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revive EDITION

O F THE SOUTHEAST
BY WHIT GIBBONS AND MIKE DORCAS
Fifty-three kinds of snakes
are native to the Southeast,
almost half of all species in-
digenous to North America.
Filled with more than 300 color
photographs and written by
two renowned herpetologists,
this new edition is the most
comprehensive authoritative
guide to the snakes of
the region.
At the heart of the
book are its heavily illustrated, fact-filled
descriptions of each snake species. Also included is a
wealth of general information about the importance of
snake conservation and the biology, diversity, habitats,
and ecology of snakes. Find useful information about
the interactions of humans and snakes: species that are
likely to be found near houses, snakes as pets, what to
do in case of a snakebite, and more.
The revised edition of Snakes of the Southeast includes
new photos, the latest research findings, new species
discoveries, and the most current geographic range
maps. Clearly written, cleanly designed, and fun to
use, this guide promotes a better understanding of the
conservation of this fascinating but often maligned
group of animals.

FEATURES:
« Conservation-oriented approach
¢ Over 300 color photographs, including many new
images for this edition
- Up-to-date distribution maps for 53 species of snakes
« New accounts of invasive snakes of the Southeast
« Clear descriptions of each species, including
differences in the appearance of young and
mature snakes

« Size charts, key identifiers (scales, body shape,

patterns, and color), and descriptions of habitat,
behavior and activity, food and feeding, reproduction,
predators and defense, and conservation
SNAKES OF THE SOUTHEAST
nakes
OF THE SOUTHEAST
ReviEee Dial ON

by Whit Gibbons and Mike Dorcas

The University of Georgia Press

Athens and London
 © 2005, 2015 by the University of Georgia Press
a Wormsloe
FOUNDATION
nature book Athens, Georgia 30602

www.ugapress.org

All rights reserved

Designed by Mindy Basinger Hill

Set in 10/15 Scala

Printed and bound by Four Colour Print Group

The paper in this book meets the guidelines for

permanence and durability of the Committee on

Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the

Council on Library Resources.

Most University of Georgia Press titles are

available from popular e-book vendors.

Printed in China

i 13 wy 1 RB Pp § Ag Qi

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015936305

ISBN 978-0-8203-4901-5 (pbk.: alk. paper)

British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data available

Contents
ALL ABOUT SNAKES
Why Snakes? . 1
General Biology of Snakes 3
Snake Diversity 6
Food and Feeding 8
Predators 12
Defense 14
Reproduction 17
Locomotion 20
Activity 22
Temperature Biology 24
Identifying Snake Species of the Southeast 27

SPECIES ACCOUNTS
Introduction 33
How to Use the Species Accounts 34
Small Terrestrial Snakes 37
Mid-Sized Terrestrial Snakes 71
Large Terrestrial Snakes 103
Watersnakes 135
Venomous Snakes 185
Introduced Species 217
 Rainbow snakes are among
the most colorful of the
southeastern snakes.

Some snakes, such as this

cross between a red milksnake
and Louisiana milksnake, can
be strikingly colored.

All about Snakes

WHY SNAKES?

Practically everyone is fascinated by snakes. Some people fear them, some

are attracted to them, but almost nobody is indifferent toward them. And
although dread of snakes may be the most common phobia in the South-
east, today’s soaring interest in environmental is-
Many species of snakes,
sues has led people to pay more attention to eeveehteGen
the environmental well-being of all wildlife, hognose, do not bite
including snakes. people.
Most people are interested in learning
which snakes live around their homes,
which are venomous and which are harm-
less, and how to tell them apart. Our goal
is to teach people about snakes and to fos-
ter appreciation of them as valuable com-
ponents of our natural heritage. Snakes have
been feared, hated, and maltreated for too long,
and have been too long ignored when conserva-
tion and environmental issues are under discus-
sion. With this book we hope to interest young people

Black swamp snakes are rare in most regions

but can be very abundant in localized areas.
 Awatersnake and adults who may have missed
flicking its tongue an earlier opportunity to get to
know this group of captivating
yet harassed animals.
The Southeast offers many op-
portunities for appreciating na-
ture, and our hope is that people
who read this book will be excited
when they see snakes while in
the woods, boating on a lake, or
walking along a stream. We en-
Ow aeice Siete “OMIEES people to place the same
eastern hognose snake, value on encountering a snake as
can sometimes be foundin —_ they do on seeing a dolphin, hear-
ee ee ing a screech owl, or touching a
box turtle. We would like to see everyone develop an acceptance of—better
yet, an admiration for—snakes that equals that expressed for many other
wild creatures.

2 « Why Snakes?
GENERAL BIOLOGY OF SNAKES
What is a snake? Snakes are reptiles, just like lizards (their closest relatives), Legless lizards, such as this
turtles, and alligators. Their most distinctive traits are their elongated body slender glass lizard (Ophisau-
and lack of limbs. These characters impose certain limitations on snakes rus attenuatus), are frequently
misidentified as snakes. Glass
compared with other animals, yet these same biological features give them
lizards have movable eyelids
unusual abilities as well. Snakes can maneuver through underground bur- and ear openings whereas
rows and tunnels and negotiate tight passages much better than most other snakes do not.

animals of their size. This ability, added to

their agility, helps them find prey and hide
from predators.
Like most other reptiles, snakes are cov-
ered with scales. Even their eyes are pro-
tected by clear, transparent scales, which
eliminate the need for movable eyelids. The
shape, size, and placement of the body scales
in relation to each other are different for each
species and are commonly used in identifica-
tion. All snakes shed the outermost layer of
skin covering their scales several times per
year. Most snakes shed by literally crawling
out of the skin, leaving behind an inside-out
remnant. Scientists call this shedding pro-
cess ecdysis.
All snakes have teeth. Some, including six species found in the Southeast,
have hollow fangs in the front of the mouth that are used to inject venom.
Some snakes are rear-fanged, which means they have enlarged teeth in
the back of the mouth. Rear-fanged snakes in the Southeast are generally
harmless to humans. Most snakes have many thin, needlelike teeth in their
upper and lower jaws that curve backward, so that a captured prey animal
cannot escape. Snakes swallow their prey whole, and they can eat animals
much wider than they are themselves because their upper and lower jaws
are loosely connected to each other and their bodies stretch. Snakes may
take more than an hour to swallow very large prey.
The relatively narrow, elongated bodies of snakes require an internal
anatomy that differs somewhat from that of other vertebrates, including
other reptiles. Whereas paired organs are usually side-by-side in most ani-
mals, they tend to be staggered in snakes. For example, one lung is farther
down the body than the other, and in most species only one lung actually
functions. Likewise, the kidneys lie one ahead of the other, as do the testes

General Biology of Snakes « 3

 in males and the ovaries in females. The liver is greatly elongated compared
with that of amammal, bird, or reptile of similar size.
The digestive tract of a snake is like those of other vertebrates in hav-
The eye becomes opaque : h
Laan rea ag mM esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines that lead to the
its skin, as seen in this Outside through the cloaca, a chamber into which the intestinal, urinary,
eastern coachwhip. and genital tracts empty. The cloacal opening, visible on the underside of
all snakes, is where the body ends and
the tail begins.
The reproductive organs of snakes
are also of the same basic design and
function as those of other vertebrates,
except that male snakes have two cop-
ulatory organs (i.e., penises) called
hemipenes (singular = hemipenis). Un-
less the snake is copulating, the two
hemipenes are tucked inside the base
of the tail behind the cloaca. Thus,
male snakes typically have longer and
thicker tails than female snakes. Dur-

we
< ae F
ie
%
Z 4
ae
4,

wages
, Boe
»
*y i.
en
 Approximately half of
the species of southeastern
snakes lay eggs.

ing mating, the male snake fertilizes the female by inserting either hemi-
penis into her cloaca. Sperm travels along grooves in the hemipenis and
into the female to fertilize her eggs. Some female snakes can store sperm
for months or even years.
Snakes have the same senses as other vertebrates. Although they cannot
hear airborne sounds the way mammals do because they have no ear open-
ings and no middle ear, snakes can detect vibrations through the ground
or water. Their combined sense of
taste and smell is well developed.
The snake flicks its forked tongue
to gather odor particles from the
environment. The tongue trans-
ports the particles to a cavity in the
roof of the mouth called the Jacob-
son’s organ for chemical identifica-
tion. Snakes that typically travel
above the ground have very good
vision and often have enlarged
eyes, whereas some burrowing forms have reduced eyes and can discern
only shadows. Because snakes have no eyelids, they do not blink and seem
always to be staring.
Some snakes, including the southeastern pit vipers, have special sense
organs in the head region that can detect variations in temperature. The
heat-sensitive organs of pit vipers are in openings called “pits” on the face
of the snake between the eye and the nostril. Even in complete darkness
a pit viper can detect and pinpoint a subtle change in temperature such
as the difference between the body temperature of a mouse and its sur-
roundings. A sense organ that can detect heat has great value to an animal
that hunts at night.

