Q1: 2-Marks Questions with 80-Word Answers
a). Why we need protocol in data communication?
Protocols are essential in data communication because they define the set of rules that allow devices to communicate
accurately and efficiently. They handle how data is formatted, transmitted, received, and acknowledged. Without
protocols, devices might misinterpret data, leading to communication failure. Protocols also manage error detection,
correction, synchronization, and flow control, ensuring seamless and reliable interaction between devices in a network.
Examples include TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.
b). What are the responsibilities of the network layer?
The network layer, which is the third layer of the OSI model, is primarily responsible for logical addressing and routing. It
selects the best physical path for data transmission between source and destination. It handles packet forwarding,
fragmentation and reassembly of packets, and ensures the correct delivery of packets across multiple networks. It also
manages congestion control and error handling related to routing. Internet Protocol (IP) is a key component of this layer.
c). Name different techniques used for Digital to Analog Conversion.
Digital-to-Analog Conversion involves translating digital data into analog signals for transmission over analog media.
The main techniques include: 1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) - varies amplitude. 2. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) -
varies frequency. 3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK) - varies phase. 4. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) - combines
amplitude and phase changes. These methods are commonly used in modems and wireless systems to allow
computers and digital devices to transmit over analog channels.
d). Define jitter.
Jitter refers to the variation in the time between data packets arriving at their destination. This is often caused by
network congestion, timing drift, or route changes. High jitter can affect the quality of real-time services such as VoIP
(voice over IP), video conferencing, and online gaming. In such applications, consistent timing is crucial for maintaining
sound and visual clarity. Jitter can be minimized using buffers or jitter correction protocols to ensure smoother
Q1: 2-Marks Questions with 80-Word Answers
communication.
e). Define piggy backing.
Piggybacking is a method used in data communication where acknowledgment for received data is combined with data
being sent in the opposite direction. Instead of sending a separate acknowledgment frame, the system waits until it has
data to send, and includes the acknowledgment with it. This technique increases efficiency by reducing the number of
frames sent and saving bandwidth. It is commonly used in protocols like sliding window for reliable and efficient two-way
communication.
f). Define congestion.
Congestion in networking occurs when the data load on a network exceeds its capacity, resulting in slow data
transmission, increased delay, and packet loss. It typically happens when multiple devices send more data than the
network can handle, especially in routers or switches with limited buffer sizes. Congestion affects performance and
reliability. Techniques such as congestion control algorithms (e.g., TCP congestion control), traffic shaping, and
resource reservation help in managing and reducing congestion effectively.
g). Mention the function of go-back-N ARQ.
Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) is an error control protocol in which the sender can send several frames
before needing an acknowledgment, up to a predefined window size. If an error is detected in any frame, the receiver
discards that frame and all subsequent frames. The sender must then go back and retransmit that frame and all others
that followed. This method ensures reliable data transfer but can be inefficient in case of high error rates.
h). Define transmission impairments.
Transmission impairments are factors that degrade the quality of signal transmission over a communication medium.
There are three main types: 1. Attenuation - loss of signal strength over distance. 2. Distortion - signal changes shape
Q1: 2-Marks Questions with 80-Word Answers
due to varying speeds of frequencies. 3. Noise - unwanted external signals interfere with the original signal. These
impairments affect data integrity and require error correction or amplification techniques for effective communication
over longer distances or through noisy channels.
i). How many cables are required if we are connecting 30 nodes in mesh topology?
In a full mesh topology, each node is directly connected to every other node. The number of cables (or links) needed
can be calculated using the formula: n(n - 1)/2. For 30 nodes: = 30 × 29 / 2 = 435 cables. This setup offers high reliability
and redundancy, as multiple paths exist for data transfer, but it is costly and complex due to the large number of
required connections.
j). Define gateway.
A gateway is a networking device that connects two different networks using different communication protocols. It
functions as a translator between systems that operate with different architectures, formats, or languages. Gateways
operate at all seven layers of the OSI model, depending on the type, and are essential for enabling communication
between networks like a private LAN and the public Internet. Examples include routers with gateway functionality and
protocol-converting firewalls.
