ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

ELEMENT:
Definition; Element is a pure chemical substance that cannot be split into simpler substance by chemical
means.
Elements are the building blocks from which many substances (compounds) are made. There are over 118
known elements of which most of them are natural and some are man made
Examples of elements include Hydrogen, Helium, lithium, Beryllium, potassium, sulphur, calcium,
Boron, Iron, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Fluorine, Copper, Silver, Gold, Tin, Zinc, Manganese,
Magnesium, Lead etc
NAMES AND CHEMICAL SYMBOLS OF ELEMENTS
CHEMICAL SYMBOLS
Defn: A chemical symbol is representation of the name of element using letters.
OR
A chemical symbol is abbreviation or short representations of an element
The chemical symbols are normally derived from one or two letters of a Latin or English name.
If an element is represented by two letters the first one should be capital letter and the second should be
small letter. When an element is represented by one letter it should be in capital letter.
NB: Chemical symbols are written according to the rules of the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
CRITERIA (RULES) FOR ASSIGNING CHEMICAL SYMBOLS
The following are the criteria used for assigning chemical symbols:
1. An element may be represented by a chemical symbol that is derived from the first letter of its English
name.
Examples of some elements with chemical symbols derived from the first letter of its English name are
shown in the table below.
NAME SYMBOL NAME SYMBOL
Hydrogen H Phosphorus P
Carbon C Iodine I
Nitrogen N Fluorine F
Oxygen O Vanadium V
Sulphur S Yttrium Y
Boron B
2.If different elements have the same first letter, for example carbon (C), calcium (Ca), cobalt (Co) and
copper (Cu) then only one element uses the first letter as its symbol, other elements use first letter plus
another letter in the name usually the second or third.
Chemical symbols of some elements with two letters from their English names are shown in the table
below
NAME SYMBOL NAME SYMBOL
Calcium Ca Neon Ne
Cobalt Co Aluminium Al
Chlorine Cl Argon Ar
Magnesium Mg Beryllium Be
Manganese Mn Lithium Li
Helium He Silicon Si
Zinc Zn
4. In some cases, the chemical symbols are derived from Latin names instead of the common English
names as shown in the table below
ELEMENT LATIN NAME SYMBOL
Sodium Natrium Na
Potassium Kalium K
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Silver Argentum Ag
Gold Aurum Au
Lead Plumbum Pb
Copper Cuprum Cu
Iron Ferrum Fe
Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg
Tin Stannum Sn
Antimony Stibium Sb
Tungsten Wolfram W

SIGNIFICANT (IMPORTANCE) OF CHEMICAL SYMBOLS

The following are the significance of chemical symbols
(i) Enable chemists to understand elements quickly instead of memorizing full name of element
(ii) It is easy to write the chemical equation using symbol instead of writing each
element in full name
(iii) Enable chemists to distinguish one element from the other
METALS AND NON- METALS
Elements are classified into Metals and Non-metals.
The systematic method to represent and organise chemical elements in a table format is called
PERIODIC TABLE. See diagram below

The table above shows position of metals and non-metals in the periodic table.
METALS
Defn: A metal is an element except hydrogen that will lose electron (s) to form positive charge.
Eg Sodium, potassium, lithium, Beryllium, boron, iron, copper, silver, gold, tin, calcium, zinc
, manganese, magnesium, lead etc
Metals are mostly found at the left-hand side and at the middle of the periodic table
NON-METALS
Defn: A non-metal is an element that will gain electron (s) to form negative charge.
Eg Oxygen, sulphur, hydrogen, carbon, silicon, chlorine, fluorine, phosphorous, nitrogen etc
Most of non-metals exists in gaseous state or liquid state with exception of few such as carbon
and sulphur which exist in solid state.
NB: Although hydrogen is located at the left-hand side of the periodic table, it is a non-metal
because it possesses the characteristics of non-metal.
Metals and non-metals differ in physical and chemical properties
DIFFERENCES IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES BETWEEN METALS AND NON-METALS
METALS NON-METALS
1. Are good conductor of heat and electricity Poor conductors of electricity.
(they are insulators) except carbon, in the form of
graphite, which conducts electricity
2. Are good conductor of heat (this is why Are poor conductor of heat.