Facing page and above: Timber rattlesnake shedding its skin.

The clear scales that cover the eyes are shed with the rest of
the skin. Note also the heat-sensitive pit between the eye and
the nostril from which pit vipers derive their name.

General Biology of Snakes « 5

 SNAKE DIVERSITY

Although all snakes are superficially alike in lacking limbs, the diversity of
body forms, habitats occupied, feeding strategies, and behavior patterns they
display is remarkable. Approximately 15-18 families of snakes comprising
more than 2,900 species are known worldwide. More than 130 species in 5
families are native to the United States. The Southeast is the natural home
to more than 50 species belonging to 3 families: Elapidae (coral snake), Vi-
Snakes of the Southeast
peridae (cottonmouth, copperhead, and rattlesnakes), and Colubridae (all
belong to one ofthree
families: Colubridae (top), remaining native snakes). Four introduced species—Brahminy blind snake,
Viperidae (middle), or Burmese python, northern African rock python, and boa constrictor—have
Elapidae (bottom).
become established in some areas of Florida, adding 4 more species and
3 families to the total. About a dozen of the species native to the Southeast
are endemic, which means that they are found nowhere else in the world.
Southeastern snakes occupy, or at least enter, virtually every natural hab-
itat. Sixteen species, including the venomous cottonmouth, rely on aquatic
habitats for their primary prey of frogs, fish, or aquatic invertebrates such
as crayfish. Some species are characteristically found in sandhill habitats;
others are most likely to be found in hardwood or pine forests, vegetation
along stream margins, rocky outcrops, or open fields. The salt marsh snake
is the only species of North American snake that lives
permanently in brackish water.

Naming Snakes
All animals are given a scientific name that includes a
genus name (e.g., Coluber) and a species name (e.g., con-
strictor). Thus, the proper scientific name of the racer is
Coluber constrictor. Scientific names follow strict rules.
Common names do not follow the established rules and are often based
on what the people of a particular region call the snake. For example, the
snakes known scientifically as Pantherophis obsoletus are called “ratsnakes”
by most herpetologists (scientists who study snakes, other reptiles, and
amphibians; see page 233), “black snakes” in northern areas, and “chicken
snakes” in many parts of the South. We see no compelling reason to insist
on a strict use of acommon name for any species of snake as long as it is
clear what species of snake is being referred to, especially if the customary
terminology varies from one region to another. In addi-
tion, forced standardization of common names often
detracts from the regional cultural heritage and is
unnecessary for professional herpetologists

6 « Snake Diversity
who use the scientific names. In this book we use scientific names to min- Watersnakes are common
imize confusion but also include common names that are recognized by residents in all natural
aquatic areas in the
most people in the Southeast.
Southeast.

A Word about Taxonomic Controversies

Taxonomy is the scientific field of classification and naming of organ-
isms. Snake taxonomists strive to classify and name snakes in a way that
reflects the ancestral relationships among species. Thus, closely related
species are placed together within a genus (plural = genera), and closely
related genera are grouped together within a family. Taxonomy is not a
perfect science. Very rare snakes may be difficult to classify because so little
is known of their biology. In addition, taxonomists often disagree about Of the 53 species of
the relative importance of different traits in classification, snakes native to the
and thus may have different views on the lineage Southeast, 24 are
found in every one
Salt marsh snakes live in of the southeastern
a variety of brackish states.
water habitats.

Snake Diversity « 7
 Ribbonsnakes are
often found on land
near water.

and ancestral relationships (phylogeny) of

particular species or groups of species.
Sometimes these disagreements result
in the scientific name of a species being
changed. Modern molecular genetics has
allowed herpetologists to resolve many
of the old taxonomic debates, although
in some instances disputes have actually
become more heated because of differing
interpretations of the findings.
In this book we have used scientific
names familiar to most herpetologists.
We have also included a short explana-
Crowned snakes are
among the smallest tory note for each species whose classification is currently in dispute. Our
southeastern snakes. purpose is to be certain that the reader knows what snake we are talking
about, no matter what name the animal is given.

FOOD AND FEEDING

All snakes are carnivores (that is, they eat animals rather than plants),
and all snakes swallow their prey whole. Although some species have very
specialized diets, snakes as a group eat almost every kind of animal. Small
snakes eat insects, spiders, and earthworms; larger ones eat rabbits, birds,
and bullfrogs. Overpowering and consuming other animals despite having
no limbs is a remarkable feat.
The first step in getting food is finding it. Among the senses used by
southeastern snakes to find and identify their prey are sight, smell, touch,
and infrared heat detection. Some species, such as racers and coachwhips,
use their particularly good vision to find prey. Many snakes track prey by
following its scent. Pit vipers, such as rattlesnakes, use scent to arrive
at appropriate ambush locations and then use their infrared detection

8 « Food and Feeding

pits to home in on the body heat of mammalian prey, even in the dark. Rattlesnakes rely on camou-
Rattlesnakes usually strike, inject venom, and release the prey, then rely flage to ambush prey.

on their remarkable ability to track down the dying animal after it runs
away. A brown watersnake will drape itself over a limb, hang its head and
upper body into the water, and grab, with spectacular speed, any fish that
touches it.
Herpetologists categorize snakes into two broad categories based on
how they hunt their prey. Ambush predators, such as diamondback rattle-
snakes, may remain motionless for hours or even days waiting for prey
to pass within striking distance. Juveniles of many species of pit vipers,
including copperheads, cottonmouths, and pigmy rattlesnakes, wiggle a
brightly colored tail tip to attract potential prey, such as frogs or lizards,
within striking distance. Wide-ranging, active foragers, such as racers and
coachwhips, cover large areas in search of prey. Some snakes use both
strategies, ambush and active foraging, to find prey. Many snakes track prey
by using their tongues to
Snakes can also be categorized by the type of food they eat. Generalists
follow a scent trail.
eat a wide variety of animals, including recently dead ones; specialists focus
on one or a few prey types. Racers and kingsnakes are good examples of

Food and Feeding « 9

Some snakes specialize on
particular prey items, includ-
ing (top to bottom) scarlet
snakes on reptile eggs, coral
snakes on other snakes, some
watersnakes on fish, and some
crowned snakes on centipedes.

generalists because they eat many types of animals—in-

cluding birds, mammals, reptiles, and even other snakes.
Hognose snakes, which eat primarily toads, are dietary
specialists.
Snakes have several techniques for subduing prey. The
most straightforward approach is to bite the animal to be
eaten and hold on while gradually swallowing it. All south-
eastern snakes have numerous sharp, backward-pointing
teeth that direct the prey in one direction—toward the
stomach. The indigo snake has a powerful bite that crushes soft-bodied
prey. Constriction is another method widely used to kill living prey. Af
ter striking, the snake loops its body once or more around the prey and
tightens the coils each time the prey animal exhales. Some herpetologists
think that suffocation is the primary cause of death; others believe that
constriction results in cardiac arrest. Quite a few snakes—more than you
might think—use venom to subdue or kill their prey. The saliva of many
species can paralyze or even kill small animals when the venom enters
wounds made by the sharp teeth. But only six southeastern species—the
five pit vipers and the coral snake—actually inject venom.
Some of the specialist feeders have unusual structural,
physiological, and behavioral strategies that allow them
to capture and eat their chosen prey. Crowned snakes eat
centipedes, which are venomous. The crowned snake bites
the centipede behind the head in a way that prevents the
centipede from biting back. The snake forces its enlarged
rear teeth into the centipede’s body and holds on tightly
until its venomous saliva has paralyzed the centipede.
Mud snakes and rainbow snakes have pointed scales on
their tail tips that they use to secure themselves while eating giant sala-
manders or eels. The glossy crayfish snake and striped crayfish snake use
their enlarged, chisel-like teeth to grasp and consume hard-shelled crayfish.

10 « Food and Feeding

 Scarlet kingsnakes kill their prey
with constriction.

The primary diet

of some snakes is
other snakes.

Snakes (such as this juvenile northern

watersnake) ) often eat prey items larger
than their own girth.

Food and Feeding + 11

 Virtually all snakes can go long periods without eating—many days,
weeks, or in some instances months—and in cooler parts of the Southeast,
most do not eat at all during the winter. Likewise, by remaining dormant
underground, most snakes are able to survive periods of drought when
food may be scarce.

