EPE
06 – AC generators & motors
Prof. Dr. Raphael Lechner
OTH Amberg-Weiden
Contents
• Principles of rotating electric machines
• Synchronous machines
• Asynchronous machines
2
Principles of rotating electric machines (1)
Rotating electric machines are electromechanic energy transformers:
- A motor transforms electric energy into mechanical energy
- A generator tranforms mechanical energy into electric energy
A rotating electric machine typically consists of a rotating part, the rotor, and a stationary
part, the stator. Stator and rotor are separated by an air gap with a magnetic field.
The excitation (generation of the magnetic field) is either performed by permanent magnets
or by a current flow in a winding (electromagnet). The windings of the electric machine
where a voltage is induced are called the armature.
3
Principles of rotating electric machines (2)
A magnetic field will always form around a conductor or coil of N turns carrying
a current I (electromagnetism).
According to Ampere‘s law the sum of currents enclosed by a magnetic field line
is the magnetomotive force (mmf).
𝑁𝐼 Vs
𝐵 = 𝜇0 [T = 2 ]
2𝜋𝑟 m
𝑚𝑚𝑓 = 𝑁𝐼 [A] or [AT = 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠]
𝑚𝑚𝑓 𝑚𝑚𝑓 A
𝐻= = [ ]
2𝜋𝑟 𝑙 m
𝑚𝑚𝑓 Vs
𝐵 = 𝜇0 = 𝜇0 𝐻 [T = 2 ]
𝑙 m
4
Principles of rotating electric machines (3)
The mmf required to cause a magnetic flux 𝛷 to flow through a region of length l and cross section
area A is given by the reluctance Rm (Ohm‘s law for magnetic circuits).
𝛷 = 𝐵𝐴 [Wb]
𝑚𝑚𝑓 = 𝛷𝑅𝑚 [A]
𝑙 A
𝑅𝑚 = [ ]
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴 Wb
5
Motor
Motor operation: a conductor carrying a current I in a magnetic field B will experience a force F
which can be translated into a rotary motion.
𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙 [N]
Fleming‘s left hand rule:
6
Generator (1)
According to Faraday‘s law of induction a wire (or coil of N turns) moved in a magnetic
field with a velocity v acquires an electromotive force (emf) – an induced voltage V.
Am emf can either be produced by moving the wire in a stationary magnetic field or by
keeping the wire stationary and changing the magnetic field.
𝑑𝛷 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑁 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴 = 𝑁𝐵𝑙 = 𝑁𝐵𝑙𝑣 [V]
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
emf
For rotary motion:
𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝐵𝐷𝑙𝜔(− sin 𝜔𝑡) [V]
7
Generator (2)
According to Lenz‘s law the direction of the induced emf is such that the magnetic field
produced by a current caused by the emf would oppose the change in 𝛷.
emf
8
Generator (3)
Generator with electromagnet (or permanent
magnet) on rotor and coils on stator
(synchronous generator):
• A voltage will be induced in the stationary
wire by the changing magnetic field
• Induced voltage varies with time in the same
pattern as the flux density varies around the
rotor periphery (sinusoidal waveform).
• Waveform is repeated for each revolution
9
Generator (4)
If additional coils are added to the stator in a 120° arrangement a three-phase AC output can be
generated. The three phases of a generator are conventionally labelled U, V and W and usually
connected in Wye-connection (star-connection).
10
Synchronous speed and pole pairs
The frequency of the induced voltage is proportional to the rotational speed ns and the number
of poles pairs p of an electric machine. ns is the synchronous speed.
𝑓 = 𝑛𝑆 𝑝 [Hz]
𝑁𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑝=
2
11
Quiz
a) Which rotational speed in rpm does a 4 pole generator require to produce
an AC voltage of frequency f = 60 Hz?
b) How many rotor and stator coils would a 6 pole three-phase AC synchronous
generator require (electromagnetic rotor)?
12
Power and torque
The mechanical power input/output of an electric machine is the product of the torque τ
(Nm) and the angular speed 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑛𝑠 (1/s).
𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 𝜏2𝜋𝑛𝑠 [W]
τL
τ τ: torque of the electric machine
Generator operation Motor operation
Pmech < 0 Pmech > 0
τL: torque of the driven load
anti-clockwise clockwise
τ τ
τP τP: torque of the prime-mover
τL
Motor operation Generator operation τ
Pmech > 0 Pmech < 0
anti-clockwise clockwise
τ τP
13
Exercise 1
An electric lift is powered by a three-phase AC motor with a rated rms voltage of 400 V. The
efficiency ηmot of the motor is 92 %. The power factor is PF = 0.88. The transmission gear
drive of the lift has an efficiency ηgear = 59%. The lift should lift a mass m = 1500 kg with a
velocity of v = 1.2 m/s.
