Python Programming

for Beginners

The Complete Guide to Mastering Python in 7 Days

with Hands-On Exercises –Top Secret Coding Tips to
Get an Unfair Advantage and Land Your Dream Job!
Philip Robbins
© Copyright 2023 - All rights reserved.
The content contained within this book may not be reproduced, duplicated or
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publisher.
Under no circumstances will any blame or legal responsibility be held against
the publisher, or author, for any damages, reparation, or monetary loss due to
the information contained within this book. Either directly or indirectly.

Legal Notice:
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Disclaimer Notice:
Please note that the information contained within this document is for
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present accurate, up to date, and reliable, complete information. No
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author is not engaging in the rendering of legal, financial, medical or
professional advice. The content within this book has been derived from
various sources. Please consult a licensed professional before attempting any
techniques outlined in this book.
By reading this document, the reader agrees that under no circumstances is
the author responsible for any losses, direct or indirect, which are incurred as
a result of the use of the information contained within this document,
including, but not limited to, — errors, omissions, or inaccuracies.
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION

WHAT IS PYTHON?
WHO AM I?
HOW CAN THIS BOOK HELP YOU?

CHAPTER
1: INTRODUCTION
TO PYTHON

HISTORY OF PYTHON
APPLICATIONS OF PYTHON
DIFFERENT VERSIONS OF PYTHON
WHY YOU SHOULD LEARN PYTHON
HOW TO INSTALL PYTHON

CHAPTER
2: PYCHARM AND
IDLE

WHY IS PYTHON INTERPRETER GOOD?

HOW TO USE THE PYTHON IDLE SHELL?
HOW TO USE IDLE TO OPEN PYTHON FILES?
HOW TO CHANGE THESE FILES?
IDE (INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT)
PYCHARM
PYTHON STYLE GUIDE

CHAPTER 3: PYTHON
FOUNDATIONS

WHY ARE INPUT VALUES REQUIRED?

UNDERSTANDING THE INPUT() FUNCTION
COMMENTS IN PYTHON
RESERVED KEYWORDS
OPERATORS IN PYTHON
EXERCISES

CHAPTER
4: PYTHON
VARIABLES

WHAT ARE VARIABLES IN PYTHON?

HOW TO NAME VARIABLES
HOW TO DEFINE VARIABLES
HOW TO DETERMINE THE MEMORY ADDRESS OF A VARIABLE
LOCAL AND GLOBAL VARIABLES

CHAPTER 5: DATA
TYPES IN PYTHON

WHAT EXACTLY ARE DATA TYPES?

DIFFERENT DATA TYPES
STRINGS
STRING FORMATTING
STRING MANIPULATION TECHNIQUES
INTEGERS
FLOATING—POINT NUMBERS
BOOLEAN DATA TYPE

CHAPTER 6: ADVANCED DATA

STRUCTURES IN PYTHON

LISTS
TUPLES
DICTIONARIES
EXERCISES

CHAPTER
7: CONDITIONALS AND
LOOPS

COMPARISON OPERATORS
CONTROL FLOW STATEMENTS
IF/ELSE CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
IF ELIF ELSE
FOR LOOPS
WHILE LOOP
BREAK AND CONTINUE
EXERCISES

CHAPTER 8: FUNCTIONS
AND MODULES

FUNCTION PARAMETERS
ARGUMENTS OF A FUNCTION
DEFAULT VALUES
SCOPE
MODULES
MODULES AND BUILT-IN FUNCTIONS
STRING FUNCTIONS
EXERCISES

CHAPTER 9: OBJECT ORIENTED

PROGRAMMING (OOP)

WHAT IS OOP?
HOW DO I CREATE CLASSES?
HOW DO I CREATE OBJECTS?
INHERITANCE
EXERCISES

CHAPTER 10: FILES

IN PYTHON

FILE PATHS
CREATING NEW FOLDERS
FUNCTIONS TO MANAGE FILES

CHAPTER
11: EXCEPTION
HANDLING

'TRY’ AND ‘EXCEPT'

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ERRORS

CHAPTER 12: ADVANCED

PROGRAMMING

PIP PACKAGE MANAGER

VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENT
THE SYS MODULE
UNIT TESTING
SCRAPY
REQUESTS
PYGAME
BEAUTIFUL SOUP
PILLOW
TENSORFLOW
SCIKIT LEARN
PANDAS
MATPLOTLIB
TWISTED
GITHUB FOR PROGRAMMERS

CONCLUSION

PROGRAMMER FEATURES
WHAT NEXT?

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES
As a thank you for your trust in my book, you will have access to an
exclusive gift at the end of this book: a long list of Python interview
questions and answers (for beginners and advanced).

I personally feel that learning Python can be extremely helpful if you really
want to make that career switch and find your dream job. Since coding can be
done from anywhere, you could even find a remote opportunity, giving you a
healthy work-life balance where you have more time for yourself or your
family

Learning this innovative programming language has already helped so many

people, and it is my hope that it will help you too!

Philip
Introduction
Computers can be categorized as machines with no inherent intelligence, but
they have drastically helped to advance our world in countless ways. With
computers, our world runs much more efficiently and error-free—we tell
them what to do, and they deliver flawless results. Computer programmers
are the people who communicate with computers in what are called
programming languages, and they have been doing so for many years. These
programming languages vary based on their working systems, just as human
language varies based on region.
One of these computer programming languages is called Python, and in the
computer realm this is a quite popular (and easy to learn) high-level
programming language. This book will teach you Python in an intuitive way.
Even if you have no experience with any programming language, you will be
able to grasp the basics of Python and put them to use.
What Is Python?
Python is a high-level programming language that is popular within the
programming community. It is simple, versatile, and contains an extensive
library of third-party frameworks. It is also considered to be one of the most
popular modern programming languages, being highly accessible for
beginners. You can even use it to create software in your programming
domain of choice.
Accredited universities such as Stanford teach Python to computer science
graduates as an introductory language. Many online courses that explore
programming basics also use Python as the default language. As you can see,
it’s very prevalent and therefore highly useful to learn. For these reasons, I
am happy that you have chosen this book to help you learn Python quickly
and intuitively.
Who Am I?
If you search the Internet, you are likely to find thousands of resources
available for learning Python. And while this is great, it can also be
overwhelming—therefore, many beginners can get frustrated because they do
not have concise instructions with a clear walkthrough.
My name is Philip Robbins, and I am determined to offer a clear pathway for
beginners to excel. I have more than twenty years of experience working in
the field of software development using Python, and I am an expert Python
programmer. My love for programming started a decade ago, when I avidly
played video games. It all started with my enthusiasm to mod a Pokémon
game that I was playing. My will to successfully change a small bit of code to
feel accomplished sparked excitement to understand programming logic and
variables at a young age. With some modding experience, I was able to
understand how programs work and spent time experimenting with different
programming languages.
Fast forward a few years, and I started creating small scripts that could
automate workflow. However, I had still not chosen a particular
programming language, and this made it challenging to be an actual software
program developer. All of the programming languages I had tried, such as C
and Pearl, were challenging to implement and almost made me quit
programming due to massive frustration many times. Fortunately, during
those turbulent times
I discovered Python in its initial stages. Python first began as a hobby project
by one developer, so its initial form was not very clean. Once it gained in
popularity, however, fellow developers began to notice the open-source
project. This spurred them to add in their own contributions as well. Thus,
they effectively modeled it into the efficient programming language it is
today.
Within a few months of learning Python basics, I began implementing my
own pre-existing code into Python. I was astounded by the code's portability
as well as its lack of clutter. Once I learned how Python worked, there was no
turning back. I began writing my software and publishing them using
different stores. Even though my main job was to create web applications, I
successfully created several other side projects in various domains with the
help of Python.
Now that I am proficient in Python, I am interested in helping people who are
struggling to learn this coding language. Even when I was first modding
games in the beginning stages, I always had a passion for quickly assisting
people in learning programming. I use layman’s terms to explain complex
topics, and this has helped many of my friends and colleagues understand
them better. My passion for programming and teaching has compelled me to
write this book in order to help beginners who are new to Python.
How Can This Book Help You?
Though Python programming looks easy to implement, in truth it is not. If
you have a thorough understanding of the several foundational topics Python
contains and how you can utilize them to solve problems, this is incredibly
helpful. As such, this book provides you with the theoretical knowledge you
need to know in order to understand the foundations and practicality of the
programming language you are trying to use.
To get the most out of this book, we recommend cognitive learning
techniques. These will enhance your experience with this material.
Use cognitive memory techniques such as Memory Palace to keenly
remember the data. However, there is a difference between simply
mugging up the required information in your brain versus formally
storing it when using f cognitive techniques.
Use mind maps to map different concepts in order to quickly
implement them in your projects. Mind maps are cognitive learning
tools that use visual excellence via a short diagram to remember large
amounts of data easily.
Use the passive recall technique to quickly review all of the topics you
have learned in this book. Passive recall can also help strengthen your
programming foundations.
Don’t just use the code given in this book. Instead, reimplement your
code using similar strategies. Using the simple copy-and-paste
technique will not help you in creating your code.
Use the Feynman technique to explain all of the basic programming
concepts you have learned in this book to someone unaware of the
subject. You have a strong knowledge of the core foundations if you
can explain concepts in simple terms.
As a programming language, Python expects you to be as innovative as
possible. Therefore, if you treat programming with Python like solving a
puzzle, then you will intuitively discover ways to trick your brain into
creating complex code logic for addressing real-world problems. This book
helps you to become as effective as possible with Python programming.
How Can You Help This Book?
Writing this book has not been easy—in fact, I feel that spending hours
debugging is easier than writing a book. I’ll be honest with you, for the first
time in my life, I have experienced writer's block. Knowing the topics is one
thing, but attempting to explain them in a logical, concise, synthetic, and
organized way is quite another.
Also, since I have preferred to avoid the services of any publishing house, I
can call myself an “independent author.” This is a personal choice. It has not
been easy, but my obsession for helping others has prevailed.
This is why it would give me immense pleasure if you could leave a positive
review on Amazon. That would mean so much to me, and would greatly help
spreading this material to others. I would suggest the following:

1. If you haven't already done, go at the end of the book and download
the pdf with the Python interview Q&As and the solutions to the
exercises. Going through the book with that list is much more fun!

2. CLICK HERE and leave a quick review on Amazon!

The best way to do it? Upload a brief video with you talking about what you
think about the book!

If this is too much for you, that’s not a problem at all! A review where you
explain what you liked of the book would still be very nice of you!

NOTE: You don’t have to feel obliged, but it would be highly appreciated!
I'm excited to start this journey with you. Are you ready to dive in?
Then let’s move on.
Happy reading!
Chapter 1: Introduction to Python
Python is a powerful programming language that is easy to learn, has a strong
foundation, and can support multiparadigm workflows. As a result, it is an
excellent starting point for beginners who want to delve into programming.
Python's popularity stems primarily from its lack of clutter and boilerplate
code.
For example, writing a simple snake game in C or C++ usually requires 300
lines of code. In contrast, with Python you can limit the number of lines of
code to less than 200. This significant difference in terms of implementation
contributed to Python becoming the most popular open-source language in
the world. Python quickly became the waypoint for the open-source
revolution, with so many enthusiastic programmers and developers writing
thousands of libraries for various computer fields.
History of Python
Guido van Rossum, who created Python, made it as a side project over the
Christmas break. Using what he learned working with the ABC programming
language, he made an interpreted programming language that is easy to
understand and use. He first used Python to impress hackers in an online
community with his knowledge of how Unix works.
But after getting feedback from his fellow programmers, he worked on it for
a few months to make it better. So, he made a programming language that
was easy and quick to understand. Guido van Rossum has been called the
"benevolent dictator" of the Python community because of what he has done
for the Python project. Open-source developers can be given this high award.
Python has always been one of the 10 most popular programming languages,
according to TIOBE rankings, ever since it came out. Python's simple way of
solving problems has helped it beat other programming languages, like Pearl,
and become one of the easier ones for beginners to learn.
Python is based on the idea that there is only one way to solve a problem,
which is different from the idea behind programming languages like Pearl,
which is that there are many ways to solve a problem. So, Python gave the
programming community the discipline it needed and made software
development grow by a factor of ten.
Look at the Python Applications below to see how important Python was to
programmers around the world.
Applications of Python
Python made its mark in many areas of science and technology today.
1. Web Domain
Python has had most of its early effect as a programming language on web
technology. While Java was the most popular thing on the web, Python
wasn't as popular. Over time, Python has become popular among web
developers thanks to third-party frameworks like Django and Tornado.
In the twenty years since then, Python has become one of the most popular
scripting languages for websites, second only to JavaScript. Python is a
programming language that is used by big companies like Google, Facebook,
and Netflix. A well-known web framework called Django can also help
programmers write backend code for a number of APIs.
Python is also popular for automating tasks, so it is often used to make bots
like Pinflux.
2. Scientific Computing
Python is popular with scientists because it is free for anyone to use. Also,
programs like Numpy and Scipy make it easier for computer scientists to do
experiments with less code. Since Python is also better at mathematical
calculations and software, Scientists have no choice but to use it these days.
3. Machine Learning and AI
AI and machine learning are now two technologies that can be used together
to give more jobs to developers. There are a lot of third-party libraries for
Python, like Tensorflow, that are all about implementing Machine Learning
algorithms.
Python is also very good at adapting to technologies like Deep Learning and
Natural Language Processing. This makes it one of the main candidates to
become a better language for making AI-related technology.
4. Linux and the Management of Databases
As businesses around the world grow, there is a big need for developers who
can manage databases and internal systems well. Develop engineers need to
know enough about different operating systems, like Linux, and they also
need to know enough about Python to automate other procedures that are
needed to test how well methods work on an internal network.
5. Penetration Testing and Hacking
Python is also used by hackers with both good and bad intentions. For
example, white-hat hackers use Python tools that are widely used to do
penetration testing. On the other hand, hackers with bad intentions use
Python scripting to make exploits that automatically steal sensitive
information from their targets.
Python's ability to be used in almost any area of computer programming has
led to the development of several other high-level programming languages,
like Go, Groovy, and Swift. Python spread the idea that programming should
be as simple as possible.
Different Versions of Python
When Python came out at the start of the 1990s, it wasn't as good as it is now.
Rossum built the library without any help from anyone else, so it had a lot of
bugs and mistakes. But because Python was so popular right away in the
programming community, hundreds of independent developers helped
Rossum make a much bigger project in the two years after the first version
came out.
Python was also able to get a lot of smart people to check and change the
code because it was open source. Because of this, the Python core
programming team has put out two main versions, Python 2 and Python 3, for
developers all over the world in the last 20 years.
In 2022, Python 2 is still used by a lot of programmers, even though Python
core developers no longer support it. Choosing which version to use depends
on what you are doing.
Python 2
Python 2 is now an old version that came out in the year 2000. Still, it has
been the most used version of Python for more than 20 years. Python 2 is
easier to use and has a lot more frameworks and libraries from outside
sources that can be used for development.
Even though Python 2.7 will no longer get official updates after 2021, it is
still the best version for many software domains. But it's hard to move all of
the frameworks and libraries from Python 2 to Python 3, so many companies
still use Python 2 as their default version.
Python 3
Python 3.9 is the most recent version of the programming language that
developers can use. Python 3 is faster and gives developers many more
classes for working with the core library. Compared to Python 2, it is also
easy to keep up with.
Which one Should I Choose?
Which version of Python you use should depend on what kind of software
you are making. For example, a lot of data scientists use Python 3, while
developers who work with legacy software use Python 2 to connect
components.
Note:
All of the Python code in this book is written in Python 3, since it makes
more sense for beginners to start with a newer version.
Why You Should Learn Python
Python started to become more popular in the early 1990s, when companies
all over the world started to use the internet's power to make complex web
applications. Traditional programming languages like C and C+ were hard to
learn and made it hard for programmers to write good code quickly. During
this time, Python helped a number of companies make libraries that worked
well with the C and C++ libraries they already had. Also, programmers
started using Python to quickly deploy code because it was easier to work
with than other high-level languages.
By learning about some of Python's many benefits, you can see how powerful
and easy it can be for developers with different backgrounds in computer
science.
It Is an Interpreted Language
Instead of using a compiler to run instructions like other programming
languages do, Python uses a new piece of software called an interpreter.
Instead of taking a lot of time to run a program with a compiler, the
interpreter uses modern computer techniques to parse the code before the
program is run. This dynamic parse time can cut down on the time you have
to wait while the program is running. Python also uses parts of natural
language to get rid of unproductive ways of coding that can slow down
production. Because of how it is set up, it is also easy to automate
programming in Python, which is why system developers and Linux
administrators like it so much.
It is Open Source
One of the first things that led to the open-source revolution was Python.
Because Python is open source, you can change any code and share it on your
own. Open-source culture also makes it easier for programmers all over the
world to share their knowledge and resources to make libraries and
frameworks that can help developers make new projects.
As a beginner, having one-click access to both complex and simple projects
can help you understand how programming works and make it easy to make
new, creative projects.
It Supports Multiple Paradigms
To write and run code, different programming languages use different
programming paradigms. Java, on the other hand, uses an object-oriented
paradigm, while C uses a functional paradigm. A programming paradigm
changes how developers work and how they try to solve a problem.
Python supports multiple paradigms, like the structured, functional, and
object-oriented paradigms. This makes it a good choice for programmers who
want to solve problems in different ways.
It Uses a Garbage Collection Mechanism
Managing memory is an important skill for application developers to have.
High-level languages such as Java and C use complex data management
techniques. Even though these mechanisms work perfectly, it takes a lot of
time to keep them in good shape. In Python, on the other hand, memory is
handled by garbage collectors. You can easily use the data and variables that
this strategy no longer uses.
It Is Easy to Understand
One of the many reasons developers like Python is that it is easy to read. All
of the code is easy to understand, which makes it easy to keep up. When
Python code is easier to read, its quality goes up, and when the quality goes
up, it takes less time to fix bugs in the code.
Portability
Python can also run on any operating system, which makes it easy for
developers to use in different ways with just a few hours of work. Users only
need to install the interpreter on their system for Python programs to work.
For instance, let's say a programmer writes a program for Linux that makes it
easy to automate SQL database management. Then, anyone who has access
to the code can place it on Windows or Mac machines by changing a few
parts of it.
It Has Great Custom Libraries
If you want a programming language to be widely used, it needs to have great
libraries. Developers can play around with a lot of these libraries in Python.
Aside from these custom libraries, programmers can also make interesting
software with the standard libraries that the Python core development team
gives them.
It Supports Component Integration
Python makes it easy for programmers to add new code to code that has
already been written. Also, its advanced integration of components makes it a
good choice for making advanced customization options for different
software applications.
Component integration keeps developers busy by adding new features to
older software so it can run on newer operating systems.
It Has a Great Community
The Python community is very helpful and can help new programmers
quickly solve any problems they run into while writing code. Aside from
Python forums, resources and well-written guides from a variety of
experienced programmers can help developers get past any problems.
Since there are a lot of open-source Python projects on GitHub, a hobbyist
programmer can just look at the code to see how complex logic is
implemented in software.
 How to Install Python
To write Python code, you must install an interpreter on your system.
Without this interpreter, no developer would be able to write or run Python
programs. Python can be put on any modern operating system because it can
be moved around. In this section, we'll talk about how to install Python on
Linux, Mac, and Windows.
How do I Install Python in Linux?
Since most programmers use Linux as their main operating system, we'll start
by installing Python on your local machine using Linux. Linux is a free
operating system that most programmers and businesses use. Because of this,
Python is already on many Linux distributions.
To see if Python is installed on your Linux system, use the CTRL+ALT+N
command to open a new command terminal.
When the new command terminal opens, type the following command into it.
Terminal Code:
$ Python3
If Python is installed on your system, the license information for the version
of Python that is installed will show up in your terminal.
If you get the output "command not found," on the other hand, it means that
Python is not installed on your system. Since Python is not installed, you can
now use the package managers for Linux to install Python for different
distros.
Before installing any software on Linux, you must first update all the tools on
Linux and make sure there are no conflict errors that could stop Python
installation.
Terminal Code:
$ sudo apt-get upgrade
You can use the code above to update package files on a Linux system that is
based on Debian.
Use the following Pacman command to upgrade packages on an Arch-based
system.
Terminal Code:
$ sudo pacman -S
After upgrading the packages, you can use the commands below to install
 Python on your Linux system.
Terminal code for Debian systems:
$ sudo apt-get install Python3
Terminal code for Arch systems:
$ pacman -u Python3
Look at the official Python documentation to install in other Linux
distributions like Gentoo and kali.
How do I Install Python on macOS?
macOS is the operating system that Apple makes by default. Python 2 is
often installed as native software because it is built with UNIX support.
Make sure you open a new terminal from Settings > Utilities > Terminal to
see if macOS is installed on your Apple-supported hardware.
Enter the following command once a new terminal has been opened.
Terminal Code:
$ python3
If you don't see a Python version message, it means that Python is not
installed on your system. To install Python from scratch, use homebrew.
Terminal Code:
$ brew install Python3
How do I Install Python on Windows?
Windows is the most used operating system in the world, based on the
number of people who use it. Many people and programmers use Windows
because it is easy to use, and there are many ways for Python programmers to
quickly get their code into Windows.
To install Python on your Windows system, you must first download an
executable package from the official Python website. Once the package is
downloaded, you can install the software by double-clicking on it. For Python
code development to work on some Windows systems, you may need to
change the environment variables in the Control panel.
Once everything is set up as needed, open a command prompt window to see
if the Python interpreter is correctly installed.
Command Prompt Code:
>> Python —version
If the command tells you what version of Python is installed, then Python is
set up correctly on your system. If not, you might have to copy and paste the
error into Google or use Python forums to figure out what's wrong.
Chapter 2: PyCharm and IDLE
Once you've installed Python, you'll need a development environment on
your system to write programs. Even though you can work with the basic
IDLE that comes with a basic Python installation, developers are encouraged
to use IDEs like PyCharm for better software development workflow. IDEs
make developers more productive and make it easier for them to find bugs in
code that has already been turned into software.
Why Is Python Interpreter Good?
The Python interpreter is great because it is flexible and has more features
than traditional compilers. For example, compared to compilers, a Python
interpreter makes you wait less. Compilers run the code after it has been
written and checked for mistakes. The interpreter, on the other hand, checks
the code as it is being written and lets the programmer know if there is a
problem before the code is run. Real-time error reporting is a good way for
beginners to learn how to code while they are doing it.
When you install Python on your computer, it also installs IDLE, which
stands for "Integrated development and learning environment." To start
IDLE, you can type "Python" into your favorite terminal interface. The REPL
mechanism is used by IDLE to show output on the computer screen. REPL is
a basic method that Python interpreters use to check the lines that have been
written and parse them so that they can be shown on the screen. This is done
based on the input and output that is given.
Python IDLE can be a great tool for people who are just starting to learn how
to code. Even though most enterprise software development is done on
integrated development environments (IDEs) like PyCharm, learning some
basic commands for Python IDLE can help you understand how Python
interpretation works.
 How to Use the Python IDLE Shell?
Once Python is installed, open a terminal or command prompt and type the
following command to start the IDLE.
Command:
$ python
As shown below, when you press Enter or Return, a new shell will open.
>>>
You can test how Python IDLE works on your system by using some of the
basic math or Print commands.
Program Code:
>>> print ("This is a sample to check that the IDLE works")
Output:
This is a sample to check that the IDLE works
When the Enter button is pressed, the program goes into REPL mode, and the
text between the double quotes is shown on the computer screen. This is
because IDLE knew that the shell window used the print() method to show
strings.
You can also use math operations to test the IDLE workflow.
Program Code:
>>> 8 + 3
Output:

