CHAPTER II

Gas Power Cycles

(Air Standard Cycles)

By: Samson Mekbib

References:

1. Cengel, Yunus A., Michael A. Boles, and Mehmet Kanoğlu. Thermodynamics:

an engineering approach. 9th Edn. New York: McGraw-hill, 2019.
2. Borgnakke, Claus, and Richard E. Sonntag. Fundamentals of
thermodynamics. John Wiley & Sons, 2020.
3. Moran, Michael J., Howard N. Shapiro, Daisie D. Boettner, and M. B. Bailey.
"Fundamentals of engineering thermodynamics, 9th edn New York." NY:
Wiley (2018).
 Lesson Outcomes (Chap. II)
LO1: Evaluate the performance of gas power cycles for which the working fluid
remains a gas throughout the entire cycle.

LO2: Develop simplifying assumptions applicable to gas power cycles.

LO3: Review the operation of reciprocating engines.

LO4: Analyze both closed and open gas power cycles.

LO5: Solve problems based on the Otto, Diesel, Stirling, and Ericsson cycles.

LO6: Solve problems based on the Brayton cycle; the Brayton cycle with
regeneration; and the Brayton cycle with intercooling, reheating, and
regeneration.

LO7: Analyze jet-propulsion cycles.

LO8: Perform second-law analysis of gas power cycles.

2
 Efficiency of the Carnot Cycle

 Thermal efficiency increases with an increase in the average

temperature at which heat is supplied to the system or with
a decrease in the average temperature at which heat is
rejected from the system.

 N.B. On both P-v and T-s diagrams, the area enclosed3 by the
process curve represents the net work of the cycle.
air-standard assumptions:
1. The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates
in a closed loop and always behaves as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the cycle are
internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by a heat-
addition process from an external source (Fig).
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection
process that restores the working fluid to its initial
state.

 To simplify the analysis even more we could assume

air has constant specific heats whose values are
determined at room temperature (25°C).
 When this assumption is used, the air-standard
assumptions are called the cold-air-standard
assumptions.
 A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are
applicable is frequently referred to as an air-
standard cycle.
4
Internal Combustion Engine
An eight-cylinder, four stroke internal
combustion engine

Photo by M. Boles
5
 Overview of Reciprocketing Engines
Reciprocketing engines – aka piston cylinder engines are used
in automobiles, light aircrafts, ships, electric power generators
etc.

As shown in Fig.
1. The piston reciporockets in the cylinder b/n to fixed positions:
 Top Dead Center (TDC) – the position of the piston when
it forms the smalles volume in the cylinder.
 Bottom Dead Center (BDC) – the position of the piston
when it forms the largest volume in the cylinder.

2. Stroke – is the distance b/n TDC and BDC (it is the largest
distance the piston travel in one direction.

3. Bore – is the diameter of the piston

4. Intake Valve – Draws air – fuel mixture into the cylinder

5. Exhaust Valve – Expels combustion products from the

6
cylinder.
Overview of Reciprocketing Engines
The minimum volume formed in the cylinder
when the piston is at TDC is called the
clearance volume.

The volume displaced by the piston as it moves

between TDC and BDC is called the
displacement volume.

The ratio of the maximum volume formed in the

cylinder to the minimum (clearance) volume is
called the compression ratio r of the engine:

N.B. the compression ratio is a volume ratio

and should not be confused with the pressure
ratio.
7
Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)
 MEP is a fictitious pressure that, if it acted on the
piston during the entire power stroke, would produce
the same amount of net work as that produced
during the actual cycle

 MEP can be used as a parameter to compare the

performances of reciprocating engines of equal size.
 Exercise: Try to workout the units of MEP from the
above equations.
 Reciprocating engines are classified as spark-ignition
(SI) engines or compression-ignition (CI) engines,
depending on how the combustion process in the
cylinder is initiated. In SI engines, the combustion of
the air–fuel mixture is initiated by a spark plug. In CI
engines, the air–fuel mixture is selfignited as a result
of compressing the mixture above its self-ignition
8
temperature.
 Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines
 It is named after Nikolaus A. Otto, who built a successful four-stroke engine in 1876
in Germany.
 Four Stroke Internal Combustion Engines - the piston executes four complete
strokes (two mechanical cycles) within the cylinder, and the crankshaft completes two
revolutions for each thermodynamic cycle.