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 cooking utensils are made up of metals such as
aluminium and iron)
2. Have high densities Have low densities
3. Have high melting points and boiling points They have low melting points and boiling points
4. Are strong and tough Are not strong and tough
5. Are ductile ie.they can be drawn into thin wires Are not ductile. They can not be drawn into thin wires
6. Are good conductor of sound. They are Are poor conductor of sound. They are not
Sonorous. (which means they make sounds Sonorous. (which means they do not make sounds
when hit.) when hit.))
7. Have high tensile strength Have low tensile strength
8. Are malleable (i.e can be made (hammered) Are not malleable
into thin sheets)
9. Are lustrous. They produce shining surface Are non – lustrous except a few such as diamond
when cut.
NB: There are exceptions to the above properties as follow
(i) Graphite is a non metal (Carbon) but it is a good conduct of heat and electricity
(ii) Diamond is non metal (Carbon) but has high melting and boiling point.
(iii) Some metals have different characteristics from those described above, eg sodium and
Potassium. These elements have low densities
(iv) All metals are solids at room temperature but mercury is in liquid state at room temperature.

EXERCISE
1. Give three examples of metals and non- metals, and explain their uses in daily life.
2. Why are cooking pots made of metals?
3. Describe properties of metals and explain how do they make metals useful in various
applications.
COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES
COMPOUND
Defn. (i) A compound is a pure substance made up of two or more elements in a chemical combination.
OR (ii) A compound is a pure substance which consists of two or more elements which are chemically
combined together.
Examples of compounds are Common salts, water, sugar, carbon dioxide, petrol, diesel, alcohol, baking
powder etc.
When a compound is made up of two components is referred to as a binary compound. Examples of
binary compounds include common salt, carbon dioxide and water.
A binary compound is formed when two or more pure substance of the same or different types are
chemically combined together.
Table below shows examples of substances that combine to make binary compounds.
S/N FIRST PART SECOND PART COMPOUND
1 Sulphur Oxygen Sulphur dioxide
2 Sodium Chlorine Sodium chloride
3 Hydrogen Oxygen Water
4 Nitrogen Hydrogen Ammonia
5 Zinc Sulphur Zinc sulphide

Characteristics (properties) of binary compounds

(i) Its components can be separated by chemical means only
(ii) Its components are in fixed ratio. (i.e whenever a compound is formed the substance in it
combine in a definite proportion.
(iii) Its formation involves only chemical change (reaction).
(iv) Its properties are quite different from those of its components.
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 (v) The components cannot be seen separately.
(vi) Its formation involves energy change.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

S/N ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS
1 Can not be separated into simpler The components can be separated by
substances chemical means
2 They are made up of similar atoms of the Can be made up of two or more substances
same type that are naturally different.
3 They maintain their characteristics when Have different characteristics from their
are in mixtures components when they are made
4 Contain unique atomic number Have varying total atomic numbers
depending on their components.
5 Symbols represent the elements Chemical formula represents a compound.
Elements and compounds are similar in
(i) Element and Compound are both pure substances made from their constituents as
homogenous substances and cannot be separated by physical means.
(ii) Elements and compounds are both made from atoms as their building blocks and their
components are mostly combined in fixed ratio.
MIXTURES
Defn. Mixture is a physical combination of two or more substances in any ratio
OR
A mixture is a substance that consists of two or more substances (elements) which are not chemically
combined together.
Since mixtures are not chemically combined, they can be separated by physical means. Mixtures can be
Liquid – Liquid (eg Oil and water), Solid – Liquid (eg muddy water) or Solid – Solid (eg Sand and salt).
Other examples of mixtures are: Milk, sea water, sugar solution, tea, blood, soda, Air etc
Mixtures can be Homogenous or Heterogeneous.
Homogenous mixture is a mixture which has uniform compositions, appearance and properties.
Eg when salt is dissolved in water every section of the solution is identical in composition, appearance
and physical properties,
Other examples of homogenous mixture are tea, air, sugar solution.
Heterogeneous mixture is a mixture which has different compositions, appearance and properties at
various point in the mixture.
For example, when sulphur powder and iron fillings are mixed together, they form heterogeneous
mixture. A mixture is physically combined and can be separated by a bar magnet
Other examples of heterogeneous mixtures are Sand and water, oil and water, chalk powder and water.
Characteristics of mixtures
(i) Its components can be separated by physical means.
(ii) Its components are not in fixed ratio.
(iii) Its formation involves physical change.
(iv) Its properties are those of its components in it.
(v) The components can be seen separately.
(vi) No energy change when it is formed.

