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ART AND
CULTURE
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Table of Contents

1. Art, Architecture and Sculpture in Prehistoric Times 5

2. Classification and Evolution of Architecture in India 11
3. Harappan Civilisation (Indus Valley Civilisation) Art 23
4. Mauryan Art 35
5. Post-Mauryan Art 45
6. Gupta Age 67
7. Temple Architecture in South India 83
8. Architecture in Medieval India 95
9. Modern India and European Influence 113
10. Indian Dance, Theatre and Music 125
11. Indian Paintings and Murals 161
12. Religions in India 179
13. Indian Literature and Schools of Philosophy 189
14. Indian Puppetry and Martial Arts in India 205
15. Indian Culture, Festivals, and Calendars 211

Table of Contents 3
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1 Art, Architecture and Sculpture in

Prehistoric Times
Introduction conflicts.
y Indian Architecture can be distinguished by
Ancient India consisted of a large area that
following three distinct periods:
had present-day Pakistan, Afghanistan, Burma,
⚪ The architecture of the Indus Valley
and Indo-China may be ‘incorporated into it’.
from 2500 BC to the invasion of 1500
With the Himalayas flanking it on the North-
BC.
East, the Hindukush on the North-West and
⚪ Architecture from invasion to gradual
the Arabian sea, the Indian ocean and the
conquest of India by 1200AD.
of around the peninsula. In India, there is
⚪ Islamic Architecture from 1200 AD to
generally seen domination of tropical climate,
1800 AD when the Muslims were taken
although there is a great variation from North
over by the British.
to South and East to West. For instance, the
y The History of India in the middle of the
stone was the major building material in Indian
3rd century BC happens to be one of the
Architecture. There is a great variety of stones
seminal events in the world. Several cities
available, marble and sandstone in Rajasthan
were based on a rectangular grid, oriented
and parts of Northern India, with granite
to the cardinal points, with standardised
availability in the South. Apart from this, the
brick being the primary building material.
bricks were frequently made with alluvial soil
A high proportion of the population lived in
along the Gangetic plain, which has survived
well-drained houses. Most of these cities
through the vagaries of time. The rock along the
were walled and dominated by citadels
western Ghats provided artists and craftsmen
containing public buildings, including
with an opportunity to make beautiful rock-cut
granaries.
temples during the Buddhist period.
⚪ In the 2nd century BC, pastoral people
Evolution of Architecture in India from Central Asia called Aryans invaded
the Indus plain, destroying one city after
y Apart from indicating prevalent tastes, the other.
architectural styles are also responsible ⚪ After the Aryans subjugated the
for creating tastes, popularising styles indigenous Dravidian population of the
along with shaping cultural trends. Many Indian plain, the Indus Valley civilisation
Indians came to regard European styles of was wiped out, for a long period Vedic
architecture as symbols of modernity and Age was there and later on the Buddhist
civilisation and began adopting these styles. religion dominated India for most of the
But this was not the case with all Indians; 6th century.
many rejected European ideals and tried to y Harappan cities which exhibited unique
retain indigenous styles; others accepted town planning, are among the earliest
certain Western elements that they saw and most impressive examples of Indian
as modern and amalgamated them with architecture.
elements drawn from local traditions. ⚪ Architectural styles classified as Hindu,
y From the late nineteenth century onwards, Buddhist and Jain evolved in the post-
efforts to define regional and national Harappan period, while Persian and
tastes different from the colonial ideal indigenous architectural styles were
could be seen. synthesised in the medieval period.
y As a result, styles evolved and changed y After that, the colonial period introduced
through more comprehensive cultural Western influence to Indian architecture.