Q1: 2-Marks Questions with 80-Word Answers
a). Why we need protocol in data communication?
Protocols are essential in data communication because they define the set of rules that allow devices to communicate
accurately and efficiently. They handle how data is formatted, transmitted, received, and acknowledged. Without
protocols, devices might misinterpret data, leading to communication failure. Protocols also manage error detection,
correction, synchronization, and flow control, ensuring seamless and reliable interaction between devices in a network.
Examples include TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.
b). What are the responsibilities of the network layer?
The network layer, which is the third layer of the OSI model, is primarily responsible for logical addressing and routing. It
selects the best physical path for data transmission between source and destination. It handles packet forwarding,
fragmentation and reassembly of packets, and ensures the correct delivery of packets across multiple networks. It also
manages congestion control and error handling related to routing. Internet Protocol (IP) is a key component of this layer.
c). Name different techniques used for Digital to Analog Conversion.
Digital-to-Analog Conversion involves translating digital data into analog signals for transmission over analog media.
The main techniques include: 1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) - varies amplitude. 2. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) -
varies frequency. 3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK) - varies phase. 4. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) - combines
amplitude and phase changes. These methods are commonly used in modems and wireless systems to allow
computers and digital devices to transmit over analog channels.
d). Define jitter.
Jitter refers to the variation in the time between data packets arriving at their destination. This is often caused by
network congestion, timing drift, or route changes. High jitter can affect the quality of real-time services such as VoIP
(voice over IP), video conferencing, and online gaming. In such applications, consistent timing is crucial for maintaining
sound and visual clarity. Jitter can be minimized using buffers or jitter correction protocols to ensure smoother
Q1: 2-Marks Questions with 80-Word Answers
communication.
e). Define piggy backing.
Piggybacking is a method used in data communication where acknowledgment for received data is combined with data
being sent in the opposite direction. Instead of sending a separate acknowledgment frame, the system waits until it has
data to send, and includes the acknowledgment with it. This technique increases efficiency by reducing the number of
frames sent and saving bandwidth. It is commonly used in protocols like sliding window for reliable and efficient two-way
communication.
f). Define congestion.
Congestion in networking occurs when the data load on a network exceeds its capacity, resulting in slow data
transmission, increased delay, and packet loss. It typically happens when multiple devices send more data than the
network can handle, especially in routers or switches with limited buffer sizes. Congestion affects performance and
reliability. Techniques such as congestion control algorithms (e.g., TCP congestion control), traffic shaping, and
resource reservation help in managing and reducing congestion effectively.
g). Mention the function of go-back-N ARQ.
Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) is an error control protocol in which the sender can send several frames
before needing an acknowledgment, up to a predefined window size. If an error is detected in any frame, the receiver
discards that frame and all subsequent frames. The sender must then go back and retransmit that frame and all others
that followed. This method ensures reliable data transfer but can be inefficient in case of high error rates.
h). Define transmission impairments.
Transmission impairments are factors that degrade the quality of signal transmission over a communication medium.
There are three main types: 1. Attenuation - loss of signal strength over distance. 2. Distortion - signal changes shape
Q1: 2-Marks Questions with 80-Word Answers
due to varying speeds of frequencies. 3. Noise - unwanted external signals interfere with the original signal. These
impairments affect data integrity and require error correction or amplification techniques for effective communication
over longer distances or through noisy channels.
i). How many cables are required if we are connecting 30 nodes in mesh topology?
In a full mesh topology, each node is directly connected to every other node. The number of cables (or links) needed
can be calculated using the formula: n(n - 1)/2. For 30 nodes: = 30 × 29 / 2 = 435 cables. This setup offers high reliability
and redundancy, as multiple paths exist for data transfer, but it is costly and complex due to the large number of
required connections.
j). Define gateway.
A gateway is a networking device that connects two different networks using different communication protocols. It
functions as a translator between systems that operate with different architectures, formats, or languages. Gateways
operate at all seven layers of the OSI model, depending on the type, and are essential for enabling communication
between networks like a private LAN and the public Internet. Examples include routers with gateway functionality and
protocol-converting firewalls.