PREDATORS

Snakes and snake eggs are eaten by an enormous variety of animals

throughout the Southeast. Almost any large animal that eats other ani-
mals will eat a snake if it can.
The most vulnerable snakes are the small ones, which must fear small
creatures such as spiders, toads, and shrews in addition to larger predators.
Large carnivorous mammals such as bobcats and coyotes, as well as medi-
Domestic cats kill |
um-sized ones such as raccoons, skunks,
many small snakes in and opossums, are potential threats to
suburban areas. larger snakes, although the snake’s size
can become a deterrent in some instances.
Otter and mink readily prey on snakes in
wetland habitats. Birds of prey, especially
hawks, prey on snakes they find crossing
open areas and lying on limbs along river-
banks. Snakes that travel overland at night
fall victim to owls; small woodland snakes

tes

Raccoons and bobcats

are natural predators
of many snakes.

12 ¢ Predators
 Any snake, including
venomous pit vipers such
as this copperhead, may
become the prey ofa
common kingsnake.

become prey for ground-scratching birds; and aquatic snakes along wetland
margins become the quarry of wading birds. Domestic and feral cats kill
thousands of snakes each year in residential areas.
Large fish such as gar, catfish, and bass are an ever-present hazard for
aquatic snakes, and alligators are a constant menace to all snakes in the
water, even large cottonmouths. Some amphibians eat snakes as well.
Bullfrogs and the giant salamanders known as amphiumas are common
American alligators may
predators of small to medium-sized aquatic snakes. eat any snake that enters
Although many predators will eat snakes when given the opportunity, their aquatic habitat.

only one type of predator in the Southeast specializes on them—other

snakes! Because snakes are long and thin and must swallow their prey
whole, other snakes make ideal prey for many species. Typical snake preda-
tors in the Southeast include coral snakes, common kingsnakes, and indigo
snakes. Some snake-eating snakes sometimes even swallow snakes larger
than themselves. Snake-eating snakes can effectively target other snakes
because they can pursue them in their favorite hiding places: underground
burrows, beneath logs, and in rock crevices.
Snake eggs are vulnerable to a wide variety of animals. Scarlet snakes
specialize on reptile eggs, and some herpetologists consider nonnative
fire ants to be a major threat to the eggs of species such as the southern
hognose snake.

Predators + 13
 we,

Although they are venomous, DEFENSE

copperheads still use camou-
flage to hide from predators. Southeastern snakes exhibit remarkable—and sometimes very entertain-
ing—responses to threats from predators and people. The first level of
Death feigning is a defensive defense for most southeastern snakes is to go unseen, which they achieve
response of hognose snakes. by hiding out of sight or being effectively camouflaged. Once discovered,
the initial response of most species, including venomous ones, is to flee
to safety.
When a clean escape seems unlikely, a snake may try to fool or distract
a predator. Many try to bluff their way out of the situation. The most com-
mon approach, used by many species, is to make the head and body look
bigger. Some harmless watersnakes flatten and expand their heads and
even their entire bodies so that they resemble a broad-headed, thick-bodied
cottonmouth. Thus, venomous snakes often cannot be distinguished from
harmless species simply because they have large, “arrow-shaped” heads.
When confronted or captured, many southeastern snakes release

14 « Defense
The classic open-mouthed defensive display of the cottonmouth
is often sufficient warning to deter predators.

Many harmless snakes such

as most watersnakes (top) and
the eastern hognose snake
(bottom) expand their head and
neck regions to appear bigger
and more threatening.

The characteristic defensive rattle presumably cannot be heard by the snake

itself but serves as a warning to would-be predators.
 Ring-necked snakes will foul-smelling musk from the cloaca. Each species of snake has its own
often expose their brightly odor, ranging from the sickeningly sweet, almost perfumed scent of gar-
colored belly and tail
tersnakes to the nauseatingly thick and overpowering musk of large wa-
when threatened.
tersnakes. Some species, such as eastern diamondback rattlesnakes, will
even spray their musk a short distance if captured. The smells released by
snakes presumably discourage some predators, which would prefer not to
eat something that smells (and presumably tastes) so bad.
Other defensive displays include the red-bellied snake’s curling of the
upper lip to reveal what appear to be large teeth; the pine snake’s open-
Many harmless snakes will
bite when threatened. mouthed hissing; the cottonmouth’s gaping; and the death feigning of
several species, with hognose snakes giving the most spectacular (and
realistic) performance.
Mud snakes, ring-necked snakes, and coral snakes unable to escape a
threat sometimes put the head under the body, curl the tail, and turn it
upside down, exposing the brightly colored undersurface. Whether the
display is a threat or an attempt to divert the attack away from the head
and toward the tail is unknown.
Some defensive behaviors are used in response to specific predators.
For example, kingsnakes are immune to the venom of pit vipers. Rather
than trying to defend itself by biting, a pit viper attacked by a kingsnake
will arch its back toward its attacker.

16 + Defense
 The last resort for many snakes is to bite an attacker, although many
will not bite a person under any circumstances. A bite can have serious
consequences for people or predators if the snake is venomous. Bites from
the larger watersnakes, racers, and ratsnakes can draw blood, but typically
the injury is equivalent to a scratch and requires no more than simple
cleaning with soap and water, and possibly the application of an antiseptic.
A bite from a pit viper or coral snake can be painful and even dangerous
depending on the location of the bite and the amount of venom injected.
However, even for venomous snakes, biting is a last resort.

REPRODUCTION

Snakes are similar to mammals and birds in their general reproductive

patterns. Males mate with females by means of internal fertilization, which
is sometimes preceded by elaborate courtship behaviors that may include
combat between adult males. Male-male combat among some of the large
species of snakes (e.g., ratsnakes, kingsnakes, cottonmouths, and rattle-
snakes) is a rarely seen but presumably widespread behavior. During the
combat, two males of the same species
face each other, lift their heads above
the ground, and entwine the front part
of their bodies. The snake that can force
its opponent to the ground wins the
bout. Biting or injury is apparently rare
in these combat encounters, even among
venomous species. Because larger males
generally win and get to mate with the
female, males of species with male-male
combat rituals are typically larger than
females.
Herpetologists have not observed the
courtship of many species in the wild,
but presumably it is a ritualistic activity
that is distinctive for each species. Of-
ten the male crawls on top of or beside
the female, ultimately placing his cloaca
adjacent to hers. During courtship, snakes often twitch or jerk erratically, Baby red-bellied snakes
and in some species the male bites the female on the neck or head. The (shown with their mother)
are tiny.
female generally signals her willingness to mate by lifting her tail and al-
lowing copulation to occur. Gartersnakes and some watersnakes are noted

Reproduction + 17
 Courtship behavior
and actual mating by
snakes are seldom seen in
the wild. Kingsnakes gener-
ally mate as a single pair,
whereas several male water-
snakes may try to mate
with one female.

for courtship behavior in which two or several males attempt to mate with
a single female at once or in succession.
Most snakes use chemical signals called pheromones as part of their mat-
ing behavior. Generally, the female snake releases a pheromone as a signal
to males that she is ready to mate.
Most species of southeastern snakes mate in the spring, although some
mate primarily in autumn, and others may mate in both seasons. After
mating, the female produces young either by laying eggs or by giving birth
to live babies. Approximately half of southeastern snakes lay eggs, and half
give birth to live young. Recent research has shown that some of the species
that carry the young internally until birth actually nourish the developing
babies through placenta-like structures. Other live-bearing species carry
the developing young inside thin membranes similar to developing eggs.
Most egg-laying snakes lay eggs in late spring or early summer, and the
eggs hatch in mid-to-late summer or fall. Live-bearing snakes generally
give birth during the same period.
The egg-laying snakes deposit groups, or clutches, of elongate, white or
cream-colored eggs with leathery shells. The nesting sites are usually under-
ground or beneath logs or rocks. Pine snakes tunnel several feet beneath the
surface in sandy areas to create a cavity for their eggs. Ratsnakes will often

18 « Reproduction
 Baby snakes use an egg tooth to slice
open the egg from the inside.

lay eggs under rotting vegetation in

Some snakes, including
the hollow of a tree. The incubation
rattlesnakes, give live birth;
period ranges from an average of others, such as wormsnakes,
only a few days or weeks for some hatch from eggs.
species to more than 2 or 3 months
for others. The temperature and hu-
midity affect the success and rate of
hatching. Baby snakes have an egg
tooth on the tip of the snout that allows them to slice through the leathery
eggshell. The egg tooth is lost the first time the young snake sheds its skin.
The females of some snakes, such as mud snakes and rainbow snakes,
are believed to remain with the eggs until they hatch. Some pit vipers (live-
bearers) protect their newborn young for several hours or days. Some spe-
cies may exhibit complex parental behavior, but it has rarely been seen.

