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Tornado Case Studies

Chapter 14 discusses thunderstorms, tornadoes, and related weather phenomena, detailing their formation, characteristics, and impacts. It includes case studies of significant tornado events, such as the 1925 Tri-State Tornado, the 1974 Super Outbreak, and the 2011 tornado season, highlighting their death tolls, damage, and meteorological conditions. Key concepts include the formation of thunderstorms, the mechanics of lightning, and the categorization of tornado strength using the Enhanced Fujita Scale.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
15 views11 pages

Tornado Case Studies

Chapter 14 discusses thunderstorms, tornadoes, and related weather phenomena, detailing their formation, characteristics, and impacts. It includes case studies of significant tornado events, such as the 1925 Tri-State Tornado, the 1974 Super Outbreak, and the 2011 tornado season, highlighting their death tolls, damage, and meteorological conditions. Key concepts include the formation of thunderstorms, the mechanics of lightning, and the categorization of tornado strength using the Enhanced Fujita Scale.

Uploaded by

Natalie Shaka
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Chapter 14 Study Guide

Chapter 14 Case Studies and Study


Guide: Windstorms, Thunderstorms and
Tornadoes
Key Concepts
• Thunderstorms can form as a result of orographic lifting, convective lifting or
when a cold front moves into a region.
• Clouds associated with thunderstorms typically reach higher into the atmosphere
than ordinary storms.
• Anvil clouds form when a thunder cloud reaches the tropopause.
• Strong updraft in a growing thunder cloud separates electric charges while air acts
as insulator.
• Lightning occurs when the separated charges overcome the insulating capacity of
the air. A spontaneous discharge leads to thunder and lightning.
• The thunder is the result of the instantaneous heating and explosive expansion of
air by the lightning. Lightning travels much faster than thunder to an observer.
• Lightning occurs within a cloud, or between clouds or between a cloud and the
ground. Lightning occurs typically along the shorted distance between the bodies
carrying opposite charges.
• Today in the U.S., about as many people get killed by lightning every years as by
wind or winter storms.
• A microburst is a strong local downdraft near the surface in a mature
thunderstorm. Rain and even hail often falls. Microbursts are unpredictable and
dangerous to landing airplanes that can suddenly lose lift.
• A supercell thunderstorm is an enormous rotating severe thunderstorm that is
capable of producing large hail and spawning tornadoes. Only 15% of all
supercell thunderstorms spawn tornadoes.
• Tornadoes are fast-rotating near-vertical funnel-shaped clouds that form in violent
thunderstorms
• Of all weather phenomena, tornadoes have the highest wind speeds. The center
has particularly low air pressure.
• In the U.S., most tornadoes occur in Tornado Alley, a corridor from Texas north
to Indiana, and in Florida
• The strength of tornadoes is categorized by the six-level Enhanced Fujita Scale
where an EF5 is the most severe tornado.
• Strong wind shear at different levels in the atmosphere have to be present for a
rotating updraft (mesocyclone) to form that eventually spawns tornadoes. In
Tornado Alley, the jet stream moving over a strong storm produced by the
collision of vastly different air masses (warm tropical moisture from the Gulf of
Mexico meeting cold polar air from Canada) set the stage for severe, supercell
thunderstorms.
• In Tornado Alley, the majority of tornadoes occur from April through July
• Tornado formation is forecast by viewing clouds of severe thunderstorm in
Doppler Radar images and looking out for tell-tale hook-like echos from swirls of
precipitation
• In contrast to tornadoes, derechos are strong, hurricane-force winds that form
along a cluster of severe thunderstorms and can cause damage over hundreds of
kilometers. In the U.S., northern Texas and northern Arkansas have the highest
occurrence of derechos.

Key Terms
• thunderstorms • Fujita scale
• anvil clouds • wind shear
• supercell thunderstorm • updraft
• microburst • Tornado Alley
• dry thunderstorm • Doppler Radar
• lightning • mesocyclone
• separation of charges • funnel cloud
• tornadoes

Questions for Review


1. Under which atmospheric conditions do thunderstorms form?

2. How is a thunderstorm different from an ordinary storm?

3. Why would an anvil cloud form when the cloud grows to reach the tropopause?

4. What happens to electric charges during a growing thunderstorm? What happens


during discharge?