DCN Q2 - 5 Mark Answers (Each ~100 Words)
Q2 (a): Difference between Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission
Asynchronous transmission sends data byte-by-byte with start and stop bits, making it simple and
suitable for low-speed communication like keyboards. It does not require a common clock. In
contrast, synchronous transmission sends a continuous stream of data, using a shared clock to
synchronize sender and receiver. It is faster and more efficient, suitable for high-speed
applications like video streaming. Asynchronous is cost-effective but less efficient, while
synchronous is more complex but supports better timing and throughput.
Q2 (b): Different Transmission Modes
There are three data transmission modes: Simplex: One-way communication (e.g., keyboard to CPU).
Half-Duplex: Two-way but one direction at a time (e.g., walkie-talkie). Full-Duplex: Simultaneous
two-way communication (e.g., phone call). Simplex is used where no feedback is required. Half-duplex
is suitable when both devices alternate. Full-duplex is the most efficient mode, reducing wait time
and improving speed. Each mode has specific use cases depending on cost, communication needs, and
performance.
Q2 (c): Packet Switching Method
In packet switching, data is broken into small packets and sent independently across the network.
Each packet has addressing information and may follow different routes to the destination. Once
received, packets are reassembled in the correct order. It optimizes bandwidth usage, increases
fault tolerance, and supports dynamic routing. Commonly used in the Internet, packet switching
supports web browsing, email, and streaming. Unlike circuit switching, it is flexible, efficient,
and suitable for variable network traffic.
Q2 (d): Any Two Networking Devices
Two essential networking devices are the router and switch. A router connects different networks and
Page 1
DCN Q2 - 5 Mark Answers (Each ~100 Words)
forwards data based on IP addresses. It manages traffic and provides internet access. A switch
operates within a network, directing data to specific devices using MAC addresses. It reduces
traffic and collisions. Routers function at Layer 3 (Network) and switches at Layer 2 (Data Link) of
the OSI model. Both are vital for managing, securing, and organizing network communication.
Q2 (e): Different Types of TDM
TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) allows multiple signals to share one channel by assigning each a
time slot. Synchronous TDM assigns fixed slots to each source regardless of activity, leading to
unused capacity if a device is idle. Statistical TDM dynamically allocates slots based on active
devices, improving efficiency. TDM is used in telecom systems to combine multiple signals (like
voice/data) on a single link, making bandwidth usage more effective.
Q2 (f): Nyquist Theorem Calculation
The Nyquist Theorem calculates the maximum bit rate for a noiseless channel using the formula: Bit
Rate = 2 Bandwidth log2(L) Where L = number of signal levels. Given: Bandwidth = 4000 Hz, L = 4
log2(4) = 2 Bit Rate = 2 4000 2 = 16,000 bps This means a noiseless 4000 Hz channel can transmit
16,000 bits per second using 4 levels. It assumes ideal conditions without noise.
Q2 (g): Define Error and Checksum Method
Errors occur when data is altered during transmission due to noise or interference. Single-bit
errors affect one bit; burst errors affect multiple bits. The checksum method detects errors by
summing all data segments using binary addition. The sum is complemented and sent with the data. The
receiver performs the same calculation; if the result is all 1s, the data is accepted. Checksums are
simple and effective for detecting accidental errors but may not catch complex ones.
Page 2
Q3: Unipolar NRZ, NRZ-L, and NRZ-I
Unipolar NRZ, NRZ-L, and NRZ-I are digital encoding methods for binary data transmission. In Unipolar NRZ,
a high voltage represents '1' and zero voltage represents '0'. It's simple but inefficient due to lack of
transitions and presence of DC component. NRZ-L (Non-Return-to-Zero-Level) uses two polar voltages
where one represents '1' and the other '0'. It improves performance but still lacks transitions during identical
bits. NRZ-I (Non-Return-to-Zero-Inverted) overcomes this by making a transition for '1' and no change for '0',
improving synchronization. Among the three, NRZ-I offers better performance for long strings of binary data
due to transitions helping receiver synchronization.
Q4: Star, Ring, and Bus Topology
Network topologies define how devices are connected. In star topology, all devices connect to a central hub.