Exercise:
Use the IDLE window to check the results of other math operations, like
multiplication and division.
Note:
It's important to remember that as soon as you close the terminal window, all
of your code will be lost. So, even if we use an IDLE, we need to make sure
that all of our code is put into a Python file.
 How to Use IDLE to Open Python Files?
IDLE makes it simple to open and read Python files with a.py extension on
the terminal. Keep in mind that this command will only function if you are in
the same directory as the Python file.
Program Code:
$ python mysample.py
The prior command will open the previously written code for the
programmers to read.
IDLE can automatically highlight unique syntax components.
IDLE assists developers in completing code by providing hints.
IDLE has the ability to easily indent code.
To use any Python files on your IDLE shell, use the GUI file option and click
the 'Open' button. However, advanced programmers advise using the path to
open Python files if you are not in the same directory.
How to Change These Files?
Once the files are open in IDLE, you can begin editing the code in the file
with your keyboard. Because IDLE provides line numbers, developers can
easily manipulate any non-indented code. Once the file has been edited, press
the F5 key to run it on your terminal code.
If there are no errors, the output will be displayed; otherwise, the traceback
errors will be displayed.
While not as efficient as other advanced IDEs on the market, Python IDLE
serves as an excellent debugging tool. It has several debugging features,
including the ability to place endpoints, catch exceptions, and parse code to
quickly debug the code. However, it is not ideal and may cause issues if your
Project library grows.
Regardless of how little it offers, IDLE is possibly the best developer tool for
complete beginners.
Exercise:
Develop a new program in Python IDLE to add two numbers and debug it
with breakpoints. If you are unfamiliar with any programming components,
you are free to use any Internet resources to solve this simple problem.
IDE (Integrated Development Environment)
Python IDLE is frequently not recommended for real-world application
development due to its inability to handle highly demanding projects.
Developers are instead asked to manage and develop their code in specialized
development environments known as IDEs. Furthermore, IDEs provide
programmers with tight integration capabilities with various libraries.
IDE characteristics
1. Simple Integration Into Libraries & Frameworks
One of the important features of IDEs is that they make it simple to integrate
libraries and frameworks into software applications. IDLE requires you to
assign them individually each time you use them, whereas IDEs do the hard
work for you by autocompleting various import statements. Many IDEs also
support direct git repository integration.
2. Integration of Object Oriented Design
Many Python programmers who create applications employ an object-
oriented paradigm. Unfortunately, Python IDLE does not include any tools to
help developers create applications while adhering to object-oriented
principles. All modern IDEs include components such as class hierarchy
diagrams to help developers get their projects started with better
programming logic.
3. Syntax Highlighting
Syntax highlighting assists programmers in increasing productivity and
avoiding simple, obvious errors. For example, you cannot use reserved
keywords like 'if' to name variables. The IDE automatically detects this error
and assists developers in understanding it through syntax highlighting.
4. Code Completion
All modern IDEs use advanced artificial intelligence and machine learning
techniques to complete code for developers automatically. The IDEs gather a
lot of information from the packages you use, so they can suggest different
variables or methods based on your input and the logic you're writing. Even
though auto-completion is a useful feature, you should never rely entirely on
it because it can occasionally disrupt program execution and cause errors.
5. Version Control
Version control is a major source of frustration for developers. For example,
if you use private libraries and frameworks in your application, they may
occasionally be updated, causing your application to fail. As a developer, you
must be aware of these changes and implement new code execution for all
applications to function properly. The version control mechanism enables
developers to easily update their core application without causing any
disruptions to previously written code. IDEs support direct version control
with websites like GitHub.
IDEs can also provide advanced debugging features for developers in
addition to these features. For example, the most popular Python IDEs for
independent developers and organizations are PyCharm and Eclipse. We will
use PyCharm as our default IDE in this book because it is much more
efficient than Eclipse and much easier to set up.
PyCharm
PyCharm is a Python-only IDE produced by JetBrains, a pioneer in software
tool development. Initially, the JetBrains team created PyCharm to manage
their IDEs for other programming languages. However, due to its portability,
the JetBrains team later released it as a standalone product for users
worldwide. PyCharm is available for all major operating systems and comes
in two flavors: community and professional.
1. The community version is open-source, free software that anyone can
use to write Python code. It does, however, have some limitations,
particularly in terms of version control and third-party library
integration.
2. The professional version is a paid IDE that offers advanced
functionality and numerous integration options to developers. For
example, using the professional version of PyCharm IDE, developers
can easily create web or data science applications.
What Features Does PyCharm Provide?
PyCharm is well-known for its unique features for enthusiastic Python
developers, as well as its high-quality integration capabilities.
1. Code Editor
PyCharm's code editor is among the best in the industry. When working with
new projects in this editor, you will be astounded by the code completion
abilities. Furthermore, JetBrains has used several advanced machine learning
models to make the IDE intelligent enough to understand even the most
complex programming blocks and provide user suggestions.
While working as a developer, the PyCharm editor can also be customized
for a better viewing experience. Light and dark themes are available to users,
allowing you to change the theme based on your mood.
2. Code Navigation
PyCharm's complex and comprehensive file organization system makes it
simple for programmers to manage files. Bookmarks and lens mode, for
example, can assist Python programmers in effectively managing their
essential programming blocks and code logic.
3. Refactoring
PyCharm includes advanced refactoring features that allow developers to
easily change the names of files, classes, and methods without breaking the
program. When you use IDLE to refactor your code, it immediately breaks
the code because the default Python IDLE is not intelligent enough to
distinguish between new and old names.
When it comes to updating their code or migrating to a much better third-
party library for one of their software components, most Python developers
use Advanced refactoring capabilities.
4. Web Technology Integration
The majority of Python developers work in the web domain, which accounts
for a sizable portion of the software industry. PyCharm simplifies the
integration of developers' software with Python web frameworks such as
Django. PyCharm is also intelligent enough to understand HTML, CSS, and
JavaScript code, which are commonly used by web developers to create web
services.
All of these features make it simple for Python web developers to integrate
existing web code into a Python framework.
5. Integration With Scientific Libraries
PyCharm is also well-known for its strong support for scientific and
advanced mathematical libraries like SciPy and NumPy. While it will never
completely replace your data integration and cleaning setup, it will assist you
in developing a basic pseudo logic for all of your data science projects.
6. Software Testing
PyCharm can execute high-level unit testing strategies for even the most
complex and large projects with numerous members. It also includes
advanced debugging tools and remote configuration capabilities for using the
Alpha and beta testing workflows.
How to Use PyCharm?
With enough information about PyCharm, you should be convinced that it is
a necessary development tool for your local system. This section contains the
information you need to install PyCharm and understand how to use it to
better manage your Python projects.
Step—1: Install PyCharm
PyCharm can be installed on almost any operating system. To begin, obtain
the installation package from the official website or one of the numerous
package managers.
Navigate to the JetBrains official website and click the downloads tab in the
upper right corner. Now, depending on your operating system, download the
executable or dmg file and double-click it to follow the instructions on the
screen.
To download a professional version of the software, you must first provide
payment information in order to download a trial version. When the trial
period expires, you will be charged and will be able to use the professional
version without issue.
Note:
In order for the PyCharm IDE to install successfully on your system, Python
must be installed. This is because it detects the Python path and installs the
software's core libraries automatically.
Step—2: Create New Projects
After installing the software, launch the PyCharm IDE from your applications
or from the Desktop icon. When you open PyCharm, a new popup will
appear, allowing you to start a new project from scratch. You can open a new
project using the button in the upper left corner of the software interface
""File" is an option. Other options include importing and exporting existing
projects or quickly saving current working projects.
When you first open a Python project, you will be prompted to choose which
Python interpreter you want to use for all programming procedures. If you
don't know where to look for the Python interpreter, choose 'virtualenv,'
which will automatically search the system and find one for you.
Step—3: Using PyCharm to Organize
Creating new folders and resources for your Program files is essential once
you begin creating projects with PyCharm.
To create a new folder on your project interface, simply select the new -->
folder option. You can include any Python scripts or assets used in your
software in this section.
When you create a new file in a separate folder, a file with the.py extension is
created. As a result, if you want to create different class files or templates,
you must do so explicitly while creating a file in your folder.
Step—4: Advanced Features in PyCharm
Once the code is written and integrated, you can use the built-in IDLE
interface or the PyCharm unique output interface to run it quickly.
All code you write will be automatically saved in real-time, so you won't
have to worry about losing any critical project data due to a bad network
connection or power outage. To save a copy of a project on your local
system, simply press Ctrl S or Cmd S.
When the program is finished, press Shift + F10 to run and compile the code
with the help of an interpreter.
Using the Ctrl F or Cmd F commands, you can search for any method,
variable, or snippet in your project. Simply use this shortcut and enter the
information you're looking for.
Once the Python code has been imported and deployed to the required
operating systems, you must begin setting up a debugging project
environment in order to constantly clear bugs on your system. To place
breakpoints and solve logical problems without messing up the entire code
logic or breaking the core program, press Shift + F9.
 Python Style Guide
Python programming grew in popularity among programmers due to the
programming philosophy it supported and continues to support. Python
aimed to be simple, whereas other high-level programming languages aimed
to be more complex. Pearl is a great example of how this philosophy was
applied and how it complicated many things for an average programmer.
Python core developers encouraged early Python adopters to adhere to a
simple set of well-known principles known as ""The Zen of Python" to write
code that both works and looks good. Even after twenty years, these
principles are still relevant for Python programmers, and every Python
programmer should be aware of them.
Enter the Python code below on the terminal to read all of these principles.
Terminal Code:
$ import this
We will go over some fundamental principles in order to better understand
the philosophy that Python promotes to developers.
● Beautiful Is Better Than Ugly.
All Python programmers are encouraged to write semantically symmetrical
code that is also visually appealing. Beautiful code must be well-structured;
thus, programmers must write conditionals without complicating the code.
Many lines of code can be made more visually appealing by employing
indentation techniques. Beautifying code improves readability and can help
to reduce runtime.
● Explicit Is Better Than Implicit.
For whatever reason, many developers try to conceal their programming
logic, making it difficult for other programmers to understand. Python
opposes this routine and encourages developers to write explicit code logic
that is understandable by all. This is also one of the reasons why open-source
Python frameworks and libraries are more popular.
● Simple Is Better Than Complex.
Your primary goal as a Python programmer should be to write simple code.
Simplifying your code logic can help you improve your programming
language skills. Your ability to write less complex code improves as you gain
experience.
● Complex Is Better Than Complicated.
As with any software, there are times when you need to write complex code
that solves multiple problems at once. When working on complex code, avoid
making it too complicated. Using exceptions and files effectively can assist
you in quickly reducing complicated code that may later turn into annoying
bugs.
● There Should Be Only One Approach.
Unlike its predecessor languages, C and C++, Python advocates for
consistency. As a Python programmer, you only need to use one logic for all
of the instances in your program. Uniformity provides flexibility and makes it
easier to maintain the code.
Chapter 3: Python Foundations
Python programmers must ensure that input is provided directly from the user
and output is provided based on the inputs in order to have dynamic
applications. The Python interpreter and all functions in your program can
access the user's input values.
We will provide a few example programs in this chapter to help you
understand how to improve the user experience of the software you have
created based on input and output operations.
Why Are Input Values Required?
Application survival is dependent on input values. Everything runs on the
user's input values, from web applications to the most recent metaverse
applications. When you log in to Facebook, for example, you must enter your
email address and password. These are inputs, and your account will be
authenticated only if the information provided is correct.
Face data points are used as input in advanced applications such as facial
recognition technology. Nowadays, every real-world application requests and
collects user input data in order to provide a better user experience.
Use Cases:
Assume you created a Python application for a mature audience that cannot
be used by anyone under the age of 18.
For the above scenario, we can use conditional input verification by asking
the user to enter their age. If the user is over the age of 18, the application
will become available to him or her. However, if the user is under the age of
18, the application will be inaccessible. Python evaluates whether or not
someone can access your software based on inputs from all supported data
types. This is just one example from the real world. There are numerous
applications that can be performed by utilizing input from your end users.
 Understanding the input() Function
When you call the input() function in the middle of a Python program, the
interpreter will pause and wait for the user to enter the values using one of
their input devices, such as a keyboard, mouse, or mobile touchscreen.
Typically, the user will provide input in response to the prompt. To create
real-world applications, you must first create a good prompt GUI. This
chapter will look at the text command prompts available to developers.
After entering the values, the user must press the "Enter" button on their
system in order for the interpreter to resume and parse the logical
programming statements used.
Example:
sample = input ("Which country are you from? ”)
print (sample + " is a beautiful country!")
When the above program is run and executed, the user will first see an output
prompt, as shown below.
Output:
Which country are you from? United States of America
United States of America is a beautiful country!
You can experiment by changing the input above to another country to see
what happens.
Output:
Which country are you from? France
France is a beautiful country!
How To Write User Prompts?
It is recommended to use better prompts to get the user's attention when using
the input() function and attempting to receive inputs from the user.
Remember not to include any extraneous information in the text. Make the
prompt as straightforward as possible.
Prompt Code:
example = input("Which is your favorite hockey team? ”)
print ("So you are a " + example + " fan. Hurray!")
Output:
Which is your favorite football team? Boston Bruins
So you are a Boston Bruins fan. Hurray!
You can also use the input() function to prompt the user by displaying
 multiple lines of strings.
Program Code:
prompt = "This is a simple question to find out what you like."
prompt += "\n So, please say your favorite food: "
example = input(prompt)
print (example + " is delicious")
Output:
This is a simple question to find out what you like.
So, please say your favorite food: Pasta
Pasta is delicious
We use the print() function to display text on the screen from the beginning
of the book. The only recommended method for printing to a computer screen
is print().
Any input you pass to the print() function will be converted to a string literal
and displayed on the screen. While you are not required to be aware of the
print() function's arguments, learning some parameters that can help you
format your code is recommended.
What are String Literals?
String literals are advanced characters that can assist you in quickly
formatting your data. For example, \n is a common string literal that can
assist you in entering data from a new line.
Other popular string literals that can help you output data with a new tab or
without whitespaces and separators are \t, \b, and \d.
What is an End Statement?
The print() function also accepts an end argument, which can be used to
append any string data to the end of your string literals, as shown below.
Program Code:
print("Italy is a beautiful country. ", end = "Do you agree? ")
print("Yes, I do!")
Output:
Italy is a beautiful country. Do you agree? Yes, I do!
In the above example, “Do you agree?” is the appended text
 Comments in Python
When programming teams work on complex and time-consuming projects, a
lot of information must be exchanged between team members in order for the
project's essence to be understood. Comments allow programmers to pass
information without disrupting the program's flow.
When a programmer uses comments, the Python interpreter ignores the
comments and moves on to the next line. However, because Python has a
large number of open-source projects, comments assist developers in
understanding how to integrate third-party libraries and frameworks into their
code.
Comments make the code more readable and easier to understand. While it
may appear that some programmers do not need to remember the code logic
they have written, you would be surprised at how often programmers forget
the code logic they have written. Having specific insights into how you wrote
the code logic will be very useful for future reference.
Python allows programmers to use two types of comments in their code.
1. Comments on a Single Line
Single-line comments are the most commonly used type of comment by
Python programmers because they can be easily written between lines of
code. To use single-line comments, use the '#' symbol. Anything that comes
after this symbol will be ignored by the interpreter.
Program Code:
# This is an example of a single-line comment followed by a print of a hash
symbol
print ("This is an example.")
Output:
This is an example.
Because a single-line comment was used, the interpreter ignored it and only
executed the print statement.
Why Are Single-Line Comments Important?
Single-line comments are commonly used in the middle of code to assist
other programmers in understanding how the program logic works and to
detail the functions of the implemented variables.
2. Comments in Multiple Lines
While it is possible to write three or four lines of continuous comments using
 single-line comments, it is not recommended because Python provides a
better way to annotate multi-line comments. Python programmers can use
string literals to create multi-line comments, as shown below.
Program Code:

This is a comment
In Python
with 4 lines
Author: Python Best '''
print ("This is an example.")
Output:
This is an example.
When you run the above program, only the print statement is executed, just
like single-line comments.
Why Are Multiline Comments Important?
Multiline comments are frequently used by programmers to define license
details or to explain comprehensive information about various packages and
methods with various implementation examples. The code can be effectively
understood by the programmers who are reading it.
Reserved Keywords
Reserved keywords are programming language default keywords that
programmers cannot use as identifiers while writing code. Identifiers are
commonly used to name variables, classes, and functions.
The interpreter will throw an error if you use a reserved keyword in your
program. For example, using 'for' for one of your variables will not work
because 'for' is typically used in Python programming to define a specific
type of loop structure.
There are 33 reserved keywords that you are not permitted to use in your
programs. As a Python programmer, it is critical to avoid making
unnecessary mistakes when working on complex projects.
Exercise:
Using the Python terminal, try to find the reserved keywords in Python to
become familiar with the Python commands we discussed previously.
Operators are commonly used by computer programmers to combine literal
and form statements or expressions.
Example:
2x + 3z = 34
Here, 2x, 3z, and 34 are literals, and + and = are operators that are applied to
these literals to form an expression.
 Operators in Python
In mathematics, operators are first used to form mathematical expressions.
The first programmers used these operators and the basic programming
components to easily assign and manipulate values. Operators can be
combined with any number of literal values to form complex expressions that
can aid programmers in the implementation of difficult algorithms.
Example:
a = 18
b = 20
print(a + b)
Output:

a and b are the operands, whereas = and + are operators that are used.
Different Types of Operators
Different types of operators can be used by programmers to implement
various types of programming logic. The most commonly used operators are
arithmetic operators, which assist programmers in applying mathematical
logic to various literals, such as variables, in their code.
The arithmetic operators that a Python programmer needs to know to write
better programming structures are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division.
1. Addition
To add two literals to a program, use the addition operator. These literals can
be variables or lists, and they can sometimes be data of two different data
types. The Python interpreter is smart enough to recognize two different data
types and return a result to the programmer. The addition operation is
represented by the symbol '+'.
Program Code:
x = 26
y = 15
z=x+y
# + is the addition operator
print(z)
When the program runs using an IDE or IDLE, the interpreter will add the
 two variable values and assign them into the variable z, as specified by the
developer.
Output:

2. Subtraction Operator
The subtraction operator is used to subtract two literals. These literals can be
variables or lists, and they can sometimes be data of two different data types.
- is the symbol for the subtraction operation.
Program Code:
x = 26
y = 15
z=x-y
# - is the subtraction operator
print(z)
When the program is executed using an IDE or IDLE, the interpreter will find
the difference between the two variable values and input it into z as specified
by the developer.
Output:

3. Multiplication Operator
The multiplication operator computes the product of two literals. These
literals can be variables or lists, and they can sometimes be data of two
different data types. The symbol * represents a multiplication operation.
Program Code:
x=6
y=4
z=x*y
# * is the multiplication operator
print(z)
When the program runs in an IDE or IDLE, the interpreter will find the
product of the two variable values and enter it into the z variable as specified
by the developer.
Output:

4. Division Operator
In a program, the division operator is used to find the division quotient of two
 literals. The quotient can also be calculated using floating-point numbers, and
the division symbol "/" is used.
Program Code:
x=8
y=4
z=x/y
# / is the division operator
print(z)
When the program runs in an IDE or IDLE, the interpreter will find the
quotient of the two variable values and enter it into the z variable as specified
by the developer.
Output:
2.0
5. Modulus
Modulus is typically used to calculate the remainder of a division operation.
The modulus operator can be used to implement a wide range of
programming logic, and% is the modulus operation symbol.
Program Code:
x=9
y=4
z=x%y
# % is the modulus operator
print(z)
When the program is executed using an IDE or IDLE, the interpreter will find
the remainder of the two variable values and input them into z as specified by
the developer.
Output:

The quotient in this case is 2.25, but the remainder is 1, as shown in the
program output. You can use floor division operations instead of displaying
floating-point numbers as a quotient for division operations.
6. Floor Division
Floor division is an alternative arithmetic operator that developers frequently
use when they are not concerned with the precision of the result. The nearest
integer for the quotient obtained after a division operation is usually
displayed by this operator.
"//" is the symbol for a floor division operator.
 Program Code:
x=9
y=4
z = x // y
# This is the floor division operator
print (z)
Output:

The above program has a Quotient of 2.25. However, because we are using
the floor division operator, the program has returned the nearest integer.
7. Bitwise Operators
Bitwise operators are advanced operators that developers frequently use to
perform special features such as compression, encryption, and error
detection.
Bitwise operators of various types are used in all high-level programming
languages.
1. AND (&)
2. OR (|)
3. XOR (^)
4. NOT (~)
All these bitwise operators follow the same principles as logical operators in
mathematics.
Operator Precedence
Because there are different operators and mathematical expressions are
formed by combining them, dealing with advanced mathematical expressions
to create real-world applications can quickly become complex. Operator
precedence provides programmers with clear objectives for prioritizing which
operators perform a mathematical operation.
If a developer fails to follow operator precedence rules, the values may
change completely, resulting in application crashes.
Operator Precedence Rules in Python:
● In any mathematical expression you deal with in Python, precedence
takes precedence. As a result, if operators are enclosed by parenthesis,
the interpreter will address them first and then move on to the others.
● Bitwise operators are usually given second precedence.
● The mathematical operators used for multiplication and division are
given the highest priority. The operators that must be preferred in the
same order are *, /, %, and //.
● The remaining arithmetic operations, such as addition and subtraction,
take precedence. These operators are represented by the symbols + and
-.
● Comparison and logical operators have final operator precedence.
Exercises
1. Create a program that asks the user for two numbers and performs
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division operations using
these numbers. Print the results of each operation.

2. Create a program that asks the user for two numbers and checks if the
first number is equal to, greater than, or less than the second number.
Print the results of each comparison.

3. Create a program that asks the user for three numbers and checks if all
of them are positive, or at least one of them is negative. Print the result
of the logical operation.

4. Create a program that asks the user fort three numbers and check for
each number if it divisible by 3, 4, or 7. Print the result each time.

5. Write a program that asks the user to input two numbers and then
performs both a modulus and floor division operation on those
numbers. Print the results of both operations to the screen.
Chapter 4: Python Variables
To function properly, Python programs require basic components like
variables and operators. These elements, including variables and operators,
are simple for novice programmers to comprehend and apply, allowing them
to develop algorithms necessary for creating sophisticated software.
 What are Variables in Python?
Variables are a way to store and handle data in a Python program. They allow
both users and the software to interact with the data. Without data, software
applications are useless and serve no purpose for end-users.
Variables are used in Python to store data in a specific computer memory
location, allowing the software to upload or download data. The concept of
variables was first used in Algebra, and have been a fundamental part of
high-level programming languages since their inception.
For example, in the mathematical equation 2x + 3y, the variables x and y can
be assigned values, which can then be used to change the output of the
equation. In programming, variables with unchanging values are referred to
as constants. To understand how variables work in Python, it's important to
understand the execution of Python programs, which can be demonstrated
through a print statement.
In the same way, by using variables, you can modify the output of a program
by supplying literal values. Variables are replaceable, while values that
shouldn't be replaced are often referred to as constants in programming.
To grasp how variables function, one needs to comprehend the execution
process of Python programs. A print statement will help illustrate this.
Example:
Program Code:
print("This is a sentence.")
Output:
This is a sentence.
The code instantly displays the output once the print statement is executed.
But there is much more happening behind the scenes.
What happens?
The program reads each line and matches with libraries it has access to.
An interpreter performs this matching process, using high parsing
abilities to identify each character in the program, match variable
details, and retrieve information from memory locations to validate the
program's logic.
Despite complex parsing, the program will raise errors if the interpreter
cannot find defined methods or variables.
In the above example, the interpreter recognizes the print statement as
 a core library method in Python and outputs any string literals in
parenthesis.
If you understand the explanation, it is now time to learn about variables in
Python.
Program Code:
program = " This is a sentence."
print (program)
Output:
This is a sentence.
What Happened?
At the onset of the program execution, the interpreter will typically
parse every line of code given by the programmer.
Instead of just encountering a print statement followed by text, the
interpreter now sees a special identifier referred to as a variable named
'program.' The interpreter checks prior code and discovers that the
variable is defined with text and saved at a specific memory location.
Subsequently, the interpreter will display the variable on the screen as
directed by the programmer by retrieving the information defined
within the variable.
This is the fundamental process by which variables work, even in
complicated code logic.
Variables can change instantly when they are substituted. It is important for a
Python programmer to be aware of this because dynamic programs frequently
alter variables according to user inputs and replace them even as the program
operates in real-time.
Program Code:
sample = "My first example"
print(sample)
sample = "My second example"
print(sample)
Output:
My first example
My second example
Since we know that the Python interpreter parses the code line by line
sequentially, the first statement in the previous example is printed with the
first variable value provided, and the second print statement is printed with
the second variable value provided.
How to Name Variables
When creating variables, all Python programmers must follow the Python
community's default guidelines. Failure to follow these conditions will result
in difficult-to-ignore errors or, in rare cases, application crash. Using a
specific guideline when developing programs can also help to improve
readability.
Rules for keep in mind:
● Python guidelines specify that variable names can only contain
numbers, alphabetical characters, and an underscore. So, for example,
'sample1' can be used as a variable name, whereas '$sample1' cannot
because it begins with the unsupported symbol $.
● Python programmers can't begin a variable name with a number. For
example, 'sample1' is a valid variable naming format, whereas
'1sample' is not.
● Python programmers can't use reserved words assigned to various
Python programming routines. Currently, developers cannot use 33
reserved keywords as identifiers when developing real-world Python
applications. For example, the keyword 'for' is reserved.
● While this is not a hard and fast rule, it is always preferable to use a
simple variable naming method for improved readability. Using
complex or confusing variable names can make your code appear
sloppy. While this is a good practice for other high-level languages
such as C, C++, and Pearl, Python does not support it.
 How to Define Variables
All variables defined in the Python programming language begin with the
assignment operator (=) to assign a value to the variable.
Syntax Format:
Name_of_the_variable = Value_of_the_variable
Example:
example = 123
# This is a variable with an integer data type
example1 = "USA"
# This is a variable with a string data type
In this case, "example" is the name of the variable we created, and 343 is the
variable value we assigned to it when it was created.
Consider the variable-defining method above, where we did not explicitly
mention any variable data type because Python is intelligent enough to
understand variable data types on its own.
 How to Determine the Memory Address of a
Variable
All variables are kept in a separate memory location. The Python interpreter
will pull the information from this memory location whenever you call the
variable name. When you ask the Python interpreter to replace a variable, it
will simply take the previously placed variable value and replace it with the
new variable value. The old variable value will be deleted or saved for future
use cases using a garbage mechanism.
Pointers are commonly used in programming languages such as C to quickly
determine and pull information about a variable's memory location. Python,
on the other hand, does not support pointers because it is often difficult to
implement and requires many compilation skills that the interpreter is usually
unaware of. Instead, Python developers can use the built-in id() function to
quickly obtain the variable's memory address.
Program Code:
# First, let's create a variable with an integer data type
sample = 32
# Now let's call its memory address using the built-in function id()
address = id(sample)
print(address)
Output:
1x10744488x
In this case, 1x10744488x is the variable's hexadecimal memory location.
Using the method below, you can now replace the variable and see if the id()
has changed.
Program Code:
# Let's assign a value to the variable 'sample' and print its address
sample = 64
print(id(sample))
# Now we replace the variable value with a new one
sample = 78
# This will again print the output of the memory location address
print(id(sample))
Output:
1x10744488x
1x10744488x
Although the memory location did not change, a small print verification
(print(sample)) is sufficient to see that the variable value has changed.
 Local and Global Variables
Variables can be both local and global, depending on your programming
logic. Local variables, in theory, can only be used in the methods or classes
that you specify. Global variables, on the other hand, can be used in any part
of the program without issue. When you call a local variable outside of a
function, the Python interpreter will usually throw an error.
Program Code:
# This is an example of a local variable within a function
def mysample():
x = "This is a sentence"
print(x)
mysample()
Output:
This is a sentence
In this example, the variable is defined as a local variable within a function.
As a result, whenever you call it from within a function, it will throw a
traceback error, as shown below.
Program Code:
# This is an example of function with a local variable
def sample():
x = "This is a sentence"
print(x)