Reproduction + 19
 Rough green snakes LOCOMOTION
are often found in
shrubs and vines. How do snakes move about without limbs? In fact, they get around very
well. The coordinated operation of muscles, flexible ribs, and overlapping
belly plates (the scales on the snake’s belly) allows snakes to maneuver
down tunnels, over the ground, up trees, and in the water. The coordina-
tion of ribs and belly plates is especially important in allowing a snake to
push itself along the ground or a tree limb. Each belly plate is associated
with the ends of a pair of ribs. The most common method southeastern
snakes use to move forward is called lateral undulation. As the long mus-
cles down the body of the snake are contracted first on one side and then
on the other, the ribs and belly plates push backward and the snake moves
forward. The alternation of contractions on the two sides of the body is so
well synchronized that snakes appear to glide effortlessly over the ground,
Belly plates (ventral scales)
across bushes, or into holes. Swimming snakes undulate their entire bodies
coordinate with the
ribs and help to push a to push themselves forward in the water.
snake forward. Southeastern snakes occasionally use other forms of locomotion more

20 « Locomotion
common in snakes from other regions. Racers will use a sidewinding motion
to cross a hot highway, for example, the same way sidewinder rattlesnakes
of the Southwest move across sandy deserts. A sidewinding snake lets only
the front and back ends of its body touch the ground, pushes itself up ver-
tically, and then moves its body horizontally. Large rattlesnakes often use
rectilinear locomotion when crawling overland or across highways. In this
form of movement, muscles on both sides of the body contract simulta-
neously so that the snake slowly moves forward in a straight line. Snakes
using concertina locomotion extend the front part of the body forward, an-
chor it, and then pull the hind end forward. Most snakes use concertina
locomotion when in burrows, and ratsnakes typically use it when climbing.
The absence of legs does not make snakes less efficient at locomotion
than other animals. The amount of energy a snake uses to move a given
distance is similar to that of a lizard that goes the same distance using its
legs. Despite their efficiency in traveling over the ground, climbing, and
swimming, snakes do not move as rapidly as they sometimes appear to.
Black racers, for example, are among the fastest snakes in the Southeast,
but their top speed when crossing a highway is typically less than 5 miles
per hour. They probably can move faster in a natural habitat. But no snake
can move over the ground faster than the average person can run.

Ratsnakes can climb

straight up the side of a tree
or even up a brick wall.

Locomotion « 21
Watersnakes are often
found basking during
ACTIVITY
the daytime.

Seasonal Activity
Our impression of when snakes are active is influenced by those we see
most often. The species that travel overland to get from one wetland habitat
to another, to reach hibernation sites, or to search for prey or for mates are
the ones people are most likely to see. Snakes and other reptiles become
inactive during extremely cold and hot periods because they cannot main-
tain their body temperature at a suitable level. Thus, they generally become
dormant during cold winters (hibernation; some scientists refer to this as
brumation) and hot, dry summers (aestivation). Because most of the South-
east experiences moderate temperatures in most years and most seasons,
some snakes are active to some degree during every month in most areas.
Southeastern snakes are dormant for longer periods during the winter
at higher latitudes and elevations because seasons are shorter and colder
there, but they are more likely to be active throughout most of the summer
in such areas. Watersnakes and cottonmouths may aestivate during the
hottest and driest parts of the summer when their prey is scarce.
Springtime is generally the period of greatest activity for southeast-
ern snakes as a group, both because many species breed in the spring
and also because they are seeking meals as they emerge from winter dor-

22 Activity
mancy. However, more snakes are actually present and likely to be seen
aboveground during late summer and fall because that is when snakes’
eggs hatch and live-bearing snakes give birth. The young of some species
such as hognose snakes, racers, and gartersnakes are especially common
during autumn. Most of these young snakes are eaten by predators and do
not survive until the following spring.
The timing of courtship and breeding influences the aboveground ac-
tivity of snakes during some seasons. Thus, pine snakes are encountered
most frequently in the spring, presumably because that is their breeding
season and they are actively pursuing mates. In the spring and fall, snakes
are often seen crossing highways, although many do not survive the trip.
Canebrake rattlesnakes, especially large males, are commonly killed cross-
ing roads during their late summer and fall breeding season.
Some of the larger species of snakes are more often seen in the fall and
spring as they enter and leave their winter hibernation sites. In the moun-
tainous regions of the Southeast, some species gather in large numbers to
hibernate in dens, which are usually in rocky outcrops on a sunny south- or
west-facing slope. Rattlesnakes, copperheads, and ratsnakes frequently den
together, and some individuals travel miles to reach a particular denning
site. Gartersnakes are noted for hibernating together in large numbers in
some regions. The same snakes generally return to the same dens year
after year.
Regional temperature patterns differ from year to year, and snake species
respond to these annual variations in different ways. Some that disappear
underground and become dormant during extended periods of winter cold
will remain active during more moderate winters, occasionally appearing
aboveground. For example, cottonmouths will sometimes emerge from

Scarlet snakes are active

only at night.

Hognose snakes search for

toads during the daytime.

Snakes + 23
 underground hibernating sites to warm up in the winter sun, even on very
cold days. Canebrake rattlesnakes living in the same region do not typically
emerge from hibernation until mid-to-late spring. Likewise, some snakes
become active earlier in the year during a warm spring, while others do
not emerge from their winter dormancy until late spring regardless of the
spring temperatures in a particular year.

Daily Activity
Snakes are active during both day and night in the Southeast, but daily
activity periods vary from one species to the next. Pine snakes and racers,
for example, are diurnal; that is, they are characteristically active above-
ground only during the daylight hours. Scarlet snakes, on the other hand,
are nocturnal; that is, they come out only at night. Some species (e.g., corn
snakes and copperheads) are typically active during the day in the cool
seasons and at night during summer. Many watersnakes are active around
water at night when searching for nocturnal prey such as frogs, but may
also be active during the day.
Underground is one of the safest places for a snake, and many species
spend most of their lives in root tunnels or beneath logs, rocks, and ground
litter. All southeastern snakes are adept at using underground pathways,
and some, such as pine snakes and hognose snakes, make their own bur-
rows in sandy or other loose soils. A behavior that tends to make snakes
highly visible is basking in the sun, which snakes do to warm themselves.
Watersnakes are especially noted for basking on limbs or bushes above
water, into which they quickly retreat if disturbed. Likewise, they will often
rest on shaded limbs during warm days. Many terrestrial snakes bask on the
ground or on rocks during cool periods, often close to a hole or other retreat.

Gartersnakes are often

active during cool weather. TEMPERATURE BIOLOGY

Temperature affects nearly every aspect of the lives of

snakes. It can influence a snake’s growth, capture of
| prey, and ability to escape from predators. A snake’s
body temperature is determined primarily by the envi-
ronmental conditions that surround it, and thus most
people refer to them as cold-blooded,
although their blood is not neces-
sarily cold. Scientists refer to cold-
blooded animals as ectotherms, but
both terms mean the same thing.
 Coachwhips prefer higher
temperatures than some
snakes and are usually
active on warm days.

Because oftheir low-energy

lifestyle, many snakes, such
as this eastern diamondback
rattlesnake, need to eat only
a few meals each year.

Temperature Biology + 25
 Glossy crayfish snakes Most snakes prefer to maintain a body temperature around 86° F (30°
sometimes bask on sunny C). Humans, other mammals, and birds regulate their body temperature by
days during late winter.
using internal body heat, which they produce during metabolism. Snakes,
however, regulate their body temperature by using different behaviors—
such as basking on cool, sunny days and seeking shelter and shade on hot
days. They are particularly susceptible to heat stress.

Low-Energy Lifestyle
Just as there are certain advantages to being warm-blooded, there are also
advantages to being cold-blooded, or ectothermic. Ectotherms have low
metabolic rates and thus generally require only about one-tenth the food
needed by a similar-sized mammal. This low-energy lifestyle allows snakes
to go for long periods between meals and to specialize on food that is avail-
able at only certain times of the year. A good example is the egg-eating
scarlet snake, which feeds primarily on lizard eggs during late spring and
summer. Because snakes do not use metabolic heat to maintain a high
body temperature, like mammals and birds do, they can use much more
of the energy from their food for growth and reproduction.

26 « Temperature Biology
IDENTIFYING SNAKE SPECIES OF THE SOUTHEAST

Being able to identify animals and plants is one of the first steps in devel-
oping an appreciation for nature. When you know what species a snake
is, you can find out what it might eat, how large it can get, and whether
it is venomous or harmless. Most of the more than 50 species of snakes
native to the Southeast can be identified using a few key characters, espe-
cially when coupled with the geographic location (e.g., a snake native to
Alabama or Florida with a bright green body is without question a rough
green snake, and a shiny black snake with red stripes down its back and
sides from coastal Virginia or southern Mississippi will always be a rain-
bow snake). Such information is easy to learn and can greatly add to your
enjoyment of nature in general and snakes in particular.
Body scale counts and head scale configurations are among the key
characters used to tell snake species and subspecies apart, but these are
subtle features used primarily by professional herpetologists. Other traits
are obvious to even the most casual observer. For example, only three south-
eastern snake species have rattles at the end of the tail. The following guide
to the species presents a combination of characters, some quite obvious
and others requiring closer examination, that will distinguish each species
from all or most of the others. A few species will never be easily told apart
without careful examination by an expert in herpetology. And even profes-
sional herpetologists will sometimes have difficulty confirming whether the
small brownsnake in their hand is a smooth or rough earthsnake unless
they are holding a magnifying glass. But most southeastern snakes can be
correctly identified with minimal effort by using this book.