It is easy to manage and isolate failures, but the hub is a single point of failure. In ring topology, each device
is connected to two others forming a circular pathway. Data travels in one direction, and failure in one node
can impact the network unless redundancy is built in. Bus topology uses a single backbone cable to which all
devices connect. Its cost-effective for small setups but suffers from collisions and backbone failure. Star is
most popular in modern networks for reliability and scalability.
Q5: OSI vs TCP/IP Model
The OSI model has seven layers and is a theoretical framework for standardizing communication functions.
TCP/IP has four layers and is widely used in real-world networking. OSI layers are: Physical, Data Link,
Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application. TCP/IP merges some of these, with layers:
Network Interface, Internet, Transport, and Application. OSI is protocol-independent and ideal for teaching,
while TCP/IP was developed with protocols like IP and TCP. OSI offers clear modularization; TCP/IP is more
practical. Both help in network troubleshooting, but TCP/IP dominates real implementations.
Q6: Guided Transmission Mediums
Guided media include twisted pair, coaxial, and optical fiber cables. Twisted pair cables, common in LANs,
consist of insulated copper wires twisted together. They are cheap and easy to install, but prone to
interference. Coaxial cable has a central conductor, insulation, metallic shielding, and outer cover. It offers
better noise resistance and is used in cable TV. Optical fiber uses light pulses to transmit data and provides
very high bandwidth and long-distance communication. It is immune to electromagnetic interference but
expensive and fragile. Choice depends on distance, bandwidth, and budget requirements.
Data Communication and Computer Network - Chapter 6 & 7
CHAPTER 6: DATA LINK LAYER AND TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Q1) Transmission Medium
Transmission media are physical paths between the transmitter and receiver in a data transmission system.
1. Guided Media (Wired):
- Twisted Pair Cable
- Coaxial Cable
- Fiber Optic Cable
2. Unguided Media (Wireless):
- Radio Waves
- Microwaves
- Infrared
Comparison Table:
Twisted Pair: Low bandwidth, low cost, low noise immunity (used in LANs, telephones)
Coaxial Cable: Medium bandwidth, medium cost, medium noise immunity (used in Cable TV)
Fiber Optic: Very high bandwidth, high cost, high noise immunity (used in WANs)
Wireless: Varies in bandwidth and cost, low noise immunity (used in mobile communication, Wi-Fi)
Q2) LAN Protocol Architecture
LAN architecture is based on OSI model's lower layers:
1. Physical Layer: Transmission of bits over medium.
2. Data Link Layer: LLC for error control, MAC for medium access.
3. Network Layer: Responsible for logical addressing and routing (limited in LANs).
Common Protocols: Ethernet (802.3), Wi-Fi (802.11), Token Ring (802.5)
Q3) Medium Access Control (MAC)
Data Communication and Computer Network - Chapter 6 & 7
MAC manages device access to shared medium.
Types:
- Contested (Random Access): CSMA/CD (Ethernet), CSMA/CA (Wi-Fi)
- Controlled Access: Polling, Token Passing
- Channelization: FDMA, TDMA, CDMA
Q4) Difference between Unicast, Multicast, Broadcast Address
- Unicast: One-to-one (e.g., 192.168.1.10)
- Multicast: One-to-many group (e.g., 224.0.0.1)
- Broadcast: One-to-all (e.g., 255.255.255.255)
Q5) Difference between Hub, Switch & Bridge
- Hub: Broadcasts to all ports, no intelligence, physical layer.
- Switch: Uses MAC table to forward data, data link layer.
- Bridge: Connects two LANs, filters traffic, data link layer.
Q6) Short Notes on CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) is used in Ethernet.
Devices sense the channel before transmitting. If collision occurs, transmission stops, jam signal is sent, and
retry is done after a random delay.
Q7) Short Notes on Fiber Channel
Fiber Channel is a high-speed network technology for data centers.
- Supports up to 128 Gbps.
- Common in SANs (Storage Area Networks).
- Low latency, high reliability.