5. Why does every lightning have an associated thunder?

6. What is a supercell?

7. What is a microburst?

8. Why is it a bad idea to seek shelter under a tree during a thunderstorm?


Chapter 14 Study Guide

9. What is a tornado?

10. Does an ordinary thunderstorm spawn tornadoes?

11. What are the atmospheric conditions for tornadoes to form?

12. Where is Tornado Alley?

13. How do air masses and air movements favor tornado-spawning severe
thunderstorms in Tornado Alley?

14. When do tornadoes typically occur in Tornado Alley?

15. How can Doppler Radar be used to aid tornado warning?

16. How are derechos different from tornadoes?

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Chapter 14 Study Guide

Case Studies

Case Study 1: The 1925 Tri-State Tornado

With 695 confirmed fatalities, the 18 March 1925 tri-state tornado has been the deadliest
single tornado in U.S. history. Possibly being an F5 tornado, it traveled through
southeastern Missouri and southern Illinois before moving into southwestern Indiana. Its
continuous path of over 219 mi (352 km) has been the longest ever recorded in the world.
And with a width of 1 mi (1,600 m), it has been one of the widest. The tornado was also
accompanied by extreme downburst winds throughout its journey, widening the path of
destruction sometimes to 3 mi (4.8 km). Due to its huge size, people observed an unusual
rolling, boiling cloud on the ground but often did not recognize it for what it was. Failing
to sense the danger, normally weather-wise farmers were fooled, and the tornado was
upon them before they reached a save shelter.

The tornado was first sighted at about 1 p.m. northwest of Ellington, MO. It moved
northeastward to kill at least 11 people in the state. At 2:30 p.m. the tornado crossed the
Mississippi River into Illinois, destroying the town of Gorham leaving 34 people dead. It
continued on at a speed of 100 km/h (62 mph). Within 40 minutes 7 the tornado passed
through 7 more towns, taking 541 lives and injuring 1,423 more. With 234, the town of
Murphysboro has held the record for highest number of tornado fatalities in a city in U.S.
history. The tornado left at least 613 people dead in Illinois, the most in a single state in
U.S. history. Crossing the Wabash River into Indiana, the tornado nearly completely
destroyed Griffin, before continuing on to devastate half the town of Princeton. The
tornado finally dissipated at about 4:30 p.m. after 71 people lost their lives in that state.

Reports repeatedly pointed out that schools were severely damaged or destroyed. Nine
schools were destroyed in which 69 students died. Another U.S. record for this disastrous
tornado. Perhaps, these sturdy, public buildings were deemed safe, but they were no
match for the awesome destructive power of the tornado. The tornado also caused fires to
break out which were difficult to fight with broken water infrastructure, somewhat
reminiscent of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Thousands were left without shelter or
food. Looting and theft was also reported, something that occurs after many disasters and
perhaps explains why the National Guard nowadays closes off disaster areas so
rigorously. The region recovered from this disaster only slowly, also something that still
holds true for some of the recent disasters.

The tri-state tornado was actually part of a large outbreak with several other destructive
tornadoes on that day in Indiana but also in Tennessee, Kentucky, Alabama and Kansas.
At least 747 lives were lost on that day.

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Chapter 14 Study Guide

Figure 14.C1 Tornado tracks of the 3 – 4 April 1974 Super Outbreak of 148 confirmed
tornadoes, with 30 of them being an F4 or F5. (source: Wikipedia/NWS)

Case Study 2: The 1974 Super Outbreak

With 24 F4 and 6 F5 tornadoes, the 3 – 4 April 1974 outbreak has been the most violent
tornado outbreak ever recorded. Until 28 April 2011, it also was the largest outbreak for a
24-hour period. 148 confirmed tornadoes spread over 13 U.S. states from Alabama to
Michigan and even New York state, and Ontario, Canada. (Fig. 14.C1). With a death toll
of 319, this outbreak was the deadliest since the 1936 Tupelo-Gainesville tornado
outbreak, and not surpassed until the 25 – 28 April 2011 outbreak. It was also one of the
most costly, with an estimated $3.5 billion (2005 dollars) in damages.

Somewhat reminiscent of the weather situation leading into the 25 – 28 April 2011
outbreak (Fig. 14.36), on 1 April 1974, a powerful low-pressure system developed across
the North American Interior Plains. While moving into the Mississippi and Ohio Valley
areas, a strong flow of very moist mT air from the Gulf of Mexico moved in to intensify
the storm. Cool, dry cP air pushed a cold front on the western side. The jet stream had
developed an southward excursion, with the returning leg now blowing oblique along the
cold front and across the Low. By 3 April, the central low pressure was 988 mbar. NOAA
officials predicted a severe weather outbreak on 3 April but underestimated the degree of
severity.

Earlier, a separate outbreak on 1 – 2 April, included three fatal tornadoes in Kentucky,


Alabama and Tennessee. An additional tornado was reported in Indiana early on 3 April.

