DATA COMMUNICATION

1.​ Data Link layer contains protocols responsible for flow and error controls.
2.​ Physical layer controls protocols responsible for bit-by-bit delivery of information.
3.​ A traditional local telephone network (in the 1990s) is an example of a circuit-switched
network.
4.​ A class B network on the Internet has a subnet mask of 255.255.248.0. What is the
maximum number of hosts per subnet?​
Subnet mask: 255.255.248.0 = /21 (since 248 = 11111000 → 5 bits, and 255.255 = 16
bits → total = 21 bits for network).​
Remaining host bits = 32 - 21 = 11 bits​
Maximum hosts = 2¹¹ - 2 = 2046
5.​ Peer-to-Peer network protocols are part of the Application layer
.

6.​ The difference between bit rate and baud rate lies in what is being counted per
second in data communication:

Bit Rate (bps – bits per second)

●​ Definition: Number of bits transmitted per second.

●​ Includes: All data bits (0s and 1s).
●​ Unit: bps (bits per second)
●​ Focus: Measures the speed of data content transmission.

Baud Rate (symbols per second)

●​ Definition: Number of signal changes (symbols) transmitted per second.

●​ A symbol can represent 1 or more bits depending on modulation.
●​ Unit: baud (symbols per second)
●​ Focus: Measures the speed of modulation/signaling.

Formula Relation:

If 1 symbol = n bits, then: Bit Rate = Baud Rate × n

 Formula:

Bit Rate=Baud Rate×log⁡2(Number of Symbols)

Given:

●​ Baud Rate = 4800 baud/s

●​ Number of Symbols = 8
●​ log⁡2(8)=3\log_2(8) = 3log2​(8)=3 (since 23=82^3 = 823=8)

Bit Rate:

Bit Rate=4800×3=14400 bits/sec (bps)

7.​ Message header question

8.​ image

9.​ Circuit switched and packet switched

10.​ ok

I. If X is a Hub:
●​ Broadcast Domain: A hub operates in a way that it doesn’t break up broadcast
domains. All devices connected to the hub are in the same broadcast domain. Hence,
there is only one broadcast domain for the entire network.​

●​ Collision Domain: A hub functions as a layer 1 device and broadcasts data to all
connected devices. However, it doesn't separate the collision domains. Since all devices
connected through a hub share the same medium (the cable), there is one collision
domain for the entire network.

Summary (If X is a Hub):

●​ Number of Broadcast Domains: 1

●​ Number of Collision Domains: 1

II. If X is a Switch:

●​ Broadcast Domain: A switch operates at layer 2 (data link layer), and it forwards frames
based on MAC addresses. While switches do not create multiple broadcast domains by
themselves, if all devices are on the same VLAN, the broadcast domain remains the
same as a hub. Therefore, there is still only one broadcast domain.​

●​ Collision Domain: Unlike a hub, a switch has the capability to segment collision
domains. Each port on the switch creates a separate collision domain. Since there are 8
devices connected to 8 ports on the switch, there are 8 collision domains in this
scenario (one per port).

Summary (If X is a Switch):

●​ Number of Broadcast Domains: 1

●​ Number of Collision Domains: 8

III. If X is a Router:

●​ Broadcast Domain: Routers operate at layer 3 (network layer) and are used to connect
different networks. A router breaks up broadcast domains because broadcasts cannot
pass from one network to another. In this scenario, the router would create a separate
broadcast domain for each interface. Since the router is connecting multiple networks,
there will be one broadcast domain per interface. Given that there are 8 devices
connected to 8 different ports on the router, there are 8 broadcast domains.​

●​ Collision Domain: Similar to the switch scenario, a router doesn’t allow any collision to
propagate from one interface to another, effectively separating each interface into its
own collision domain. Therefore, each port on the router is a separate collision
domain. In this case, the router creates 8 collision domains (one per interface).​
 Summary (If X is a Router):

●​ Number of Broadcast Domains: 8

●​ Number of Collision Domains: 8

Explanation:

●​ Hub: A hub doesn’t segment the network, so everything is in one broadcast and collision
domain.
●​ Switch: A switch segments the collision domain at each port, but it doesn’t break up the
broadcast domain unless VLANs are used.
●​ Router: A router breaks up both broadcast and collision domains by segmenting the
network into separate subnets. Each interface on a router represents a separate
broadcast and collision domain.

11.​ok

Given:

●​ IP address: 199.68.89.139
●​ Subnet mask: 255.255.255.224

To calculate the requested values, let's break it down step by step:

Step 1: Convert the IP address and subnet mask to binary

IP address: 199.68.89.139​
Binary representation:

●​ 199 → 11000011
●​ 68 → 01000100
●​ 89 → 01011001
●​ 139 → 10001011

So, the IP address in binary is:

11000011.01000100.01011001.10001011

Subnet mask: 255.255.255.224​

Binary representation:

●​ 255 → 11111111
●​ 255 → 11111111
●​ 255 → 11111111
 ●​ 224 → 11100000

So, the subnet mask in binary is:

11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000

Step 2: Calculate the Subnet ID

To get the Subnet ID, perform a bitwise AND operation between the IP address and the subnet
mask.