Colors and Patterns

Southeastern snakes exhibit an amazing diversity of patterns, ranging
from solids to blotches, spots, and bands or rings to longitudinal stripes.
The most common colors are blacks, browns, and grays, which offer pro-
tection through camouflage. More than 20 of our snake species, however,
are brightly colored in shades of red, orange, yellow, or green. The color
and pattern of some species—such as rainbow snakes, green snakes, and
southern hognose snakes—rarely vary and can be used with confidence
in identification throughout the Southeast (see the individual species ac-
counts for descriptions). Other species, such as gartersnakes, red-bellied
snakes, and eastern hognose snakes, exhibit variation—even at the same
locality—that makes color and pattern unreliable as identifying charac-
ters. In some species, intergrades that possess color patterns and scale

Identifying Snake Species of the Southeast + 27

counts intermediate between two or more subspecies may occur where
the geographic ranges of the subspecies overlap. All species exhibit aber-
rant color patterns on rare occasions (e.g., solid black copperheads and
albino rattlesnakes).

Size as a Character in Identification

Southeastern snakes range in body size from the tiny wormsnakes and
earthsnakes to the enormous pine snakes and indigo snakes, which may
weigh a thousand times more than the smaller species. Because it is
a straightforward and easy measurement, body length is the standard
method of determining a snake’s size, although body shape and bulk can
also be important factors for identification. A 2-foot-long southern hognose
snake, for example, will weigh much more than a ribbonsnake of the same
length. It is important to remember that every snake will change greatly
in length during its lifetime (most will be five times longer as adults than
their size at birth), and many species vary in body proportion based on
their sex and recent feeding success. Therefore, body size is not always a
reliable character. It may be worthless for differentiating between some
species and highly reliable for separating others. For example, a baby

In the Southeast, only rattlesnakes, copperheads, and cottonmouths

have a heat-sensitive pit between the eye and nostril.
 Note some ofthe characters used to distinguish venomous snakes may be difficult to see from
a safe distance. The best way to identify whether a snake belongs to a venomous species is to learn
what each ofthe venomous species in your region looks like.

coachwhip or pine snake is longer at birth than a crowned snake or pine

woods snake will ever be.
Another size trait sometimes useful for distinguishing among species
is the length of the tail in relationship to the total body length. For exam-
ple, rattlesnakes have very short tails relative to their body length (less
than 10%), while the tail of ribbonsnakes can be more than a third of the
total body length. In all southeastern snakes, the male’s tail, from birth
through adulthood, is always proportionately longer than a female’s of the
same species.

How Can You Tell If aSnake Is Harmless or Venomous?

People ask more questions about the identification, behavior, and ecology of
snakes than about any other group of animals in the Southeast. One of the
first questions a person wants to know on finding a live or dead snake, or
even a shed skin, is whether the snake is venomous. All six of the venom-
ous species found in the Southeast differ from all of the harmless species
by having fangs in the front part of the mouth, although it is not usually
necessary (or recommended) to open a snake’s mouth to determine its
identity. All five of the southeastern pit viper species (rattlesnakes, cotton-
In the southeastern United
mouth, and copperhead) have three distinctive characteristics that no other
States, venomous pit vipers
snake in the region has: (1) there is an opening (the heat-sensitive pit) in characteristically have a
the side of the head between the nostril and the eye; (2) most of the scales single row of scales beneath
on the underside of the tail are in a single row rather than in a double row the tail (top) whereas all
harmless species (as well as
(see photos); and (3) the pupils in the eyes of pit vipers appear elliptical in
the venomous coral snake)
most situations, whereas all other southeastern snakes (including coral have a double row of scales
snakes) have distinctly round pupils. (middle and bottom respec-
A simple rule learned as a rhyme by children in the Southeast readily tively). The trait is recogniz-
able on shed skins and can
separates an eastern coral snake from all of the harmless snakes of the re-
sometimes be useful in de-
gion: “Red touch yellow, kill a fellow—red touch black, friend of Jack’ (or termining whether a snake is
“venom lack’). That is, any southeastern snake with brightly colored red, venomous.

yellow, and black rings in which the wider red rings touch the narrower
yellow ones is almost certainly a coral snake. The outlines ofthe rings are
visible even on a shed skin.

Identifying Snake Species of the Southeast + 29

 One common bit of erroneous information that can cause a nonvenom-
ous snake to be misidentified as venomous is that only rattlesnakes vibrate
their tails. Many harmless snakes, especially large terrestrial species, vi-
brate the tail when confronted, and in dry leaves may actually sound like
a rattlesnake. Also, a large, triangular head does not necessarily identify a
snake as venomous. Many of the large but harmless watersnakes flatten
and expand the head when alarmed, making them look very similar to the
venomous cottonmouth.

Key Traits to Look for in Identifying Snakes

A few characteristics can be used to narrow the field by excluding certain
species.

SCALE TYPE SMOOTH OR KEELED (SEE PHOTOS) One ofthe most reliable
traits for most southeastern species is whether the body scales are mostly
keeled (i.e., with a ridge down the center that makes them appear rough)
or mostly smooth. For example, all of the pit vipers and most of the water-
snakes have keeled scales, and more than 20 of the harmless snake spe-
cies and the coral snake have mostly smooth scales. A few species, such
as ratsnakes and corn snakes, have weakly keeled scales, and the males of
some smooth-scaled species, such as indigo snakes and striped crayfish
snakes, have a few keeled scales at the base of the tail; indigo snakes may
even have weakly keeled scales on the back. The imprint of the keel, when
present, is visible on each scale of a shed skin, too.

ANAL PLATE In most snake species, the anal plate—the

last belly scale, which covers the cloaca and precedes the
tail scales—is either whole and undivided or divided into
two scales. The trait can be especially useful when you
are identifying a shed skin.

BODY SHAPE Snakes vary in shape from species that are

characteristically robust for their length to those that are
usually very slender. Like other biological traits, shape
Most snake species have can vary considerably within a species (e.g., although cottonmouths are
either smooth or keeled typically heavy bodied, thin individuals are occasionally encountered), but
(rough) scales.
most species are relatively consistent in their overall body shape.

PATTERN AND COLOR The presence or absence of encircling rings, bands,

blotches, or longitudinal stripes can be used to distinguish many species,
although in some species appearance can vary significantly from one in-
dividual to the next. For example, gartersnakes usually have three yellow

30 « Identifying Snake Species of the Southeast

stripes, but in some areas a checkered pattern predominates and the stripes
are indistinct. Also, some watersnakes, cottonmouths, and eastern hognose
snakes turn darker with age, so that the body markings of larger individuals
may not be visible. Likewise, the young of some of the larger species look
very different from the adults. A certain amount of experience is necessary
to recognize snakes at first sight.

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS Special traits or characteristics can often be

useful in narrowing the field to only a few possibilities. Behavior can be an
instant clue to a snake’s identity; for example, the open-mouthed gape of a
cottonmouth, the rattling of a rattlesnake (not to be confused with the tail
vibration of harmless species), or the cobralike display of a hognose snake.
A large southeastern snake with a hardened, spiny tail tip will be a mud
snake or rainbow snake. A distinctive color pattern of red, yellow, and black
rings should serve immediate notice that the snake is a coral snake (see
page 213) or one of the harmless mimics (scarlet kingsnake, scarlet snake,
or Louisiana milksnake). Knowing the distinctive behaviors, appearances,
and structural characteristics of the different species can be a useful tool
in identifying snakes in the wild.

GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION Where a snake is found in the wild usually pro-

vides an instant clue about its identity. Copperheads and canebrake rattle-
snakes are not found in the southern half of Florida; diamondback and
pigmy rattlesnakes are absent from Virginia. Identification of a local spe-
cies can often be narrowed considerably by eliminating species that do not
naturally occur in the region.

HABITAT The habitat where the animal was found can be another important
clue to its identity. Although exceptions always exist, most of the water-
snakes are unlikely to be found far from water, and typical sandhills spe-
cies such as southern hognose snakes and pine snakes are unlikely to be
found near water. Even the specific location within the habitat may provide
meaningful information. For example, a coral snake or ring-necked snake
would not be expected to be in a bush or tree.

TIME OF DAY The active period of a species is often restricted to daytime

or nighttime. A snake found crawling around in the day is highly unlikely
to be a scarlet snake, and a snake found crossing a road at midnight is not
going to be one of the hognose snakes.