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Chapter 14 Study Guide

On 3 April, severe weather watches were issued for the Great Lakes area. Snow was
falling in parts of the Midwest and heavy rain in Michigan and Ontario. By the afternoon
severe thunderstorms formed in Missouri that produced baseball-size hail. Numerous
supercells and clusters of thunderstorms developed in two zones, one across Illinois and
the other across Tennessee, Alabama and northern Georgia. The worst of the outbreaks
shifted toward the Ohio Valley between 4:30 and 6:30 p.m., producing 4 F5 tornadoes.
During the evening hours, outbreaks strengthened farther south across Alabama,
Tennessee and eastern Kentucky. Additional supercells developed across northern
Indiana and southern Michigan. Activity in the south moved toward the Appalachian
during the night before the final tornado occurred in the morning of 4 April, after 18
hours of continuous tornado activity. Later studies found that long-lived single supercells
spawned multiple tornadoes in succession.

Apart from the 30 F4 and F5 tornado, the Super Outbreak also counted 35 F3 tornadoes,
31 F2, 37 F1 and 15 F0. An F5 striking Xenia, OH was the most deadly single tornado,
killing 34 and destroying 1/4 of the city and damaging another 1/4. A TV weather
specialist in Dayton, OH alerted viewers in Montgomery and Greene County (where
Xenia is located) about a possible tornado, showing the characteristic hook echo in the
radar image, several minutes before the tornado struck. An amateur recording of the
tornado that is now on YouTube shows that it was actually composed of several vortices
within the larger circulation. Some point out that the Super Outbreak occurred after a
strong La Niña but a clear correlation between La Niñas and Super Outbreaks has yet to
be established scientifically.

Figure 14.C2 Tornado damage in Tuscaloosa, AL from the 27 April 2011 EF4 tornado during
the 2011 Super Outbreak. (source: wikipedia)

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Chapter 14 Study Guide

Case Study 3: The 2011 Tornado Year

With 552 confirmed fatalities, the year 2011 has gone into U.S. tornado history as the
second-deadliest season, second only to the year of the 1925 Tri-State Tornado. Nearly
ten times as many people died from tornadoes in 2011 as during the previous 11 years
combined. 2011 has been the worst tornado season since 1953 when two of several F5
tornadoes that year killed about 115 people each. The worst tornado episodes in 2011
were the 25 – 28 April Super Outbreak that killed 322 people across the Southeastern
U.S. (Figs. 14.29, 14.36, 14.C2 and 14.C3) and the 22 May Joplin, MO tornado that left
160 dead (Figs. 14.28, 14.C4 and 14.C5).

The first fatal tornado of that year was an EF2 in Franklin Country, TN on 28 February
that was part of an outbreak of 35 tornadoes across the Midwest and South. An EF3
destroyed homes in Eminence, KY. Concentrated tornado activity also occurred in parts
of Missouri and Illinois.

During the 4 – 5 April derecho and tornado outbreak, 46 tornadoes (8 EF0, 32 EF1 and 6
EF2) touched down in across the southern U.S. from Kentucky to Georgia. Derechos
gusting at 145 km/h (90 mph) developed along an extremely long squall line across 20
states, killing at least 9 people and causing numerous power outages. Nearly 100,000 and
147,000 customers lost power in Tennesee and Georgia. April then saw two more major
tornado outbreaks: on 14 – 16 April, 148 tornadoes wreaked havoc in the southern Great
Plains and the South from Oklahoma into the Carolinas and north into Maryland and
Pennsylvania. This outbreak left 24 people dead in North Carolina, becoming the worst
outbreak there in 25 years. And on 19 – 24 April, another series of 89 tornadoes,
including one EF3 and one EF4 struck the Midwest and the southern Great Plains.
Significant damage was reported in Missouri, Illinois and Oklahoma before the supercells
merged into a large squall line. On 22 April, a violent EF4 struck St. Louis, MO causing
extensive damage, including to numerous facilities at Lambert–St. Louis International
Airport. Windows were blown out of the terminal buildings and airplanes were flipped in
the field.

