen roof and 12 doors
➢ Tomb Monuments: Taj Mahal in Taj Garden

Persian Garden :
➢ Based on “Idea of heaven”
➢ Laid out by cutting terraces in hill slopes
➢ Flowing canal is main feature of Persian garden
➢ Fruit trees represent life and cypress represents death and
eternity

2
GARDENS

Italian Garden:
➢ Popularized at the “time of Renaissance”
➢ Garden is just an extension of lavish palaces.
➢ Massive flight of marble stairs, decorative
urns, fountains in combination with stone
sculpture.

French Garden
➢ Developed by “Le-Notre”
➢ Based on idea of “How to think big”
➢ He designed gardens at extensive scales.

2. Informal garden
• This style reflects naturalistic effect of total view and
represents natural beauty.
• It is contrast to formal style.
• Plan is asymmetrical according to the land available for
making the garden.
• Smooth curvaceous outlines are more appropriate.
• Water bodies are more irregular in shape.
• Features such as hillocks, water falls, lakes, islands,
cascades, rocks, shola and rustic hutments are
provided to create rural effect.
• Plants are appropriately grouped and they are not trimmed, so as to avoid
geometrical arrangements.

Examples:
English Garden:

➢ Repton and Brown conceptualized English

gardens
➢ Main features are curved path, informal group of
trees, artificial waterfall and clipped hedges,
lawns,herbaceous borders, shrubbery and rockery.
➢ Annuals are preferred like Gompherina,
Amaranthus, marigold etc.

Japanese Garden:
➢ Japanese gardens were influenced by Chinese and Korean gardens in the period of
Heian (794-1185A.D.)
➢ Most important teaching is “Unless a garden has an air of peace”

3
GARDENS

➢ Not much influenced by seasonal changes

➢ Captures natural scenery.
➢ Three Important features: Water, stone and plants
➢ Low sculptured bushes and trained dwarfed trees are main attraction.
➢ Types of Japanese garden:

Karesansui Garden/Zen Garden:

▪ Consists mainly of arranged rocks with sand surrounding it.
▪ Represents sea or river.
▪ Ideal for meditation in Zen Buddhism

Tsukiyama/Hill and Pond Garden:

➢ Classic type Japanese garden embodies
natural scenery with manmade
hills,ponds,streams and long winding paths
➢ Facilitate peaceful stroll

Chaniwa/Tea Garden:
➢ Features stepped path leading to tea
ceremony house
➢ Made of inner and outer garden
➢ At middle garden stone basin (tsubaki) for
ritual cleansing for guests
➢ Stone lanterns used for decorative purpose

Paradise Garden:
➢ Developed by Buddhist monks
➢ Consists of ponds with lotus flowers, trees,
bridge and a large Buddhist pavilion

Chisen-shoyū-teien/ Pond garden:

➢ Originally introduced in China
➢ Contains large pond with two distinct wings
➢ Aims at relaxing the guests with stunning
scenery
Tsuboniwa/Courtyard Garden:
➢ Made up of simple arrangements of
elements of other gardens
➢ Mostly found in temples and residential
areas

4
GARDENS

➢ Developed in Edo Period

Other types of Gardens:

Terrace Garden
➢ A flat area which is raised for the purpose
of gardening is known as terrace gardening.
➢ Usually constructed in front of house
➢ Very popular in western countries
➢ Sitting arrangements are made with
wrought iron materials

Rock Garden
➢ Artistical arrangement of rocks and soils
along with grasses, lichens, mosses and
other lithophytes is known as Rock
Garden.
➢ Rockery is constructed in vast area
➢ Uniform size rocks (60cm) are used and placed in slant position in back side
to conserve rain water
➢ Plants used: Cacti:
Agave,Euphorbeae,Furcreae,Kalanchoe
➢ Ferns: Drynaria, Nephrodium
➢ Shrubs: Adenium, Callandra
haematocephala, Callistemon, Thuja spp.
➢ Annuals: Dwarf antirrhinum, Candytuft,
Dianthus, Viola, Zinnia

Bog Garden
➢ It is developed at the site where water is collected
➢ Also called “Marsh Garden”
➢ It is developed in the area which is moist in all the seasons
➢ Plants:Acorus calamus, Alocasia, Calla
palustris, Hemerocallis etc

Water Garden
➢ Main features involves water body with
fountain but plants like lotus and lily is
missing
➢ Tradition is followed in Buddhist temples

Sunken Garden
➢ Garden developed below the ground level
is known as sunken garden
➢ Ideal depth-120 cm
➢ To facilitate absorption of collected water
with drainage materials like stone, pebbles,

5
 GARDENS

rubbles etc.