As seen above, mixtures and compounds have different properties.

The table below shows the difference in properties between mixtures and compounds.

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 MIXTURE COMPOUND
1. The components in mixture can be separated The elements in compound cannot be separated by
by physical means physical means, (but can be separated by chemical
means)
2. The composition of mixture is variable The composition of compound is fixed
3. No chemical change occurs when mixtures are Chemical change occurs when compounds are formed
formed.
4. The properties of the mixture are those of The properties of the compound are very different from
individual components those of the individual elements.
5. Components in mixture can be seen separately Components in compound cannot be seen separately
6. No energy change occurs when it is formed. Energy change occurs when it is formed.

EXERCISE
1. You are provided with the following substances: Common salt, mud, juices, milk, water, soft drink,
kerosene, diesel and air. Classify the substances as either compounds or mixtures and give reasons for
your responses.
2. Provide examples of how elements, compounds and mixtures are used in every day life.

SOLUTIONS, SUSPENSIONS AND EMULSIONS

Liquid mixtures can be classified into Solutions, suspensions or emulsions depending on their
compositions.
(1) SOLUTION
Defitionn : Solution is a homogeneous (uniform) mixture of two or more substances which are solvent
and solute
Such mixtures (solution) may be a solid in a liquid, a liquid in a liquid, a liquid in a gas and,
and a gas in a gas.
Examples of solutions are, solution of sugar in water and salt in water (LIQUID SOLUTIONS), a solution
of zinc in copper (SOLID SOLUTION), Air is a solution of oxygen in nitrogen (GAS SOLUTION). etc
A solution is made up of solvent and solute
Definition: (i) Solvent is a component of the solution that dissolves the solute.
OR (ii) Solvent is a substance that dissolves a solute.
Solvent is a component that is usually present in large amount in a solution. Examples of solvent are:
water, alcohol, diesel, petrol, kerosene
Definition (i) Solute is component of the solution that is dissolved in the solvent.
OR (ii) Solute is a substance that dissolves in a solvent
Solute is a component that is usually present in small amount in a solution. Examples of solute are: sugar,
salt, grease
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
A solution can either be (i) Unsaturated solution (ii) Saturated solution (iii) Super saturated solution
UNSATURATED SOLUTION
An unsaturated solution is a solution in which solvent can dissolve more solute at a given temperature and
pressure.
(Here the solutes completely dissolve, leaving no remaining solutes)
SATURATED SOLUTION
A saturated solution is a solution in which a solvent cannot dissolve more solute at a given temperature
and pressure.
(Saturated solution leaves the undissolved solutes at the bottom)
SUPER SATURATED SOLUTION
A super saturated solution is a solution that holds more solute than the maximum amount it can dissolve
at a given temperature and pressure.

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NB: Saturation depends on temperature. As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy of solvent
molecules increases and hence more solute particles dissolve.

