V 4 * Mathematical Induction

V 1 Induction, Strong Induction, and Well-Ordering

Property
Well-Ordering Property about Z (a+ a~])
Every nonempty subset of nonnegative integers has a least element.
Note: .~.^^'Well-Ordering Principle^`-, -^'`-7
^^ ^., Well-Ordering Principle^'`- 7^^ '.`- ^^, '~,`-
-.
Well-Ordering Principle
Every set can be well ordered.
Theorem 1.1 Induction, Strong Induction, and Well-Ordering Property( -)
are equivalent.
Proof.
(1) Induction = Well-Ordering Property
Let S be a subset of N. We will prove WOP by induction on |S|.
(Basic step)
If |S| = 1, it has a least element.
(Induction step)
Suppose that the hypothesis holds for |S| = k. Let S be a subset N with |S| = k + 1. Pict
an element S. Let S

= S {}. Then |S

| = k. By the induction hypothesis, S

has a
least element .
If , then is a least element of S. If < , then is a least element of S. Hence
S has a least element, and so Well-Ordering Property is proved.
(2) Well-Ordering Property = Induction
Suppose that Induction is not valid. It means that even if statement P(n) satises (a)
P(1) is true, and (b) P(k +1) is true whenever P(k) is true for all k N, there is an positive
1
4 _ MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 2
integer n
0
such that P(n
0
) is not true. Let
S = {k : P(k) is not true } .
Since P(n
0
) is not true, S = . Since S N, by Well-Ordering Property, S has a least
element such that P(t) is true for all t < and P() is not true. But, since P( 1) is
true, P() is true by the condition (b). It is a contradiction. Hence Induction is valid.
(3) Strong Induction = Well-Ordering Property
We can prove the same way as (1).
(4) Well-Ordering Property = Strong Induction
Suppose that Strong Induction is not valid. It means that even if statement P(n) satises
(a) P(1) true, and (b) P(k + 1) is true whenever P(t) is true for all 1 < t k, there is an
positive integer n
0
such that P(n
0
) is not true. Let
S = {k : P(k) is not true } .
Since P(n
0
) is not true, S = . Since S N, by Well-Ordering Property, S has a least
element such that P(t) is true for all t < and P() is not true. However, by the
condition (b), P() is true. It is a contradiction. Hence Strong Induction is valid.
V 5 * Counting
V 1 The Basics of Counting
Product Rule
`- ^ .~. `- ' .~. 1`~ v, -" ^ n
1
`_`
^ ., -" ^ n
2
`_`^ ` v, - n
1
n
2
`_`^ .
Example 1.1 1. The number of ways from Seoul to Pusan via Taejeon.
2. The number of functions, one-to-one functions, bijective functions.
3. The number of subsets of A = {1, 2, . . . , n} is 2
n
.
For each subset E of A, dene E

such that E

= (
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
) such that

i
=

1 if i E
0 if i / E
Then the function f : 2
A
{0, 1}
n
is a one-to-one and onto map. Hence |2
A
| =
| {0, 1}
n
| = 2
n
.
Sum Rule
^ '~. `-` v, -" ^ n
1
^., -" ^ n
2
^`' '~.
v, -`_` `- n
1
+ n
2
^ .
Example 1.2 1. The number of computer passwords
When computer passwords have lengths at least 6 and at most 8, and must contain at
least one number, what is the number P of computer passwords?
Let p
i
be the number of password of length i for 6 i 8. Then p
6
= 36
6
26
6
,
p
7
= 36
7
26
7
, and p
8
= 36
8
26
8
. Thus P = p
6
+ p
7
+ p
8
.
The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
Let A
1
, A
2
, and A
3
be sets, then
A
1
A
2
A
3
=
3

