PHARMACY INDIA

PHARMACOGNOSY
A Competitive Examination Book
Theory Book

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 Contents
CHAPTER PAGES
1. Introduction of Pharmacognosy 1-16

2. Important Chemical Tests 17-36

3. Analytical Pharmacognosy 37-41

4. Chemistry of Natural Product 42-45

5. Glycosides 46-78

6. Alkaloids 79-104

7. Volatile Oils 105-127

8. Lipids 128-131

9. Resins 132-139

10 Tannins 140-144

11. Carbohydrate 145-156

12. Plant Tissue Culture 157-161

13. Enzymes and Proteins 162-168

14. Fibres 169-172

15. Drugs of Mineral Origin 173-174

16. Marine Drugs 175-177

17. Rapid Revision 178-192

4 Pharmacognosy

MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
 In this system, the drugs are arranged according to the morphological or external characters of the plant
parts or animal parts, i.e. which part of the plant are used as a drug, e.g. leaves, roots, stem, etc.
 The drugs obtained from the direct parts of the plants and containing cellular tissues are called as
organized drugs e. g. Rhizomes, barks, leaves, fruits, entire plants, hairs and fibres.
 The drugs which are prepared from plants by some intermediate physical processes such as incision,
drying or extraction and not containing any cellular plant tissues are called as unorganized drugs, e. g. Aloe
juice, opium latex, tragacanth etc.
 Examples:
PARTS OF PLANT CRUDE DRUGS
Woods Quassia, Sandalwood.
Leaves Digitalis, Eucalyptus, Tulsi, Vasaka
Barks Arjuna, Ashoka, Cinchona, Cinnamon.
Flower parts Clove, Saffron
Fruits Amla, Anise, Bael, Coriander, Tamarind.
Seeds Bitter almond, Black Mustard, Cardamom
Roots & Rhizomes Garlic, Ginger, Shatavari, Turmeric
Plants and Herbs Ephedra, Brahmi, Kalmegh, Vinca
Hair and Fibres Cotton, Hemp, Jute

PHARMACOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
 Grouping of drug according to their pharmacological action or of most important constituent or their therapeutic
use is termed as pharmacological or therapeutic classification of drug.
 This classification is more relevant and is mostly followed method.
 Drugs like digitalis, squill and strophanthus having cardiotonic action are grouped together irrespective of
their parts used or phylogenetic relationship or the nature of phytoconstituents they contain.
 Examples:
S.NO. PHARMACOLOGICAL CATEGORY EXAMPLE
1. Drug acting on G.I.T.
Bitter Cinchona, Quassia, Gentian
Carminative Fennel, Cardamom, Mentha
Emetic Ipecac
Antiamoebic Kurchi, Ipecac
Laxative Agar, Isabgol, Banana
Purgative Senna, Castor oil
Cathartic Senna
2. Drug acting on Respiratory system
Expectorant Vasaka, Liquorice, Ipecac
Antitussive Opium (codeine)
Bronchodilators Ephedra, Tea
3. Drug acting on Cardiovascular system
Cardio tonic Digitalis, Strophanthus, Squill
Cardiac depressant Cinchona, Veratrum
Vasoconstrictor Ergot
Antihypertensive Rauwolfi a

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8 Pharmacognosy

Turgid guard cells Flaccid guard cells

Chloroplast
Nucleus

Cell Wall

Stoma

(a) (b)
Fig. 1 (a) Stoma (open)
(b) Stoma (closed)

TYPES OF STOMATAL ARRANGEMENT

According to the arrangement of the epidermal cells surrounding the stomata, they have been grouped as follows:
S.NO STOMATAL ARRANGEMENTS OTHER NAME EXAMPLES
1. Diacytic or Caryophyllaceous (cross celled) Labiatae type Vasaka, tulsi,
The stoma is accompanied by two subsidiary Spearmint and
cells, the long axis of which is at right angles Peppermint.
to that of the stoma.
2. Anisocytic or Cruciferous (unequal celled) Solanaceous type Belladonna, Datura,
The stoma is surrounded by usually three Hyoscyamus,
subsidiary cells of which one is markedly Stramonium, Tobacco
smaller than the others.
3. Anomocytic or Ranunculaceous Digitalis, Eucalyptus,
(irregular celled) Henna, Lobelia, Neem
The stoma is surrounded by a varying number -
of cells in no way differing from those of the
epidermal cells.
4. Paracytic or Rubiaceous (parallel celled) Senna and Many
The stoma is surrounded usually by two Rubiaceous plants
subsidiary cells, the long axis of which is -
parallel to that of stoma.
5. Actinocytic (radiate celled) Uva ursi
The stoma is surrounded by circle of radiating -
cells.