APPLICATION OF SATURATION
Saturation is used when
(i) Separating certain mixtures in laboratory
(ii) Extracting some minerals such as extracting common salt from sea water.
(iii) Cooking and salting food
(iv) Using detergents during laundry
(v) Dissolving sugar in tea.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLUTIONS INTO THREE STATES OF MATTER

Solutions can exist in the three states of matter which are solids, liquids and gases. The solutes and
solvents can be in any state, that is solid, liquid or gas.
Table below shows examples of types of solutions in the three states of matter
SOLUTE SOLVENT EXAMPLES
SOLID GAS Naphthalene slowly sublimes in air to form a solution
SOLID LIQUID Sugar in water and salt in water
SOLID SOLID Steel and other metal alloys
LIQUID GAS Water in air
LIQUID LIQUID Ethanol (alcohol) in water and various hydrocarbons in each other (petroleum)
LIQUID SOLID Mercury in gold and hexane in paraffin wax
GAS GAS Oxygen and other gases in the air
GAS LIQUID Carbon dioxide in water (carbonated water)
GAS SOLID Hydrogen in metals

From the table above, Examples of

SOLID SOLUTION: (i) Steel (solution of carbon, sulphur in iron),
(ii) Brass (solution of zinc in copper)
LIQUID SOLUTION: (i) Alcohol in water
(ii) Vinegar (a solution of acetic acid in water)
GASEOUS SOLUTION: (i) Air (solution of oxygen in other gases in air)
(ii) Water vapour in air

USES OF SOLVENTS
Solvents are used in homes, institutions such as schools and colleges, hotels and in industries.
The following are some of the uses of solvents
(i) Are used in cleaning (because they form a solution with the dirty (solute)
(ii) Are used in varnish removal
(iii) Are used in stain removal
(iv) Are used in bleaching
(v) Are used in thinning paints
(vi) Are used in degreasing
(2) SUSPENSION
Definition. A suspension is heterogeneous mixture of liquid (solvent) and fine particles of solid.
OR
A suspension is heterogeneous mixture in which the solid particles settle to the bottom on standing but
spread throughout when shaken.
In suspension the solute particles do not dissolve but get suspended in the liquid. For example, when you
add flour into water during cooking you have to keep on stirring, otherwise the flour will settle. This is an
example of suspension. Other examples of suspension include, Paints, porridge, muddy water, chalk

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powder in water, blood, sand particles suspended in water, some medicine written shake well before use
are suspensions.
Suspensions composed of either liquid droplets or fine solid particles suspended in a gas are called
Aerosols.
Suspensions are used in many aspects in our daily life and stored in containers labelled shake well before
use. Examples of these are medicines (Syrups), Body sprays, some paints, insecticides etc.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOLUTION AND SUSPENSION
SOLUTION SUSPENSION
1. It is homogeneous mixture It is heterogeneous mixture
2. It is transparent (clear) It is opaque (not clear)
3. Solute particles completely dissolved in solvent Solute particles settle if the suspension is undisturbed
4. Components are separated by evaporation Components can be separated by filtration.

(3) EMULSIONS
Definition: Emulsion is a mixture of liquids that do not completely mix with each other.
An emulsion is usually formed from two liquids, one water -based liquid and the other oil-base liquid.
When shaken the oily forms droplets suspended in the water- based liquid. The harder the emulsion is
shaken, the smaller the droplets, so the emulsion may appear to be a homogeneous solution
Example of emulsions are: Milk, which contains drops of butter fat in water
Emulsion paint, which contains is drops of coloured oils in water