Processes
Compression stroke - the piston moves upward, compressing the air–fuel mixture
while both intake and exhaust valves remain closed.
Power (expansion) stroke - The high-pressure gases force the piston down, which
in turn forces the crankshaft to rotate, producing a
useful work output
Exhaust stroke - Toward the end of expansion stroke, the exhaust valve opens
and the combustion gases that are above the atmospheric
pressure rush out of the cylinder through the open exhaust
valve before piston reaches BDC and the piston moves upward
to TDC one more time
Intake stroke – Piston moves down a second time, drawing in fresh air–fuel mixture
through the intake valve
 Often the ignition and combustion process begins shortly before the completion of the
compression stroke (i.e. shortly before the piston reaches TDC in the compression
stroke.
 The number of crank angle degrees before the piston reaches TDC on the number one
9
piston at which the spark occurs is called the engine timing (ignition advance).
2-Stroke Engine
In two-stroke engines, all four functions described above are
executed in just two strokes: the power stroke and the
compression stroke.
In this engines, the crankcase is sealed, and the outward
motion of the piston is used to slightly pressurize the air–fuel
mixture in the crankcase, as shown in Fig.
The intake and exhaust valves are replaced by openings in the
lower portion of the cylinder wall.
During the latter part of the power stroke, the piston uncovers
first the exhaust port, allowing the exhaust gases to be partially
expelled, and then the intake port, allowing the fresh air–fuel
mixture to rush in and drive most of the remaining exhaust
gases out of the cylinder.
This mixture is then compressed as the piston moves upward
during the compression stroke and is subsequently ignited by a
spark plug.
The two-stroke engines are generally less efficient than their
four-stroke counterparts because of the incomplete expulsion of
the exhaust gases and the partial expulsion of the fresh air–fuel
mixture with the exhaust gases.
However, they are relatively simple and inexpensive, and they
have high power-to-weight and power-to-volume ratios, which
make them suitable for applications requiring small size and 11
The P-v
 The work interactions during the
and T-s constant-pressure intake (0-1) and
constant-pressure exhaust (1-0)
diagrams processes can be expressed as
of ideal
Otto
Cycle  The Otto cycle is executed in a closed
system, and disregarding the changes in
kinetic and potential energies, the energy
balance for any of the processes is
expressed, on a unit-mass basis, as

12
Thermal Efficiency of the Otto cycle:
Wnet Qnet Qin  Qout Qout
 th     1
Qin Qin Qin Qin
Now to find Qin and Qout.

Apply first law closed system to process 2-3, V = constant.

Thus, for constant specific heats,

Qnet , 23  U 23
Qnet , 23  Qin  mCv (T3  T2 )
13
Apply first law closed system to process 4-1, V = constant.

Thus, for constant specific heats,

Qnet , 41  U 41
Qnet , 41  Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )
Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )  mCv (T4  T1 )
The thermal efficiency becomes
Qout
 th , Otto  1
Qin
mCv (T4  T1 )
 1
mCv (T3  T2 ) 14
 (T4  T1 )
 th , Otto  1
(T3  T2 )
T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 1
T2 (T3 / T2  1)
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

Since V3 = V2 and T2 T3

V4 = V1, we see T1 T4
that or
T4 T3

T1 T2 15
 The Otto cycle efficiency becomes
T1
 th , Otto  1 
T2
Is this the same as the Carnot cycle efficiency?

Since process 1-2 is isentropic,

where the compression ratio is r = V1/V2 and

1
 th , Otto  1  k 1
r
16
 We see that increasing the compression ratio increases the thermal efficiency.
However, there is a limit on r depending upon the fuel. Fuels under high
temperature resulting from high compression ratios will prematurely ignite, causing
knock.
 For a given compression ratio, an ideal Otto cycle using a monatomic gas (such as
argon or helium, k = 1.667) as the working fluid will have the highest thermal
efficiency. At room temperature it is 1.4 for air, 1.3 for carbon dioxide, and 1.2 for
ethane.
 Thermal efficiency of actual spark ignition engines ranges between 25 to 30%.