Diacytic Anisocytic Anomocytic Paracytic Antinocytic

(caryphyllaceous) (cruciferous) (ranunculaceous) (rubiaceous)
Fig. Different types of stomata

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Pharmacognosy 15

INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES

S.NO. CLASS TYPE OF REACTION CATALYZED EXAMPLES

1. Oxidoreductases Transfer of electrons (hydride ions or H Dehydrogenases,
atoms) Oxidases
2. Transferases Group transfer reactions Transaminase, Kinases
3. Hydrolases Hydrolysis reactions (transfer of Estrases, Digestive
functional groups to water) Enzymes
4. Lyases Addition of groupsto double bonds or Phospho hexo
formation of double bonds by removal Isomerase,
of groups Fumarase
5. Isomerases Transfer of groups within molecules to Decarboxylases,
yield isomeric forms Aldolases
6. Ligases Formation of CC, CS, CO, and CN Citric acid synthetase
bonds by condensation reactions
coupled to ATP cleavage

FIBRES, SUTURES AND SURGICAL DRESSINGS

FIBRES

 Fibres may be defined as any hair-like raw material directly obtainable from an animal, vegetable, or
mineral source and convertible into nonwoven fabrics such as felt or paper or, after spinning into yarns, into
woven cloth.
 Examples of fibres – Cotton, Jute, Flax, Hemp, Silk, Wool, Viscose, Alginate fibres, Terylene, Orlon,
Nylon.
SURGICAL DRESSINGS
 A material used to protect a wound and to heal is called a surgical dressing. They serve various functions for
the injured site.
 They remove wound exudates from the site, prevent infection, and give physical protection to the healing
wound and mechanical support to the supporting tissues.
 Examples- Adsorbents, Bandages, Adhesive tapes, Protectives.
SUTURES AND LIGATURES
 A surgical suture is a thread or sting used for sewing or stitching together tissues, muscles, and tendons with
the help of a needle.
 Examples of sutures are catgut, Kangaroo tendon, and synthetic polyesters.

MINERALS
 The substances of mineral origin have been used for various pharmaceutical purposes ranging from
therapeutic agents to nutritional supplements to pharmaceutical excipient.
 These inorganic substances are found as mineral deposits of different types such as terrestrial deposits
or fossil deposition of geological origin in ocean and seabeds.

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 Pharmacognosy 17

Chapter

2 IMPORTANT CHEMICAL TESTS

 ALKALOIDS
S.NO. TEST NAME COMPOSITION POSITIVE COLOUR CHANGE
1. Dragendorff's Drug solution + Dragendroff 's Orangish red colour
Test reagent (Potassium Bismuth
Iodide)
2. Mayer's Test Drug solution + few drops of Creamy-white precipitant
Mayer's reagent (potassium
mercuric iodide)
3. Hager's Test Drug solution + few drops of Crystalline yellow precipitate
Hagers reagent (Saturated
aq. Solution of Picric acid)
4. Wagner's Test Drug solution + few drops of Reddish-brown precipitate
Wagner's reagent (dilute
potassium Iodide solution)
5. Tannic Acid Test Drug solution + few drops of Buff coloured precipitate
tannic acid solution
6. Ammonia Drug solution + slightly Pink flocculent precipitate
Reineckate Test acidified (HCl) saturated
solution of ammonia reineckate

VITALI-MORIN TEST (TROPANE ALKALOID )

Tropane alkaloid + fuming nitric acid

Followed by evaporation to dryness

Addition of methanolic KOH solution to an acetone solution of nitrated residue

Violet colouration takes place due to tropane derivative.

TEST FOR NUX VOMICA

1. Strychnine Test:
To a section of endosperm + ammonium vanadate + sulphuric acid

Strychnine in the middle portion of endosperm is stained purple
2. Potassium dichromate test:
Strychnine + potassium dichromate + conc. Sulphuric acid


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Pharmacognosy 31

TANNINS
1. Goldbeater’s skin test:
A piece of goldbeater’s skin previously soaked in 2% hydrochloric acid
Note:- Hydrolysable and condensed tannins both give the positive goldbeater’s test, whereas pseudotannins show very
little colour or negative test.

Washed with distilled water is placed in a solution of tannin
for 5 minutes Note:- Hydrolysable and
 condensed tannins both give
It is then washed with distilled water the positive goldbeater's test,
 whereas pseudotannins show
very little colour or negative
Transferred to 1% ferrous sulphate solution

A change of the colour of the goldbeater’s skin to brown/ black indicates the presence of tannin
2. Phenazone Test:
5ml aqueous solution of drug + 0.5g sodium acid phosphate

Warm the solution, cool, and filter

Add 2% phenazone solution to the filtrate.