MISCIBLE AND IMMISCIBLE LIQUIDS

Miscible liquids are liquids which mix up completely without forming layers. Eg methylated spirit and
water, Ethanol and water, benzene and paraffin, water and soda etc
Immiscible liquids are liquids which do not mix up completely i.e they form layer. Eg Kerosene and
water, Oil and water, chloroform and water etc.
SEPARATION OF MIXTURES
Many mixtures need to be separated in order to obtain the useful substances. This is because mixtures
contain useful substances mixed with unwanted materials (impurities). The method used to separate
mixture depends on the components of the mixture and their properties. Such properties are density,
solubility, size, magnetic properties, sublimation, boiling and melting point
METHODS OF SEPARATING MIXTURE
The following are methods used to separate mixtures
(i) Decantation (ii) Filtration (iii) Evaporation (iv) Distillation (v) Layer separation (vi) Sublimation
(vii) Chromatography (viii) Solvent extraction (ix) Winnowing (x) Magnetic separation (Magnetization)
(xi) Centrifugation (xii) Crystallization (xiii) Hand picking (x) Sieving
Principle for separation of mixtures are applied in fields like mining, agriculture and other large-scale
industries. For example, decantation, filtration and sedimentation are widely used in purification of water
for public consumption.
(1) DECANTATION
By definition: Decantation is the process of separating a heterogeneous mixture of a liquid and solid by
pouring out the liquid only and leaving the solid at the bottom of the container
NB:
The process of some components of mixture settling at the bottom is called Sedimentation
Decantation can be used to separate
(i) Water from muddy water, water from mixture of water and sand etc
(ii) Rice and water, beans and water etc
Diagram to show separation of sand and water by decantation (sedimentation)

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Separation Application of Decantation
(i) Water treatment systems (ii) Separate of components of blood
(2) FILTRATION
By definition: Filtration is the method of separate heterogeneous mixture of a solid
and liquid by using porous filter eg filter paper
Diagram to show separation of sand and water by filtration

NB: (i) Solid that remains on a filter is called residue

(ii) Liquid that pass-through filter is called filtrate
Separation Application of Filtration
(i) Purification of water (ii) Extraction of juice from fruit (iii) Extraction of cream from milk

(3) EVAPORATION
Defn: Evaporation is a method of separating a solute from a liquid solution through heating.
In evaporation solvent is converted from liquid to gas and solute remains as residue.
Example: Mixture of water (solvent) and salt (solute), when heated water evaporates leaving sand behind
as residue.
Diagram to show separation of salt and water by evaporation

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Other examples of mixtures which can be separated by evaporation are (i) sea water (ii) sugar solution
Separation Application of Evaporation
Evaporation is used in extraction of common salt from sea water
(4) DISTILLATION
Definition: Distillation is a process of separating the components of a mixture by heating a liquid to a
suitable temperature until it forms vapour (gas) and then cooling it back to liquid.
In distillation process cooling process is done in the lie big condenser. The liquid formed after cooling
the vapour is called distillate.
TYPES OF DISTILLATION
There are two types of distillation (i) Simple distillation (ii) Fractional distillation

(i) Simple distillation

Definition: Simple distillation is the process of obtaining single liquid from a suspension or a solution by
boiling the mixture to form vapour and then condensing vapour back a liquid.
Diagram to show separation of water and muddy by simple distillation

Simple Distillation can be used to separate

(i) Distilling water from muddy water (ii) Distilling water from salt water
NB: Simple distillation is used to purify water which is used in schools, hospitals, industries etc.
QUESTIONS
1. What role does the liebig condenser play?
2. If you do not have a liebig condenser, what will you use to carry out this simple distillation?
(ii) Fractional distillation

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Definition: Fractional distillation is a method of separating homogeneous mixture of two or more liquids
which have different boiling points by means of a fractionating column.
A mixture of water and ethanol is a good example in which ethanol boils at 78oC and water boils at
100oC. Ethanol boils. at 78oC and is distilled first leaving behind water which will boil at 100oC.
Diagram to show separation of ethanol and water by fractional distillation

The fractionating column separates the two liquids, the one with a lower boiling point moves to the upper
part of the column and distils over. The liquid with the lower boiling point is collected first as a distillate.
Each component collected is known as a fraction.