17
EXAMPLE 9.3

Relative Specific Volume, Vr

Relative Pressure Pr
(Exact Analysis with varying specific heat values)

Page 350, Chapter 7

Isentropic properties of ideal gases

Constant specific heats (approximate analysis)
Varying specific heats (Exact Analysis)

With Table A-17

18
Example 9-1

An Otto cycle having a compression ratio of 9:1 uses air as the

working fluid. Initially P1 = 95 kPa, T1 = 17oC, and V1 = 3.8 liters.
During the heat addition process, 7.5 kJ of heat are added.
Determine all T's, P's, th, the back work ratio, and the mean effective
pressure.

Process Diagrams: Review the P-v and T-s diagrams given above
for the Otto cycle.

Assume constant specific heats with Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg K, k = 1.4.

(Use the 300 K data from Table A-2)

Process 1-2 is isentropic; therefore, recalling that r = V1/V2 = 9,

19
The first law closed system for process 2-3 was shown to
reduce to (your homework solutions must be complete; that is,
develop your equations from the application of the first law for
each process as we did in obtaining the Otto cycle efficiency
equation) Qin  mCv (T3  T2 )
Let qin = Qin / m and m = V1/v1
RT1
v1 
P1
kJ
0.287 (290 K ) 3
kg  K m kPa

95 kPa kJ
m3
 0.875 20
kg
 Qin v1
qin   Qin
m V1
m3
0.875
kg
 7.5kJ
.  103 m3
38
kJ
 1727
kg
Then, qin
T3  T2 
Cv
kJ
1727
kg
 698.4 K 
kJ
0.718
kg  K
 3103.7 K
21
Using the combined gas law (V3 = V2)
T3
P3  P2  9.15 MPa
T2
Process 3-4 is isentropic; therefore,
k 1 k 1 1.4 1
 V3  1 1
T4  T3    T3    (3103.7) K  
 V4  r 9
 1288.8 K

22
 Process 4-1 is constant volume. So the first law for the closed
system gives, on a mass basis,
Qout  mCv (T4  T1 )
Qout
qout   Cv (T4  T1 )
m
kJ
 0.718 (1288.8  290) K
kg  K
kJ
 717.1
kg
The first law applied to the cycle gives (Recall ucycle = 0)

wnet  qnet  qin  qout

kJ
 (1727  717.4)
kg
kJ
 1009.6
kg
23
 The thermal efficiency is
kJ
1009.6
w kg
 th , Otto  net 
qin kJ
1727
kg
 0.585 or 58.5%

The mean effective pressure is

Wnet wnet
MEP  
Vmax  Vmin vmax  vmin
wnet wnet wnet
  
v1  v2 v1 (1  v2 / v1 ) v1 (1  1/ r )
kJ
1009.6
kgm3kPa
 3
 1298 kPa
m 1 kJ
0.875 (1  )
kg 9
24
The back work ratio is (can you show that this is true?)

wcomp u12 Cv (T2  T1 ) (T2  T1 )

BWR    
wexp u34 Cv (T3  T4 ) (T3  T4 )
 0.225 or 22.5%

25
 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle
The air-standard Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle that
approximates the Diesel combustion engine

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection

The P-v and T-s diagrams are

26
The P-v and T-s
diagrams of the Diesel
Cycle

27
Thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle
Wnet Qout
 th , Diesel   1
Qin Qin
Now to find Qin and Qout
Apply the first law closed system to process 2-3, P = constant.

Thus, for constant specific heats

Qnet , 23  U 23  P2 (V3  V2 )
Qnet , 23  Qin  mCv (T3  T2 )  mR(T3  T2 )
Qin  mC p (T3  T2 ) 28
 Apply the first law closed system to process 4-1, V = constant
(just as we did for the Otto cycle)