# This is another function

def secondsample():
print(example)

sample()
secondsample()
Output:
This is a sentence
NameError: name 'x' is not defined
Global variables, on the other hand, can be used to initiate variables for the
entire program.
Program Code:
# Let's create a global variable
x = "This is a sentence"

# Let's initialize two methods

def method1():
print(x)

def method2():
print(x)

# Let's call them

method1()
method2()
Output:
This is a sentence
This is a sentence
Since both functions can access global variables, two print statements are
displayed on the computer screen.
It is entirely up to you to decide which type of variables to use. Many
programmers rely heavily on local variables to make their applications run
faster. Global variables, on the other hand, can be used if you don't want to be
overwhelmed with memory management.
Chapter 5: Data Types in Python
Python programmers use a wide range of data types to build cross-platform
applications. As a result, a Python programmer must understand the
significance of data types in software development.
 What exactly are Data Types?
To be more specific, data types are a set of predefined values that
programmers use when creating variables. It is also important to remember
that because Python is not a statically typed language, it is not necessary to
explicitly define variable data types. All statically typed languages, such as C
and C++, typically require programmers to define variable data types.
While Python programmers are not required to define them in order to create
programs, understanding the various available data types is still necessary for
developing complex programs that can interact with users efficiently.
Here's an example of a statically typed language and how variables are
defined.
Program Code:
int years = 12;
In this case, int is the defined data type, years is the variable's name, and 12 is
the value supplied to be stored in the age variable.
Python, on the other hand, defines a variable without explicitly defining the
variable type, as illustrated below.
Program Code:
years = 12
years and value are provided here. However, the data type is not defined
because the Python interpreter understands that the value provided is an
integer.
 Different Data Types
Before we get into the various data types that Python supports, let's talk about
the basic programming fragments that developers use to create logical
statements while programming.
Let's see a simple expression and statement. To make logical statements in a
programming language, three main components are used.
1. Data identifiers
To store data, programming components such as variables, lists, and tuples
are created.
For example:
a = 24
x is a variable in this programming fragment that was created to store
sequential data.
2. Literals
These are the values assigned to any data fragments created by a program.
For Example:
a = 24
In this programming fragment, 24 is the literal assigned to the newly created
data fragment.
3. Operators
Operators implement mathematical operations while developing code for
real-world applications.
For Example:
a = 24
The assignment operator = is used in the preceding code. Other arithmetic
operators, such as +, -, *, and /, are well-known for producing logical Python
code.
We'll go over some of the most common data types used by Python
programmers in their applications.
 Strings
Strings are data types that are commonly used to represent a large amount of
text. String data types, for example, can be used to represent text in a
program by linking them with single quotes. When a string data type is
created, an'str' object with a sequence of characters is created.
Text messages are the most common way for humans to communicate with
one another. As a result, strings are the most important data types for
developers to understand in order to create meaningful software. It is also
critical to represent data in strings because computers only understand binary
data. As a result, using ASCII and Unicode encoding mechanisms is critical.
Python 3 introduced an advanced encoding mechanism for understanding
foreign languages such as Chinese, Japanese, and Korean, making Strings
indispensable for software development.
In what way are strings represented?
z = 'This is my sentence'
print (z)
Output:
This is my sentence
Everything between the single quotation marks is a string data type. The
variable 'x' is used to define this string data. The number of bits a variable
occupies usually determines its memory location and size when it has a string
data type. A string data type's number of characters is directly proportional to
its bit count.
In the preceding example, 'This is an example' has 18 characters, including
whitespaces.
As a Python programmer, you have several other options for defining strings.
When working on real-world projects, use a single type whenever possible
for consistency.
Program Code:
# Double quotes to define strings
a = "This is my sentence"
print(a)

# Three single quotes to define strings

b = '''This is my sentence'''
print(b)

# Three double quotes to define strings

c = """This is my sentence
but with more than one line """
print(c)
Output:
This is my sentence
This is my sentence
This is my sentence
but with more than one line
In the previous example, we defined three methods for defining strings.
Special characters, symbols, and new tab lines can also be used between
quotes. Python also supports escape sequences, which are used by all
programming languages. For example, n is a popular escape sequence used
by programmers to create new lines.
How Do I Access Characters in Strings?
Because strings are the most commonly used data types in Python, the core
library includes several built-in functions for interacting with string data. To
access characters in a string, you must first know the index numbers. Index
numbers typically begin with 0 rather than 1. Negative indexing and slicing
operations can also be used to access a portion of a string.
Example:
# We first create a string to access its characters
s = 'PYTHON'

# We print the whole string

print ('Whole string =', s)

# We print the first character

print ('1st character =', s[0])

# We print the last character using negative indexing

print ('Last character =', s[-1])
# We print the last character using positive indexing
print ('Again, Last character =', s[5])

# We print the first 2 characters (index 0 to 1)

print ('Sliced character =', s[0:2])
Output:
Whole string = PYTHON
1st character = P
Last character = N
Again, Last character = N
Sliced character = PY
Because all string data types are immutable, it is impossible to replace
characters in a literal string. As a result, attempting to replace string
characters will result in a Type error.
Program Code:
s = 'PYTHON'
s[1] = 'c'
print(s)
Output:
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment
 String Formatting
With the modulus (%) operator, Python makes it simple to format your string.
It is known as string formatting operator.
Program Code:
print ("Today I have eaten %d apples" %3)
Output:
Today I have eaten 4 apples
You can use %d to format integers. You can also use %s to format your text.
 String Manipulation Techniques
Because strings are the most commonly used data type, the Python core
library provides several manipulation techniques for programmers to use.
Understanding string manipulation techniques will help you in quickly
extracting data from a large pool of data. These techniques are more widely
known among data scientists.
1. Concatenate
Concatenation is the joining of two distinct entities. Using the arithmetic
operator '+,' two strings can be joined together using this procedure. If you
want to improve string readability, simply use whitespaces between the two
strings.
Program Code:
example = 'Today is' + 'a wonderful day'
print (example)
Output:
Today isa wonderful day
Remember that whitespaces are not allowed when concatenating. While
concatenating, you must add whitespaces on your own, as shown below.
Program Code:
example = 'Today is' + ' ' + 'a wonderful day'
print (example)
Output:
Today is a wonderful day
2. Multiply
When you use the String multiply technique, your string value is
continuously repeated. The * operator can be used to multiply string content.
Program Code:
example = 'Yes '* 4
print(example)
Output:
Yes Yes Yes Yes
3. Appending
You can use this operation to add any string to the end of another string by
using the arithmetic operator +=. Keep in mind that the appended string will
only be added at the end of the string, not in the middle.
 Program Code:
example = "Today is a beautiful day "
example += "to start learning Python!"
print (example)
Output:
Today is a beautiful day to start learning Python!
4. Length
In addition to string operations, you can use prebuilt functions in the core
library to perform additional tasks in your code. The 'length()' function, for
example, returns the number of characters in a string.
Blank Space will be added as a character in the string as well.
Program Code:
x = 'Tomorrow it will be sunny'
print(len(x))
Output:

5. Find
When you use strings as your primary data type, there will be times when you
need to find a specific part of the string. To solve this problem, you can use
the built-in find() function. The output will provide an index for the position
the first time the input is found so you can verify.
When you use the find() function in Python, the interpreter will only return
positive indexes.
Program Code:
x = 'Tomorrow it will be sunny'
y = x.find('it')
print(y)
Output:

If the substring is not found, the interpreter will return a value of -1.
Program Code:
x = 'Tomorrow it will be sunny'
y = x.find('hi')
print(y)
Output:
 6. Lower and upper case
lower() and higher() functions can be used to convert characters in a string to
completely lower or upper case.
Program Code:
example = "Asia is the biggest continent"
sample = example.lower()
print(sample)
Output:
asia is the biggest continent
Program Code:
example = "Asia is the biggest continent"
sample = example.upper()
print(sample)
Output:
ASIA IS THE BIGGEST CONTINENT
7. Title
To convert string format to camel case format, use the title() function.
Program Code:
example = "Asia is the biggest continent"
sample = example.title()
print(sample)
Output:
Asia Is The Biggest Continent
 Integers
In Python, integers are special data types that allow you to include integer
numbers in your code. To perform arithmetic operations or to provide
information about a statistical value, numerical values are required.
When a Python interpreter encounters a data value of the integer type, it
creates an int object with the value provided. Because int object values are
not immutable, they can be replaced whenever the developer desires.
'Int' data types are used by developers to create a variety of complex features
in their software. Integers are commonly used to represent the pixel density
value of an image or video file.
It is important for a developer to understand the unary operators (+,-), which
can be used to represent positive and negative integers, respectively. The
unary operator does not need to be specified for positive integers (+), but it
must be included for negative integers.
Program Code:
x = 13
y = -92
print(x)
print(y)
Output:

-92
Python can handle numbers with up to ten digits. While most real-world
applications do not cause bottlenecks due to larger numerical values, it's
better to be sure that no huge integers are involved.
 Floating—Point numbers
All numerical values are not integers. You may occasionally need to work
with data with a decimal value. Python ensures that developers deal with this
data using floating-point numbers. With floating-point numbers, you can
work with decimal values up to ten decimal points long.
Program Code:
x = 3.121212
y = 58.4545
print(x)
print(y)
Output:
3.121212
58.4545
Floating-point numbers can also be used to represent data in hexadecimal
notation.
Program Code:
x = float.hex(15.2698)
print(x)
Output:
0x1.e8a2339c0ebeep+3
Floating-point data types are also commonly used by Python programmers to
represent complex and exponential numbers.
 Boolean Data Type
Booleans are special data types that are typically used to represent a True or
False value when comparing two different values.
Program Code:
A = 21
B = 55
print (A > B)
Output:
False
Because the value of A is not greater than the value of B in the preceding
example, the output is False. When dealing with logical operations, Boolean
data types come in handy.
Chapter 6: Advanced Data Structures in
Python
Python programmers frequently deal with large amounts of data, so using
variables all the time is not a good idea. Data Scientists, in particular, who
frequently deal with large amounts of data, may become overwhelmed by the
volume of dynamic data they must deal with. As a result, when working on
complex and data-intensive projects, it is critical to use the lists option
provided by Python's core library. These are similar to data structures such as
arrays found in core programming languages such as C and C++.
Understanding the various data structures provided by Python, as well as
learning techniques to add or modify data using these data structures, is a
must for any Python programmer.
 Lists
Lists are Python data types that allow you to add different data types
sequentially. Lists have all of the same properties as variables. They can be
easily replaced, passed, or manipulated with the help of the Python core
library's methods.
In Python, lists are typically represented as follows:
[22, 23, 24]

The list elements here are 22, 23, and 24. It is also important to understand
that all list elements are of integer data type and are not explicitly defined
because the Python interpreter can detect their data type.
In the above format, lists begin and end with a square bracket. A comma will
be used to separate all of the elements in the list. It's also worth noting that if
the elements in a list are of the string data type, they're usually surrounded by
quotes. All of the elements in a list are also referred to as items.
Example:
[Alaska, California, Alabama]
Alaska, California, and Alabama are referred to as list elements in this
context. As an example, all of the lists can be assigned to a variable. When
you print the variable, the list will be printed like any other data type.
Program Code:
x = ['Alaska', 'California', 'Alabama']
print(x)
Output:
['Alaska', 'California', 'Alabama']
Empty List
If a Python list has no elements, it is referred to as an empty list. An empty
list is also known as a null list. It's usually written as [].
Program Code:
# This is an empty list
emptylist = []
List Indexing
Python makes it simple to manipulate or replace the elements of a list,
specifically through the use of indexes. Indexes typically begin with 0 and
 provide Python programmers with numerous functions, such as "slicing" and
"searching," to ensure that their programs run smoothly.
Assume we have a list that we have previously used. We will print each
element on the computer screen using the indexes.
Program Code:
myList = ['California', 'Alaska', 'Alabama']
print(myList[0])
print(myList[1])
print(myList[2])
Output:
'California'
'Alaska'
'Alabama'
In the previous example, when the Python interpreter detects 0 as an index, it
prints the first element. As the index rises, so does the position on the list.
The items in the list can also be called as shown below, along with a string
literal.
Program Code:
myList = ['California', 'Alaska', 'Alabama']
print(myList [1] + ' is a wonderful state')
Output:
California is a wonderful state
If you provide an index value that is greater than the number of list elements
present, an index error will be returned.
Program Code:
myList = ['California', 'Alaska', 'Alabama']
print(myList [3])
Output:
IndexError: list index out of range
Note: It is also important to remember that the floating-point number cannot
be used as an index value.
Program Code:
myList = ['California', 'Alaska', 'Alabama']
print(myList [2.2])
Output:
TypeError: list indices must be integers or slices, not float
 As shown below, all lists can have other lists as elements. Child lists are all
the lists contained within a list.
Program Code:
x = [[5,123,4],56,32,14]
print(x)
Output:
[[5, 123, 4], 56, 32, 14]
You can call the elements in the child list using the ‘list [][]’ format.
Program Code:
x = [[5,123,4],56,32,14]
print(x[0][1])
Output:
123
In the previous example, the second element of the nested list is 123, which is
displayed as output. The elements of a list can also be referred to using the
negative index. Typically, -1 denotes the last index, whereas -2 denotes the
element preceding the last element.
Program Code:
myList = ['California', 'Alaska', 'Alabama']
print(myList [-1])
Output:
Alabama
You've already learned about how lists are represented. In the following
section, we will discuss some of the functions that can be manipulated using
a list data structure.
Slicing Using Lists
Slicing lists allows programmers to avoid dealing with an overwhelming
number of elements contained within a list. By slicing, you can focus only on
the part of a list that is relevant to your program logic.
Syntax:
Listname[start of the index : end of the index]
A colon is typically used to separate the beginning and ending indexes of the
list that you want to slice.
Program Code:
myList = [23,34,78,94,54]
print(myList[1:3])
Output:
[34, 78]
You do not need to enter the list's beginning or end when slicing the list
elements. If it is not entered, the interpreter will assume it is the first or last
element in the list.
Program Code:
myList = [23,34,78,94,54]
print(myList[:3])
Output:
[23, 34, 78]
Because the slice value before the semicolon was not provided in the
previous example, the interpreter assumed it came from the first element.
Program Code:
myList = [23,34,78,94,54]
print(myList[3:])
Output:
[94, 54]
In this example, the interpreter has assumed that the value following the
semicolon represents the end of the list. If neither value is provided, the entire
list is returned, as shown below.
Program Code:
myList = [23,34,78,94,54]
print(myList[:])
Output:
[23, 34, 78, 94, 54]
Get list length
To quickly determine the length of a list, use the built-in len() function.
Program Code:
myList = [23,34,78,94,54]
print(len(myList))
Output:

Changing Values of a List

As shown below, you can easily change the values inside a list using the
 assignment operator.
Program Code:
myList = [23,34,78,94,54]
myList [3] = 58
print(myList)
Output:
[23, 34, 78, 58, 54]
You can also replace a list value with an already existing list value, as shown
below.
Program Code:
myList = [23,34,78,94,54]
myList [3] = myList[2]
print(myList)
Output:
[23, 34, 78, 78, 54]
Concatenating Lists
The Arithmetic operator '+' can be used to easily combine two lists.
Program Code:
myList = [23,34,78,94,54]
x = [1,2,3]
print(myList + x)
Output:
[23, 34, 78, 94, 54, 1, 2, 3]
Replication of a List
Using the '*' operator, you can quickly multiply list elements with this
function.
Program Code:
print([1,2,3] * 4)
Output:
[1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3]
Element Deletion
Using the 'del' statement, you can easily remove an element from a list.
Program Code:
myList = [12,13,14,15,16,17]
del(myList [2])
print(myList)
Output:
[12, 13, 15, 16, 17]
Using the operators "in" and "not in"
Using the logical operators 'in' and 'not in,' Python makes it simple to
determine whether a list element is present or not in a list. As a result, this
function returns either a True or False Boolean value.
Program Code:
colors = ['yellow', 'orange', 'blue']
x = 'orange' in colors
print(x)
Output:
True
index()
Using the index() list function, you can quickly determine the index position
of a list element.
Program Code:
x = [12, 45, 78]
print(x.index(45))
Output:

If you provide a list element that does not exist within a list, you will receive
a type error.
Program Code:
x = [12, 45, 78]
print(x.index(49))
Output:
ValueError: 49 is not in list
insert()
You can insert a new element to the list at any position in the list by using the
insert() function.
Syntax:
insert(index position, ‘item’)
 Program Code:
x = [12, 45, 78]
x.insert(2,11)
print(x)
Output:
[12, 45, 11, 78]
The third element is moved to the fourth position and the new element is
added to the third
sort()
Python developers can easily arrange all the elements in a list using either
ascending or descending order by using the sort() function.
Program Code:
x = [78, 12, 45]
x.sort()
print(x)
Output:
[12, 45, 78]
If you use strings in the list, the list will be sorted alphabetically.
Program Code:
x = ['yellow', 'blue', 'orange', 'grey']
x.sort()
print(x)
Output:
['blue', 'grey', 'orange', 'yellow']
 Tuples
Even though lists are popular data structures that Python programmers
frequently use in their applications, they have several implementation issues.
Because all lists created with Python are mutual objects, they are simple to
replace, delete, or manipulate.
As a software developer, you may be required to keep immutable lists that
cannot be altered in any way. That's why tuples exist. Within Tuples, it is not
possible to change initiated elements in any way. When you try to change the
content of a tuple, you will get a "Type Error" message.
Program Code:
# Let's create a tuple using Python
t = ('Cat', 'Tree', 'Apple')
print(t)
Output:
('Cat', 'Tree', 'Apple')
In the previous example, we simply initiated a tuple and used a print function
to display it on the screen. Tuples, unlike lists, are not represented with
square brackets, but rather with parenthesis to distinguish them from lists.
To understand how tuples work, try changing one of the elements in the
preceding example and printing the tuple to see what happens.
Program Code:
t = ('Cat', 'Tree', 'Apple')
print(t)

# Trying to replace an element in the tuple...

t[2] = 'Mango'
print(t)
Output:
('Cat', 'Tree', 'Apple')
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
In the previous example, if a tuple element is changed, the interpreter will
throw an error. This demonstrates that all tuple elements are immutable and
cannot be replaced, deleted, or added.
Tuples Concatenation
 Tuples, like the many list operations we've seen, can be used to work on
specific operations. For example, just like lists, you can use Python to add or
multiply the elements in a tuple.
Program Code:
tuple1 = (17,18,19)
tuple2 = (16,19,28)
# Adding two tuples
print(tuple1 + tuple2)
Output:
(17, 18, 19, 16, 19, 28)
The Addition operator is used to concatenate two tuples in the preceding
example. Similarly, you can use the multiplication operator to quickly
increase the elements in your tuple. We can also nest tuples within tuples.
This is commonly referred to as nesting tuples.
Program Code:
X = (1,2,3)
Y = ('Orange','Apple','Banana')
Z = (X,Y)
print(Z)
Output:
((1, 2, 3), ('Orange', 'Apple', 'Banana'))
Two tuples are nested within another tuple in the previous example.
Replication
When working with lists, you can use the * operator to repeat the values.
Program Code:
T = (4,5,6) * 4
print(T)
Output:
(4, 5, 6, 4, 5, 6, 4, 5, 6, 4, 5, 6)
As previously stated, changing the values of tuples is impossible because
they are designed to be immutable. Here is what happens if we try to swap
one value for another.
Program Code:
T = (45,78,89)
T[2] = 15
print(T)
Output:
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
Slicing With Tuples
The slicing technique, which uses indexes to extract a portion of the tuple,
makes it simple to slice a portion of the tuple.
Program Code:
t = (24,25,26,27,28,29,30)
print(t[2:4] )
Output:
(26, 27)
Tuple Deletion
It is not possible to delete a specific element from a tuple, but it is possible to
delete the entire tuple using the command below. This is true for any type of
variable.
Program Code:
t = (24,25,26,27,28,29,30)
del t
print(t)
Output:
NameError: name 't' is not defined
 Dictionaries
values as pairs rather than single values as lists and tuples do. The "key:
value" pair is used by dictionaries to ensure that the data provided is more
optimized and works better. Dictionaries are also represented by curly
brackets, which distinguishes them from lists and tuples.
How Do I Create a Dictionary?
As previously stated, dictionaries are defined using key: value pairs separated
by commas. The elements will be placed in a sequential order and must be
separated.
Syntax:
Dictionary_sample = { key: value , key: value ……..) }
As a developer, you can add an unlimited number of key:value pairs to a
dictionary.
Example:
Capitals = {'France': 'Paris', 'Spain': 'Madrid', 'Italy': 'Rome'}
print(Capitals)
Output:
{'France': 'Paris', 'Spain': 'Madrid', 'Italy': 'Rome'}
You can also build a nested dictionary. A nested dictionary is a dictionary
within a dictionary:
Capitals = {'France': 'Paris', 'Spain': 'Madrid', 'Italy': 'Rome', 'Australia':
{'Melbourne', 'Sydney'}}
print(Capitals)
Output:
{'France': 'Paris', 'Spain': 'Madrid', 'Italy': 'Rome', 'Australia': {'Sydney',
'Melbourne'}}
The last key: pair value in the second example has a dictionary with two key:
pair values.
Exercises
1. List exercise: Create a list of 5 numbers and then print the sum and
average of the numbers.

2. Create a tuple of 5 names and then print the first and last name.

3. Create a dictionary with 5 key-value pairs and then print the value of
the third key.

4. Create a list with 5 fruits (e.g. apples, bananas, etc.). Ask the user to
input a fruit. Check if the fruit is in the list. If the fruit is in the list,
display a message saying "The fruit is in the list." If the fruit is not in
the list, display a message saying "The fruit is not in the list."

5. Create a list with 3 colors. Then ask the user to give a color as input. If
the color is in the list, display a message saying so. Otherwise, append
the color given by the user to the end of the list and print the updated
list
A Note to the Reader
So far, I hope you're enjoying the contents of this book! I have spent time,
energy, and money into the creation of this manuscript. That's why I want to
make sure that all of my efforts are worthwhile and that you're excited about
this new world.

To download the pdf with the Python interview Q&As and the solutions to
the exercises, go at the end of the eBook and download the pdf.

For any question, please contact me at [email protected]. I will

improve the content of this book to provide better and better quality.
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what you mostly liked, that would still be very helpful!
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Thanks for your patience and enjoy your reading!

Chapter 7: Conditionals and Loops
Any computer program must make decisions for real-world application. A
mobile application with advanced software, for example, will use your inputs
to display whatever you want. While using a mobile or web application, the
user makes decisions. The program must be intelligent enough to provide a
relevant interface based on the user's selection. This dynamic thinking is very
similar to human thinking.
When writing in Python, you must be aware of conditionals and loops to
ensure that your programs mimic these conditions. These are high-level
programming structures that can make your Python programs more effective.
Conditionals and loops can also help you reduce the execution time of your
programs, making them run faster. A Python programmer who wants to work
with well-known teams should be aware of these techniques, as they are also
prerequisite requirements for more advanced topics such as Functions and
Modules, which we will discuss further.
 Comparison Operators
To practically understand conditionals and loops , you must be aware of the
various comparison operators supported by Python as a programming
language.
Comparison operators, also known as relational operators, typically compare
two operands to each other and return a Boolean value, either True or False.
Note: 'True' and 'False' are special Boolean values supported by Python to
assist programs in making relevant decisions. Boolean values are the basic of
logic gates present within microprocessors.
1. Less than (<) operator
This operator determines whether the left operand value is less than the right
operand value.
Program Code:
print(12 < 19)
Output:
True
Program Code:
print(87 < 36)
Output:
False
If you look at the two examples above, you'll notice that the first has a 'True'
output because 12 is less than 19, while the second has a 'False' output
because 87 is not less than 36.
With a less-than operator, you can apply the same principle to floating-point
values.
Program Code:
a = 9.5 < 10.26
print(a)
Output:
True
To compare strings in ASCII format, you can also use the "less than"
operator.
Program Code:
a = 'Banana' < 'banana'
print(a)
 Output:
True
Because the ASCII value of lowercase letters is usually higher than that of
uppercase letters, the Boolean value in the previous example is True.
Exercise:
Determine the ASCII sum for the word 'banana' mentioned above.
These relational operators can also be applied to other data structures, such as
tuples. Before comparing, however, ensure that all of the values in a tuple are
of the same data type.
Program Code:
print((15,18,98) < (25,48,18,19))
Output:
True
If the tuples have different data types, an error message will appear on the
terminal.
Program Code:
print((20,30,40) < ('three',4,5))
Output:
TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'int' and 'str'

2. Greater than (>) operator

A greater than operator is typically used to determine whether the left
operand value is greater than the right operand value.
Program Code:
print(32 > 56)
Output:
False
The Boolean value in the first example is False because the right operand
value 32 is less than 56.
The same relational operator can also be used with floating-point values and
other data types, such as tuples.
3. Equal (== operator)
An equal operator determines whether the values of the right and left
operands are equal. If the operand values are the same, the Boolean value is
True. Otherwise, it's False.
Program Code:
print(5 == 5)
Output:
True
Program Code:
print(12 == 21)
Output:
False
 Control Flow Statements
With a solid understanding of comparison operators under your belt, you are
now ready to learn about the various control statements that are required of
all Python developers. Control flow statements are commonly used by
programmers to write simple code for beginners.
Sequential Structure
All of your program's steps will typically be executed linearly in a sequential
structure. As a result, many programs have a sequential structure in order to
avoid writing complex code. However, sequential code requires a high level
of skill from programmers because developing programming logic in a linear
way can be difficult.
Example:
a=6
print (a, "is a perfect number")
Output:
6 is a perfect number
In the previous example, the Python interpreter parsed the code line by line to
produce an output.
Conditional Structure
The conditional structure is a well-known programming structure that is used
to execute only a portion of the program while ignoring the remaining logical
code based on the conditional statements.
Only partial statements are executed in a conditional structure, which allows
Python interpreters to save time by not parsing the entire code.
If and if-else conditional structures are two well-known conditional branches
used by Python programmers.
Looping Structure
Looping structures are useful when you want to repeat the same statement or
programming logic in a program based on logical conclusions. The Python
interpreter allows you to repeat a programming step until the condition is
met.
To make the most of the looping structure, developers must write both loop
starting and loop terminating logic. While and for loops are two common
looping structures that Python programmers can use in their code.
 If/Else Conditional Statements
To perform specific operations, conditional statements rely on fundamental
decision-making. If the condition is not met, the conditional logic will skip
that particular block.
Python includes a basic if/else statement for choosing between two blocks
using a logical statement.
Syntax:
if condition:
execute statement
else:
execute statement
Program Code:
x = 31
if x % 4 == 0:
print("This number is divisible by 4")
else:
print("This number is not divisible by 4")
Output:
This number is not divisible by 4
Explanation:
To begin, we must define a variable that will be used when we set up
our condition for the if/else conditional.
Indentation is required for the code that is eventually executed after the
if (else) statement.
Advanced programs use automatic input methods to get values from
users.
After storing the variable, the interpreter will parse the condition used
by the if block.
The Python interpreter will perform a remainder operation to see if the
number is divisible by three.
If it is divisible by three, the block immediately following the if
statement should have been executed.
Because the condition is false, the interpreter will skip the if block and
instead execute the statements in the else block, which will result in the
output.
 Let's see an example of a condition that fulfills the if block.
Program Code:
x = 30
if x % 3 == 0:
print("This number is divisible by 3")
else:
print("This number is not divisible by 3")
Output:
This number is divisible by 3
If the condition is satisfied the print statement in the if block is executed, and
the else block is skipped by the interpreter.
 If Elif Else
Using multiple conditional expressions in a single program block allows you
to make better use of conditionals.
Program Code:
n = 15
if n % 3 == 0:
print("Number divisible by 3")
elif n % 4 == 0:
print("Number divisible by 4")
else:
print("Number not divisible by 3 and 4")
Output:
Number divisible by 3
In the previous example, the Python interpreter must check three conditions.
When the Python interpreter determines that the first condition is true, it
prints it and ignores the other two.
If any two statements are true, only the first one in the sequence of the code
will be printed.
 For Loops
Looping structures, like conditionals, are building blocks for Python
software. Instead of constantly checking a condition, you can loop it using a
for or while loop.
A for loop can be used with any data structure, including lists, tuples, and
dictionaries.
Syntax:
for i in object:
{ Enter the body of a loop here }
When a condition is specified, the for loop can loop through all the items of
the data structure.
Example:
v = [45,89,56]
out = 0
for val in v:
out = out + val
print ("Sum of the 3 elements of the vector v:", out)
Output:
Sum of the 3 elements of the vector v: 190
In the previous example, instead of performing arithmetic operations on each
element of the list, we simply used a for loop to automate this procedure.
 While Loop
While the for loop is great for automating tasks, it can be difficult to write
logical code since there is no way to apply a condition to the loop. This is
where a while loop comes in handy.
A while loop will be provided prior to looping, with the condition
being checked each time the loop occurs.
Syntax:
while condition
{Enter the statement for a while loop here}
Example:
a=0
b=1
N = int(input("Enter number: "))
while b <= N:
a=a+b
b=b+1
print ("The sum of numbers from 1 to", N, "is", a)
Output:
Enter number: 10
The sum of numbers from 1 to 10 is 55
Conditionals and loops can be nested to create more complex programs.
 Break and Continue
Loops can complete a large amount of complex programming logic in a short
period of time. While they are useful in many situations, they can consume a
lot of run-time memory, causing programs to crash unexpectedly.
To solve this problem, Python provides two programming components
known as break and continue.
Break Statement
When the Python interpreter encounters a 'break' in a program, it immediately
ends the loop and moves on to the line following the loop. Any time the
'break' occurs inside a loop, the loop will end and the next statements will be
executed.
Syntax:
break

Example Program:
M = 10
j=1
while j <= M:
if j %2 == 0:
print (j, "is divisible by 2 ")
if j % 3 == 0:
print (j, "is divisible by 3 ")
break
j=j+1
Output:
2 is divided by 2
3 is divisible by 3
When the interpreter reads the break statement in the previous example, the
program will end. What would the output be without the 'break'? (hint: all the
numbers <= 10 that are divisible by 2 and 3…).
 Continue Statement?
When the Python interpreter encounters 'continue' in a program, it
immediately ends the loop and moves on to the next iteration. Keep in mind
that this statement will not completely end the loop. Proceeding to the next
logical statement in a loop will only save time and processing energy.
Example Program:
for letter in 'Productivity':
if letter == 't':
continue
print('Letter now:', letter)
Output:
Letter now: P
Letter now: r
Letter now: o
Letter now: d
Letter now: u
Letter now: c
Letter now: i
Letter now: v
Letter now: i
Letter now: y
Exercises
1. Write a program that asks the user for an integer and calculates the
factorial of the given number. Use a for loop to accomplish this task.

2. Write a program that counts the number of vowels (a, e, i, o, u) of a

string given as input from the user. Loop the string and check if the
current character is a vowel.

3. Create some code to produce a random number between 1 and 100.

The program should then ask the user to guess the number, and keep
asking until the user has entered the correct number. Use a while loop
to accomplish this task.

4. Write a program that prints the first n even numbers. Ask the user for
the value of n. Use a for loop to generate the numbers, and an if
statement to determine if the current number is even.

5. Write a program that prints the first n Fibonacci numbers. The

Fibonacci sequence is a series of numbers in which each number is the
sum of the two preceding ones. The first two numbers in the series are
0 and 1. Use a for loop to generate the numbers and break the loop
when n numbers have been printed.
Chapter 8: Functions and Modules
Python supports a variety of programming paradigms. The functional
programming paradigm is the most widely used programming paradigm for
developers to write code in. Functional programming is adaptable and simple
to use for simple projects that require fewer developers to complete the code.
Because of the faster implementation of various programming components,
the functional paradigm is also considered versatile.
Creating programs with functions may be difficult because you must always
call the function within the program. With the help of a few examples, you
can learn functional programming and create complex programs with less
code.

A Real-World Example:
Functions were first used in mathematics to solve complex problems in
discrete mathematics. Later, programmers began implementing this concept
in order to reuse previously written code without rewriting it.
Let's use a simple mobile app to demonstrate how functions work in real-
world applications.
Picsart is a popular mobile photo editing app that offers a variety of filters
and tools for image manipulation. For example, the crop tool makes it simple
for users to crop their images. Now, when Picsart developers write code, they
typically use a variety of libraries, frameworks, and functions. Cropping, for
example, necessitates its own function due to the numerous complex tasks
involved in dividing pixels and providing output to the user.
Assume the developers wanted to update the application to include video
cropping support. For programmers, there are currently two options.
1. They can design a cropping function from the ground up.
2. They can use the photo cropping function and add additional
functionalities.
Many developers prefer option two because it is simpler and saves time.
However, as previously stated, creating functions is not as simple. It requires
a great deal of complex logic to connect the functions to the core application
framework and other third-party libraries.
 Types of Functions
System functions and user-defined functions are the two main types of
functions.
The core Python library provides system functions, which are frequently used
by developers to perform common tasks. 'print,' for example, is a system
function that displays a literal string literal on the screen.
Developers, on the other hand, create user-defined functions specifically for
their software. Users can also integrate third-party libraries' user-defined
functions into their code.
Regardless of the type of code you use, keep in mind that the primary goal of
using functions as a programmer is to solve problems with less reusable code.
How Do They Work?
The philosophy behind the use of functions in programming is similar to that
of mathematical functions. The developer will first define a function with
complex code logic and a name that can be called from anywhere in the
program using unique programming components known as parameters. The
developers then explicitly define what type of parameters the user can
provide for fewer crashes.
If the function is not called, users will be unable to use the code logic that the
developer created. Function calling is frequently displayed in the front end
via buttons, tabs, and other graphical user interfaces. While it may be as
simple as a tap for the end user, a function will be called programmatically in
order for a software component to function properly.
How Should You Define Your Functions?
There is no need to define the default system functions because they are built.
You can only call them. Even though programmers can modify system
functions, doing so is not recommended because they are typically complex,
and messing with them will break your code.
Python developers who want to create game-changing software, on the other
hand, can use the "def" keyword to create functions.
A simple example is provided to help you understand function declaration in
Python more quickly.
Program Code:
# Function to print a welcome message
def welcome():
 print ("Good morning, I Hope you are fine.”)
welcome()
Output:
Good morning, I Hope you are fine.