Then came the 25 – 28 April Super Outbreak across the southern U.S. and well as the
Midwest and Northeast. The outbreak counted 300 confirmed tornadoes that cost 322
lives (but the numbers may not yet be final). This outbreak ranks as one of the worst in
U.S. history. The event produced 15 EF 4 and EF5 tornadoes, third only to the 1974
Super Outbreak and the 1965 Palm Sunday Outbreak. The weather situation setting the
stage is discussed in Fig. 14.36 and related text. The situation was quite similar to the one
setting the stage for the 1974 Super Outbreak. The SPC had a moderate risk of severe
weather for 3 consecutive days, centered over Arkansas and Tennessee. On 25 April,
several tornadoes occurred in Texas and Oklahoma. In the afternoon, the SPC issued
particularly dangerous situation (PDS) tornado watch for Arkansas and parts of Missouri,
Oklahoma, Texas and Louisiana. Tornadoes were scattered but an intense tornadic cell
tracked near Little Rock, AR and an EF2 caused extensive damage in Vilonia, killing at
least 4 people. Two days later, a large tornado struck Tuscaloosa, AL, killing at least 52

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Chapter 14 Study Guide

people (Fig. 14.C2 and 14.C3). Damage was “catastrophic”. That tornado hit
Birmingham shortly thereafter (Fig. 14.29). The funnel was so wide that TV crews were
unable to zoom out to catch the entire tornado from miles away. The long-lived supercell
of the Tuscaloosa and Birmingham tornadoes was responsible for a long string of
tornadoes from Mississippi to North Carolina. Apparently, pink debris balls could be
identified by severe weather experts on the radar images of 27 April, so much debris was
sucked in by the tornadoes. In Alabama was hardest hit, with 204 fatalities. Tuscaloosa,
hospitals were so full that people with broken bones were sent away.

Figure 14.C3 The southwest-to-northeast tracks of the tornadoes striking the Tuscaloosa and
Birmingham area, AL on 27 – 28 April 2011 during the 2011 Super Outbreak. (source: NOAA
(19)
)

The month of May saw 327 more confirmed tornadoes in the U.S.. The worst outbreak
occurred 21 – 26 May in the Midwest and Oklahoma. On 21 May, two systems of
thunderstorm developed over Kansas when the first EF3 tornado touched down in
Reading, KS, killing one. A moderate risk was issued for 22 May for much of the
Midwest south to Oklahoma. The first tornadic supercell developed that afternoon over
Minneapolis-St. Paul, MN, causing damage especially around Minneapolis. An intense
tornado also tracked toward Harmony, MN and a tornado emergency was issued. At
about 5 p.m., a very large, multi-vortex tornado formed (Fig. 14.C4) and devastated
Joplin, MN. Homes, businesses, public buildings, including the Irving Elementary
School, and even entire communities were flattened. Some buildings were simply blown
away, and the hospital was heavily damaged (Fig. 14.28, 14.C5). The EF5 22 May
Joplin Tornado left 160 dead and more than 1,000 injured.

Later on 24 May, supercells began forming over Kansas and Oklahoma, and the NWS
predicted a dangerous tornado outbreak. An EF5 caused destruction in rural Oklahoma
from Binger to Guthrie and killed 9. Three EF4 also develop from these storms. An EF3
and several other tornadoes struck late on 25 May in Indiana. The setup for the
Harrisburg ArtsFest was destroyed.

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Chapter 14 Study Guide

Figure 14.C4 Storm over Joplin, MO minutes before the EF5 tornado formed. (source:
Wikipedia/NOAA)

On the late morning of 1 June, several severe thunderstorms began developing along the
tail end of a cold front in the Northeast. By early afternoon a tornado watch was issued
for New England and adjacent states. A for the region rare tornado outbreak began in the
late afternoon, with several tornadoes confirmed in Maine and Massachusetts. An EF3
tornado struck Springfield, MA and continued its destructive path for another 39 mi (63
km). Major damage occurred in the area, roof collapsed in downtown businesses and
damages brick buildings. Some homes were destroyed. Trees were stripped of the leave
or uprooted and looked like those in Tuscaloosa and Joplin. The Springfield tornado
cost 4 lives and was the first killer tornado in Massachusetts since 1995.

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Chapter 14 Study Guide

Figure 14.C5 Before an after aerial views of Joplin, MO. The area was hit 22 May 2011 by an
EF5 tornado. (source: New York Times (18))

A series of 70 tornadoes ripped through the Central Plains on 18 – 21 June. On 19 June,


the NWS issues a moderate risk of severe weather. By the evening, several tornadoes
had touched down over rural areas (Fig. 14.C6). On the following day around 1 p.m.,
storm chasers reported a large EF3 on the ground near Hill City, KS and later in Elm
Creek, NE. Numerous other tornadoes, some very large and intense were reported over
mostly rural area. The tornado watch stretched from North Dakota to Kansas, and
derecho events were forecast for Oklahoma and North Texas. On 21 June, tornadoes were
reported in Anoka County, MN and Green Lake and Fond du Lac Counties, WI. A major

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Chapter 14 Study Guide

derecho event impacted the Chicago Metropolitan Area, with damage reported in
Wheeling, IL.

Figure 14.C6 A tornado west of Osceola, Polk County, NE on Highway 92. (source:
Wikipedia/NOAA)

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