Thus, for constant specific heats

Qnet , 41  U 41
Qnet , 41  Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )
Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )  mCv (T4  T1 )
The thermal efficiency becomes
Qout
 th , Diesel  1
Qin
mCv (T4  T1 )
 1
mC p (T3  T2 ) 29
 Cv (T4  T1 )
 th , Diesel  1
C p (T3  T2 )
1 T1 ( T4 / T1  1)
 1
k T2 ( T3 / T2  1)
What is T3/T2 ?
PV PV
3 3
 2 2 where P3  P2
T3 T2
T3 V3
  rc
T2 V2
where rc is called the cutoff ratio, defined as V3 /V2, and is a
measure of the duration of the heat addition at constant
pressure. Since the fuel is injected directly into the cylinder,
the cutoff ratio can be related to the number of degrees that
the crank rotated during the fuel injection into the cylinder. 30
 What is T4/T1 ?
PV PV
4 4
 1 1 where V4  V1
T4 T1
T4 P4

T1 P1
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

PV  PV
1 1
k
2 2
k
and PV  PV
4 4
k
3 3
k

Since V4 = V1 and P3 = P2, we divide the second equation by

the first equation and obtain

31
 Therefore,

1 T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 th , Diesel  1
k T2 (T3 / T2  1)
1 T1 rck  1
 1
k T2 (rc  1)
1 rck  1
 1
r k 1 k (rc  1)
What happens as rc goes to 1? Sketch the P-v diagram for the Diesel cycle and
show rc approaching 1 in the limit.

Also show that as rc goes to 1, the thermal efficiency of the diesel cycle will be equal
to that of the Otto cycle making use of the L'Hopital's Rule.

32
When rc > 1 for a fixed r,  th , Diesel   th , Otto .

But, since rDiesel  rOtto ,  th , Diesel   th , Otto .

33
Stirling and Ericson Cycles
Stirling Cycle:
1-2 T = constant expansion (heat addition from the external source)
2-3 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the working fluid
to the regenerator)
3-4 T = constant compression (heat rejection to the external sink)
4-1 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the regenerator
back to the working fluid)

34
Stirling and Ericson Cycles
The complicated Stirling engine could be illustrated by a
system consists of a cylinder with two pistons on each side
and a regenerator in the middle.
The regenerator can be a wire or a ceramic mesh or any
kind of porous plug with a high thermal mass (mass times
specific heat).
During process 1-2, heat is transferred to the gas at TH
from a source at TH. As the gas expands isothermally, the
left piston moves outward, doing work, and the gas
pressure drops.
During process 2-3, both pistons are moved to the right at
the same rate (to keep the volume constant) until the entire
gas is forced into the right chamber. As the gas passes
through the regenerator, heat is transferred to the
regenerator and the gas temperature drops from TH to TL.
For this heat transfer process to be reversible, the
temperature difference between the gas and the
regenerator should not exceed a differential amount dT at
any point.
During process 3-4, the right piston is moved inward,
compressing the gas. Heat is transferred from the gas to a
sink at temperature TL.
35
Brayton Cycle
The Brayton cycle is the air-standard ideal cycle approximation for the gas-turbine
engine. This cycle differs from the Otto and Diesel cycles in that the processes
making the cycle occur in open systems or control volumes. Therefore, an open
system, steady-flow analysis is used to determine the heat transfer and work for the
cycle.

Search the web for information on new gas turbine technologies. One site that gives
a link to the GE 7FA group of gas turbines that operate on natural gas is
http://www.webshots.com/explains/sports/gas-turbine.html

A second link gives an overview of the applications of gas turbines.

http://www.energysolutionscenter.org/DistGen/Tutorial/CombTurbine.htm#Heat_Reco
very

Brayton Cycle Analysis

We assume the working fluid is air and the specific heats are constant and will
consider the cold-air-standard cycle.

36
The closed cycle gas-turbine engine

37
The T-s and P-v diagrams for the
Closed Brayton Cycle

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a
compressor)
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection

38
Thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle
Wnet Qout
 th , Brayton   1
Qin Qin
Now to find Qin and Qout.