All tannins are precipitated as bulky, coloured precipitate
3. Gelatin Test:
1% gelatine solution + few amount of 10% sodium chloride

If a 1% solution of tannin is added to the gelatine solution

Tannins cause precipitation of gelatine from solution
4. Test for Catechin (Matchstick Test):
Dip a matchstick in the dilute extract of the drug

Dry; moisten it with concentrated hydrochloric acid

Warm it near a flame

Catechin in the presence of acid produces phloroglucinol which stains the lignified wood pink or red
5. Test for chlorogenic acid:
A dilute solution of chlorogenic acid containing extract

If treated with aqueous ammonia and exposed to air

Slowly turns green indicating the presence of chlorogenic acid

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Pharmacognosy 37

Chapter

3 ANALYTICAL PHARMACOGNOSY

MORPHOLOGICAL EVALUATION
 Wavy shape of rauwolfia
 Pungent taste of capsicum and ginger
 Brown colour of cinnamon

MICROSCOPICAL EVALUATION
 The characteristic of cell walls,cell content, types and size of starch grain, type of calcium oxalate crystals,
types of trichome, types of stomata(stomatal no., stomatal index, palisade ratio) vein islet no, vein termination
no. length of fibres, and vessels.
 Lignified trichomes are found in nuxvomica.
 Warty trichomes in senna.
 Wavy medullary rays in cascara bark.
 Glandular trichomes of mint.
 Powdered cloves do not contain sclereids or calcium oxalate crystals, but both of them are present
in cloves stalks.
 Presence of nonlignified vessels in powder of rhubarb and ginger indicates adulterations.
 Diameter of starch grain is 10 micron and hence useful for detection of adulterants.
 Lignin + drop of phloroglucinol + conc. HCl  Gives red stain
 Mucilage + rheuthenium red Gives pink stain
 Cellulose + dissolve in cuoxam  Swells
 Hemicellulose and starch + N/50 iodine solution  Stained blue

LEAF CONSTANTS
 Palisade ratio: average number of palisade cells beneath each epidermal cell.
 Vein islet number: number of vein islet per sq mm of the leaf surface midway between the midrib and
margin.
 Vein termination number: number of veinlet termination per sq mm of the leaf surface midway
between the midrib and margin.
 Stomatal number: average number of stomata per sq area of the epidermis of the leaf.
 Stomatal index: The percentage which the no.of stomata formed to the total no.of epidermal cells.
S.I = Stomatal index
S
S = No. of stomata per unit area. S. I = × 100
E+S
E = No of epidermal cell in the same unit area

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48 Pharmacognosy

2. Salkowaski test Alcoholic extract of drug was Formation of yellow

evaporated to drynessExtracted coloured ring at the junction
with CHCl3Then add conc. H2 of two liquid, which turns
SO4 from sidewall of test tube to red after 2 min, indicate the
the CHCl3 extract presence of steroid moiety
3. Antimony Alcoholic extract of drug was Formation of pink colour on
trichloride test evaporated to drynessExtracted heating indicates presence
with CHCl3Then add saturated of steroids an triterpenoids
solution of SbCl3 in CHCl3
containing 20% acetic anhydride
4. Trichloro acetic Triterpenes on addition of saturated Forms coloured precipitate
acid test solution of trichloro acetic acid
5. Tetranitro unsaturated steroids and triterpenes Forms yellow colour
methane test + Tetranitro methane
6. Zimmermann Meta dinitrobenzene solution + It forms violet colour in
test alcoholic solution of drug presence of keto steroid
containing alkaliOn heating
D. Chemical Tests for Cardiac Glycosides
1. Keller-kiliani Alcoholic extract of drugAdd Reddish brown layer is
test equal volume of water and 0.5 ml of formed, which turns bluish
strong lead acetate solutionThen green after standing due to
shaked and filteredFiltrate was presence of digitoxose
extracted with equal volume of
chloroformChloroform extract
was evaporated to
drynessResidue was dissolved in
3 ml of glacial acetic acid followed
by addition of few drops of FeCl3
solutionThe resultant solution
was transferred to a test tube
containing 2 ml of conc. H2SO4.
2. Legal test Alcoholic extract of drugThen Formation of pink colour in
equal volume of water and 0.5 ml of presence of glycosides or
strong lead acetate solution was aglycon moiety
addedShaked and
filteredFiltrate was extracted with
equal volume of chloroformThe
chloroform extract was evaporated
to drynessThe residue was
dissolved in 2 ml of pyridineThen
sodium nitropruside 2 ml was added
followed by addition of NaOH
solution to make alkaline
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Pharmacognosy 81