Important Gardens in India

Sr
No. Name of the garden Location Image

1. JC Bose Indian Kolkata, West Bengal

Botanical Garden (Collection of 12,000 plant
species)

2. Brindhavan Garden Mysore, Karnataka

3.
3. Jawahar Lal Nehru Gangtok, Sikkim
Botanical Garden (Large living collection of
trees, lianas, MAPs,
orchids, Bamboos and
rare and threatened
plants)

4. Lal Bagh Garden Banglore, Karnataka

(Holds flower show and
have 1000 plant species)

6
 GARDENS

5. Lloyd’s Botanical Darjeeling, West Bengal

Garden

6. Nishat Bagh Srinagar, J&K

(Second largest Mughal
Garden)

7. Amrit Udyan New Delhi

(At Rashtrapati Bhavan)

8. Pinjore Garden Panchkula,Haryana

(Est. by Fidai Khan)

9. Rock Garden Chandigarh

(Est. Nek Chand)

7
 GARDENS

10. Shalimar Bagh Srinagar, J&K

(Covers area 12.4
hectares)

11. Sim’s Park Coonoor, Tamil Nadu

(Collection of 255 generas
of 85 plant families)

12. Tulip Garden Srinagar, J&K

(Largest Tulip Garden of
Asia)

13. Auroville Botanical Auroville, Tamil Nadu

Garden

14. Chashme Shahi Srinagar, J&K

8
 Study Notes
LANDSCAPE
GARDENING
LANDSCAPE GARDENING

Introduction
• Landscape gardening isn't just about creating visually pleasing surroundings, It's a
reflection of historical and natural elements shaped by human activities over time.
• By incorporating natural components like landforms, trees, shrubs, and water
features, landscape gardening aims to harmonize with the environment.
• it plays a crucial role in environmental improvement by mitigating pollution effects,
reducing heat, noise, and wind impacts.

Principles of Landscape Design:

➢Initial Approach: Utilize available space wisely, maintaining the natural topography.
➢Axis: Imaginary line around which the garden is balanced, often featuring a central
focal point or attraction.
➢ Background: The backdrop of a garden, whether walls, trees, or hedges, should
complement rather than distract from the main garden features.
➢ Contrast: Introducing variety in forms, textures, or colors helps break visual
monotony and enhances interest.
➢ Balance/Proportion: Achieving equilibrium among different garden components
while avoiding overcrowding for a harmonious look.
➢ Focalization: Establishing a focal point that draws attention but doesn't dominate
the entire landscape, often enhancing the entrance or a specific area.
➢ Simplicity: Keeping the landscape design uncluttered and straightforward while
allowing complexity through thoughtful design elements.
➢ Repetition: Repeating specific features in a manner that creates rhythm and unity
while avoiding monotony.
➢ Rhythm: Creating visual harmony through carefully designed lines, patterns, and
repetitive elements.
➢ Variety: Introducing diversity through contrasts in color, form, and texture to maintain
visual interest.
➢ Unity: Ensuring that all landscape elements work together cohesively to create a
unified and aesthetically pleasing space.
➢ Space and Divisional Lines: Design gardens to appear larger by maximizing open
spaces like lawns and limiting peripheral plantings.
➢ Light, Time, Tone, and Color: Use color schemes wisely, leveraging masses of
single colors for a softer, appealing tone.
➢ Mobility and Style: Introduce movement through changing foliage, flowering
annuals, and attracting birds and butterflies.

Garden Elements:
Major Elements:
1. Plants:
• Aesthetic Purpose:
• Avenue Planting: Presenting a parade of
flowers/trees along pathways or roads.

• Ground Planting: Planting flowers directly into the

ground. Avenue Planting
• Shrubbery, Rockery, Topiary, Hedges, Edges:
Different ways of shaping and arranging plants.

2
LANDSCAPE GARDENING

• Potted Plants, Flower Beds, Borders: Using pots and beds to display plants.
• Ground Cover: Using low-growing plants to cover the ground.
• Water Garden: Incorporating plants in water features for aesthetic appeal.

Shrubbery:
• The garden area which is exclusively dedicated for growing shrubs
is known as shrubbery.
• It’s purpose is to hide one portion of the garden with another.
• Shrubs used: Foliage: Begonia,Anthuriums, Aspidistra, Dracaena
• Flowering: Rosa indica, Jasminum spp. Acanthus spp.,
Callistemon, Azaleas, Duranta etc.

Topiary:
• Training and pruning of plants to provide a specific ornamental
shape (Birds, Elephants, Alligator, Lady, Horse etc) is termed as
topiary.
• Plants used: Duranta plumieri, Inga dulcis, Acacia mmodesta,
Clerodendron inerme etc.

Hedges:
• Use of shrubs and trees for the purpose of continuous screening
by planting them at regular distance is known as hedging.
• Purpose: Ornamentation, Protection and Demarcation
• Plants used: Bougainvillea, Lawsonia, Acacia fernesiana, Neriium
indicum, Murraya paniculata, Poinsettia pulcherima, Ficus retusa
etc.

Edges:
• For the purpose of demarcation and beautification, low growing
plants are planted along the paths, roads, lawns and flower beds
is known as edging.
• Types:
• Formal/Mechanical: materials like bricks, tiles, stones. Bamboo
pieces and broken bottles are used.
• Informal/Living: Grass Verge, Low growing plants like
Eupatorium, Coleus, Echeveria, miniature roses etc.