Identifying Snake Species of the Southeast + 31

Salt marsh snakes in Florida are
often associated with mangroves.

Species Accounts
INTRODUCTION

The following species accounts are designed to help the reader become
familiar with every species of snake native to the Southeast. The accounts
are grouped into five categories based on body size and ecology rather than
arranged in the traditional groupings seen in most field guides. The five
categories are (1) small, (2) mid-sized, and (3) large terrestrial snakes; (4)
snakes associated with aquatic habitats; and (5) snakes that use venom to
kill their prey and are potentially dangerous to humans. While these group-
ings are somewhat subjective, and the size ranges of juvenile mid-sized
snakes often overlap those of small snakes, they are easily understandable
and provide an approach that will help people to become aware of the simi-
larities and differences among the snakes of the Southeast.
Each species’ geographic range in the Southeast is indicated on the map
that accompanies each account. A smaller map shows the entire U.S. range
for species that occur outside the Southeast. The range maps are based
on historical records, although ranges have changed for many species in
recent years as snake populations have declined. The shaded range should
be viewed as an approximation of the actual presence of a species, as al-
most no snake has a continuous distribution across all habitats within a
region. As an example, the range map for ring-necked snakes indicates that
they occur throughout the Southeast. Their actual distribution is patchy,
however, as a result of their habitat requirements and the disappearance
of populations due to natural or human-based causes.

Introduction to the Species Accounts « 33

 HOW TO USE THE SPECIES ACCOUNTS

The species entries are arranged as follows (not all elements occur with
every entry):

Common name
(green for nonvenomous,
red for venomous) Scientific name

Smooth green snakes

Quick identification guide are typically found on
the ground, often near
(green box for nonvenomous, streams or wetlands.

red box for venomous)

Descriptions of adult and

baby snakes ofthis species

SCALES =
Smooth —

Smooth Green Snake Opheodrys vernalis

Where this species
; DESCRIPTION The body is solid green above with a solid white or pale yel-
of snake lives a belly. Smooth green
lowish : snakes
eeeare somewhat more robust than rough
green snakes.

WHAT DO THE BABIES LOOK LIKE? Baby smooth green snakes are more
grayish or olive than the bright green adults.

DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT The geographic range in the Southeast is

limited to mountainous areas of northwestern Virginia, where they gen-
How this species behaves erally occur on the ground in high-elevation moist meadows or grassy
and when it is active areas. They are often found beneath rocks or other debris and may enter
the edges of hardwood forests.

BEHAVIOR AND ACTIVITY Smooth green snakes are active during the day
throughout the warmer months. In winter they typically hibernate under-
ground or in stumps or logs, and sometimes are found in ant mounds.

FOOD AND FEEDING Smooth green snakes eat insects and their larvae,
spiders, centipedes, millipedes, worms, small salamanders, and small
Chart showing the sizes crayfish. Thy are not constrictors, but simply grab and swallow their prey.
of babies, typical REPRODUATION Smooth green snakes mate in the spring and possibly in
adults, and the largest ,And lay two to seven eggs in sotting logs, under rocks, or in other

snakes ofthis species

How and what this How this species

species eats reproduces

34 « How to Use the Species Accounts

 What eats this species,
and how the snake
protects itself

Interesting or anomalous
facts about this species

Smooth green snake

Is this species threatened
concealed moist places. Thi eggs go through extensive development while
or endangered?
still inside the female d thus hatch about 2 weeks or less after they
are laid.

PREDATORS AND DEFENSE Snake-eating snakes, hawks, and spiders have

been documented to eat smooth green snakes, which depend on their bright
green color for camouflage in grassy areas. Smooth green snakes typically
do not bite when picked up.
Information about
scientific classification
CONSERVATION Habitat destruction, including removal of large rocks, has
been implicated as a major threat to this species and may eliminate some
populations. Smooth green snakes are frequent victims of road mortality
on highways near their habitats.

SCIENTIFIC NOMENCLATURE Some herpetologists have placed the smooth

green snake in the genus Liochlorophis rather than in Opheodrys with the
Small map with a shaded
rough green snake. area showing where this
species is found in the
Smooth Green Snake A continental United States
Opheodrys vernalis bess

Map showing where this

species is found in the
Southeast, with different
colors for different
subspecies and intergrades
(see glossary). In the key,
intergrades are indicated
by an x between the
Smooth Green Snake + 79
subspecies.

How to Use the Species Accounts « 35

SMALL TERRESTRIAL SNAKES
 Rough earthsnake

Smooth Earthsnake Virginia valeriae

Rough Earthsnake Haldea striatula
DESCRIPTION The earthsnakes are small, brown to brownish gray snakes
with light-colored bellies. Their heads are small and their noses are some-
what pointed. The rough earthsnake (H. striatula) has keeled scales and
sometimes has an indistinct light band across the back of the head. The
smooth earthsnake (V. valeriae) has smooth scales and often has a scatter-
ing of tiny dark spots on the back. Sometimes these dots are arranged into
faint stripes. Three subspecies of the smooth earthsnake are recognized
‘Solid brown above
(eastern smooth earthsnake, V. v. valeriae; western smooth earthsnake, V. v.
with whitish belly
elegans; and mountain smooth earthsnake, V. v. pulchra), but the differences
among them are rather obscure.

WHAT DO THE BABIES LOOK LIKE? Baby earthsnakes are similar to the
adults.

Ripe Oss, 12 24"

Smooth @ SMooTH EARTHSNAKE

@ ROUGH EARTHSNAKE
earthsnake
 DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Earthsnakes are found in parts of all the
southeastern states in pine or hardwood forests, including the margins
of swamps and other wetlands, and in fields and rural areas adjacent to
woodlands. They are sometimes common in suburban areas.

BEHAVIOR AND ACTIVITY Unless temperatures are extremely cold, earth-

snakes can be active year-round, including during warm spells in winter,
but they usually remain beneath ground litter rather than on the surface.
They are active aboveground primarily in early evening or at night during
hot times of the year.

FOOD AND FEEDING Both smooth and rough earthsnakes eat mostly earth-

Some rough earth-

worms. They may also eat the adults, larvae, and eggs of small, soft-bodied
snakes have a light insects, including ants and termites, as well as slugs and small snails.
band across the Earthsnakes simply grab their prey and swallow it while it is still alive.
back of the head.

REPRODUCTION Earthsnakes mate in the spring and early summer, but

nothing is known about their courtship. Presumably, mates find one an-
other by following chemical trails. Earthsnakes give birth to 2-14 (usually
about 8) young during mid-to-late summer or early fall.

Smooth earthsnake

40 + Smooth Earthsnake & Rough Earthsnake

 Another Random Document on
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 The Project Gutenberg eBook of Warren
Commission (04 of 26): Hearings Vol. IV (of
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Title: Warren Commission (04 of 26): Hearings Vol. IV (of 15)

Author: United States. Warren Commission

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WARREN

COMMISSION (04 OF 26): HEARINGS VOL. IV (OF 15) ***
 INVESTIGATION OF
THE ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT JOHN F.
KENNEDY
 HEARINGS
Before the President's Commission
on the Assassination
of President Kennedy

Pursuant To Executive Order 11130, an Executive order creating a

Commission to ascertain, evaluate, and report upon the facts
relating to the assassination of the late President John F. Kennedy
and the subsequent violent death of the man charged with the
assassination and S.J. Res. 137, 88th Congress, a concurrent
resolution conferring upon the Commission the power to administer
oaths and affirmations, examine witnesses, receive evidence, and
issue subpenas

Volume
IV

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

 WASHINGTON, D.C.

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON: 1964

For sale in complete sets by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government

Printing Office Washington, D.C., 20402
 PRESIDENT'S COMMISSION
ON THE
ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT
KENNEDY

Chief Justice Earl Warren, Chairman

Senator Richard B. Russell
Senator John Sherman Cooper
Representative Hale Boggs
Representative Gerald R. Ford
Mr. Allen W. Dulles
Mr. John J. McCloy

J. Lee Rankin, General Counsel

Assistant Counsel

Francis W. H. Adams
Joseph A. Ball
David W. Belin
William T. Coleman, Jr.
Melvin Aron Eisenberg
Burt W. Griffin
Leon D. Hubert, Jr.
Albert E. Jenner, Jr.
Wesley J. Liebeler
Norman Redlich
W. David Slawson
Arlen Specter
Samuel A. Stern
A
Howard P. Willens

Staff Members

Phillip Barson
Edward A. Conroy
John Hart Ely
Alfred Goldberg
Murray J. Laulicht
 Arthur Marmor
Richard M. Mosk
John J. O'Brien
Stuart Pollak
Alfredda Scobey
Charles N. Shaffer, Jr.

Biographical information on the Commissioners and the staff can

be found in the Commission's Report.