CHEMICAL TESTS

S. NO. TEST NAME COMPOSITION COMPOSITION

1. Dragendorff's Test Drug solution + Dragendroff 's Orangish red colour
reagent (Potassium Bismuth
Iodide)
2. Mayer's Test Drug solution + few drops of Creamy-white precipitant
Mayer's reagent (potassium
mercuric iodide)
3. Hager's Test Drug solution + few drops of Crystalline yellow
Hagers reagent (Saturated precipitate
aq. Solution of Picric acid)
4. Wagner's Test Drug solution + few drops of Reddish-brown precipitate
Wagner's reagent (dilute Iodine
solution)
5. Tannic Acid Test Drug solution + few drops of Buff coloured precipitate
tannic acid solution
6. Ammonia Reineckate Drug solution + slightly Pink flocculent precipitate
Test acidified (HCl) saturated
solution of ammonia reineckate

DRUG CONTAINING ALKALOIDS

S.NO. CLASS STRUCTURE EXAMPLE SYNONYM

1. Pyridine H Tobacco, Betel nut,supari
N N Areca, Asthma weed,
Piperidine
alkaloids Lobelia tobacco

Pyaridine Piperidine
2. Tropane N Belladona, Deadly night shade
alkaloids leaf
Datura,
Hyoscyamus, Henbane
Stramonium, Thornapple,
Dubosia, jamstownweed
Coca leaves
Ashwagnadha
3. Quinoline Cinchona, Peruvian bark
alkaloids Camptotheca Cancer tree
N
4. Isoquinoline Opium, Americanarrowroot
alkaloids Ipecac, poison
N Curare,
Berberis Blood root
Sanguniria
5. Indole Ergot, Claviceps
alkaloids Nux vomica, Crowfig seed
N Rauwolfia, Sarpgandha ,Indian
H Catharanthus, snake root
Physostigma Callabus

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90 Pharmacognosy

SOLUBILITY ACTIVE FORM INACTIVE FORM SALT FORM

Water soluble Ergometrine Ergometrinine Ergotamine maleate
Water insoluble Ergotamine Ergotaminine Ergotamine tartarate
Ergocristine
Ergocryptine Ergotoxine
Ergocornine
Solubility Active form Inactive form Salt form
Water soluble Ergometrine, Ergometrinine, Ergotamine maleate
Water insoluble Ergotamine, Ergotaminine, Ergotamine tartarate
Ergocristine, Ergocryptine, Ergotoxine, Ergocornine
 Ergot also contain pigment  Ergosterol, Fungisterol
Chemical Tests: -
1. Ergot  under UV light  shows a red-coloured fluorescence
2. Van Urk’s test:
Ergot powder + p-dimethyl aminobenzaldehyde(Van urk’s reagent) (0.1g) + H2SO4 (35%, v/v, 100 ml) +
5% ferric chloride (1.5ml)  deep blue colour is produced
3. Ergometrine + water  blue fluorescence
Uses: -
 Ergot is oxytocic, vasoconstrictor and abortifacient
 Used to assist delivery and to reduce post-partum haemorrhage
 Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25) is a potent specific psychotomimetic
 Ergometrine is oxytocic and used in delivery
 Ergotamine and the semisynthetic dihydroergotamine salts are used as specific analgesics for the treatment
of migraine
 Ergotoxine methane sulphate is used by geriatric patients for the treatment of dementia
Substitutes
 Ergot of wheat
 Ergot of oats
 Ergot of diss
RAUWOLFIA
Synonyms: - Sarpagandha, Chandrika; Chootachand; Indian snake root.
Biological Source: - Dried roots of Rauwolfia serpentina
Family: - Apocynaceae
Microscopy
 Transverse section of the root shows a stratified cork
 Cells of secondary cortex are parenchymatous and contain starch grains
 Phloem is narrow and consists of parenchyma with scattered sieve tissue
 Xylem is wide, entirely lignified
 Roots and rhizomes are identified by central pith

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Pharmacognosy 105

Chapter

7 VOLATILE OILS

INTRODUCTION
 Volatile oils are odorous volatile principles of plant and animal source
 Evaporate when exposed to air at ordinary temperature, and hence known as volatile or etheral oils.
 These represent essence of active constituents of the plant and hence also known as essential oils.
 Volatile oils are  freely soluble in ether and in chloroform
 Fairly soluble in alcohol
 Insoluble in water
 High refraction index and most of them are optically active.
 Volatile oils are colourless liquids, but when exposed to air and direct sunlight these become darker
due to oxidation.
 Terpenoids are regarded as derivative of polymers of isoprene (C5H8)
 Terpenoid heat CH2=C(CH3)CH=CH2 (Isoprene or 2- methyl- 1, 3 butadiene)
CLASSIFICATION OF VOLATILE OILS
Volatile oils are classified on the basis of functional groups present
GROUPS DRUGS
Hydrocarbons Turpentine oil
Alcohol Peppermint oil, Pudina, Sandalwood oil, etc.
Aldehydes Cymbopogon sp., Lemongrass oil, Cinnamon, Cassia, and Saffron
Ketones Camphor, Caraway and Dill, Jatamansi, Fennel, etc.
Phenols Clove, Ajowan, Tulsi, etc.
Phenolic ethers Nutmeg, Calamus, etc.
Oxides Eucalyptus, Cardamom, and Chenopodium oil
Esters Valerian, Rosemary oil, Garlic, Gaultheria oil, etc.