Explanation:
While this is a simple program, its workflow is similar to that of more
complex programs. When working on real-world projects, the number
of steps only increases.
First, we use the 'def' keyword in line 1 to initialize a function in the
program. If the def keyword is not used, the function will not work
because the interpreter will not understand that it is a function.
The name of the function is defined alongside def. The function is
called "welcome" in this case. The same rules apply to naming
functions as they do to variables.
The body of the function is everything that comes after the comment.
Variables, functions, and constants can all be part of a function body.
The main core logic of the function is usually defined in this body.
The body of the function is usually preceded by a comment or
docstring. We used a comment in this example. When you use two
single quotes to provide information about a function, this is referred to
as a docstring.
If you are using multiple lines to provide information, then you can use three
single quotes.
Example:
# This is an example of function that we are using for beginners
def myFunction():
'''
Author: John
Function: myFunction
What does it do?: It simply prints
'''
print ("Hi! I wish you a wonderful day!")

myFunction()
The program's third line defines a print statement that display content on the
screen. You can use as many built-in functions as you want in this area to
make your program look more natural for the time being. Even though the
data is static, it helps you understand how legacy applications work.
The final line shows how the developer invokes a function. In this case,
myFunction() is a function call. There are no parameters between parentheses
because this is a simple program. Multiple parameters can be used in
complex programs. When the interpreter finds a function call, it immediately
searches for the function and does whatever the function requests.
 Function Parameters
There were no parameters in the previous example function. That is not the
case in real-world applications, as programs are frequently complex and
difficult to understand. To use functions, you must first create functions that
use parameters and perform tasks.
Assume, based on the previous example, that we have two users for our
application, and we need to greet them by calling them by their names.
Program Code:
def mysample():
# Function that prints the same welcome message to two different users
print("Hi Sam, I hope you are fine!”)
print("Hi Tom, I hope you are fine!”")
mysample()
Output:
Hi Sam, I hope you are fine!
Hi Tom, I hope you are fine!”
To begin, create two print statements that use both input/conditionals and
print statements to validate the user and display the correct output. This is
overly complicated and unnecessary, as parameters can assist you in creating
dynamic welcome messages for your users. Not just for two, but for
thousands of users, with just a minor change when creating a function.
Consider this example function with a single parameter that can assist you in
creating a dynamic message.
Program Code:
# This is an example function with a single parameter
def mysample(name):
print ("Hi " + name + ". " + "How are you doing?")
mysample('Sam')
mysample('Tom')
mysample('John')
mysample('Mike')
Output:
Hi Sam. How are you doing?
Hi Tom. How are you doing?
Hi John. How are you doing?
Hi Mike. How are you doing?
Explanation:
A function named 'mysample' is created, and the parameter 'name' is
defined between parenthesis. Because the Python interpreter is
intelligent enough to parse any data value provided by the user, you
may not need to specify the data type for this parameter.
The programmer used the arithmetic operator to divide the string after
calling the parameter in the print function. As a result, whenever the
user enters data, it is placed between the default strings.
In the following lines, the developer has called the function with the
parameter input. For complex applications, the parameter cannot be
fixed and must be provided by the user. We used the default
parameters in this example. The parameters provided by the developer
are Sam, Tom, John, and Mike.
If you want to start creating more advanced functions, you can use Python's
argument functionality.
 Arguments of a Function
To fully utilize their capabilities, all modern applications use variables for the
functions. In the previous example program, we used default arguments for
the function parameter. However, for Python developers, always providing
parameters by default is not ideal. Users can pass arguments to the function
through all parameters. While there are several ways to pass arguments to
function parameters, the most common are positional and keyword
arguments.
Positional Arguments
When using positional arguments, programmers typically provide the values
for the function parameters directly. It may appear to be perplexing, but many
programmers use it since it is easier to implement. It is essential to remember
the order in which positional arguments are passed.
Program Code:
def age(who, years):
'''
This function states the age of different people
'''
print(who, "is", years, "years old")

age('Mike', 35)
age('Tom', 24)
Output:
Mike is 35 years old
Tom is 24 years old
The arguments for the first instance in the previous example are 'Mike' and
35. Because no data types are specified, the Python interpreter will determine
the value type and throw it to the function.
Parameter names are important because there is no direct way to understand
the data type that we are using. A name is represented by a literal string,
while a number is represented by an integer data type. A comma is typically
used to separate all the arguments.
It is easy to make mistakes when using positional arguments, as demonstrated
below.
 Program Code:
def age(who, years):
print(who, "is", years, "years old")

age(35, 'Mike')
age(24, 'Tom')
Output:
35 is Mike years old
24 is Tom years old
While the function produces an output, it is incorrect because the arguments
are for opposite parameters.
Keyword Arguments can be used to define function parameters to solve these
minor issues with positional arguments.
Keyword Arguments
With keyword arguments, you can directly pass arguments to the function
parameter. Keyword arguments use parameter = value format to give
arguments to any function.
Keyword Arguments cause less confusion but take more time to implement
and hence are not often used by developers working on complex projects that
involve a lot of code.
Program Code:
def age(who, years):
print(who, "is", years, "years old")

age(who = 'Mike', years = 35)

age(years = 24, who = 'Tom')
Output:
Mike is 35 years old
Tom is 24 years old
The format in which keyword arguments are defined here is parameter =
argument. In who = 'Mike', for example, who is the parameter and Mike is the
argument.
 Default Values
Not all values in a Python or other programming language program must be
dynamic. Default values, also known as 'constants,' are sometimes used by
developers when passing arguments to a function. Using default values for
parameters is completely optional for programmers.
However, defining default values is recommended because it reduces
boilerplate code and offers better data management if the project is complex.
Boilerplate code is unnecessary, but it must be written by developers for the
interpreter to function properly. While Python is clutter-free in comparison to
other high-level languages, some changes to the code, such as defining
default values, are required to improve code readability.
Program Code:
def age(who, years = 35):
print(who, "is", years, "years old")

age('Mike')
age('Tom')
Output:
Mike is 35 years old
Tom is 35 years old
Because we have already defined a parameter value in the previous example,
function calling becomes easier and takes less time.
It is important to remember that even if you have given the default value, the
Python interpreter will end up replacing the argument if it is defined again.
Program Code:
def age(who, years = 35):
print(who, "is", years, "years old")

age('Mike')
age('Tom', 24)
Output:
Mike is 35 years old
Tom is 24 years old
Despite the fact that the default value is 35, the argument for Tom is given as
5. In this case, the Python interpreter replaces it with the new argument value.
 Scope
"Scope" is critical for developers to understand the various types of functions
available and to find ways to use them without difficulty. Functions, like
variables, have a local scope and a global scope, as previously explained.
Local scope variables are all variables created within a function that can only
be used within it. By contrast, any variable that can be used is referred to as a
global scope variable.
Remember that a function can have both local and global variables. As a
result, all variables used in the function should be either local or global.
Why Is Scope Crucial?
The scope functionality is mostly used to maintain the garbage mechanism
more effective. To increase the program's speed, all variables that have been
replaced or have not been used in a long time are usually destroyed. While
they can be recreated when the function is called, the process still consumes
runtime.
Instead, when a variable with global scope is created, it will probably be
called multiple times. Therefore , having a global scope is useful to aovid the
need to reinitialize variables. Regardless of the software you are creating,
using scope whenever possible can help you increase your efficiency while
working on complex projects.
Local and Global Scope
Rule—1: Local Scope Variables Cannot Be Used in a Global Scope
Program Code:
def mysample():
x = 12

mysample()
print(x)
Output:
NameError: name 'x' is not defined
The previous example declares a variable with the local scope and a value of
12. When we call the function and attempt to print the variable value from the
global scope, we get a traceback error because local variables, unlike global
variables, can only be called within a function.
 Program Code:
def mysample():
x = 12
print(x)
mysample()
Output:

Because the function is called from the local scope, the program runs without
error and prints the local variable to the computer screen using the print
statement.
Rule—2: Regardless of their scope, all local functions can use all
variables.
Program Code:
x = 23
def mysample():
y = 45
print(x)
mysample()
print(x)
# print(x) would produce an error
Output:

When the variable is called from the local and global scopes, the value of the
variable 'x' is printed.
Rule—3: Local variables that are used by one function can't be used by
another.
Program Code:
def f1():
x = 12
print(x)
f1()

def f2():
print(x)
f2()
Output:

NameError: name 'x' is not defined

Because it is a variable from the local function, the print function works for
the first time. The variable value, on the other hand, causes a traceback error
for the second time because the function 'f2' can't access the variable of the
function 'f1'.
It should be noted that variables in both the local and global scopes can have
the same name without causing confusion. However, for better programming
practice and to avoid confusion, it is recommended that local and global
variables be given different names.
 Modules
In a programming language, a module is a group of functions. You can use
these groups of functions in any software component by simply importing the
module and calling the function with your parameters as arguments.
Python imports modules much better than traditional languages like C and
C++. Many programmers import modules in order to use the module's
methods and add additional capabilities on top of it.
Syntax:
import { Name of the module }
Example:
import math
The syntax above will import all the built-in math module functions into your
program. As a result, you can now present your arguments for these methods.
What is the function of Import?
Import is a Python library function that copies all the functions in a specific
file and links them to the current file. In this way, you can use methods that
aren't in the current file. Furthermore, creating modules is useful to avoid
writing the same code over and over again.
How Do I Create Modules?
While importing modules from third-party libraries saves time, as a
developer, you must be aware of the importance of creating modules on your
own.
Assume you're developing a web application for a torrent service. It would be
beneficial if you wrote a large number of functions to make the application
work. To improve organization it will be better to create a networking
module and include all networking-related functions in it. Following that, you
can create a module with a GUI and several functions to aid in the creation of
a visually appealing application.
To begin creating a Python module, you must first create a text file with
the.py extension. After you've created the.py file, you can now add all the
functions to it. For example, in the.py module we just created, you could
include the following function to multiply two numbers.
File – examplemodule.py
def sum(a,b):
# This method compute the sum of two numbers
c=a*b
return c
# The sum will be the output
We will show a sample script that imports the previous function as the
module is created.
Program Code:
import examplemodule
After pressing the enter key, the functions in that module will be available to
a Python programmer working on other projects.
Program Code:
examplemodule.sum(12,23)
Output:

The script will automatically detect the 'sum' function, and the sum will be
displayed on the computer screen based on the arguments provided.
 Modules and Built-In Functions
While creating complex and complicated software applications, developers
can make use of several built-in functions and modules. While user-built
functions are great for solving complex problems, they are difficult to
implement and sometimes unnecessary because built-in functions can do the
job.
1. print()
It is the most commonly used built-in function in Python. Everyone, from
beginners to experienced programmers, uses the print() statement to display
output on the computer screen. As previously stated, the content you want to
display on the screen should be placed between the quotes.
2. abs()
It is a built-in function that returns the absolute value of any integer. If
a negative integer is given as input, this function will return the positive
value.
Program Code:
z = -65
print(abs(z))
Output:

3. round ()
It is a built-in mathematical function that returns the closest integer number to
any given floating-point number.
Program Code:
x = 12.32
y = 4.23
print(round(x))
print(round(y))
Output:

4. max()
This built-in Python function that returns the highest number among a set of
numbers. This function can be applied to any data type, including lists and
variables.
 Program Code:
x = 31
y = 78
z = 36
mymax = max(x,y,z)
print(mymax)
Output:

5. min()
This built-in function that returns the smallest number among a set of
numbers.
Program Code:
x = 31
y = 78
z = 36
mymin = min(x,y,z)
print(mymin)
Output:

6. sorted()
It sorts all the elements in a list in either ascending or descending order,
depending on your preference.
Program Code:
t = (5,857,165,43,430,60,753,15)
s = sorted(t)
print(s)
Output:
[5, 15, 43, 60, 165, 430, 753, 857]
7. sum()
sum() is a built-in function that takes as input a list or a tuple and adds
their elements. All the elements of the list or tuple must have the same
numerical data type. For example, if string data types are in the input, the
program will fail with a type error.
Program Code:
t = (5,857,165,43,430,60,753,15)
s = sum(t)
print(s)
Output:
2328
8. len()
This built-in function that returns the number of elements of the object in
input.
Program Code:
t = (5,857,165,43,430,60,753,15)
s = len(t)
print(s)
Output:

9. type()
This function returns the data type of the object in input. If it is a function,
the details about the parameters and arguments will be displayed as well.
Program Code:
t = 45.789
print(type(t))
Output:
<class 'float'>
 String Functions
Strings are data types that require more attention from the programmer than
other data types. Dozens of built-in functions in the Python core library have
been created for programmers to make the most of data stored using strings.
1. strip()
It deletes the arguments passed to it as a parameter. The arguments will be
removed from all instances where they appear.
Program Code:
text = "Python"
print(text.strip('hon'))
Output:
Pyt
2. replace()
It replaces one part of a string with another. If there are multiple words in the
same string data type, you can specify how many to replace as a parameter.
Program Code:
text = "Have a great day!"
print(text.replace('great', 'wonderful'))
Output:
Have a wonderful day!
3. split()
It splits a string when the arguments you provided appear in the input text for
the first time.
Program Code:
text = "There are three apples in the fridge"
print(text.split(' '))
Output:
['There', 'are', 'three', 'apples', 'in', 'the', 'fridge']
Since the argument we provided is a white space, in this case the output is a
list with the words of the original string as elements.
4. join()
With this function you can insert a separator between the elements of a list, as
long as they are characters.
Program Code:
country = ['Italy','France','Spain']
x="~"
x = x.join(country)
print(x)
Output:
Italy ~ France ~ Spain
Exercises
1. Create a function that takes two numbers as parameters, and returns the
result of the sum of both numbers.

2. Create a function that takes a string as a parameter, and returns the

number of vowels in the string.

3. Create a function that takes two strings as parameters and returns a

message indicating if both strings are equal or not.

4. Create a function that takes a number as a parameter, and returns a

message indicating if the number is positive, negative or zero.