Carpet Bedding:
• Low growing plants are grown over artistically in forms of some
alphabets or any other set of design is known as carpet bedding.
• Designs are formed with the help of wires and plants are grown
with timely trimming.
• Plants used: Alternenthera, Coleus, Sedum, Echeveria etc.

3
LANDSCAPE GARDENING

Ground Covers:
• Low growing ornamental plants which covers the ground and
are aesthetically pleasing are known as ground covers.
• Example: Phlox subulata, Thymus serpyllum,Delosperma
cooperi etc.

Rockery:
• A raised part of garden which is built with the help of rocks along with soil and
small plants grow in between.

Arches:
o A structure composed near gate or path with the help of
climbers or ramblers.
o The height should be arounkd 2-2.5 metre.
o Arches are erected with iron rods, pipes, wooden poles.

Pergolas:
• A series of arches joined together develops pergolas.
• The roof of pergola like arch may be flat, angular or horse
hoofed.
• It gives tunnel type effect.

• Functional Purpose:
• Pollution Control, Noise Reduction, Soil Erosion Control,
Wind Breaks: Utilizing plants for environmental purposes.
• Mitigating Climate Change, Providing Habitat for Wildlife:
Using plants to address broader ecological concerns.
2. Water:
• Aesthetic Use:
• Waterfalls, Fountains, Streams, Lakes, Pond: Creating various water features for
visual appeal.

Reflection with Lighting: Using water and lighting to enhance nighttime aesthetics

4
LANDSCAPE GARDENING

• Temperature Reduction, Sound Enhancement: Utilizing water features to cool the

environment and create soothing sounds.

• Functional Use:
• Nourishing Plants: Providing essential moisture for plant growth and development.

Minor Elements:
1. Stones, Bricks, Wood, Metal, Sculptures, Glass, Concrete, Tar/Asphalt, Plastic:
• Various Uses: Utilizing these materials for different structural and ornamental
purposes within the garden.
• Artistic Elements: Incorporating sculptures and artistic features to enhance visual
interest.
2. Lighting, Sound, Smell, Touch, Food:
• Enhancing Experience: Using different sensory elements to enrich the garden
experience.
• Lighting for Illumination: Highlighting focal points and water features.
• Aromatic Plants for Smell: Incorporating plants with pleasant scents.

Basic Patterns in Garden Design:

1. Circular, Diagonal, Rectangular Patterns:
• Formal and Informal Gardens: Utilizing these patterns based on garden design
styles.
2. Identification of Site:
• Public and Private Gardens: Considering different needs based on the garden's
purpose.
3. Analysis:
• Physical and Social Factors: Studying environmental and cultural aspects that
influence garden design.
4. Measuring Up:
• Sketching the Area: Outlining existing features and measurements.
5. Drawing to Scale:
• Scale Drawings: Creating accurate representations of the garden area.
6. Evolving a Pattern:
• Planning Features: Designing and incorporating various elements into the garden.
7. Turning the Pattern into Reality:
• Implementation: Marking and planting based on the designed layout.

5
LANDSCAPE GARDENING

Tools used in gardening:

Budding-grafting knife Secature Hedge shear Hand Cultivator

Digging Fork Carpenter’s saw Dutch Hoe Pick Axe

Tree calipers Crow-bar Garden trowel Rotary weeder

6
 Study Notes
Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants
Spices and Condiments

Crop Scientific name Family Economic Part

Tulsi Ocimum sanctum Labiatae Leaves, seeds, roots
Catharanthus roseus
Periwinkle Apocyanaceae Leaves, seeds, roots
Cymbopogan
Lemon Grass Graminae Leaves
flexuosus
Cymbopogan
Java Citronella Graminae Tender stems, leaves
winterianus
Cymbopogan martini Tender stems, leaves, and
Palmarosa Graminae
var motia flower stalks
Pelargonium
Geranium Geraniaceae Leaves
graveolens
Vetiver Vetiveria zizanioides Graminae Roots

Sarpgandha Rauvolfia serpentina Apocynaceae Roots

Opium Poppy Papaver somniferum Papaveraceae Seeds, Fruits
Stevia Stevia rebaudiana Asteraceae Leaves
Chrysanthemum
Pyrethrum Asteraceae Flowers,Leaves
cinerariaefolium Vis
Isabgol Plantago ovata Plantaginaceae Leaves,Stem,Roots
Atropa belladonna
Belladonna Solanaceae Fruits, Seeds
Linn
Cinchona Cinchona officinalis Rubiaceae Bark

TULSI
 Plant contains phenols, aldehydes, tannins, saponins, fats,
and essential oil components such as Eugenol and eugenol
methyl ether, which have various properties including
anticancer effects.

Botany
 Erect, herbaceous, much-branched, and soft-hairy plant.

 Two types: O. Sanctum with green leaves (Sri Tulsi) and

purple leaves (Krishna Tulsi).