EXTRACTION OF VOLATILE OILS

Volatile oils are prepared by means of several techniques and those techniques are discussed below:
 Extraction by Hydrodistillation: - Herbal drugs
 Steam distillation
 Extraction by Scarification
Preparation of oil of lemon, oil of orange, and oil of bergamot.
The two principal methods of scarification are the sponge and the ecuelle method.

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Pharmacognosy 125

 Rheumatic ailments
Adulteration: -
 Spanish eucalyptus oil, camphor
 Oil, and turpentine fractions is common
GAULTHERIA OIL
Synonyms: - Canada tea, Checker berry, Wintergreen oil
Biological Source: - Obtained by the distillation of dried leaves of Gaultheria procumbens
Family: - Ericaceae
Chemical Constituents: -
 99% methyl salicylate
 Water gaultherase
Other components like Gaultherilene and an aldehyde or ketone, a secondary alcohol and an ester
Water
 Gaultherin gaultherase Methyl salicylate (counter irritant)
Uses: -
 Used as tonic, stimulant, antiseptic, astringent, diuretic, emmenagogue, aromatic
 Useful as a diuretic, it stimulate stomach, heart, and respiration
 In chronic inflammatory rheumatism, rheumatic fever, skin diseases, sciatica
 For dropsy, gonorrhea, stomach trouble, bladder troubles, and obstruction in the bowels
VALERIAN
Synonyms: - Valeriana rhizome
Biological Source: - Dried roots and rhizomes of Valeriana wallichi
Family: - Valerianaceae
Chemical Constituents: -
 Valerianic, formic, and acetic acids
 Alcohol  Borneol and pinene
Uses: -
 Treatment of insomnia, hysteria, blood pressure
 As an anticonvulsant in the treatment of epilepsy
 Antitumor activity
 As aromatic, stimulant, nervine, emmenagogue, anodyne, and antispasmodic
 Promote menstruation when taken hot
 Useful in colic, low fevers, to break up colds and relieves palpitation of the heart

MISCILLANEOUS
Monoterpenoid
PALMAROSA OIL
Synonym: - Rosha oil, Geranium oil
Biological source: - Obtained from leaves and tops of Cymbopogan martini

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128 Pharmacognosy

Chapter

8 LIPIDS

INTRODUCTION
 These are the reserve food materials of plants and animals.
 Those, which are lipid at 15.5c to 16.5c are called as fixed oils
 They possess following properties: Fixed oils are thick, viscous, yellow coloured liquids with characteristic
odour.
 They are non-volatile and cannot be distilled.
 They turn rancid on storage due to free acidity.

CLASSIFICATION OF FIXED OILS

 Depending upon sources and physical characteristics, fixed oils fats can be classified as
Oils and Fats
(Vegetable)

Fats Non-drying oils Semi-drying oils Drying oil

Cocoa butter Olive oil Castor oil Linseed oil
Kokum butter Peanut oil Mustard oil Poppy seed oil
Nutmeg butter Almond oil Sesame oil Hemp oil
Coconut oil Croton oil Repeseed oil Walnut oil
Palm oil Rice-bran oil Cottonseed oil
Mango kernel oil Safflower oil

Oil and fats

(Animal)

Marine animals Terrestrial animals

Fats Oils Fats Oils

Bone tallow Cod liver oil Lard Lard oil
Shark liver oil Mutton-tallow Near-foot oil
Whale oil Butter Suet

A lipid is a macro biomolecule that is soluble in nonpolar solvents.Non-polar solvents are typically hydrocarbons
used to dissolve other naturally occurring hydrocarbon lipid molecules that do not (or do not easily) dissolve in
water, including fatty acids, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K),
monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, and phospholipids.