Apply the conservation of energy to process 2-3 for P = constant (no work), steady-
flow, and neglect changes in kinetic and potential energies.
E in  E out
m 2 h2  Q in  m
 3h3
The conservation of mass gives
 in  m
m  out
m2  m3  m
For constant specific heats, the heat added per unit mass flow is
Q in  m (h3  h2 )
Q in  mC
 p (T3  T2 )
Q in
qin   C p ( T3  T2 )
m 39
The conservation of energy for process 4-1 yields for constant specific heats (let’s
take a minute for you to get the following result)
Q out  m (h4  h1 )
Q out  mC
 p (T4  T1 )
Q out
qout   C p (T4  T1 )
m 
The thermal efficiency becomes
Q out q
 th , Brayton  1  1  out
Q in qin
C p (T4  T1 )
 1
C p (T3  T2 )
(T4  T1 )
 th , Brayton  1
(T3  T2 )
T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 1
T2 (T3 / T2  1)
40
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we see that

T2 T3 T4 T3
 or 
T1 T4 T1 T2
The Brayton cycle efficiency becomes
T1
 th , Brayton  1 
T2
Is this the same as the Carnot cycle efficiency?

Since process 1-2 is isentropic,

41
where the pressure ratio is rp = P2/P1 and
1
 th , Brayton  1  ( k 1)/ k
rp

Extra Assignment

Evaluate the Brayton cycle efficiency by determining the net work directly from the
turbine work and the compressor work. Compare your result with the above
expression. Note that this approach does not require the closed cycle assumption.
Example 9-2

The ideal air-standard Brayton cycle operates with air entering the compressor at 95
kPa, 22oC. The pressure ratio rp is 6:1 and the air leaves the heat addition process at
1100 K. Determine the compressor work and the turbine work per unit mass flow,
the cycle efficiency, the back work ratio, and compare the compressor exit
temperature to the turbine exit temperature. Assume constant properties.

Apply the conservation of energy for steady-flow and neglect changes in kinetic and
potential energies to process 1-2 for the compressor. Note that the compressor is
isentropic.
E in  E out
m h  W
1 1 comp  m 2 h2
The conservation of mass gives
 in  m
m  out
1  m
m 2  m 

43
 For constant specific heats, the compressor work per unit mass flow is

Wcomp  m (h2  h1 )
Wcomp  mC
 p (T2  T1 )
Wcomp
wcomp   C p (T2  T1 )
m
Since the compressor is isentropic

44
 wcomp  C p (T2  T1 )
kJ
 1005
. (492.5  295) K
kg  K
kJ
 19815
.
kg
The conservation of energy for the turbine, process 3-4, yields for constant specific
heats (let’s take a minute for you to get the following result)
Wturb  m (h3  h4 )
Wturb  mC
 p (T3  T4 )
Wturb
wturb   C p (T3  T4 )
m
Since process 3-4 is isentropic

45
Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we see that
( k 1) / k
T4  1 
 
T3  rp 
( k 1) / k
1  1
(1.4 1) /1.4

T4  T3    1100 K    659.1 K
r 6
 p 
kJ
wturb  C p (T3  T4 )  1005
. (1100  659.1) K
kg  K
kJ
 442.5
kg
We have already shown the heat supplied to the cycle per unit mass flow in process
2-3 is m 2  m 3  m
m h  Q  m h
2 2 in 3 3

Q in
qin   h3  h2
m
kJ
 C p (T3  T2 )  1005
. (1100  492.5) K
kg  K
kJ
 609.6 46
kg
The net work done by the cycle is
wnet  wturb  wcomp
kJ
 (442.5  19815
. )
kg
kJ
 244.3
kg
The cycle efficiency becomes
wnet
 th , Brayton 
qin
kJ
244.3
kg
  0.40 or 40%
kJ
609.6
kg

47
The back work ratio is defined as

win wcomp
BWR  
wout wturb
kJ
19815
.
kg
  0.448
kJ
442.5
kg

Note that T4 = 659.1 K > T2 = 492.5 K, or the turbine outlet temperature is greater
than the compressor exit temperature. Can this result be used to improve the cycle
efficiency?