Fraction Distillation can be used

(i) Separation and purification of ethanol from mixture of ethanol and water
(ii) Separation of petroleum into its fractions (components) such as petro, diesel, kerosene
NB: In fractional distillation
(i) The liquids with lower boiling point is first collected as distillate
(ii) Each component collected is called fraction
Application of Distillation (Generally distillation is used in)
(i) Purification of water
(ii) Manufacture of alcohol
(iii) Separation of components of crude oil (petroleum) Eg petrol, diesel
5. LAYER SEPARATION
Definition: Layer separation is the process of separating immiscible liquids using a separating funnel
Immiscible liquids are liquids which do not mix up and form distinct layers when put together. Liquid
with high density settles at the bottom while the liquid with low density remains at the top of the
separating funnel.
Example of mixtures which can be separated by layer separation are
(i) Kerosene and water (ii) Cooking oil and water
Diagram to show separation of mixtures by layer separation method (eg separation of water and kerosene)

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 NYUMBU SECONDARY SCHOOL CHEMISTRY F1 NOTES 2025 SIR ISIHAKA 0652372705

Water and kerosene

Separation Application of Layer separation
Recovery of liquids from contaminations

6. SUBLIMATION
MEANING: Sublimation is a process by which solid changes directly to gas on heating without passing
into liquid state.
Diagram to show separation of iodine and sand

NB: (i) Solid that forms after the vapour cools is called sublimate
(ii) This method is used to separate mixture where one component sublimes
(iii) Iodine and ammonium chloride are few compounds can sublime
(iv) The reverse process of change from vapour to solid on cooling is called Deposition
Sublimation can be used to
(i) Separate iodine from mixture of sand and iodine
(ii)Separate ammonium chloride from mixture of salt and ammonium chloride
Separation Application of Sublimation is in Purification of substance.

7. CHROMATOGRAPHY
Definition: Chromatography is the process of separating mixtures using a moving solvent on a material
that absorbs the solvent.
It is a method which is used to separate coloured mixtures.
In chromatography a mixture is firstly dissolved in a fluid called mobile phase. This fluid carries the
mixture through a stationary phase.
➢ The moving solvent is called mobile phase and may be a gas or liquid

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 NYUMBU SECONDARY SCHOOL CHEMISTRY F1 NOTES 2025 SIR ISIHAKA 0652372705

➢ The mobile phase flows through the stationary phase and caries the components of the
mixture with it
➢ The immobile substance is called stationary phase and is a material that absorbs solvent
which can be either solid or liquid supported on a solid.
➢ Substance separated is called Analyte
TYPES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
There are three types
(i) Paper chromatography (ii) Thin layer chromatography (iii) Gas chromatography.
In paper chromatography, the stationary phase is a uniform absorbent paper. The mobile phase is a
suitable liquid solvent or mixture of solvent.
The components move with different speeds and thus get separated. The mixture of different colours is
separated by this method.
Example separation of black ink by paper chromatography method

Uses of chromatography
Chromatography is used in
(i) Medicine (ii) Security (iii) Chemistry (iv) In industries (v) In biology (vi) In health
In medicine
Used as follows
(i) Used in Studying blood cells (ii) Used in detecting types of drugs in blood
In security
Used as follows
(i) Used to analyses blood in crime scenes (ii) Used in detecting different fibres
(iii) Used in drug testing.
In chemistry
Used as follows
(i) Used in test purity or composition of organic substances (ii) Used in separates mixture
In industries
(i) Used in testing quality of products
(ii) Used in purification of substances
(iii) Used in testing shelf-life of food substances
In biology
Use as follows
(i) Used in protein analysis
(ii) Used in plasma analysis
(iii) Used in enzyme analysis
Health and environment
Used as follows
(i) Used in testing for water pollution, soil pollution and air pollution
(ii) Used in testing for food contamination
8. SOLVENT EXTRACTION
MEANING: Solvent extraction is a process of separating component of a mixture using a solvent that
dissolves selected component
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 NYUMBU SECONDARY SCHOOL CHEMISTRY F1 NOTES 2025 SIR ISIHAKA 0652372705