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134 Pharmacognosy

Ginger Adrak, dried rhizomes of the Zingiberene, antiemetic, positive

Zingiber officinale gingerol, inotropic, spasmolytic,
(Zingiberaceae) shagoal, aromatic stimulant,
gingediols carminative,
condiment, flavouring
agent
Guggul Scented obtained by incision of guggulsterols I to inhibits platelet
Bdellium, the bark of Commiphora VI, β-sitosterol, aggregation, increase
Gumgugul, mukul cholesterol, Z- thermogenesis,
Salai gogil. (Burseraceae) and E- hypolipidemic,
guggulsterone astringent,
aritirheumatic,
antiseptic, expectorant,
aphrodisiac, demulcent,
emmenagogue
Ipomoea Radix dried tuberous roots of Jalapin, strong cathartic
ipomoeae Ipomoea orizabensis jalapinolic
(Convolvulacae) acid, ipurolic
acid,
convolvullinic
acid
Jalap Radix dried tuberous roots or Jalapin-ether sol. hydragogue cathartic,
jalapae, tubercles of Ipomoea (scammonin), laxative, purgative
Jalap root, purga (Convolvulaceae) Convolvulin
Vera cruz (ether insoluble)
Kaladana Mirchi, dried ripe seeds of Lysergol, purgative
Krishnabija Ipomoea hederacea hederaceterpenol,
(Convolvulaceae) hederaceteriol,
hederaterpenoside
, β-sitosterol
glucopyranoside,
chanoclavine
Male fern Filix Mass, dried rhizomes and its Filicin, butyryl Antihelmintic
Rhizoma surrounding frond bases phloroglucinol,
Filicis of Dryopteris filix-mas aspidinol,
Maris (Polypodiaceae) acylfilicinic acids
Myrrh Gum-resin obtained from the stem α, β, & γ, Antiseptic, stimulant,
Myrrh, of Commiphoric Carminative,
Gum Commiphora molmol or acids and α, β, astriengent
Myrrh, C. abyssinica Heerabomyrrholi
Arabian or (Burscraceae) c acid, Eugenol
Somali
Myrrh
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Pharmacognosy 141

Note: - Hydrolysable and condensed tannins both give the positive goldbeater’s test, whereas
pseudotannins show very little colour or negative test.
2. Phenazone Test:
5ml of aqueous solution of tannin containing drug + 0.5g sodium acid phosphate  Warm the solution 
cool filter  Add 2% phenazone solution to the filtrate Tannins are precipitated as bulky, coloured
precipitate.
3. Gelatin Test:
1% gelatine solution + little 10% sodium chloride + 1% solution of tannin tannins cause precipitation of
gelatine from solution.
4. Test for Catechin (Matchstick Test):
Dip a matchstick in the dilute extract of the drug  Dry; moisten it with concentrated HCl  Warm it near
a flame Catechin in the presence of acid produces phloroglucinol which stains the lignified wood pink
or red.
5. Test for chlorogenic acid:
Dilute solution of chlorogenic acid containing extract + aqueous ammonia  Exposed to air  Slowly
turns green indicating the presence of chlorogenic acid.
6. Vanillin-hydrochloric acid test:
Drug shows pink or red colour In mixture of vanillin: alcohol : dilute HCl in the ratio 1:10:10.
Note: - The reaction produces phloroglucinol which along with vanillin gives pink or red colour.

HYDROLYSABLE TANNINS

DRUG BIOLOGICAL ACTIVE

SYNONYM USES
NAME SOURCE CONSTITUENTS
Myrobalan Chebulic dried fruits of chebulinic acid, Chronic ulcers,
myrobalan, Terminalia chebulagic acid, Wounds, piles,
harde, chebula gallic acid stomachic,
haritaki (Combretaceae) purgative,
ingredient of
Triphala
Bahera baheda, dried ripe fruits gallic acid, ellagic Astringent,
bibhitak of the plant acid, phyllemblin Dyspepsia,
Terminalia diarrhoea,
belerica constituent of
(Combretaceae) triphala, demulcent,
purgative
Arjuna Arjun bark, dried stem bark (+) catechol, (+) Diuretic, astringent,
arjun of the plant gallocatechol, hypotensive
known as epicatechol,
Terminalia epigallocatechol,
arjuna ellgic acid
(Combretaceae)
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TESTS FOR CARBOHYDRATES

S. NO. TEST NAME PROCEDURE OBSERVATION
1. Reduction of Solution of carbohydrate + equal Brick red precipitate is
Fehling's Solution quantity of Fehling's solutions A and B obtained
 after heating
2. Molisch Test Solution of carbohydrate + -naphthol Gives purple colour
+ concentrated sulphuric acid
3. Resorcinol Test for A crystal of resorcinol + carbohydrate Rose colour is produced
Ketones solution  warmed on a water bath if a ketone is present (e.g.
(Selivanoff's Test) with an equal volume of concentrated fructose, honey or
hydrochloric acid hydrolysed inulin).
4. Test for Pentoses Heat a solution of the substance in a Formation of a red colour
test tube + equal volume of indicates pentoses
hydrochloric acid containing a little
phloroglucinol
5. Keller-Kiliani Test A Deoxysugar (found in cardiac At the junction of the
for Deoxysugars glycosides) + acetic acid + trace of liquids a reddish-brown
ferric chloride  transferred to the colour is produced which
surface of concentrated sulphuric acid gradually becomes blue.
6. Furfural Test A carbohydrate sample is heated in a Pink or red stain appears
test tube + a drop of syrupy on the reagent paper
phosphoric acid to convert it into
furfural  disk of filter paper
moistened with a drop of 10% solution
of aniline in 10% acetic acid placed
over the mouth of the test tube
bottom of the test tube is heated for
3060s