What happens to th, win /wout, and wnet as the pressure ratio rp is increased?
Consider the T-s diagram for the cycle and note that the area enclosed by the cycle is
the net heat added to the cycle. By the first law applied to the cycle, the net heat
added to the cycle is equal to the net work done by the cycle. Thus, the area
enclosed by the cycle on the T-s diagram also represents the net work done by the
cycle.
48
Let's take a closer look at the effect of the pressure ratio on the net work done.

wnet  wturb  wcomp

 C p (T3  T4 )  C p (T2  T1 )
 C p T3 (1  T4 / T3 )  C p T1 (T2 / T1  1)
1 ( k 1)/ k
 C p T3 (1  ( k 1)/ k
)  C p T1 (rp  1)
rp 49
Note that the net work is zero when
k /( k 1)
 T3 
rp  1 and rp   
 T1 
For fixed T3 and T1, the pressure ratio that makes the work a maximum is obtained
from:
dwnet
0
drp
This is easier to do if we let X = rp(k-1)/k
1
wnet  C p T3 (1  )  C p T1 ( X  1)
X
dwnet
 C p T3[0  ( 1) X 2 ]  C p T1[1  0]  0
dX
Solving for X

50
Then, the rp that makes the work a maximum for the constant property case and fixed
T3 and T1 is

For the ideal Brayton cycle, show that the following results are true.
•When rp = rp, max work, T4 = T2
•When rp < rp, max work, T4 > T2
•When rp > rp, max work, T4 < T2

The following is a plot of net work per unit mass and the efficiency for the above
example as a function of the pressure ratio.
280 0.60

260 0.55

240 0.50
0.45
220
0.40
w net kJ/kg

th,Brayton
200 T1 = 22C
0.35
180 P1 = 95 kPa
T3 = 1100 K 0.30
160 t = c = 100% 0.25
140 0.20
rp,max
120 0.15
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Pratio 51
Regenerative Brayton Cycle

For the Brayton cycle, the turbine exhaust temperature is greater than the
compressor exit temperature. Therefore, a heat exchanger can be placed between
the hot gases leaving the turbine and the cooler gases leaving the compressor. This
heat exchanger is called a regenerator or recuperator. The sketch of the
regenerative Brayton cycle is shown below.

52
We define the regenerator effectiveness regen as the ratio of the heat transferred to
the compressor gases in the regenerator to the maximum possible heat transfer to
the compressor gases.
qregen , act  h5  h2
qregen , max  h5'  h2  h4  h2
qregen , act h5  h2
 regen  
qregen , max h4  h2

53
For ideal gases using the cold-air-standard assumption with constant specific heats,
the regenerator effectiveness becomes
T5  T2
 regen 
T4  T2
Using the closed cycle analysis and treating the heat addition and heat rejection as
steady-flow processes, the regenerative cycle thermal efficiency is
qout
 th , regen  1
qin
h6  h1
 1
h3  h5
Notice that the heat transfer occurring within the regenerator is not included in the
efficiency calculation because this energy is not heat transferred across the cycle
boundary.

Assuming an ideal regenerator regen = 1 and constant specific heats, the thermal
efficiency becomes (take the time to show this on your own)

54
When does the efficiency of the air-standard Brayton cycle equal the efficiency of the
air-standard regenerative Brayton cycle? If we set th,Brayton = th,regen then

Recall that this is the pressure ratio that maximizes the net work for the simple
Brayton cycle and makes T4 = T2. What happens if the regenerative Brayton cycle
operates at a pressure ratio larger than this value?
55
For fixed T3 and T1, pressure ratios greater than this value cause T4 to be less than
T2, and the regenerator is not effective.

What happens to the net work when a regenerator is added?

What happens to the heat supplied when a regenerator is added?

The following shows a plot of the regenerative Brayton cycle efficiency as a function
of the pressure ratio and minimum to maximum temperature ratio, T1/T3.

56
Example 9-3: Regenerative Brayton Cycle

Air enters the compressor of a regenerative gas-turbine engine at 100 kPa and 300 K
and is compressed to 800 kPa. The regenerator has an effectiveness of 65 percent,
and the air enters the turbine at 1200 K. For a compressor efficiency of 75 percent
and a turbine efficiency of 86 percent, determine
(a) The heat transfer in the regenerator.
(b) The back work ratio.
(c) The cycle thermal efficiency.

Compare the results for the above cycle with the ones listed below that have the
same common data as required. The actual cycles are those for which the turbine
and compressor isentropic efficiencies are less than one.
(a) The actual cycle with no regeneration,  = 0.
(b) The actual cycle with ideal regeneration,  = 1.0.
(c) The ideal cycle with regeneration,  = 0.65.
(d) The ideal cycle with no regeneration,  = 0.
(e) The ideal cycle with ideal regeneration,  = 1.0.