i
|A
i
|

1i<j3
|A
i
A
j
|

+|A
1
A
2
A
3
|
Tree Diagrams (page 343)
3
5 _ COUNTING 4
V 2 The Pigeonhole Principle
Theorem 2.1 (The Pigeonhole Principle)
If k +1 or more objects are placed into k boxes, then there is at least on box containing two
or more of the objects.
Theorem 2.2 (Generalized Pigeonhole Principle)
If N objects are placed into k boxes, then there is at least one box containing at least N/k
objects.
Example 2.1 Among 100 people there are at least 100/12 = 9 who were born in the same
month.
Some elegant application of the Pigeonhole Principle
Example 2.2 Let S be a subset of {1, 2, . . . , 2n} with |S| = n+1. Then S has two numbers
x and y such that x divides y.
Proof. Let S = {a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n+1
}. Now, let
a
j
= 2
k
j
q
j
for j = 1, 2, . . . , n + 1,
where k
j
is a nonnegative integer and q
j
is odd. Then there are a
i
= 2
k
i
q
i
and a
j
= 2
k
j
q
j
with k
i
k
j
and q
i
= q
j
by Pigeonhole Principle. Hence a
i
divides a
j
.
Theorem 2.3 Every sequence of n
2
+ 1 distinct real numbers contains a subsequence of
length n + 1 that is either strictly increasing or strictly decreasing.
Proof. List a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
2
+1
. For each 1 k n
2
+ 1, dene (i
k
, d
k
) such that i
k
is
the length of longest increasing subsequence starting at a
k
, and d
k
is the length of longest
decreasing subsequence starting at a
k
.
Suppose that there is no strictly increasing or strictly decreasing subsequence of length
n + 1. Then 1 i
k
n and 1 d
k
n. Hence there are at most n
2
distinct pairs in
{(i
k
, d
k
)}
n
2
+1
i=1
. Then by Pigeonhole principle there are s and t such that (i
s
, d
s
) = (i
t
, d
t
).
We may assume that s < t.
If a
s
< a
t
, then i
s
> i
t
but it is a contradiction since i
s
= i
t
. If a
s
> a
t
, then d
s
> d
t
but
it is a contradiction since d
s
= d
t
.
Example 2.3 Given n positive integers a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
, there is a subset S {a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
}
such that sum of all elements of S is divisible by n.
- Exercise # 21, 35, 41 (Page 354)
Exercise 41 Let x be an irrational number. Show that there is a positive number 1 j n
such that |jx m| <
1
n
for some integer m.
Proof. Let S = {x, 2x, . . . , nx}. Dene
f(jx) := a
j
if a
j
jx is an integer where0 a
j
1.
5 _ COUNTING 5
If there is no j such that |jx m| <
1
n
for some integer m, then
1
n
f(jx)
n1
n
for all
1 j n. We divide the interval [
1
n
,
n1
n
] into n 1 subintervals {I
k
}
n1
k=1
such that
I
k
=

1
n
+
n 2
n(n 1)
(k 1),
1
n
+
n 2
n(n 1)
k

for 1 k n 2
and
I
n1
= [
1
n
+
n 2
n(n 1)
(n 2),
n 1
n
].
Since there are only n 1 intervals {I
k
}
n1
k=1
, by Pigeonhole principle, there are i and j
such that f(ix), f(jx) I
k
for some k. But, since the length of each I
k
is less than
1
n
,
0 |f(ix) f(jx)| <
1
n
. We may assume that i < j. It means that jx = ix + m + where
m is an integer and 0 <
1
n
. Hence |(j i)x m| <
1
n
with 0 j i n. It is a
contradiction for the assumption that there is no j such that |jx m| <
1
n
for some integer
m. Hence the proof is completed.
Problem 1 For any real numbers a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
, a
5
, show that there are two numbers a
i
and
a
j
satisfying
0 <
a
i
a
j
1 + a
i
a
j
< 1.
Problem 2 ' 2 _~_ ''^ 5 e` , ^ -

2 - ''. >r<` '..

Problem 3 ' 1 _~_ ''^ 10 e` , ^H -

1
3
- ''. >r<` '..
Example 2.4 (Ramsey number) 6` -^`- '~. 3`^ -'1, ~
` '~. ~- 3`^ '.' -'` '.~.
(Note: ^- Ramsey number R(3, 3) = 6 ` .)