5. Create a module with a function that takes a list as a parameter and

returns the sum of all elements in the list. Import this module into
another script and use the function to sum a list of numbers.
Chapter 9: Object Oriented
Programming (OOP)
Until know we have discussed functional-oriented programming and
provided several examples of code. While the functional programming
paradigm is popular among independent developers, it can be difficult to
implement when working with a team where many members must effectively
communicate using their code.
Even though functional-oriented programming reduces a lot of code clutter, it
is still difficult to import modules every time you create a new file. Importing
more modules increases the program's run time exponentially.
Because of these issues, many programmers preferred to use Object-Oriented
Programming languages such as Java during Python's initial release. But
when Python 2 was released, everyone was enthusiastic to learn that Python
had begun to support Object-Oriented Programming, transforming it into a
multi-paradigm language.
With several examples, this chapter delves deeply into various object-
oriented principles.
What Is OOP?
OOP is a popular programming paradigm in which classes and objects are
used to organize functions into logical templates.
A class is a collection of data or methods that can be easily accessed using
dot notation. Classes are accessible to variables and methods outside the class
due to object behavior.
A Real-World Example:
Assume you are developing an application that explains details about various
vehicles and models of those vehicles.
A functional programmer would create a function for each vehicle and then
another for each model. It may appear simple when there are only a few
vehicle models, but as the number of vehicle models grows, code reuse
becomes difficult for developers.
In Object Oriented programming, however, the programmer will first create a
'vehicle' class and define various properties and values. The developer will
then create a separate class for each type of vehicle. Because of the Object
Oriented programming paradigm, the developer can access and call all those
properties with a simple dot notation rather than creating functions for each
property again.
Object Oriented programming saves time and is useful to reuse code thanks
to features like polymorphism and inheritance.
How Do I Create Classes?
Classes are a way to create custom data types and they represent
a blueprint from which objects are typically created. Classes include various
logical entities such as attributes and methods. Specific rules must be
followed when creating classes.
All classes that are created must be preceded by the keyword 'class.'
Variables created within a class are nothing more than class attributes.
All attributes in a class are public and can be used at any time by using
the . (dot) operator.
The syntax for class creation:
class ClassName:
# Class-level attributes
Definition of the attributes

# Initialization method
The self method that we'll discuss

# Class methods
Specific methods (functions) of the class

In Python, you can't use reserved keywords for class names. Otherwise, a
traceback error will occur, causing the application to crash.
 How Do I Create Objects?
In Python programming, an object is an entity that has a state and behavior.
Everything within a class can be considered an object. A variable created
within a class, for example, can be used as an object. Objects are frequently
used by programmers who are unaware of their existence.
What exactly is an object?
● Every object is made up of a state. A state usually reflects the
properties of an object.
● Every object has a behavior. The behavior of an object changes
depending on the method in which it is used.
● All objects have an identity. Objects use identity to interact with one
another.
Assume there is a cat class that describes different cat features and their
behavior. Objects in that class can be of various types.
● The name of the cat is typically used to identify the object
● Attributes such as cat age, type and color can be used to describe the
state of an object.
● Behaviors of an object include jumping, sleeping, and running in
relation to a cat.
How to create an object?
All you have to do to create an object is give it a name. For instance, if the
'Cat' class is defined, we can write:
Program Code:
obj = Cat()
This will generate an object called ‘obj’ belonging to the Cat class.
The Self Method
You should be aware of the self method, which is automatically created when
a class is created.
The concept of a self method is very similar to that of pointers in other
programming languages such as C and C++.
If you want to call the methods, you must provide at least one argument to
the self method. Every method that an object invokes is automatically
transformed to a self object.
The __init__ Method
 The __init__ method is similar to C++ and Java constructors. When a class is
started, it runs as a default method. As a result, if you want to create an object
with an initial value, you must enter those values into the __init method as a
developer.
We'll make an example now by using self and the ___init__ method.
Program Code:
# Define a class called "Person" with the "name" attribute
class Person:
# Define a class attribute shared by all instances of the class
species = "Homo sapiens"

def __init__(self, name):

# Initialize the name attribute as an instance attribute
self.name = name

# Create two instances of the Person class with different names

person1 = Person("Alex")
person2 = Person("Sam")

# Print the names of each person

print("Name of person 1:", person1.name)
print("Name of person 2:", person2.name)

# Print the species attribute shared by all instances of the class

print("Species:", Person. species)
print(person1.name,'and',person2.name,'are',Person.species)
Output:
Name of person 1: Alice
Name of person 2: Bob
Species: Homo sapiens
Alice and Bob are Homo sapiens
In the previous example, we defined a class as well as instance attributes.
There are few simple rules to keep in mind:
● You must provide a class name
● You must create at least one attribute
● You must provide a self argument and a __init__ method
 ● An object must be instantiated
● Following object instantiation, you can create instance attributes that
can use the object.
lasses and Objects With Methods
In the previous example, a class attribute is created, followed by a method
and the __init__ function. Finally, two objects are instantiated, and they
are accessed using dot notation.
Program Code:
class Person:
species = "Homo sapiens"

def __init__(self, name):

self.name = name

# Define a method to say hello

def say_hello(self):
return "Hello, my name is " + self.name

person1 = Person("Alex")
person2 = Person("Sam")

# Print the names of each person

print("Name of person 1:", person1.name)
print("Name of person 2:", person2.name)

# Call the say_hello method on each person

print(person1.say_hello())
print(person2.say_hello())
Output:
Name of person 1: Alex
Name of person 2: Sam
Hello, my name is Alex
Hello, my name is Sam
Explanation:
In the above example, a class attribute is created, and then a method is
created along with the __init__ function. In the end, the object is instantiated,
and the object is accessed by using the dot notation.
Inheritance
One of the most important aspects of Object-Oriented programming is
inheritance. Inheritance refers to the process of defining a new class without
adding new methods or arguments, but rather deriving them from other
classes. The new class is commonly referred to as the child class. The parent
class is the class from which all methods are inherited.
Real-World Example:
When developing real-world applications, inheritance comes in handy in a
variety of situations. Assume you are developing a camera mobile application
for iOS.
While creating the application, you may need to create several modules for
the various functions it provides. You've noticed that you're reusing code for
GUI interfaces after a few months of development because your team is still
using function-oriented programming.
You decided to use an object-oriented framework for your project to save
time and money. Since you're now using the OOP paradigm, you can reuse
the code you've already written for GUI interfaces and link it to the new
classes you're creating. This saves time and energy by allowing programmers
to add new features without having to rewrite the old ones.

Syntax for Python inheritance:

class BaseClass:
{ Body of base class }
class DerivedClass(Baseclass):
{ Body of derived class }

Please keep in mind that both base and derived classes must follow all the
previously described class rules.
 Program Code:
# Define a base class "Polygon" with a method to return the number of edges
class Polygon:
def __init__(self, num_edges):
self.num_edges = num_edges

def edges(self):
return self.num_edges

# Define a subclass "Rectangle" based on the Polygon class

class Rectangle(Polygon):
def __init__(self, length, width):
# Call the __init__ method of the parent class to initialize the number of
edges
Polygon.__init__(self, 4)
self.length = length
self.width = width

# Define a method to calculate the area of the rectangle

def area(self):
return self.length * self.width

# Create an instance of the Rectangle class

rect = Rectangle(40, 10)

# Print the number of edges and the area of the rectangle

print("Number of edges:", rect.edges())
print("Area:", rect.area())
Output:
Number of edges: 4
Area: 50
Explanation:
In the previous example, we defined the class 'Polygon' first, and then built
the second class 'Rectangle' on top of it. A rectangle with dimensions of 40
by 10 is created. When the 'area' method is called, the area of the square is
computed. You can create another polygon class in the future by simply
writing a method to calculate the area.
With enough knowledge of Object-Oriented Programming, you can create
classes and objects that can interact in order to create software that uses many
components and performs multiple tasks. Look at the open-source code
hosted on GitHub to learn more about OOP.
Exercises
1. Create a class called Person with a constructor that takes in the person's
name, age and occupation. The class should have methods get_name(),
get_age() and get_occupation() that return the respective values. Create
an instance of the class and call the methods to display the values.

2. Create a class called Student that inherits from Person. The class must
have a constructor that takes in the name, age, occupation, and a list of
subjects. The class should have a method get_subjects() that returns the
list of subjects. Create an instance of the class and call the methods to
display the values.

3. Create a class called Rectangle with a constructor that takes in the

width and height. The class should have methods get_area() and
get_perimeter() that return the area and perimeter of the rectangle
respectively. Create an instance of the class and call the methods to
display the values.

4. Create a class called BankAccount with a constructor that takes in the

owner's name, balance and type of account. The class should have
methods get_balance(), deposit(amount) and withdraw(amount) that
return the balance, deposit an amount, and withdraw an amount
respectively. Create an instance of the class and call the methods to
display the values.

5. Create a class called Vehicle with a constructor that takes in the make,
model and year. The class should have methods get_make(),
get_model() and get_year() that return the respective values. Create
two classes, Car and Truck, that inherit from Vehicle. The Car class
should have an additional method get_type() that returns "Car" and the
Truck class should have an additional method get_type() that returns
"Truck". Create instances of both classes and call the methods to
display the values.
hapter 10: Files in Python
Python stores data in variables for both static and dynamic data. While
variables are ideal for storing data during the execution of a program, they
can be difficult to use when the data is sensitive and needs to be reused
repeatedly. Variables can self-destruct in order to clear memory, which is
inconvenient for users who want to save or reuse their data for multiple
purposes. Python provides files to better interact with data of any size or
format. Understanding file operations and implementing them in your
programs is essential for creating better software as a Python programmer.
 File Paths
Python programmers typically work with multiple files and two parameters.
The first is the file name, which makes it easy to find, the second is the file
path.
For example, if file.pdf is the name of a file, then "C:/ users/
downloads/file.pdf" is the path format of a file. The file extension in the file
name 'file.pdf' is pdf. To manage files, most operating systems employ an
efficient file management system.
It is critical to understand file management techniques. For this reason, you
must understand the fundamentals of file managers used in the operating
systems you are working in. For example, Windows use file explorer to
manage files, whereas Mac systems use Finder. Regardless of the operating
system and file manager you use, files are typically organized in a logical
hierarchical order using root directories, folders, and subdirectories.
Hierarchical Arrangement of Files
For the program to detect the file location, you must enter the entire path. The
entire path of the file is generally written hierarchically in order to determine
the directory, subdirectories, and folders.
For example, in 'C:/users/sample/example.pdf,' C is the system's root
directory, and sample and users are subdirectories within it. Because there
may be multiple files with the same name in different folders, it is critical to
use the entire path to determine the file's location.
As a programmer, you should be aware that Windows systems use
Backslashes to differentiate between the root directory and subdirectories.
Other operating systems, such as Mac and Linux, use forward slashes to
distinguish between root and subdirectories.
If you don't want to use back or forward slashes while entering code on the
terminal for whatever reason, you can use a function called os.path.join.
Program Code:
os.path.join('C', 'first', 'second')
Output:
'C\first\second'
Current Working Directory
While running complex code, you may need to interact with multiple files in
the same directory as a Python programmer. A function called os.getcwd()
can be used to help programmers interact with other files in the same
directory. When your absolute path is identified, all files in the directory or
subdirectory will be shown as output.
 Creating New Folders
Several Python programs usually require users to generate files or the
application to create files in different directories on its own. A save file for a
game, for example, may be generated automatically by the software without
any user intervention. All Python programmers must be aware of the
importance of creating new folders for the applications they create. To create
a new directory, use the os.makedirs() function.
Program Code:
import os
os.makedirs('D: /user/ Python/myfolder')
In the previous example, we first imported the 'os' module containing the
system function design. The makedirs() function was then called with a path
as the function parameter. "myfolder" is the name of the new folder created in
the directory by the above function. You can check by opening your file
manager or typing cd into a command prompt.
Please make sure to provide an absolute path to the directory where you want
to create a new folder.
 Functions to Manage Files
Files are complex and require a plethora of built-in functions to function
properly. You can easily manipulate, open, and close files with Python from
your IDE or terminal. By default, the Python interpreter can run both .txt
and.py extension files.
If you want to work with file types like pdf and jpg, you'll need to
install third-party libraries. By experienced Python programmers, these file
types are referred to as binary file types.
To begin, we will create a file called example.txt on the path "D:
/user/Python/example.txt" to help you understand the concepts of Files. You
are free to use your path when creating a file.
This example txt file will be used to describe file functions such as open(),
close(), write(), and read().
Assume the example.txt file contains the following:
Content:
This is a Python file.
How to Open Files
It is quite simple to open files with a Python command. All you need to know
is the file's absolute path and how to use the open() function.
Program Code:
myfile = open ('D: /user / Python / example.txt ')
# This will open the file
The open() function, along with the parameter, is used in the example. The
parameter in this example is the path provided to open a file. When a file is
opened, the Python interpreter cannot read or write it, but the user can read it
using the default viewer in which it was opened.
Before running this statement, make sure you have the necessary software to
open the files. For example, if you try to open an.mp4 video file and there is
not a native application that can open it, it will not be a viable solution.
What Happens?
When the interpreter locates the open() function, a new file object is created,
and all changes made during this phase must be saved in order to be reflected
in the original file. If the file is not saved, the Python interpreter will ignore
all changes.
 How to Read Files
When Python opens a file with the open() function, it creates a new object,
and the Python interpreter can now easily read the entire file's content with
the read() function.
Program Code:
filecontent = myfile.read()
# read() will scan all the content present in the file
Output:
This is a Python file.
In the previous example, we used the read() function to send the scanned data
from the file to a new variable called 'filecontent'. Depending on the
complexity of the file, you can also send the information into files to lists,
tuples, or dictionaries.
While the read() function just prints the file content, the readlines() function
can be used to organise the content of a file to new lines.
We will use a simple example to demonstrate this Python feature. First, in
your working directory, create a new file called 'mynewfile.txt.' After
opening the file, enter a few lines, as shown below.
mynewfile.txt:
This is an example of a document
We are simply connecting the dots
This information will be used to manipulate text
The Python interpreter is fast
Let's now call the readlines() function on the terminal.
Program Code:
myfile = open(mynewfile.txt)
# This variable helps us open a new file with the name provided
myfile.readlines()
Output:
['This is an example of a document \n', ' We are simply connecting the dots
\n', ' This information will be used to manipulate text \n', 'Python interpreter
is fast']
The output included a newline character \n for each line in the file. There are
numerous advanced file functions that can be used when developing real-
world applications.
 How to Write Content to Files
You can use the write() function to insert new data into any file. The write()
function is very similar to the print() function, which is used by programmers
to display content on the screen. It displays the contents of the file with the
name you specify.
The open() function allows programmers to open the file in write mode. All
you need to do is append an argument to let the interpreter know you want to
open the file and add your own content.
Once you've finished writing into the file, use the close() method to close it
and save it in its default location.
Program Code:
myfile = open('example.txt', 'w')
#This makes the file open in write mode
myfile.write ('This is how we write on files! \n')
myfile.close()
The output will show the content of the screen as well as the number of
characters.
You can also append text as an argument by using 'a'.
Example:
myfile = open('example.txt', 'a')
# The file is open in write mode
example.write('This is a new version')
# The above statement will be added to the file provided
myfile.close()
To check whether the message has been appended, use the read function, as
shown below.
myfile = read(example.txt)
print(myfile)
You can usually copy, paste, or cut files and folders using the default file
manager functions, such as Windows Explorer and Mac finder. However,
in Python you must use a built-in library known as shutil,
It creates programming components that can be used to quickly copy, move,
or delete files.
To use the shutil library's default functions, you must first import the library.
hapter 11: Exception Handling
All applications occasionally crash as a result of incorrect user input or an
error that occurs. It is possible to inform the user about why the application
has crashed. If you can't help them, your software should at the very least
detect that the application has collapsed and send the logs to your server to
help them find solutions. Giving users a heads-up about errors is the bare
minimum that modern application developers can do to improve their user
experience.
Exception handling is a computer programming feature that helps developers
to write scenarios for which an application may crash and explicitly instruct
the user if this occurs.
Do you remember the famous "This application has stopped responding" with
a red 'x' mark on Windows systems? It is one of the most well-known
exception handling interfaces in any system. While your exceptions do not
have to be of the highest quality, they should be adequate for a better end-
user experience.
In Python development, writing valid exceptions is considered a sophisticated
skill. Exception handling also assists programmers in detecting bugs and
logical defects in a program early in the workflow. An exception also saves a
significant amount of time during testing and maintenance.
Exception Handling Example:
● Go to your profile and try to tweet an image that is larger than 24MB.
After loading, the Twitter web or app interface will display a popup
informing you that your image cannot be uploaded due to its larger
size.
● In this case, Twitter developers have built an exception handling
interface to help users understand why their images are not being
uploaded. Exception handling is an excellent tool for improving the
user experience.
● All well-known third-party libraries include exception handling
methods that you can import and use in your applications.
We will teach you how to handle exceptions using the Divide-by-zero error.
When you divide a number by zero, the value is usually undefined because it
is referred to as an infinite value. Similarly, if a user of your application
attempts to divide a number by zero, you must display a ZeroDivisionerror.
This error can be displayed using try and except statements.
 'Try’ and ‘Except'
When creating exception handling tasks, you should be aware of the leading
programming components try and except. The try block is where developers
must specify the likelihood of finding the error in the Python interpreter. The
except block, on the other hand, requires information about what to do if a
specific error that we defined occurs during program execution.
Program Code:
# Try and except block in a function
def divide32(x):
try:
A = 32/x
print(A)
except ZeroDivisionError:
print ("I can't divide by 0")

divide32(8)
divide32(0)
divide32(16)
Output:
4.0
I can't divide by 0
2.0
We started with a try and except block that told the interpreter where we
could expect an error popup and what information should be displayed if
there was one.
Different Types of Errors
Python documentation contains a plethora of system errors. When we
discussed the Zero division error in the previous example, you may have
noticed a straightforward approach. Different errors have different methods
for avoiding them or running applications even when they are present.
Understanding the causes of some system errors can help you understand the
fundamentals of debugging your applications.
Value errors
These errors occur when you pass arguments to a function that are not of the
type that they accept. A value error can cause your application to crash
unexpectedly.
Uploading a pdf file when only image files are permitted is an example of an
exception trigger.
Import error
These errors occur when you are unable to import a module directly into your
program. They are typically caused by a network connection failure or issues
with online package managers.
Example of an Exception Trigger: You are unable to sync your data on your
private cloud accounts due to an import error.
OS error
You may occasionally encounter issues because the software is incompatible
with your operating system version. These errors frequently occur because
the system kernel does not understand what the application is saying. These
errors are fairly common when using Linux distributions.
Example of an Exception Trigger: The application crashes because the host is
running an unsupported version of an operating system.
Type error
This error typically occurs when a user or developer enters a value for a data
type that the application does not yet support.
Name error
When a variable or function that has not yet been defined in the program is
called, this error occurs.
Index error
Index errors typically occur when you provide an index that is greater than
the list you have created.
hapter 12: Advanced Programming
Many third-party Python frameworks provide specific functionalities to
programmers. It's sufficient to import the base libraries. That's why Python's
popularity has skyrocketed. Libraries are great for developers to create real-
world applications that ordinary users can use. You should be aware of
certain commonly used Python libraries to write valid complex code without
having to start from scratch.
The source codes for the majority of these libraries will be available for
exploration on websites such as GitHub or Bitbucket.
 Pip Package Manager
All operating systems make applications available to their users. Python isn't
an operating system, but rather a software interpreter. Any software that is
not written in Python can't run using a Python interpreter because the Python
interpreter does not understand the source code used by that software.
There are thousands of paid and free Python software downloads available
from many sources. A simple Google search for Python software for
the domain you are interested in can provide thousands of results. To install
this software on your own, you will need at least a basic understanding of
executable files.
Python offers package managers to download package files into
your operating system to be immediately executed. In this way, you can
easily install the software you need. While there are many third-party Python
package managers, the default pip is the most common and every Python
programmer should be familiar with.
Why Using Pip
● New packages and dependencies can be installed.
● There is an index that lists all Python package repositories that are
available on pip servers.
● Before installing the software, use it to go over the requirements.
● Remove all packages and dependencies that you no longer use.
First, check if pip is installed on your system. Pip is usually included with the
Python.
Terminal Code:
$ pip —version
If it prints out the pip version information details, your system has the
package manager installed. If not, you may need to manually download and
install it from the official website.
How to Install Packages?
To install packages, you should always use the syntax format shown below.
$ pip install name_of_the_software
For example, if you want to install the "Seaborn" package, the syntax is the
following:
$ pip install seaborn
 To check the information associated with the content before installing, use
the command below:
$ pip show seaborn
This terminal code will return a lot of metadata information, including the
Author, Package name and location.
Use the code syntax format below to uninstall any package installed on your
system using the pip package manager.
Syntax:
$ pip uninstall nameofthepackage
For example, to uninstall the Seaborn package you previously installed, use
the command below:
$ pip uninstall seaborn
You can also search for a package using the code format shown below.
$ pip search name_of_the_package