Soil and Climate

 Grows in a wide variety of soils from rich loam to poor laterite soils, preferring well-
drained soil for good growth and higher yields.

 Flourishes under high rainfall with humid conditions and long days with high
temperatures.
2
Spices and Condiments

Propagation
 Propagated by seeds and is highly cross-pollinated.

Nursery and Transplanting

 Nursery: Grown in raised beds with 200-300 g seeds/ha, with seeds germinating within
8-12 days.

 Transplanting: Spacing varies as 40 x 40 cm, 40x 50 cm, and 50 x 30 cm.

Fertilization and Irrigation

 Recommended application of 120 kg N/ha and 60 kg P2O5/ha.

 Summer requires 3 irrigations/month, totaling 12-15 irrigations for the crop.

Harvesting and Yield

 Harvesting at full bloom stage, with the first harvest at 90-95 days after planting, and
subsequent harvests at 65-75 day intervals.

 Yield: Approximately 5 t/ha twice or thrice a year, with the whole herb containing 0.1-
0.23% essential oil.

 Oil yield is 10-23 kg/ha.

PERIWINKLE
 Periwinkle is a perennial ornamental herb with medicinal
importance due to the presence of indole alkaloids
raubasin and serpentine in its root, which have anti-
fibrillic and hypertensive properties.

 It also contains Vinblastine and Vincristine, which are

constituents of patented cancer drugs.

Botany
 Perennial herb with pink and white flowers, flexible long
branches, and simple opposite leaves.

Varieties, Climate, and Soil

 Three recognized types based on flower color: alba with white flowers, roseus with
pink rose-colored flowers, and ocillata with white flowers and a rose-purplish spot
in the center.

3
Spices and Condiments

 Grows in tropical and subtropical areas and on any type of soil, except highly alkaline or
waterlogged soil.

Propagation and Cultivation

 Propagated from seeds and sown directly in the field. Plants can also be raised in the
nursery and later transplanted.

 Requires two weedings and limited irrigation, especially in areas with restricted rainfall.

Manuring and Harvesting

 Generally not manured, but farm yard manure and a fertilizer mixture can be applied for
better yields.

 The plant can be harvested for roots after one year, with two leaf strippings before then.

Yield
 Under rain-fed conditions, approximately 0.75 tonns of roots, 1.0 tonn of stems, and 2
tonnes of leaves (all on a dry basis) can be obtained from one hectare.

 Under irrigated conditions, yields increase to 1.5 tonnes each of roots and stems and
3 tonnes of leaves per hectare.

LEMON GRASS
 Chief constituent of the oil is citral, used in the
manufacture of vitamin A tablets.
 Oil has bactericidal, insect repellent, mosquito
repellent, and medicinal uses.
 Used in soap and detergent making.
 Spent grass is good cattle feed and used in making
silage.
 Spent grass is used for preparing cardboards, paper,
and fuel.

Botany:
 Genus Cymbopogan has 120 species, with nearly 27 species in India.
 Three main types: East Indian lemon grass, West Indian lemon grass, and Jammu
lemon grass.

Varieties:
 OD – 19: Belongs to East Indian lemon grass, with herbage and oil yield as well as
citral content detailed.
 RRL – 16: Belongs to Jammu lemon grass, known for its frost and drought resistance.
 SD - 68: Herbage yield, oil yield, oil recovery, and citral content specified.
4
Spices and Condiments

Climate:
 Lemon grass is a tropical plant and requires hot and humid climate with plenty of
sunshine.
 Rainfall of 150-300 cm with uniform distribution is ideal. It is mainly grown as a rain-fed
crop.

Soil:
 Can be grown on loamy to poor laterite soils.
 pH range of 4.5 to 7.5 is optimal. Lemon grass has soil binding nature, useful as
vegetative cover.

Propagation:
 Can be propagated by both seeds and vegetative means through slips.
 Seed propagation is used for nursery establishment, while slip propagation is also used.

Planting:
 Planting is done at the onset of monsoon.
 Land is laid into ridges and furrows, and 2-3 seedlings or slips are planted per hill.

Manuring:
 Fertilizer dose of 100:50:50 kg NPK per ha per year is recommended, with specifics on
application.

Yield:
 Lemon grass gives 80 kg oil per hectare per year and the yield increases from the first
year to the fourth year.

 It varies with season and the age of the crop.

Distillation:
 The oil is distilled using steam distillation. The grass can be directly distilled or shade-
dried for 72 hours and then distilled after chopping.

CITRONELLA
 Two Species: Cymbopogan winterianus (Java citronella); Cymbopogan nardus
(Ceylon citronella)

 Citronella oil is used in a variety of industries, including perfumery, soaps, cosmetics,

pharmaceuticals, flavoring, and as an ingredient in mosquito repellent creams.

Varieties:
 RRL – Jor – 3 – 1970: Oil content details are provided.

5
Spices and Condiments

 NBPGR, Delhi released two strains in Java citronella viz., IW 31243, IW 31245.

 Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswa Vidyalaya, Kalyani has developed a selection namely KS –
CW – SI.

Cymbopogan winterianus Cymbopogan nardus

Climate:
 Citronella thrives under tropical and sub-tropical conditions, requiring a humid climate,
abundant sunshine, and well-distributed rainfall of 200 – 250 cm.

 It does not like shade and is susceptible to frost.

Soil:
 Citronella grows best in humus-rich sandy loams, and heavy clay and waterlogged soils
are unsuited. The optimal soil pH range is 5.0 to 7.5.

 Land is prepared by ploughing, disking or harrowing, with specific incorporation of

fertilizers and insecticidal dust.

Propagation:

 Citronella is propagated through slips, obtained by dividing healthy mature clumps.

Planting material is enough for planting in 20 ha of the main field.

Planting:

 Best time is during the SW monsoon, with specific spacing and planting techniques
outlined.

Manuring:

 Liberal application of manures and fertilizers is required due to the crop’s soil-exhausting
nature. Specific fertilization guidelines are provided for different regions.

Intercultural Practices:

6
Spices and Condiments

 Weed control and other intercultural practices are done in 1-1.5 interval.

Harvesting:

 The plant can be harvested for roots after one year, with two leaf strippings before then.

Distillation:

 Oil is extracted by steam distillation from herbage.

PALMAROSA
 Also known as East Indian Geranium, Palmarosa grows
wild in forests in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, and Karnataka.

Uses and Importance:

 Essential oil from Palmarosa is used to extract Geranial
and for scenting soaps, perfumes, and tobacco.

 The oil’s rose-like aroma contributes to its heavy demand,

and it ranks 3rd in the export of essential oil.

Climate:
 Palmarosa is a hardy and drought-resistant plant that thrives well in areas receiving
100 – 150 cm of annual rainfall.

 It requires less severe winters and exposure to sunlight, but does not perform well
under shade.

Soil:
 The plant prefers light loamy soils with good water infiltration, and well-drained, neutral
to alkaline soils.

 It can also be grown in poor sandy to heavy fertile soils, as well as saline and marginal
soils.

Varieties:
 IW 31244: Released by NBPGR

 RRL (B) – 77 and RRL (B) 71: Released by RRL, Bhubaneswar

7
Spices and Condiments

 Trishna: A hybrid developed by CIMAP, Lucknow that gives 40% more oil and has 93%
Geraniol.

Propagation:
 Palmarosa can be propagated by seed and rooted slips. A nursery is raised, and
seeds or slips are planted accordingly.

Land Preparation and Planting:

 Land is prepared by ploughing and laid out into ridges and furrows.

 Palmarosa is planted during June-July at specific distances on ridges.

Manuring and Irrigation:

 Specific guidance on manuring and irrigation based on soil fertility and rainfall levels is
provided.

Harvesting and Distillation:

 The first harvest is taken 4-5 months after planting, and subsequent harvests are at 2
1⁄2 to 3 months intervals for 3-4 years.

 Oil is extracted by steam distillation from shade-dried herbage, with details on oil
recovery and time for complete recovery.

Yield:
 The yield increases up to the 4th year.

 First year: 20 kg oil per hectare,

 Second year: 60 kg oil per hectare,

 Third and Fourth year: 70 kg oil per hectare.

GERANIUM
 Geranium is a source of one of the most important and
costliest essential oils, possessing a strong rose-like odor
and containing chief constituents of Geraniol (68 to 75%)
and Citronellol (23 – 40%).
 It is widely used in expensive soaps, perfumes, and
production of Rhodnol, with a demand of 40 to 50 tonnes
per year.
 There are two types: Rose Geranium and Ornamental
Geranium, which do not possess essential oil and are used
for ornamental purposes.

8
Spices and Condiments

Varieties:
 Kodaikanal 1: released by HRS, Kodaikanal (TNAU) gives high herbage and oil yield,
with the oil containing 60% geraniol.

Climate:
 Geranium can be grown in temperate, sub-tropical, and tropical climates, flourishing best
in a Mediterranean-type mild climate with a rainfall of 1000 – 1500 mm.

 It is sensitive to frost and prefers a sheltered warm situation.

Soil:
 It grows well in well-drained deep, porous soil rich in organic matter and slightly
calcareous soil with a pH range of 5.5 to 6.0.

Propagation:
 Geranium does not set seed in India and is propagated through rooted stem cuttings.

 Terminal stem cuttings are taken from healthy, vigorously growing plants and planted
with specific spacing and care.

Land Preparation and Planting:

 The land is prepared thoroughly with ploughing, harrowing, and planking, and manures
and nutrients are applied at the last ploughing and incorporated.

 The selected cuttings are planted with specific spacing and irrigated adequately.

Manuring and Irrigation:

 Specific guidance on manuring and irrigation, including the recommended basal dose
and top dressing, is provided for optimal growth and yield.