ACACIA GUM
Synonyms: - Egyptian thorn, Gum Senegal, Kher, Sudan gum arabic, Somali gum, Yellow thorn, Indian Gum
and Gum Arabic.
Biological Source: - Dried gummy exudation obtained from the stems and branches of
- Acacia Senegal (African species of Acacia)
- Acacia arabica (Indian)
Family: - Leguminosae
Chemical constituents: -
 hydrolysis
Acacia consists principally of arabin, (complex mixture of calcium, magnesium and potassium salts of
Arabic acid)
 Arabic acid hydrolysis L-arabinose, D-galactose, D-glucuronic acid and L-rhamnose 1
Chemical Tests: -
1. Lead acetate test:
Aqueous solution of acacia + lead acetate solution Yields a heavy white precipitate.

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CARBON SOURCE
 It is essential to supplement the tissue culture media with an utilizable source of carbon to the culture
media.
 The most commonly used carbon source is sucrose at a concentration of 2–5%. Glucose and
fructose are also known to be used for good growth of some tissues.
PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS
 Plant growth regulators are the critical media components in determining the developmental pathway
of the plant cells.
 The plant growth regulators used most commonly are plant hormones or their synthetic analogues.
 Classes of plant growth regulators: There are five main classes of plant growth regulator used in
plant cell culture, namely:
(1)Auxins
(2) Cytokinins
(3)Gibberellins
(4)Abscisic acid
(5)Ethylene
 Auxins: Auxins promote both cell division and cell growth.
ABBREVIATION/NAME CHEMICAL NAME
2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid
Dicamba 2-methoxy-3,6-dichlorobenzoic acid
IAA Indole-3-acetic acid
IBA Indole-3-butyric acid
MCPA 2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid
NAA 1-naphthylacetic acid
NOA 2-naphthyloxyacetic acid
Picloram 4-amino-2,5,6-trichloropicolinic acid
 Cytokinins: Cytokinins promote cell division.
ABBREVIATION/NAME CHEMICAL NAME
BAPa 6-benzylaminopurine
2iP (IPA)b [N6-(2-isopentyl)adenine]
Kinetina 6-furfurylaminopurine
Thidiazuronc 1-phenyl-3-(1,2,3-thiadiazol-5-yl)urea
Zeatinb 4-hydroxy-3-methyl-trans-2 butenylaminopurine

 Gibberellins: They are involved in regulating cell elongation, and are agronomically important in
determining plant height and fruit set. Only a few of the gibberellins are used in plant tissue culture
media, GA3 being the most common.
 Abscisic acid: Abscisic acid (ABA) inhibits cell division. It is most commonly used in plant tissue
culture to promote distinct developmental pathways such as somatic embryogenesis.
 Ethylene: Ethylene is a gaseous, naturally occurring, plant growth regulator most commonly associated
with controlling fruit ripening in climacteric fruits.

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Chapter

14 FIBRES

INTRODUCTION
Fibres may be defined as any hair-like raw material directly obtainable from an animal, vegetable, or mineral
source and convertible into nonwoven fabrics such as felt or paper or, after spinning into yarns, into woven
cloth. A natural fibre may be further defined as an agglomeration of cells in which the diameter is negligible in
comparison with the length.
CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES
Natural fibres can be classified according to their origin.
1. Vegetable, or cellulose-base - Cotton, Fax, and Jute.
2. Animal, or protein-base, fibres - Wool, Mohair, and Silk.
3. Regenerated and synthetic fibres - Nylon, Terylene, Orlon, Viscose, Alginate fibres, etc.