We assume air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats, that is, we use the cold-
air-standard assumption.

57
The cycle schematic is the same as above and the T-s diagram showing the effects of
compressor and turbine efficiencies is below.

T-s Diagram for Gas Turbine with Regeneration

800 kPa

100 kPa
T

5
2a 4a
2s 4s
6

58
Summary of Results

Cycle type Actual Actual Actual Ideal Ideal Ideal

regen 0.00 0.65 1.00 0.00 0.65 1.00

comp 0.75 0.75 0.75 1.00 1.00 1.00

turb 0.86 0.86 0.86 1.00 1.00 1.00

qin kJ/kg 578.3 504.4 464.6 659.9 582.2 540.2

wcomp kJ/kg 326.2 326.2 326.2 244.6 244.6 244.6

wturb kJ/kg 464.6 464.6 464.6 540.2 540.2 540.2

wcomp/wturb 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.453 0.453 0.453

th 24.0% 27.5% 29.8% 44.8% 50.8% 54.7%

59
Compressor analysis

The isentropic temperature at compressor exit is

( k 1) / k
T2 s  P2 
 
T1  P1 
( k 1) / k
P  800kPa (1.41) /1.4
T2 s  T1  2   300 K ( )  543.4 K
 P1  100kPa
To find the actual temperature at compressor exit, T2a, we apply the compressor
efficiency
wisen , comp h2 s  h1 T2 s  T1
 comp   
wact , comp h2 a  h1 T2 a  T1
1
T2 a  T1  (T2 s  T1 )
 comp
1
 300 K  (543.4  300) K
0.75
 624.6 K

60
Since the compressor is adiabatic and has steady-flow
wcomp  h2 a  h1  C p (T2 a  T1 )
kJ kJ
 1.005 (624.6  300) K  326.2
kg  K kg
Turbine analysis

The conservation of energy for the turbine, process 3-4, yields for constant specific
heats (let’s take a minute for you to get the following result)

Wturb  m (h3  h4 a )
Wturb  mC
 p (T3  T4 a )
Wturb
wturb   C p (T3  T4 a )
m

61
Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we can find the isentropic temperature at the turbine exit.
( k 1) / k
T4 s  P4 
 
T3  P3 
( k 1) / k
 P4  100kPa (1.41) /1.4
T4 s  T3    1200 K ( )  662.5K
 P3  800kPa
To find the actual temperature at turbine exit, T4a, we apply the turbine efficiency.

wact , turb h3  h4 a T3  T4 a
 turb   
wisen , turb h3  h4 s T3  T4 s
T4 a  T3   turb (T3  T4 s )
 1200 K  0.86(1200  662.5) K
 737.7 K  T2 a

62
The turbine work becomes
wturb  h3  h4 a  C p (T3  T4 a )
kJ
 1005
. (1200  737.7) K
kg  K
kJ
 464.6
kg
The back work ratio is defined as
win wcomp
BWR  
wout wturb
kJ
326.2
kg
  0.70
kJ
464.6
kg

63
Regenerator analysis

To find T5, we apply the regenerator effectiveness.

T5  T2 a
 regen 
T4 a  T2 a
T5  T2 a   regen (T4 a  T2 a )
 624.6 K  0.65(737.7  624.6) K
 6981
.K

64
To find the heat transferred from the turbine exhaust gas to the compressor exit gas,
apply the steady-flow conservation of energy to the compressor gas side of the
regenerator.

m 2 a h2 a  Q regen  m 5h5
m 2 a  m 5  m
Q regen
qregen   h5  h2 a
m
 C p (T5  T2 a )
kJ
 1005
. .  624.6) K
(6981
kg  K
kJ
 73.9
kg

65
Using qregen, we can determine the turbine exhaust gas temperature at the
regenerator exit.
m4 a h4 a  Qregen  m6 h6
m4 a  m6  m
Qregen
qregen   h4 a  h6  C p (T4 a  T6 )
m
kJ
73.9
qregen kg
T6  T4 a   737.7 K 
Cp kJ
1.005
kg  K
 664.2 K