Harvesting and Distillation:

 Geranium comes to the first harvest in 4-5 months after planting and is subsequently
harvested at specific intervals.

 Oil can be extracted by steam distillation of freshly harvested terminals.

Yield:
 The yield depends on the total population in the field, with specific recommendations on
maintaining a minimum plant count in a hectare area.

 Herbage yield is 30-40 tonnes per hectare per year, and oil yield is 30-40 kg per
hectare per year.

 The oil content ranges from 0.1 to 0.15% on a fresh weight basis.

9
Spices and Condiments

VETIVER
 Vetiver oil enjoys a worldwide reputation as one of the
finest oriental perfumes.
 The oil is extracted from the roots of the grass and is
used for soap making, perfumes, attars, and
pharmaceuticals.
 Vetiver is cultivated in various regions of India, including
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Andhra
Pradesh.

Varieties:
 Seeding Type: Grows wild in North India with superior aroma from some North Indian
types.

 Non-seeding Type: Grows in South India.

 Various selections and hybrids have been developed for improved root and oil yield.

Climate:
 Vetiver survives under various agro-climatic conditions and prefers a mild climate for the
best performance.

 It is cultivated in regions with 100-400 cm rainfall and can withstand winds and storms.

Soil:
 Thrives well in dry lands, sandy soils, and marshy areas, and can withstand prolonged
dry spells as well as water stagnation.

 Loose sandy soils are most suited for easy root pulling, while compact heavy soils
restrict root growth.

Land Preparation and Planting:

 Ploughing and bed preparation are carried out with ridges and furrows.

 Propagation is done through tillers and slips, with slips being preferred.

 Planting is usually done with 2-3 slips per hill at specific depths and spacing.

Manuring and Inter-culture:

 Application of organic manures and weed control are important practices for enhancing
root and oil yield.

Harvesting and Distillation:

 Roots are ready for harvesting 18 months after planting, and the oil is extracted
through steam distillation.

Yield:
10
Spices and Condiments

 It yields 5-6 tonnes of roots per hectare, producing 15 to 16 kg of oil and 1 to 1.5%
oil on a dry weight basis, containing 65 to 75% Vetiverol.

SARPGANDHA
 The roots of Rauvolfia serpentina have been used for
centuries in the Ayurvedic and Unani systems of
medicine in India to treat various ailments, ranging from
central nervous system disorders to intestinal
disorders.

 Its alkaloid reserpine is used in modern medicine as an

anti-hypertensive and sedative.

Botany:
 Rauvolfia serpentina is an erect, small, perennial shrub, typically less than 1 m in height.
 It has long elliptic, lanceolate, or obovate leaves and white or pink flowers in corymbose
cymes.
 The fruit is a drupe, shining black when fully ripe.


Climate and Soil:

 Rauvolfia serpentina grows wild under a wide range of climatic conditions and on a
variety of soils, with its natural habitat receiving a rainfall ranging from 250-500 cm per
annum.

Propagation:
 Rauvolfia can be propagated by seeds, stem cuttings, root cuttings, and stumps.

 Seed propagation is usually preferred, and the seedlings are raised in nurseries
before being transplanted into the field.

Cultivation Practices:
 Proper land preparation, irrigation, and manuring practices are crucial for the growth and
yield of Rauvolfia serpentina.

 Seedlings, stem cuttings, and root cuttings need to be handled and planted carefully to
ensure optimal growth.

Harvesting and Yield:

 The roots of Rauvolfia serpentina are typically harvested when they are 15-36 months
old and have dried during the winter.

11
Spices and Condiments

 The roots are washed, air-dried, and stored to preserve their quality.

 The plants raised from seeds give maximum yield of roots compared to those raised
vegetatively.

OPIUM
 Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) is indeed a
significant medicinal plant, known for its analgesic
and hypnotic effects.

Botanical Description:
 Papaver somniferum is an erect, rarely branched,
glaucous annual with ovate, oblong, or linear oblong
leaves and large usually bluish or variegated flowers.

 It produces capsular fruits, from which the latex

known as opium is obtained on lancing.

Climatic Conditions and Soil Type:

 Opium poppy thrives in a temperate climate and well-drained, highly fertile, light black, or
loamy soil with an optimum pH around 7.0.

Varieties and Preparation of Land:

 Various local races of opium known by their local names grow in India with varying leaf,
floral, or capsule characters.

 The field should be ploughed multiple times to produce well-pulverized soil and is then
prepared into convenient-sized beds.

Sowing, Manuring, and Irrigation:

 Sowing occurs late October or early November, with an optimal spacing of 30 cm
between lines and plants.

 The application of manures and fertilizers, including Farm Yard Manure, nitrogen, and
phosphorus, is crucial for higher opium yield and quality.

 Proper irrigation management schedule is essential for a good poppy crop.

Lancing and Latex Collection, Harvesting, and Yield:

 Lancing the capsules exudes maximum latex 15-20 days after the flowering stage.
 The capsules are left to dry for about 20-25 days, harvested, and then the plant is
removed.
 The yield of raw opium varies from 50 to 60 kg per hectare.