IP Address: 11000011.01000100.01011001.10001011

Subnet Mask: 11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000

---------------------------------------------------

Subnet ID: 11000011.01000100.01011001.10000000

Converting the result back to decimal:

●​ 11000011 → 199
●​ 01000100 → 68
●​ 01011001 → 89
●​ 10000000 → 128

Thus, the Subnet ID is 199.68.89.128.

Step 3: Calculate the IP address of the first host

The first host in the subnet is the first IP address after the Subnet ID. So, increment the last
octet of the Subnet ID by 1.

Subnet ID: 199.68.89.128​

First host: 199.68.89.129

Step 4: Calculate the IP address of the last host

The last host is one less than the broadcast address. To find the broadcast address, you need
to use the inverted subnet mask (i.e., perform the bitwise OR operation between the Subnet ID
and the inverted subnet mask).

Inverted subnet mask (255.255.255.224 becomes 0.0.0.31):

00000000.00000000.00000000.00011111
Now perform a bitwise OR operation between the Subnet ID (199.68.89.128) and the inverted
subnet mask:

Subnet ID: 11000011.01000100.01011001.10000000

Inverted Mask: 00000000.00000000.00000000.00011111

---------------------------------------------------

Broadcast Addr:11000011.01000100.01011001.10011111

Converting the result back to decimal:

●​ 11000011 → 199
●​ 01000100 → 68
●​ 01011001 → 89
●​ 10011111 → 159

Thus, the broadcast address is 199.68.89.159.

The last host is one less than the broadcast address:​

199.68.89.158

Step 5: Calculate the Direct Broadcast Address (DBA)

The direct broadcast address is the broadcast address itself, which we calculated as
199.68.89.159.

Step 6: Calculate the Loopback Address

The loopback address is always 127.0.0.1 for IPv4.

Summary of the results:

●​ Subnet ID: 199.68.89.128

●​ First host IP: 199.68.89.129
●​ Last host IP: 199.68.89.158
●​ Direct Broadcast Address (DBA): 199.68.89.159
●​ Loopback address: 127.0.0.1
1. What is the network address and broadcast address of a subnet with IP
172.16.40.0/21?

●​ /21 → Subnet mask: 255.255.248.0

●​ Block size = 256 − 248 = 8 (third octet)
●​ IP 172.16.40.0 lies in the block that starts at 172.16.40.0 and ends at
172.16.47.255

✅ Network Address: 172.16.40.0​

✅ Broadcast Address: 172.16.47.255
2. How many subnets can be created from a Class B network if the subnet mask
is 255.255.248.0?

●​ Class B default mask = /16

●​ New mask = /21​
→ Borrowed bits = 21 - 16 = 5 bits

✅ Number of subnets = 25=322^5 = \boxed{32}25=32​

3. Given a host IP 172.16.35.20 with subnet mask 255.255.248.0,
determine the subnet it belongs to.

●​ /21 → Block size in third octet = 8

●​ 35 is in the range:​
Largest multiple of 8 ≤ 35 is 32​
→ Subnet range: 172.16.32.0 – 172.16.39.255

✅ Network Address: 172.16.32.0​

✅ Broadcast Address: 172.16.39.255
4. What is the first valid host and last valid host in the subnet
172.16.40.0/21?
 ●​ Network: 172.16.40.0
●​ Broadcast: 172.16.47.255

✅ First Host = Network + 1 =172.16.40.1​

✅ Last Host = Broadcast − 1 = 172.16.47.254
5. If a company is assigned a Class B network and wants at least 500 subnets,
what is the minimum subnet mask required?

●​ Class B default = /16

●​ Required subnets ≥ 500
●​ We find minimum n such that 2n≥5002^n \geq 5002n≥500 → n=9n = 9n=9
(since 29=5122^9 = 51229=512)

✅ New subnet mask = /16 + 9 = /25​

✅ Subnet mask: 255.255.255.128
6. Explain why we subtract 2 in the formula 2n−22^n - 22n−2 for maximum hosts
per subnet.

●​ For host calculation, we use:​

Max Hosts=2n−2\text{Max Hosts} = 2^n - 2Max Hosts=2n−2
○​ One address is network address
○​ One address is broadcast address
●​ These two addresses cannot be assigned to hosts

✅ So, the usable addresses are always 2 less than the total.
7. Can two hosts with IPs 172.16.33.10 and 172.16.38.250 and subnet
mask 255.255.248.0 communicate directly without a router? Justify.

●​ Mask: /21 = 255.255.248.0

●​ Block size = 8
Check which subnet each belongs to:

●​ For 172.16.33.10 → 33 falls in 32–39 → Network = 172.16.32.0/21

●​ For 172.16.38.250 → 38 falls in 32–39 → Same network

✅ Yes, they can communicate directly since they are in the same subnet.