VEGETABLE FIBRES

COTTON
Synonyms: - Raw cotton, Purified cotton, Absorbent cotton.
Biological Source: - Epidermal trichomes of the seeds of cultivated species of the Gossypium herbaceum
and other species of Gossypium (G. hirsutum, G. barbadense)
Family: - Malvaceae
Description: -
 Colour - White
 Odour - Odourless
 Taste - Tasteless
 Shape - These are fine filaments like that of hair, which are soft and unicellular.
 Size - 2.2–4.6 cm in length and 20–35 micron in diameter
Chemical Constituents: -
 90% of cellulose
 Purified cotton has almost cellulose and 6–7% of moisture
Chemical Tests: -
1. On ignition, cotton burns with a flame, gives very little odour or fumes, does not produce a bead, and
leaves a small white ash; distinction from acetate rayon, alginate yarn, wool, silk, and nylon.
2. Dried cotton is moistened with N/50 iodine and 80% w/w sulphuric acid is added. A blue colour is
produced; distinction from acetate rayon, alginate yarn, jute, hemp, wool, silk, and nylon.

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Chapter

15
DRUGS OF MINERAL ORIGIN

INTRODUCTION
 The substances of mineral origin have been used for various pharmaceutical purposes ranging from
therapeutic agents to nutritional supplements to pharmaceutical excipient.
 These inorganic substances are found as mineral deposits of different types such as terrestrial deposits or
fossil deposition of geological origin in ocean and seabeds.
 The natural ores or minerals are collected by mining in open quarries, and the product is further purified
for various pharmaceutical uses.
MINERAL OTHER NAME SOURCE USES
Kaolin Hydrated aluminium Feldspar deposits In gastric affection
silicate
Asbestos Silicates of calcium- Hornblende For bacterial filter
magnesium
Talc Hydrated magnesium Sleatite/soap stone Filtration
silicate
Bentonite Hydrated aluminium Mineral deposits Emulsion, cosmetics
silicate
Fueller's Earth Aluminium Siliceous earth Dusting powder
magnesium silicate
Prepared chalk Calcium carbonate Calcarious remains of Antacid
algae
Kieselguhr Aluminium silicate Fossil diatoms Filtration aid
Calamine Zinc oxide Hemimorphites Cosmetics
Shilajit Herbo-mineral Iron rich rocks Aphrodisiac
Mica Alumino-silicate Metamorphic rocks Manufacturing of
furnaces, transformers,
transmitters etc.

KAOLIN
Synonyms: - China clay.
Identification: - Heat kaolin on charcoal black with cobalt nitrate, it forms blue mass due to alumina.
BENTONITE
Synonyms: - Whilkinite.
Identification Test: -
1. Bentonite is mounted in cresol Observed on dark field polarized light, it shines brightly.
2. Bentonite acquires permanent red stain  When treated with 1% solution of safranin in 70% alcohol.
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Chapter

17 RAPID REVISION

ALKALOIDS
S. NO. CLASS STRUCTURE EXAMPLE
1. Pyridine – Tobacco, Areca, Lobelia
Piperidine alkaloids

2. Tropane alkaloids Belladona, Datura,

Hyoscyamus, Stramonium,
Dubosia, Coca leaves,
Ashwgandha
3. Quinoline alkaloids Cinchona, Camptotheca

4. Isoquinoline Opium, Ipecac, Curare,

alkaloids Berberis

5. Indole alkaloids Ergot, Nux vomica,

Rauwolfia, Catharanthus,
Physostigma

6. Imidazole alkaloids Pilocarpus

7. Steroidal alkaloids Veratrum, Kurchi

8. Alkaloidal amine Ephedra, Colchicum

CH–CH2–CH2-NH2
9. Glycoalkaloids - Solanum

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STARCH GRAINS

S.NO CHARACTERISTICS MAIZE RICE WHEAT POTATO

1. Colour White White Faint grey Yellowish
tint
2. Shape Simple Simple or Mostly Flattened
grains, compound simple (large ovoid or
angular, grains (2–150 and small) subspheri
hilum components), grains, faint cal, well-
central, polyhedral with striations, marked
rarely sharp angles Hilum striations,
compound appears as hilum
grains line eccentric.
3. Size in μm 5–30 2–10 Small 2–9 10–100
Large 10–45
4. pH Neutral Alkaline Acidic Acidic
5. Moisture content(%v/w) 13 13 13 20
6. Ash content(%w/w) 0.3 0.6 0.3 0.3

CALCIUM OXALATE CRYSTALS

TYPES OF CA-OXALATE
S.NO. EXAMPLES
CRYSTALS
1. Microsphenoidal or sandy Cinchona (Small prism), Belladonna (Monoclinic
crystals microsphenoids, Hyoscyamus (Tetragonal)
2. Single acicular crystals Cinnamon, gentian
3. Prismsmatic crystals Quassia, hyoscyamus, senna, rauwolfia, cascara
4. Rosettes crystals Stramonium, senna, cascara, rhubarb
5. Bundles of acicular crystals Squill, ipecacuanha
6. Needle shaped crystals Allium cepa, Hyoscyamus species, Henbane,
Tradescantia discolor (Spider wort), Begonia
species.

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