12
Spices and Condiments

STEVIA
 Stevia is a sweet, perennial herb with leaves that are intensely
sweet.
 The compounds in its leaves, including Sterioside and
Rebaudioside, are much sweeter than refined sugar.
 For instance, they are 30 times sweeter than sugar in their
fresh form and 200 times sweeter in refined form.
 It is a healthy alternative sweetener to sugar and is used in
tonics for diabetic patients.

Botany
 Stevia is a short-day plant and reaches a height of 45 cm within 3 months. However, its
Stevioside yield increases more under long-day conditions.

Soil and Climate

 Stevia grows best in red sandy loam soils with a pH of 6-7.

 It is not suitable for heavy soils and prefers a subtropical climate.

Propagation
 Seed germination is poor, so Stevia is propagated vegetatively by stem cuttings and
tissue culture methods.

Planting
 Stevia is planted in raised beds with dimensions of 15cm height and 60cm width, with
a spacing of 23 cm between plants, resulting in 30000 plants per acre.

Irrigation
 Stevia requires a year-round water supply and is best managed through frequent
irrigation using micro sprinklers.

Fertilizers
 The recommended fertilizer application is 110:45:45 kg NPK/ha.

Harvesting
 Flowering does not reduce the Stevioside content.

 Leaves are harvested by plucking along with the entire plant and side branches,
leaving 10-15 cm from the ground.

 The first harvesting is done 4 to 5 months after planting, and subsequently,

harvesting is done every three months.

Yield
 The yield of Stevia is approximately 3000 kg of leaves per acre, with the leaves
containing 10-12% Stevioside on dry weight.

13
Spices and Condiments

PYRETHRUM
 Pyrethrum, derived from Chrysanthemum
cinerariaefolium Vis., is a safe insecticide due to its
very low mammalian toxicity and its ability to
disturb and knock down insects, making it useful
for various applications including food grain
preservation, insect-resistant packaging, and
mosquito repellents.

 The plant is a glaucous, perennial herb with

numerous flower-heads, and there are different types
and varieties of pyrethrum with varying
concentrations of pyrethrins.

Propagation:
 Propagation is done through seeds or splits, with seedbed preparation and nursery
raising being important steps in the planting process.

Soil:
 Pyrethrum thrives on well-drained, sandy soil, with red laterite loams and light and
medium loam soils also suitable.

 Poorly-drained soils lead to lower yields, while water-logged conditions are unfavorable.

Climate:
 Being a temperate crop, pyrethrum grows best in areas with a mild, cool, dry climate
and a specific chilling period for flower-bud initiation.

 It grows well in areas with an annual average rainfall of about 1000 mm and an elevation
between 1500 to 2400 m.

Season:

 Nurseries are raised in spring or autumn, with the ideal time for planting being spring
or autumn.

Land preparation:
 This involves ploughing, leveling, harrowing, and clearing of weeds and stubble, along
with the application of organic manure if available.

Nursery raising:
 Seed-beds are prepared with the addition of organic manure, and the seeds are sown in
rows and watered frequently.

Planting:

14
Spices and Condiments

 Seedlings are planted at specific distances, with ridge-planting being preferred to flat-
planting to facilitate interculture and irrigation and to avoid water-logging.

Manures and fertilizers:

 Optimum application of N, P, and K is crucial for good plant growth in the first year, with
subsequent repeated applications.

Interculture:
 Proper weeding and hoeing are necessary and can be done using a tractor-drawn
cultivator or hand-hoes.

Irrigation:
 Pyrethrum does not necessarily need irrigation if rainfall is well distributed.

 However, under irrigated conditions, weekly irrigation during the peak season can
lead to better results.

Pests and diseases:

 Common issues include root-rot, damping-off, and bud disease, which can be controlled
through specific treatments and applications.

Harvesting and processing:

 The plants typically start flowering within one year of transplanting, with the best yields
obtained during the 2nd and 3rd year.

 Harvesting should occur at the right stage of maturity, and subsequent processing
includes careful drying to avoid fermentation.

Yield and pyrethrin content:

 The average annual yield varies across different regions, with reported total pyrethrin
content of 1.0-1.5% in India.

ISABGOL
 Isabgol, also known as Blonde psyllium,
derives its name from Persian words meaning
“horse-ear,” referring to its characteristic boat-
shaped seeds.

 The husk of the seed contains colloidal

mucilage mainly consisting of xylose,
arabinose, and galacturonic acid.

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Spices and Condiments

Medicinal Properties
 Acts as an anti-diarrheal drug and is beneficial in chronic dysenteries of amoebic
and bacillary origin.

 Used for treating constipation and intestinal disorders as a calorie-free fiber food,
promoting regular bowel movement.

 Has cooling demulscent effects and is used to cure inflammations of mucous

membranes of the gastrointestinal and urinary tracts.

Plant Description
 10-15 cm tall short-stemmed annual herb with leaves born alternately on the stem.