This will show you all packages from the package index for you to examine
and select from.
 Virtual Environment
Typically, when you install a package, you are also installing a number of
dependencies. These dependencies may occasionally overlap with other
software, causing the package to fail to install. To help developers in creating
independent projects, the 'virtualenv' package can be used to create an
isolated virtual environment.
First, use the pip package manager to install the 'virtualenv' package.
Installation command:
$ pip install virtualenv
Once the package is installed, you can use the below command to create a
new directory using a virtual machine.
$ virtualenv mydir
All the packages, files, and software you install will be saved in this new
directory, without interfering with any system dependencies or packages. To
begin, run the following command to activate the virtual machine.
Terminal Command:
$ source mydir/bin/activate
After you've installed all of your packages, deactivate this virtual
environment with the following command:
Terminal Command:
(mydir) $ deactivate
 The sys Module
To master Python it's crucial to understand how a Python interpreter works.
An interpreter typically parses every variable, method or literal in the code
before executing a logically written program and checking for syntax, type,
and index errors. It is important to examine how an interpreter works and
stores information required for the use of specific software.
The Sys module in Python makes it simple for developers to check this
information.
import sys
path
This sys library argument will tell you the default path of the Python
interpreter installed on your system:
print(sys.path)
argv
This method will return a list of all the existing modules in the system:
print(sys.argv)
copyright
This method will show the user the copyright information for the Python
interpreter or software:
print(sys.copyright)
getrefcount
This method shows how frequently a program uses a variable or object:
print(sys.getrefcount(myvariable))
Unit Testing
Before developing, a programmer must ensure that the program follows all
Python's guidelines. Even if the logic in your programs is correct, it may
cause problems in the future due to practical issues. These bottleneck
situations should be avoided in order to provide a better user experience.
Python allows and encourages programmers to check their code using unit
testing frameworks. The framework 'unittest' is installed by default to force
programmers to create testing conditions from scratch for their programs.
How Do Unit Tests Work?
You may become overwhelmed when testing their code because the Python
documentation does not provide a specific set of rules for conducting unit
tests. However, experienced programmers always emphasize that it is best to
start testing code for methods first and then expand to other programming
components.
● Using this methodology, you can test any part of the software.
● The tested code can be easily shared with other developers.
Furthermore, eventual build and runtime errors during this process will
be shared with your team.
● You can group tests and call them collections, and then manually
organize them to keep these tests up to date.
Other third-party frameworks can be installed by programmers to improve
their unit testing skills.
 Scrapy
Scrapy is a Python library designed specifically for scraping purposes.
Spiders are typically used to scrape data from dynamic websites and search
engines. Scrapy is great to create advanced spiders capable of intuitively
extracting data from web or mobile pages.
To install Scrapy, enter the following code into any package manager.
Installation command:
pip install scrapy
 Requests
Requests is a Python library used to create HTTP requests for web or mobile
applications. You can easily manage requests and responses for all web
content that your application uses with Requests.
The web response data is typically in JSON format. t is normally difficult to
read, but Requests parses the JSON file and displays the information in a
readable manner. Scrappers also make use of the requests library to build
automation software for major websites.
Use the default pip package to install Requests.
Installation command:
pip install requests
 Pygame
Python is also used to create games for handheld consoles and mobile
devices. Pygame is a popular third-party gaming framework among
independent developers worldwide. Pygame includes both multimedia and
physics libraries, allowing developers to create 2D and 3D games. Pygame
also includes sound, mouse, keyboard, and accelerometer components for
creating highly interactive games.
Most Pygame developers create games for Android phones and tablets
because the SDL Pygame framework is highly adaptable to these devices.
Use the following command to install Pygame on your local system.
Installation command:
pip install pygame
 Beautiful Soup
Beautiful Soup is a popular Python scraping library that can retrieve HTML
and XML data from a variety of sources with a single click. It can generate an
efficient parse tree of the various directories and sub-directories present on
the website, allowing users to easily organize the scraped information.
Before scraping, Beautiful Soup understands the most recent technologies,
such as HTML 5 elements on a web page. Beautiful Soup is used by several
third-party software, including Ahrefs, to handle their premium keyword
research tools, which frequently need to scrape data from billions of pages on
the internet.
Use pip to install Beautiful Soup on your local system.
Installation command:
pip install beautifulsoup
 Pillow
Pillow is one of many Python libraries that make image manipulation simple.
Image enhancement is required in a variety of computer domains, and Pillow
makes it possible by leveraging the legacy PIL project, which was considered
a better image manipulation library written in C.
Pillow is a fork of the PIL project, which is no longer being developed.
Pillow supports a variety of image formats, including png, jpeg, gif and ttf.
Furthermore, you can use Pillow's built-in methods to perform many photo
editing functions, like rotating, resizing, cropping, and changing filters.
Use pip to install the Pillow library on your local system.
Installation command:
pip install pillow
 Tensorflow
Tensorflow is a well-known Machine Learning library for building advanced
neural networks. Many developers also use Tensorflow within Deep Learning
frameworks to develop software components that are frequently embedded
in Deep Learning applications like facial recognition. Google created
Tensorflow to make the development of complex machine learning models
easier. However, it was later made open source so that enthusiastic
developers could contribute to the project.
Tensorflow can be installed using any package manager, such as pip.
Installation command:
pip install tensorflow
 Scikit learn
Scikit learn is a widely used machine learning model creation tool that is
similar to TensorFlow. Many developers use it to create data analysis and
analytics software. Scikit learn makes it simple for developers to incorporate
advanced machine learning models into their code, such as
clustering, Random forests, and K-means algorithms.
Scikit learn also supports complex neural networking algorithms used in
scientific research, such as the development of genetic algorithms. To install
it use the following command.
Installation command:
pip install sci-kit learn
 Pandas
Data analysts are in love with Pandas because it is one of the most popular
third-party libraries. While R is more popular among data analysts than
Python, Pandas is still a good library for developers who want to create
advanced data-analysis models. Pandas makes it simple to import and export
huge amounts of data in a variety of formats, including SQL, JSON, and
Excel. Furthermore, you can use Pandas with greater precision than other
libraries for data cleaning and arrangement, which are high-level data
analysis techniques.
Use package managers such as pip to install Pandas on your local system.
Installation command:
pip install pandas
 Matplotlib
Matplotlib is a well-known Python library that is used in conjunction with
Scipy to implement high-level mathematical functions in your code. Scipy
and Matplotlib can be used together to create multidimensional arrays, which
can then be used to write complex code to solve real-world scientific
challenges. Many computer scientists rely on these libraries to keep their
workflows running smoothly.
Matplotlib displays all acquired data in beautiful graphs to help you better
understand the data flow. Tkinter is also used to logically arrange data. While
Scipy focuses on scientific and technical computing, Matplotlib focuses on
data visualization for enthusiasts and organizations.
Use pip to install Matplotlib on your local system.
Installation command:
pip install matplotlib
To use some of Matplotlib's advanced functions, make sure Scipy is installed
using the command below.
Installation command:
pip install scipy
 Twisted
Developers of web-based Python applications must be familiar with various
networking concepts. While the core Python library provides enough
resources and methods to write efficient networking code, it is always
recommended that you use libraries such as Twisted to create complex code
more easily. With a single click, Twisted implements networking protocols
such as UDP, TCP, and HTTP. Twisted is the default networking component
library for many websites, including Twitch.
Use pip to install Twisted.
Installation command:
pip install twisted
 GitHub for Programmers
GitHub is useful for programmers because it allows them to collaborate with
teams remotely. GitHub is based on a peer-to-peer GIT repository, so the
changes of your code will be reflected in your teammates' computers as soon
as they are connected to the internet.
GitHub provides two versions: free and professional. When you use the free
version, your code is accessible to anyone who has a GitHub account. With
the pro version, your code will be private, and only members of your team
will be able to access it. Furthermore, all private repositories use advanced
encryption algorithms to safeguard your data.
Why Is GitHub Essential for Python Programmers?
Regardless of the computer domain you work in, you may need to use third-
party frameworks and libraries available on GitHub when creating projects.
You can use GitHub or one of several third-party clients to instantly interact
with local repositories.
Dependencies are used by GitHub and all Git-supported clients to easily sync
libraries and modules into your code. The Git server's 'commit' option allows
you to make changes to the code.
Use the Python shell to run the following command to create a new
repository in your GIT server.
Installation command:
$ git config —global root "my project."
When you enter the git code into the console, a new project is created, and
you can now create folders for your project. To start creating a directory on
the root of your project, run the command below.
$ mkdir. ("Name of the repository: ")
If you don't know anything about the GIT server or project you're working
on, type the following command into your console.
$ git status
In this way you are ready to begin developing your open-source project to
help other programmers in your domain.
 Conclusion
First and foremost, congratulations on finishing a comprehensive Python
guide. This book has covered a variety of in-depth Python topics that will
help you in writing high-quality code for your projects. However, consistent
practice with the fundamentals taught in this book is required to improve.
Working on projects or practicing competitive coding will only increase your
expertise.
Some features of experienced programmers have contributed to their success
in their passionate journey with computers and technology. They usually
develop several habits that help them become better programmers. As a
beginner, it is critical that you understand some of these characteristics and
incorporate them into your workflow to increase performance within a topic
or a group of topics.
Programmer Features
Foundations first
You must understand the fundamentals as much as possible. Writing code for
difficult tasks with a solid foundation becomes much easier over time. To
strengthen your foundations, familiarize yourself with the Python style guide,
which strives for simplicity. Writing simple code and following the Zen of
Python rules will help in the improvement of your fundamental knowledge.
Break problems into smaller parts
As a programmer, you must solve complex and complicated problems. Not
all problems can be solved with a single logical step. To solve a problem with
better runtime execution, a programmer must break it down into smaller
problems. This philosophy can assist programmers in developing software
with fewer bugs that requires a minimal unit testing strategy.
Find your specialty
It is impossible for any programmer to be proficient in every computer
domain. You should have clear what computer domain you are most
interested in as a programmer. Experiment with various computing systems
to better understand what computer domain you like. Python, for example, is
versatile and can be a great resource for data scientists, web developers, or
systems engineers. Don't force yourself to learn a little bit of everything;
instead, focus on mastering a single domain.
You will actually learn from errors
Errors can be demotivating, especially if you're just starting out. Anytime you
get an error, copy the traceback error and search for it in Google or ChatGPT.
You will find several solutions to the problem, and fixing it on your own will
help you better understand the fundamentals of Python.
Learn to implement algorithms
To improve your writing skills in terms of programming logic, you should
learn sorting and search algorithms. Understanding mathematical concepts
will also help in the intuitive approach to complex problems. While
competitive programmers typically approach problems differently than
software developers, understanding their approach can help you overcome
various roadblocks that may arise during the software development process.
Python can be used to implement binary search algorithms, graph algorithms,
and complex data structures such as Stacks and Queues. To approach Python
from an algorithmic standpoint, we recommend using websites like
LeetCode.
Get familiar with GitHub
One of the most important resources to be aware of is GitHub. All open-
source code is generally available through git repositories. As a result, if you
want to make any changes to these repositories, you must contact the
repository owners using GitHub commands like 'push' and 'commit.' All
companies looking for developers prefer people with GitHub experience
because it allows them to quickly integrate you into their team.
Don’t overwork
Even though this is not a technical tip, understanding the slow and steady
philosophy employed by experienced developers is critical. Never try to take
in too much information at once. Consistency beats performance and it is
more important in the early stages of your career. As a result, instead of
cramming the information in a few days, schedule a few hours of Python
studying every day. Participate in programs like 100daysofPython on
platforms such as Twitter to keep yourself motivated and consistent.
Be aware of testing procedures
Before developing software to end users, it must be thoroughly tested.
Understanding unit testing workflows such as Alpha and beta testing
will help you provide more functional software with fewer known bugs. Use
a user-reporting strategy to recreate bugs more easily in your working
machine and resolve them as soon as possible. Clearing bugs requires
experience and, at times, an expert opinion. Don't be afraid to ask for help in
forums.
Keep a healthy work-life balance
Regardless of your chosen profession, keeping a balance between work and
personal life is important. To get the most out of your work time, especially
as a programmer, you must be aware of tasks and time management. If you
work as a freelancer, apps like Things and Session can help you manage your
tasks effectively. Furthermore, using techniques like the Pomodoro
technique can help you clear more bugs in less time.
What Next?
I'm glad you're along for the ride as we learn Python. Programming is
enjoyable, and no matter how fast you learn, only practice will make you a
great developer. So, using the knowledge you've gained from this book, start
working on your projects.
If you're stumped as to what projects to try, here are some project ideas to get
you started.
● Create a management system for a public library in your community.
● Create a suburban metro railway reservation system.
● Using the Django library, create a simple website.
● Use Pygame to create a classic Python game.
● Parse Twitter data to build a bot that automatically retweets popular
tweets.
I hope that your personal growth journey is successful in every way!
 Acknowledgments
Writing a technical book is never an easy task. It requires a lot of time, effort,
and focus. This book on Python is no exception. The journey of writing this
book has been full of challenges and struggles, but I am grateful for the
experience.

I would like to express my deep gratitude to one of my professors, Mr. Albert

Johnson. He has been a constant source of inspiration and guidance
throughout my academic and professional life. His teachings on
programming and Python have been invaluable to me and I have tried my
best to incorporate his wisdom and insights in this book.

I would also like to thank my coworker Alex very much. He's been very
encouraging to me as I've worked on this project. He has shared his expertise,
provided constructive feedback and encouraged me to push through the
difficult moments.

I owe the greatest debt of gratitude to my wife Kate, who has always been
there for me and pushed me forward. She has been my number one
cheerleader and has never wavered in her faith in me, even when I questioned
my own abilities. Her love, understanding and patience have sustained me
through the long nights of writing and editing.

I also want to take a moment to thank you, the reader, for taking the time to
delve into the world of Python with me. Your support and interest in this
book is what makes all of the hard work and struggles worth it.

As you embark on your journey to learn Python and become a skilled

programmer, I want to encourage you to never give up. While the path to
mastery may be exhausting, the benefits of succeeding are well worth the
effort. Anything worth having is worth working hard for, and if you put in the
time and effort, you can get it.
So, take a deep breath, embrace the challenge, and never stop learning. The
possibilities are endless, and I have no doubt that you will succeed in your
endeavors.

Thank you for joining me on this journey, and I hope you enjoy the book.

Philip
 References
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python/
O'Neil, C. (2021, June 7). How to install Python on Windows 10. DigitalOcean.
https://www.digitalocean.com/community/tutorials/install-python-
windows-10
McEwen, J. (2021, May 24). Coding: What is PyCharm? Emeritus.
https://emeritus.org/blog/coding-what-is-pycharm/
O'Neil, C. (2020, December 9). The Python and operator explained. Real
Python. https://realpython.com/python-and-operator/
LearnPython.org. (n.d.). Variables and types. Learn Python.
https://www.learnpython.org/en/Variables_and_Types
VanderPlas, J. (2018, November 20). Understanding data types in Python.
Python Data Science Handbook.
https://jakevdp.github.io/PythonDataScienceHandbook/02.01-
understanding-data-types.html
Wilder, R. (2015). Functions. In Writing Electronic Text: A Guide to Good
Practice. https://rwet.decontextualize.com/book/functions/
Arras, L. (2021, June 2). Object-oriented programming in Python 3. Real
Python. https://realpython.com/python3-object-oriented-programming/
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