Data Communication and Computer Network - Chapter 6 & 7
Q8) Short Notes on WLAN
WLAN (Wireless LAN) uses IEEE 802.11 standard.
- Uses radio waves.
- Access Points connect wireless devices.
- Advantages: Mobility, flexible installation.
- Disadvantages: Security concerns, interference.
Data Communication and Computer Network - Chapter 6 & 7
CHAPTER 7: NETWORK LAYER AND INTERNETWORKING
Q1) Principles of Internetworking
Internetworking connects different networks using routers and standard protocols.
Principles:
1. Packet Switching
2. IP Addressing (unique for each device)
3. Routing (choosing optimal path)
4. Standard Protocols (IP, TCP)
5. Interoperability
6. Encapsulation (wrapping data with headers)
Q2) Explain IPv6 with a Diagram
IPv6 is the successor to IPv4 with a 128-bit address.
Features:
- 2^128 addresses
- Better security and QoS
- Auto-configuration and simplified headers
IPv6 Address Example:
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
IPv6 Header Structure:
| Version | Traffic Class | Flow Label |
| Payload Length | Next Header | Hop Limit |
| Source Address (128-bit) |
| Destination Address (128-bit) |
Field Descriptions:
Data Communication and Computer Network - Chapter 6 & 7
- Version: Protocol version (6)
- Traffic Class: Packet priority
- Flow Label: Real-time flow handling
- Payload Length: Length of data
- Next Header: Indicates next protocol (e.g., TCP/UDP)
- Hop Limit: Like TTL
- Source & Destination Address: 128-bit addresses
Data Communication and Computer Network (DCN) - Chapterwise Q&A
CHAPTER 1: Basics of Networking
Q1. Define the Network. (2 marks)
A network is a collection of computers, servers, and devices connected together to share data, resources,
and applications. Networks can be wired or wireless.
Q2. What are the types of Networks? (5 marks)
1. LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small area like an office or building.
2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Covers a city or campus.
3. WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers large geographical areas; e.g., the Internet.
4. PAN (Personal Area Network): For personal devices (Bluetooth, USB).
5. CAN (Campus Area Network): Interconnects multiple LANs within a campus.
Q3. Define Network Topology. (5 marks)
Network topology is the physical or logical arrangement of network devices and cables. It defines how data
flows in a network.
Q4. Define various types of Topology. (5 marks)
1. Bus Topology: All devices share a common communication line.
2. Star Topology: All devices are connected to a central hub.
3. Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a circular fashion.
4. Mesh Topology: Every device is connected to every other device.
5. Hybrid Topology: Combination of two or more topologies.
Q5. Describe OSI Model. (10 marks)
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model has 7 layers:
Data Communication and Computer Network (DCN) - Chapterwise Q&A
1. Physical: Transmits raw bit stream.
2. Data Link: Error detection and correction.
3. Network: Routing of data.
4. Transport: Reliable data transfer.
5. Session: Manages sessions.
6. Presentation: Data translation, encryption.
7. Application: User interface.
Q6. What is a Protocol? (2 marks)
A protocol is a set of rules that define how data is transmitted over a network. Examples: TCP, IP, HTTP.
Q7. Define Standard. (2 marks)
A standard is an established norm or requirement in technology. It ensures interoperability between devices
and systems.
Q8. Differentiate between OSI and TCP/IP. (5 marks)
| Feature | OSI Model | TCP/IP Model |
|---------------|-------------------|---------------------|
| Layers |7 |4 |
| Development | Theoretical | Practical |
| Transport Layer | Connection-oriented and connectionless | Mostly connection-oriented |
| Protocols | Generic | Standard internet protocols |
Q9. Differentiate between Data Encoding & Data Encryption. (5 marks)
- Data Encoding: Converts data into a format for transmission. Not secure. Example: ASCII, Base64.
Data Communication and Computer Network (DCN) - Chapterwise Q&A
- Data Encryption: Converts data into unreadable format for security. Requires key to decrypt. Example: AES,
RSA.