 Flowers in terminal spikes; fruit is a capsule.

 Highly self-pollinated.

 The translucent and convex seeds are covered with a dark red and hard husk.

Varieties
 Gujarat Isabgol-1, Gujarat Isabgol-2, and “Niharika,” a high-yielding mutant released
by CIMAP, Lucknow.

Cultivation
 Soil: Grows well in light soils with good drainage and a pH of 4.7 to 7.7.

 Climate: Thrives in warm-temperate regions, sown during winter months.

 Land Preparation: Field must be free of weeds and clods; recommended dose of
FYM is applied.

Seed Sowing
 Sow at the rate of 4-8 kg per hectare, treated with mercurial seed-dresser.

 Seeds are broadcasted and lightly covered with soil, followed by irrigation.

Pests and Diseases

 Pests: White grubs, termites, and aphids.

 Disease: Downy mildew caused by Peronospora plantaginis.

Harvesting, Processing, and Yield

 Blooming begins two months after sowing, and the crop becomes ready for
harvest in February-March.

 Gujarat Isabgol-1 yields 800-900 kg of seeds per hectare; Gujarat Isabgol-2 has
the potential to yield 1,000 kg per hectare.

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Spices and Condiments

BELLADONNA
 Belladonna, also known as “Deadly Nightshade,”
is a plant of the Solanaceae family, and its
commercial drug is derived from its leaves,
flowering tops, and roots, containing tropane
alkaloids with a concentration varying from 0.13 to
0.70 per cent.

 The drug serves as an anodyne, sedative,

stimulant, anti-diuretic, anti-asthmatic,
antispasmodic, and anti-inflammatory
medication, utilized in kidney and biliary colic treatment, stomach disorders, and to
reduce sweating. The roots are used externally for gout, rheumatism, and related
conditions.

Botany
 A. belladonna is an erect, herbaceous plant with large, bell-shaped flowers borne singly
in the leaf axils and shrub-like with spreading, often purplish branches.

 A. acuminata closely resembles A. belladonna.

 Notable varieties include the Srinagar selection developed by the Regional Research
Laboratory, containing 0.6 per cent alkaloid.

Cultivation:
 Belladonna grows well in deep fertile soils of medium texture, rich in humus, avoiding
water-logged heavy clay soils.

 It behaves as a perennial in temperate climates, while in sub-tropical areas, it can be

grown as a winter crop and typically propagated through seeds.

Propagation:
 The crop is mainly propagated through seeds, and nursery raised from May to the end
of autumn gives the best results.

 Seeds are usually treated with 80 per cent sulfuric acid at the time of sowing to
enhance germination.

Manures and Fertilizers:

 A basal dose of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium is recommended per hectare, with
an additional top dressing of nitrogen applied at monthly intervals after every harvest.

Pests and Diseases:

 Pest control includes treatment of the seed bed and soil with appropriate chemicals,
while diseases such as root rot and leaf spot can be managed through fumigation,
seed treatment, and controlled application of suitable sprays.
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Spices and Condiments

CINCHONA
 Cinchona, a member of the Rubiaceae family, is commercially grown for cinchona bark,

 the source of quinine and other anti-malarial drugs.

 Cinchona comprises more than 20 alkaloids, including cinchonidine, quinidine, and

cinchonine, occurring chiefly as salts of quinic and cinchotannic acids.

 The leaves contain 1% total alkaloids and the bark also contains bitter glycoside,
essential oil, and a red coloring matter.

 Quinine, an important component, has been used as an anesthetic, sclerosing agent,

and as a bitter tonic, stomachic, and appetizer.

Botany
 Cinchona species are evergreen shrubs or trees with opposite, simple entire leaves and
terminal panicle inflorescences.

Varieties/Species:
 Noted commercial species include C. succirubra, C. officinalis, C. ledgeriana, C.
robusta, and C. hybrida, each with distinctive characteristics and quinine content.

Cultivation:
 Cinchona prefers light, well-drained, virgin forest soil with a high moisture holding
capacity and acidic pH.

 Propagation is done by seeds or vegetative methods, such as cutting, stooling,

layering, and grafting.

 Nutrient application, weeding, and cover cropping

are important for plantation care.

Pests and Diseases:

 Pests such as cockchafer beetles, crickets, and
tea-fly, as well as diseases like stem blight,
seedling blight, and root-rot, can affect cinchona.

 Specific control measures include irrigation,

application of tobacco decoction, and drenching with
mercurial fungicide.

Harvesting and Yield:

 Cinchona bark is harvested by coppicing the trees at
specific intervals, with bark separated by beating and peeled

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Spices and Condiments

by hand or knife.

 Proper drying of the bark is crucial to prevent loss of alkaloids.

Isolation of Quinine:
 Quinine, cinchonidine, and dihydroquinine can be isolated from the alkaloids present
in the bark and purified by recrystallization.

 The crystalline, efflorescent trihydrate is a white, odourless, and intensely bitter

microcrystalline powder.

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