A) Which mechanical motor power is required?
B) Which is the torque at 970 1/min?
C) Which is the line current?
14
Exercise 1 continued
15
Questions?
16
Contents
• Principles of rotating electric machines
• Synchronous machines
• Asynchronous machines
17
Synchronous machines (1)
Synchronous electric machines are AC machines in which the rotor rotates synchronously to the rotating
field of the stator. Synchronous machines can in principle be used either as generator or motor.
Stationary field machine Stationary armature machine (rotating field)
(1) Stator, (2) Poles, (3) Rotor with three- (1) Stator with three-phase AC winding
phase AC winding (2) Rotor with DC-excitation
18
Synchronous machines (2)
Stationary armature machines are normally used due to their advantages. They can be designed
either as salient-pole machines or cylindrical-rotor machines.
Salient-pole machine: Cylindrical rotor machine:
For low to medium power and For high power and speed
low to medium speed, e.g. (turbo-generator), e.g., gas and
hydropower, gensets,… steam turbines,…
19
Synchronous machines (3)
The excitation in the rotor can be generated by permanent magnets or by a DC current fed to the
rotor by slip rings and brushes or a shaft-end mounted exciter machine (brushless excitation).
Synchronous AC machine with
DC excitation machine
20
Typical salient pole AC generator
Set point
control
Voltage
regulator
G1: AC main generator (rotating field)
G2: AC exciter machine (stationary field)
G3: DC pilot exciter machine
21
Cylindrical rotor generator (turbo generator)
ABB air cooled
turbo generator
22
Multi pole salient pole with radial air gap
Enercon EP3 3 MW generator for direct drive wind turbine
23
High speed generator with permanent
magnet rotor
High speed generator for
radial micro gas tubine
Shaft mounted high speed generator for genset
exhaust gas energy recovery (turcocompounding)
approx. 30 kW, rotational speed 50,000 rpm 24
No-load operation of the synchronous
generator
In no-load operation of the synchronous generator a voltage Vp is induced in the stator by the magnetic
flux 𝛷 generated by the mmf Mf in the rotor (excitation current). The magnetic flux is stationary with
regard to the rotor and rotates with ns = f/p with regard to the stator.
The induced voltage follows a saturation curve (due to saturation of the magnetic circuit).
25
Load operation of the synchronous
generator (island mode) (1)
Example for PF = 0.8
• Under load a current flows in the stator which opposes the field current in Generator island mode
the rotor and reduces the flux.
• This demagnetizing effect leads to a corresponding reduction in the 𝐄
𝐕𝑝𝑎
𝐕𝑆
generated voltage and is called the armature reaction.
• Due to the armature reaction the induced voltage at the stator Ea
(armature voltage) and the phase voltage VL are not in phase. This can be
represented by an inductive reactance XS (synchronous reactance):
𝐕𝐿
X𝑋d𝑆
𝐕𝐿 = 𝐕𝑆 + 𝐄𝑎 I 𝜃𝐿
𝐕𝑆 = 𝑋𝑆 𝐈 IL 𝐈𝐿
V
𝐕𝑆d
𝐄V𝑎p VL ZL 𝜃
𝐈 26
Load operation of the synchronous
generator (island mode) (2)
The armature reaction depends on the extent to which the stator current lags or leads the voltages
(power factor). In order to keep the output voltage constant, an automatic voltage regulator (AVR) is
used to change the excitation current to compensate for the load conditions.
27
Load operation of the synchronous
machine (grid connected)
When grid connected, the load voltage VL is given. Due to the armature reaction Ea and VL
are out of phase by the angle θ.