66
Heat supplied to cycle

Apply the steady-flow conservation of energy to the heat exchanger for process 5-3.
We obtain a result similar to that for the simple Brayton cycle.
qin  h3  h5  C p (T3  T5 )
kJ
 1005
. (1200  6981
. )K
kg  K
kJ
 504.4
kg
Cycle thermal efficiency

The net work done by the cycle is

wnet  wturb  wcomp

kJ kJ
 (464.6  326.2)  138.4
kg kg

67
 The cycle efficiency becomes
wnet
 th , Brayton 
qin
kJ
138.4
kg
  0.274 or 27.4%
kJ
504.4
kg

You are encouraged to complete the calculations for the other values found in the
summary table.

68
Other Ways to Improve Brayton Cycle Performance

Intercooling and reheating are two important ways to improve the performance of the
Brayton cycle with regeneration.

69
The T-s diagram for this cycle is shown below. Sketch the P-v diagram.

70
Intercooling

When using multistage compression, cooling the working fluid between the stages
will reduce the amount of compressor work required. The compressor work is
reduced because cooling the working fluid reduces the average specific volume of
the fluid and thus reduces the amount of work on the fluid to achieve the given
pressure rise.

To determine the intermediate pressure at which intercooling should take place to

minimize the compressor work, we follow the approach shown in Chapter 7.

For the adiabatic, steady-flow compression process, the work input to the compressor
per unit mass is
4 3 0
2 4
wcomp =  v dP =  v dP   v dP   v dP
1 3
1 2

71
For the isentropic compression process
k k
wcomp = ( P2 v2  Pv1 1)  ( P4 v4  P3v3 )
k -1 k -1
k kR
 R (T2  T1 )  (T4  T3 )
k -1 k -1
k
 R T1 (T2 / T1  1)  T3 (T4 / T3  1) 
k -1
k    P2 
( k 1) / k
   P4 
( k 1) / k

 R T1     1  T3     1 
k -1    P1     P3  
    
Notice that the fraction kR/(k-1) = Cp.

Can you obtain this relation another way? Hint: apply the first law to processes 1-4.

72
For two-stage compression, let’s assume that intercooling takes place at constant
pressure and the gases can be cooled to the inlet temperature for the compressor,
such that P3 = P2 and T3 = T1.

The total work supplied to the compressor becomes

To find the unknown pressure P2 that gives the minimum work input for fixed
compressor inlet conditions T1, P1, and exit pressure P4, we set

dwcomp ( P2 )
0
dP2

73
This yields
P2  P1 P4
or, the pressure ratios across the two compressors are equal.
P2 P4 P4
 
P1 P2 P3
Intercooling is almost always used with regeneration. During intercooling the
compressor final exit temperature is reduced; therefore, more energy must be
supplied in the heat addition process to achieve the maximum temperature of the
cycle. Regeneration can make up part of the required heat transfer.

To supply only compressed air, using intercooling requires less work input. The next
time you go to a home supply store where air compressors are sold, check the larger
air compressors to see if intercooling is used. For the larger air compressors, the
compressors are made of two piston-cylinder chambers. The intercooling heat
exchanger is often a pipe with a attached fins that connects the large piston-cylinder
chamber with the smaller piston-cylinder chamber. Often the fly wheel used to drive
the compressor has spokes shaped like fan blades that are used to increase air flow
across the compressor and heat exchanger pipe to improve the intercooling effect.

74
Shown here is a two-stage, 7.5 hp air compressor with intercooling.

Photo by M. Boles
75
Extra Assignment

Obtain the expression for the compressor total work by applying conservation of
energy directly to the low- and high-pressure compressors.

Reheating

When using multistage expansion through two or more turbines, reheating

between stages will increase the net work done (it also increases the
required heat input). The regenerative Brayton cycle with reheating was shown
above.

The optimum intermediate pressure for reheating is the one that maximizes the
turbine work. Following the development given above for intercooling and assuming
reheating to the high-pressure turbine inlet temperature in a constant pressure
steady-flow process, we can show the optimum reheat pressure to be

P7  P6 P9
or the pressure ratios across the two turbines are equal.

P6 P7 P8
 
P7 P9 P9
76