OR Solvent extraction is a method of separating one substance from one or more other
substances by using a solvent.
For example, extracting essential oils from plant seeds using a liquid that dissolves the oils.
NB: In solvent extraction, the following conditions should be considered when choosing a solvent.
(i) The chosen solvent should dissolve the component of interest
(ii) The solvent must not react with the component of interest
(iii) The solvent chosen should be easily separated from component of interest
(iv) It must not be toxic or corrosive
Separation Application of Solvent
(i) It is used to extract cooking oil from seeds or nuts eg oil from ground nuts, coconuts,
cotton seeds, sunflower etc
(ii) It is used to extract tea component from tea leaves using hot water during preparation
of tea.
9. MAGNETIZATION (MAGNETIC SEPARATION)
Meaning: Magnetization is a process of separating iron (magnetic material) from a mixture where by
magnetic material is attracted to magnet and leaves behind other components of mixture
This method is used to separate scrap iron from other metals. Eg a mixture of iron and sand, iron and
sulphur etc
Diagram to show separation of iron and sand and salt (common salt)

10. Winnowing
Definition: Winnowing is a method used to separate a mixture of two or more solids with different
densities.
This is mostly applied in purifying different grains to remove the unwanted materials.
Examples: (i) Maize and husks (ii) Rice and husks

11. Sieving
Sieving is a method used to separate materials based on their particle size.
It involves passing a mixture through a sieve, which is a mesh or perforated surface with openings of a
specific size. Eg a sieve for maize flour

11. CENTRIFUGATION
A centrifuge is used to separate small amounts of suspension. Centrifugation is used with insoluble solids
where the particles are very small and spread throughout the liquid. In centrifugation, test tubes
containing suspensions are spun round very fast. The solid gets thrown to the bottom. Here, a huge
centrifugal force acting on the particles due to the high speed spinning of the samples makes the particles
to settle at the bottom

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12. CRYSTALLIZATION
Crystallization is a process of separating a pure solid substance from a solution by warming / boiling a
solution in an open container. When allowed to cool the solid will be formed as crystals
This process involves evaporation but the speed of evaporation is much slower.
Defn. (1) Crystallization is a process of forming crystals from a super saturated solution when left to cool
(2) Crystallization point is a point at which crystals form.
Crystallization is used in sugar and salt industry to obtain sugar and salt crystals.
Eg a method is used to extract salt from the sea. Salty sea water is placed in wide basins and put in the
sun. Water evaporates off, leaving the salt crystals in basins

13. HAND PICKING

Meaning: Hand picking is a method used to separate a mixture of components which are large enough to
be picked by hand.
Example: (i) Oranges and Mangoes
(ii) Rice and sand
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. (a) Give any six (6) methods available for the separation of mixtures.
(b) Name the process that can be used to separate the following substances:
(i) Iodine and iron (ii) Salt and sugar (iii) Salt and sand (iv Kerosene and water
(v Water and ethanol (vi) Iron and mud (vii) Water and flour (viii) Water and mud
(ix) Rice grains and husks
2. (a) In a tabular form, state the differences between a physical and a chemical change.
3. Indicate, giving examples in each case, which of the following can be described as physical or chemical
changes:
(i) The heating of a salt solution (ii) The action of heat on ice
(iii) The burning of paper or wood in air (iv) The rusting of iron in air
(v) Fermentation of milk
(vi) The melting of a metal

4. Differentiate between a homogenous mixture and a heterogeneous mixture.

3. Write TRUE for statements that are correct and FALSE for statements that are not correct.
(i) Matter exists in three states namely, solid, liquid and gas. _________
(ii) A liquid has no fixed volume. ______________
(iii) A change in state from gas to solid is called sublimation. _________
(iv) In a physical change, a new substance is usually formed. __________
(v) Metals are shine and can be polished. ________
(vi) The components of a compound can be separated by physical means only. _______
(vii) The liquid state is one in which the particles are moving freely in all directions. ______
(viii) Condensation is the same as solidification. __________
(ix) Boiling occurs at one particular temperature. _____________
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(x) Iodine sublimes when heated. ___________

4. (a) In the following diagram label letters P, Q and Z

(b) What is the name of the process of separating mixtures is represented by the diagram?

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