a) θ is positive (counter-clockwise) for motor operation
b) θ is negative for generator operation
X𝑋d𝑆
𝑋𝑆 𝐼 cos 𝜃 = 𝐸𝑎 sin 𝜗 I
𝐸𝑎 𝑉𝐿 IL
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑉𝐿 𝐼 cos 𝜃 = sin 𝜗 V
𝐕𝑆d
𝑋𝑆
𝐄V
𝑎p VL ZL
28
Phasor diagram synchronous machine (Grid connected)
Equivalent Xd𝑆
𝑋
circuit for Generator Under excited
one phase I
IL
𝐕V𝑆d
𝐄V
𝑎p VL ZL
Idle (no load) Motor Over excited
Synchronous condenser
https://watt-logic.com/2021/02/15/synchronous-condenser/ accessed 18.12.2023
Load operation of the synchronous machine
(grid connected) (3)
The torque of the synchronous machine depends on the sine of the angle θ
between Ea and VL. For a three-phase machine:
𝑃 3 𝐸𝑎 𝑉𝐿 τp
𝜏= = sin 𝜗
2𝜋𝑛𝑠 2𝜋𝑛𝑠 𝑋𝑠
The torque has a maximum at θ = 90° which cannot be τ
exceeded. This maximum torque is the pull-out torque
or breakdown torque. It defines the overload
capability:
3 𝐸𝑎 𝑉𝐿
𝜏𝑝 =
2𝜋𝑛𝑠 𝑋𝑠
𝜏𝑝
𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝜏𝑛
32
Exercise 2
Determine θ for nominal load of a synchronous motor which has an overload
capability of 2.
33
Questions?
34
Contents
• Principles of rotating electric machines
• Synchronous machines
• Asynchronous machines
35
Asynchronous machines (1)
Asynchronous electric machines are AC machines in which the rotor rotates asynchronously to
the rotating field of the stator.
In contrast to synchronous machines the rotor of asynchronous machines is not excited, i.e., the
rotor ist not actively magnetized. Instead, an emf is induced in the rotor by the rotating magnetic
field of the stator. This emf produces a current the consequence being a force exerted on the rotor
in the direction of the flux rotation.
Asynchronous machines can in principle be used either as generator or motor. If the speed of the
rotor n exceeds the speed of the rotating stator flux ns, the machine operates as generator. If the
rotor speed n lags the stator flux rotational speed ns the machine operates as motor.
Motor ∆𝑛 = 𝑛𝑠 − 𝑛𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 > 0
Generator ∆𝑛 = 𝑛𝑠 − 𝑛𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 < 0
36
Cage induction machine
The most popular type of asynchronous machines is the cage induction or squirrel cage induction
machine. It is usually applied as a motor.
Enclosing with cooling fins
Stator winding
Fan
Air gap
Squirrel Bearing
cage
Cover cap
Rotor bar
Shaft
Rotor laminated Short-circuit ring
core
Stator laminated
End plate
core
Base
37
Asynchronous machines (2)
The interaction between the rotating magnetic fields of the asynchronous machine is similar to the
transformator principle. The stator winding is equivalent to the primary winding of a transformer
and the rotor winding is equivalent to the secondary winding.
However, the frequency of the rotor is not the same as the stator frequency due to the difference
in the rotational speed of stator flux and rotor.
This frequency difference is expressed as slip s:
𝑝(𝑛𝑠 − 𝑛𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 ) 𝑛𝑠 − 𝑛𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑠= =
𝑝𝑛𝑠 𝑛𝑠
38
Quiz
The slip of a 4-pole 50 Hz asynchronous motor at full-load operation is approximately 3 %.
Determine the rotational speed of the rotor in rpm.
39
Characteristics of asynchronous machines
𝑛
𝑛𝑠 cos ϑ: power factor
n/ns I1: stator current
η τ: torque
cos ϑ τN: nominal torque
s n: rotational speed
cos ϑ ns: synchronous speed
η: efficiency
τ/τN
40
Torque characteristics
Motor mode: 0 < 𝑠 < 1
𝜏
Brake mode: 1 < 𝑠 < ∞
𝜏𝑝
Generator mode: −1 < 𝑠 < 0
Generator Motor Brake
41
Bildnachweis: Flegel, Georg: Elektrotechnik für den Maschinenbauer. München, Wien: Hanser, 1993. ISBN 3-446-15622-4
Exercise 3
The name plate of a cage induction motor states the following ratings:
f = 50 Hz
n = 1450 rpm
Determine the synchronous speed ns, the number of pole pairs p and the nominal slip sN.
42
Questions?
43
Image sources
Title slide: Hans, Pixabay
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eBook Collection).
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Slide 24 left: https://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1487163/enercon-starts-ep3-tests
Slide 14,21,22,27,29,30,39: Flegel, Georg: Elektrotechnik für den Maschinenbauer. München, Wien: Hanser, 1993. ISBN 3-446-15622-4
Slide 24 right: https://www.wind-energie.de/themen/anlagentechnik/konstruktiver-aufbau/maschinenhaus/
Slide 25 left: https://www.modernpowersystems.com/features/featureaggreko-to-trial-the-bowman-etc-system-4990481/featureaggreko-to-trial-the-bowman-etc-system-
4990481-480160.html
Slide 25 right: http://www.gasturbineworld.co.uk/bladon.html
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