A
Mr. Willens also acted as liaison between the Commission and
the Department of Justice.
 Preface
The testimony of the following witnesses is contained in volume
IV: Sebastian F. Latona, a fingerprint expert with the Federal Bureau
of Investigation; Arthur Mandella, a fingerprint expert with the New
York City Police Department; Paul Morgan Stombaugh, a hair and
fiber expert with the Federal Bureau of Investigation; James C.
Cadigan, a questioned document examiner with the Federal Bureau
of Investigation; Drs. Robert Roeder Shaw and Charles Francis
Gregory, who attended Governor Connally at Parkland Hospital;
Governor and Mrs. John Bowden Connally, Jr.; Jesse Edward Curry,
chief, Dallas Police Department; Capt. J. W. Fritz and Lts. T. L. Baker
and J. C. Day of the Dallas Police Department, who participated in
the investigation of the assassination; Lyndal L. Shaneyfelt, a
photography expert with the Federal Bureau of Investigation; Robert
Inman Bouck, special agent in charge of the Protective Research
Section of the Secret Service; Robert Carswell, Special Assistant to
the Secretary of the Treasury; Winston G. Lawson, a Secret Service
agent who worked on advance preparations for the President's trip
to Dallas; Alwyn Cole, a questioned document examiner with the
Treasury Department; and John W. Fain, John Lester Quigley, and
James Patrick Hosty, Jr., agents of the Federal Bureau of
Investigation who interviewed Oswald, or people connected with
him, at various times during the period between Oswald's return
from Russia in 1962 and the assassination.
 Contents
Page
Preface v
Testimony of--
Sebastian F. Latona 1
Arthur Mandella, accompanied by Joseph
A. Mooney 48
Paul Morgan Stombaugh 56
James C. Cadigan 89
Robert Roeder Shaw 101
Charles Francis Gregory 117
Gov. John Bowden Connally, Jr 129
Mrs. John Bowden Connally, Jr 146
Jesse Edward Curry 150
J. W. Fritz 202, 248
T. L. Baker 248
J. C. Day 249
Lyndal L. Shaneyfelt 279
Robert Inman Bouck 294, 300
Robert Carswell 299
Winston G. Lawson, accompanied by
Fred B. Smith 317
Alwyn Cole 358
John W. Fain 403
John Lester Quigley 431
James Patrick Hosty, Jr 440
COMMISSION EXHIBITS INTRODUCED

Exhibit No.: Page

142 15
364 93
626 3
627 6
628 6
629 6
630 7
631 7
632 7
633 8
633-A 8
634 10
634-A 12
635 16
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784-A 365
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 Hearings Before the President's
Commission
on the
Assassination of President Kennedy
 Thursday, April 2, 1964