CHAPTER 2: Data Transmission
Q1. What are the various modes of Data Communication? (5 marks)
1. Simplex: One-way communication (e.g., keyboard to computer).
2. Half Duplex: Two-way communication but one at a time (e.g., walkie-talkie).
3. Full Duplex: Simultaneous two-way communication (e.g., telephone).
Q2. Differentiate between Analog & Digital Transmission. (5 marks)
| Feature | Analog Transmission | Digital Transmission |
|------------------|------------------------|--------------------------|
| Signal Type | Continuous | Discrete (0s and 1s) |
| Quality | Prone to noise | Less affected by noise |
| Example | Radio signals | Computer networks |
Q3. Define Channel Capacity. (2 marks) Explain it using Shannon-Hartley Theorem. (5 marks)
- Channel Capacity: Maximum data rate of a channel.
- Shannon-Hartley Theorem:
C = B log2(1 + S/N)
Where:
C = Channel Capacity (bps)
B = Bandwidth (Hz)
S/N = Signal-to-noise ratio
Data Communication and Computer Network (DCN) - Chapterwise Q&A
Q4. Write a short note on Unguided Media. (5 marks)
Unguided media transmits data wirelessly through air using electromagnetic waves.
Types:
1. Radio Waves: Long-distance, omnidirectional.
2. Microwaves: High frequency, line-of-sight.
3. Infrared: Short range, line-of-sight.
Q5. Describe the various types of Guided Media. (5 marks)
Guided media use physical paths like cables.
Types:
1. Twisted Pair Cable: Common in LANs, cheap.
2. Coaxial Cable: Better shielding, used in TV.
3. Optical Fiber: High-speed, long-distance, expensive.
Q6. Explain Transmission Medium & its various types. (10 marks)
Transmission Medium: The physical path through which data is transmitted.
Types:
1. Guided Media: Twisted pair, coaxial, fiber-optic.
2. Unguided Media: Radio, microwave, infrared.
Each has its own use cases based on speed, cost, distance, and noise immunity.
DCN Short Questions - Set 2
Additional DCN Questions
Q1. Define Bit Rate. (2 marks)
Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted per second in a communication channel. It is measured in bits per
second (bps).
Q2. Define Baud Rate. (2 marks)
Baud rate is the number of signal units transmitted per second. Each signal unit may carry one or more bits of
data.
Q3. Differentiate between Bit Rate and Baud Rate. (2 marks)
- Bit Rate: Measures the number of bits transmitted per second.
- Baud Rate: Measures the number of signal changes (symbols) per second.
If each signal carries 2 bits, bit rate = 2 × baud rate.
Q4. OSI Reference Model
The OSI model is a 7-layer model used to standardize network communication:
1. Physical
2. Data Link
3. Network
4. Transport
5. Session
6. Presentation
7. Application
Q5. Difference between TCP/IP and OSI
DCN Short Questions - Set 2
| Feature | OSI Model | TCP/IP Model |
|------------------|---------------------|---------------------|
| Layers |7 |4 |
| Protocols | Theoretical | Practical |
| Transport Layer | TCP/UDP in TCP/IP | Reliable/Unreliable |
Q6. Define Transmission Impairments
These are physical defects that affect signal quality:
1. Attenuation - Signal strength loss.
2. Noise - Unwanted electrical signals.
3. Distortion - Signal changes in form or delay.
Q7. Conversion (A/D to D/D, A/D to D/S, etc.)
- A/D to D/D: Analog to Digital and back to Digital (used in signal regeneration).
- A/D to D/S: Analog to Digital, then to Serial for transmission.
- A/S to D/D, etc.: Refers to format and form conversion in data transmission.
Q8. Channel Capacity
Maximum rate at which data can be transmitted through a channel, determined using:
Shannon Capacity: C = B log2(1 + S/N)
Q9. Transmission Media - Guided & Unguided
- Guided Media: Twisted Pair, Coaxial Cable, Optical Fiber.
- Unguided Media: Radio Waves, Microwaves, Infrared.
DCN Short Questions - Set 2
Q10. Data Encoding vs. Data Encryption
- Data Encoding: Formatting data for transmission (e.g., ASCII).
- Data Encryption: Securing data via cryptographic algorithms (e.g., AES, RSA).