TESTIMONY OF SEBASTIAN F.
LATONA AND ARTHUR MANDELLA
The President's Commission met at 9 a.m. on April 2, 1964, at
200 Maryland Avenue NE., Washington, D.C.
Present were Chief Justice Earl Warren, Chairman;
Representative Hale Boggs, Representative Gerald R. Ford, and Mr.
Allen W. Dulles, members.
Also present were Melvin Aron Eisenberg, assistant counsel;
Norman Redlich, assistant counsel; Samuel A. Stern, assistant
counsel; and Charles Murray and Charles Rhyne, observers.
 TESTIMONY OF SEBASTIAN F.
LATONA
The Chairman. The Commission will be in order.
Mr. Latona, the purpose of today's hearing is to take your
testimony and that of Arthur Mandella. Mr. Mandella is a fingerprint
expert from the New York City Police Department. We are asking
both of you to give technical information to the Commission.
Will you raise your right hand and be sworn?
Do you solemnly swear that the testimony you are about to give
will be the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth, so help
you God?
Mr. Latona. I do.
The Chairman. You may be seated. Mr. Eisenberg will conduct the
examination.
Mr. Eisenberg. Mr. Latona, could you state your full name and give
us your position?
Mr. Latona. My full name is Sebastian Francis Latona. I am the
supervisor of the latent fingerprint section of the identification
division of the Federal Bureau of Investigation.
Mr. Eisenberg. What is your education, Mr. Latona?
Mr. Latona. I attended Columbia University School of Law, where
I received degrees of LL.B., LL.M., M.P.L.
Mr. Eisenberg. And could you briefly outline your qualifications as
a fingerprint expert?
 Mr. Latona. Well, I have been with the Federal Bureau of
Investigation for a little more than 32 years. I started in the
identification division as a student fingerprint classifier, and since
that time I have worked myself up into where I am now supervisor
of the latent fingerprint section.
Mr. Eisenberg. Could you approximate the number of fingerprint
examinations you have made?
Mr. Latona. Frankly, no. There have been so many in that time
that I would not be able to give even a good guess.
Mr. Eisenberg. Would the figure run in the thousands or
hundreds?
Mr. Latona. So far as comparisons are concerned, in the millions.
Mr. Eisenberg. Have you testified in court?
Mr. Latona. I have testified in Federal courts, State courts,
commissioners' hearings, military courts, and at deportation
proceedings.
Mr. Eisenberg. Mr. Chief Justice, I ask that this witness be
accepted as an expert.
The Chairman. The witness is qualified.
Mr. Eisenberg. Mr. Latona, could you briefly outline for us the
theory of fingerprint identification?
Mr. Latona. The principle of fingerprint identification is based on
the fact primarily that the ridge formations that appear on the hands
and on the soles of the feet actually are created approximately 2 to
3 months before birth, on the unborn child, and they remain
constant in the same position in which they are formed until the
person is dead and the body is consumed by decomposition.
Secondly, the fact that no two people, or no two fingers of the
same person, have the same arrangement of these ridge formations,
either on the fingers, the palms, or the soles and toes of the feet.
Plus the fact that during the lifetime of a person this ridge formation
does not change, it remains constant—from the time it is formed
until actual destruction, either caused by voluntary or involuntary
means, or upon the death of the body and decomposition.
Mr. Eisenberg. Mr. Latona, do you have any personal experience
indicating the uniqueness of fingerprints?
Mr. Latona. Yes; I do. My experience is based primarily upon the
work which I have actually done in connection with my work with
the FBI. I have had the experience of working on one case in
particular in which millions of comparisons were actually and literally
made with a small portion of a fingerprint which was left on a piece
of evidence in connection with this particular case, which was a
kidnapping case.
This fragmentary latent print which we developed consisted of
approximately seven to eight points. Most fingerprints will have in
them an average roughly of from 85 to about 125.
This fragmentary latent print was compared with literally millions
of single impressions for the purpose of trying to effect an
identification. And we were unable, over a lengthy period while we
were making these millions of comparisons, not able to identify
these few fragmentary points.
The important thing is simply this; that on the basis of that
fragmentary print, it was not possible to determine even the type of
pattern that the impression was. Accordingly, we had to compare it
with all types of fingerprint patterns, of which there are really four
basic types—the arch, tented arch, loop, and whorl. And we are still
making comparisons in that case, and we have not been able to
identify these few points.
Now, that means simply this—that the theory that we are going
on an assumption that people do not have the same fingerprints—
and we find it not necessary to compare, say for example, a loop
pattern with a whorl pattern, and as there is a possibility that, it is
contended by some of these so-called authorities, that maybe the
points that you find in a loop may be found in the same
arrangement in a whorl—is not true. I think that that case, a
practical case we have actually worked on, disproves that theory so
strongly in my mind that I am convinced that no two people can
possibly have the same fingerprints.
Mr. Eisenberg. That is, you had a print with seven points, and
these same seven points appeared in none of the millions——
Mr. Latona. Of the millions that we actually compared over a
period—well, since 1937. You may recall the case. It was the Matson
kidnapping case out in Tacoma, Wash. That is one of only three
major kidnapping cases the FBI has not yet solved.
Mr. Eisenberg. Are palmprints as unique as fingerprints?
Mr. Latona. Yes; palmprints are. They are not as useful for
purposes of setting up a file in order to conduct searches, for the
simple reason that there are not as many variations of patterns
occurring with any frequency in the palms as occur on the tips of the
fingers. That is primarily why the fingertips are used—because you
have 10 digits, and there is a possibility of finding variations of the
four basic pattern types which can be additionally subdivided by
utilizing certain focal points which occur in those particular patterns,
which enable us to actually subdivide our files into millions of
groups. Accordingly, when you make a search in the fingerprint file,
it can be reduced actually to a matter of minutes, whereas to
attempt to set up a palmprint file to the extent of the size of the
fingerprint file we have in the FBI would be a practical impossibility,
much less a waste of time.
The Chairman. Approximately how many fingerprints do you have
these days?
Mr. Latona. At the present time, we have the fingerprints of more
than 77 million people, and they are subdivided in this fashion: we
have two main files; we have the criminal files and we have what
are referred to as civil files.
As the names imply, in the criminal files are the fingerprints of
criminals, people who have had a prior criminal record or whose
fingerprints have been received in connection with an investigation
or interrogation for the commission of a crime. In that file we have
approximately 15 million sets of fingerprint cards, representing
approximately 15 million people.
In our civil files, in which are filed the fingerprints of the various
types of applicants, service personnel and the like, we have
fingerprints of approximately 62½ million people.
Mr. Eisenberg. Returning to palmprints, then, as I understand
your testimony, they are not as good as fingerprints for purposes of
classification, but they are equally good for purposes of
identification?
Mr. Latona. For purposes of identification, I feel that the
identifications effected are just as absolute as are those of
fingerprints.
Mr. Eisenberg. Are experts unanimous in this opinion, Mr. Latona?
Mr. Latona. As far as I know, yes.
Mr. Eisenberg. Now, Mr. Latona, I hand to you an object which I
will describe for the record as being apparently a brown, homemade-
type of paper bag, and which I will also describe for the record as
having been found on the sixth floor of the Texas School Book
Depository Building near the window, the easternmost window, on
the south face of that floor.
I ask you whether you are familiar with this paper bag?
Mr. Latona. Yes, I am. This is a piece of brown wrapping paper
that we have referred to as a brown paper bag, which was referred
to me for purposes of processing for latent prints.
Mr. Eisenberg. And you examined that for latent prints?
Mr. Latona. Yes; I did.
Mr. Eisenberg. Mr. Chairman, may I have this admitted into
evidence as Commission Exhibit 626?
 The Chairman. It may be admitted.
(The item referred to was marked Commission Exhibit No. 626
and received in evidence.)
Mr. Eisenberg. Mr. Latona, do your notes show when you received
this paper bag?
Mr. Latona. I received this paper bag on the morning of
November 23, 1963.
Mr. Eisenberg. And when did you conduct your examination?
Mr. Latona. I conducted my examination on that same day.
Mr. Eisenberg. When you had received it, could you tell whether
any previous examination had been conducted on it?
Mr. Latona. When I received this exhibit, 626, the brown wrapper,
it had been treated with black dusting powder, black fingerprint
powder. There was nothing visible in the way of any latent prints on
there at that particular time.
Mr. Eisenberg. Were you informed whether any fingerprints had
been developed by means of the fingerprint powder?
Mr. Latona. No; I determined that by simply examining the
wrapper at that particular time.
Mr. Eisenberg. Could you briefly describe the powder process?
Mr. Latona. The powdering process is merely the utilizing of a
fingerprint powder which is applied to any particular surface for
purposes of developing any latent prints which may be on such a
surface.
Now, we use powder in the FBI only on objects which have a
hard, smooth, nonabsorbent finish, such as glass, tile, various types
of highly polished metals, and the like.
In the FBI we do not use powder on paper, cardboard,
unfinished wood, or various types of cloth. The reason is that the
materials are absorbent. Accordingly, when any finger which has on
it perspiration or sweat comes in contact with an absorbent material,
the print starts to become absorbed into the surface. Accordingly,
when an effort is made to develop latent prints by the use of a
powder, if the surface is dry, the powder will not adhere.
On the other hand, where the surface is a hard and smooth
object, with a nonabsorbent material, the perspiration or sweat
which may have some oil in it at that time may remain there as
moisture. Accordingly, when the dry powder is brushed across it, the
moisture in the print will retain the powder giving an outline of the
impression itself.
These powders come in various colors. We utilize a black and a
gray. The black powder is used on objects which are white or light to
give a resulting contrast of a black print on a white background. We
use the gray powder on objects which are black or dark in order to
give you a resulting contrast of a white print on a dark or black
background.
Mr. Eisenberg. Now, Mr. Latona, how did you proceed to conduct
your examination for fingerprints on this object?
Mr. Latona. Well, an effort was made to remove as much of the
powder as possible. And then this was subjected to what is known
as the iodine-fuming method, which simply means flowing iodine
fumes, which are developed by what is known as an iodine-fuming
gun—it is a very simple affair, in which there are a couple of tubes
attached to each other, having in one of them iodine crystals. And by
simply blowing through one end, you get iodine fumes.
The iodine fumes are brought in as close contact to the surface
as possible. And if there are any prints which contain certain fatty
material or protein material, the iodine fumes simply discolor it to a
sort of brownish color. And of course such prints as are developed
are photographed for record purposes.
That was done in this case here, but no latent prints were
developed.
 The next step then was to try an additional method, by
chemicals. This was subsequently processed by a 3-percent solution
of silver nitrate. The processing with silver nitrate resulted in
developing two latent prints. One is what we call a latent palmprint,
and the other is what we call a latent fingerprint.
Mr. Eisenberg. Can you briefly explain the action of the silver
nitrate?
Mr. Latona. Silver nitrate solution in itself is colorless, and it
reacts with the sodium chloride, which is ordinary salt which is found
in the perspiration or sweat which is exuded by the sweat pores.
This material covers the fingers. When it touches a surface such
as an absorbent material, like paper, it leaves an outline on the
paper.
When this salt material, which is left by the fingers on the paper,
is immersed in the silver nitrate solution, there is a combining, an
immediate combining of—the elements themselves will break down,
and they recombine into silver chloride and sodium nitrate. We know
that silver is sensitive to light. So that material, after it has been
treated with the silver nitrate solution, is placed under a strong light.
We utilize a carbon arc lamp, which has considerable ultraviolet light
in it. And it will immediately start to discolor the specimen. Wherever
there is any salt material, it will discolor it, much more so than the
rest of the object, and show exactly where the latent prints have
been developed. It is simply a reaction of the silver nitrate with the
sodium chloride.
That is all it is.
Mr. Eisenberg. Do you frequently find that the silver nitrate
develops a print in a paper object which the iodine fuming cannot
develop?
Mr. Latona. Yes; I would say that is true, considerably so. We
have more success with silver nitrate than we do with the iodine
fumes.
 The reason we use both is because of the fact that this material
which is exuded by the fingers may fall into one of two main types—
protein material and salt material. The iodine fumes will develop
protein material. Silver nitrate will develop the salt material.
The reason we use both is because we do not know what was in
the subject's fingers or hands or feet. Accordingly, to insure
complete coverage, we use both methods. And we use them in that
sequence. The iodine first, then the silver nitrate. The iodine is used
first because the iodine simply causes a temporary physical change.
It will discolor, and then the fumes, upon being left in the open air,
will disappear, and then the color will dissolve. Silver nitrate, on the
other hand, causes a chemical change and it will permanently affect
the change. So if we were to use the silver nitrate process first, then
we could not use the iodine fumes. On occasion we have developed
fingerprints and palmprints with iodine fumes which failed to develop
with the silver nitrate and vice versa.
Mr. Eisenberg. Now, Mr. Latona, looking at that bag I see that
almost all of it is an extremely dark brown color, except that there
are patches of a lighter brown, a manila-paper brown. Could you
explain why there are these two colors on the bag?
Mr. Latona. Yes. The dark portions of the paper bag are where
the silver nitrate has taken effect. And the light portions of the bag
are where we did not process the bag at that time, because
additional examinations were to be made, and we did not wish the
object to lose its identity as to what it may have been used for.
Certain chemical tests were to be made after we finished with it.
And we felt that the small section that was left in itself would not
interfere with the general overall examination of the bag itself.
Mr. Eisenberg. That is, the small section of light brown
corresponds to the color which the bag had when you received it?
Mr. Latona. That is the natural color of the wrapper at the time
we received it.
 Mr. Eisenberg. And the remaining color is caused by the silver
nitrate process?
Mr. Latona. That is correct.
Mr. Eisenberg. Does paper normally turn this dark brown color
when treated by silver nitrate?
Mr. Latona. Yes; it does. It will get darker, too, as time goes on
and it is affected by light.
Mr. Eisenberg. Mr. Latona, does the silver nitrate process
permanently fix the print into the paper?
Mr. Latona. Permanent in the sense that the print by itself will not
disappear. Now, it can be removed, or the stains could be removed
chemically, by the placing of the object into a 2 percent solution of
mercuric nitrate, which will remove the stains and in addition will
remove the prints. But the prints by themselves, if nothing is done to
it, will simply continue to grow darker and eventually the whole
specimen will lose its complete identity.
The Chairman. May I ask a question here?
So I understand from that that this particular document that you
are looking at, or this bag, will continue to get darker as time goes
on?
Mr. Latona. Yes; it will.
The Chairman. From this date?
Mr. Latona. That's right.
Mr. Eisenberg. Returning to the prints themselves, you stated I
believe that you found a palmprint and a fingerprint on this paper
bag?
Mr. Latona. That is correct.
Mr. Eisenberg. Did you find any other prints?
Mr. Latona. No; no other prints that we term of value in the sense
that I felt that they could be identified or that a conclusion could be
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