Art, Architecture and Sculpture in Prehistoric Times 5

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India’s architecture has a unique character great empires and dynasties of the
as a result of a combination of indigenous subcontinent.
and foreign influences. ⚪ External influences have also shaped
y Early cavemen began building their own the landscape of Indian architecture,
shelter as soon as they stepped out of influencing different regions of the
the natural habitat of dense jungles. country.
Architecture is not a modern invention. It y However, many of India’s monuments have
dates back to the day when cavemen began been reduced to dust due to the waves of
building their own shelters to live in. As he time. The availability of architectural edifices
searched for larger and better shelters, he depends to a great extent on the material
began to employ his artistic faculties to used in them. Suppose construction is
build shelters that had an aesthetic quality. of perishable material like wood. In that
Consequently, emergent architecture is case, the chances of long-term survival
a combination of the needs of the owner, are very thin, but if the material used is
their imagination, their abilities, as well as non-perishable, like stone, it can last for a
the workers’ skills. longer period. Much has remained despite
y Architectural study reveals cultural diversity the temporal erosion, and there is a clear
and helps understand the traditional culture evolution in the styles over time.
of India. Thus, architecture is a study of the y Architecture in India shows gradual evolution
adaptation of local and regional culture, from wooden and simple stone masonry to
social needs, economic prosperity, and more compact and structurally rigid and
religious practices over time. aesthetic versions. The shift occurs both
y In different parts and regions of India, Indian due to the advancement of technology and
architectural styles have evolved various new elements entering from elsewhere in
times. The evolution of Indian architecture the world. There has been an amalgamation
was usually affected by many great and of the old and the new and the local to the
essential historical developments, as well remote at most places. The story of Indian
as these natural and apparent changes architecture begins with a grand civilisation
from prehistoric and historical periods. that emerged on the plains of the present-
⚪ India’s architectural evolution was day Indus river and its tributaries.
influenced by the rise and fall of the

Fig. 1.1: Cultural Timelines

6 Art, Architecture and Sculpture in Prehistoric Times

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Paleolithic: Mesolithic: Neolithic: Chalcolithic:

y Mother Goddess at y First rock y Both y Ahar culture:
Locanda Nala Belan painting- Suhagi handmade Southeastern
valley (Mirzapur). Ghat in Kaimur and wheel Rajasthan.
y Grooved animal hills. pottery has y Ahar pottery is
tooth at Kurnool. y Bhimbetka rock been found. made on wheel red
y A Circular painting: Sixteen y There is an and whiteware.
disc made of different colours engraving on y Terracotta is one of
chalcedony at can be identified, pottery. the unique features
Bhimbetka (in but red and white y There is of Ahar culture.
today’s Madhya are mainly used. evidence of y Chalcolithic
Pradesh). y There are 29 community farmers of Deccan.
y Ostrich eggshell different species feasting y Daimabad culture
engraved with two of animals like at Budihal (Ahmednagar,
panels of criss- tiger leopard, (Gulbarga Maharashtra).
cross design at panther, elephant, District y Bronze objects
Patne. and antelope of today’s mainly.
y Baghor (MP): A (most frequent). Karnataka). y Inamgaon, Pune: It
roughly circular is characterised by
platform made of a large number of
sandstone rubble bull figurines.
has been found

Types of Megaliths:

Megaliths are very large usually rough stones used in prehistoric cultures as a monument or
building block.

Menhir: Dolmen: Cist: Cairn Circle:

y Large and y Dead bodies y There is a set y This is a
tall memorial were kept on pattern that demonstration here
stones were the slab of is followed by that first, the dead
erected to make stone on a graves here. The body used to be
the presence of raised platform dead body is first buried along with
a grave at that enclosed from buried, which is iron implements,
place evident. all the sides then followed clay pots or urns
y Length: One and with a flat by small stones and bones of pets
a half to about stone slab. being erected all and then rounded
five and a half y Originated: around it. stones were fixed
metres. Brahmagiri y Found: Banda all around the
y Found: Maski region in and Mirzapur of grave.
and Gulbarga Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh. y Found: Nayakund
regions of Chingelpur and Borgaon
Karnataka. region of Tamil (Maharashtra) and
Nadu. Chingelpur (Tamil
Nadu).

Art, Architecture and Sculpture in Prehistoric Times 7

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y In Indian architecture, there are many kinds

of expressions that have been shaped over Previous Years’ Question (PYQ)
time and space by the forces of history (2015, Mains)
unique to the particular country. Diversities
within architectural specimens have Mesolithic rock-cut architecture of India
resulted in an enormous variety of styles, not only reflects the cultural life of the
maintaining a relative degree of continuity times but also a fine aesthetic sense
through time. comparable to modern painting.
y Each period of Indian history has its y In Body,
mark on architecture in the nation. ⚪ discuss how rock-cut architecture
Indian architecture can be traced back to of the Mesolithic age reflected
Buddhism in India, but its foundations can both cultural and aesthetic sense
be found in the Indus Valley cities. with their features.
y The South Indian School of Architecture Answer:
flourished after the formation of Hindu The Mesolithic Age is associated with
kingdoms in South India. Palava rulers the duration between the end of the
were particularly famous for their rock- Palaeolithic Age and the start of the
cut Temples of Mahabalipuram and Neolithic Age. The Mesolithic Period in
Kanchipuram. Other rulers, such as India spanned from 10,000 to 2,000 BCE.
the Cholas, Hoysalas, and Vijayanagars, Mesolithic art and architecture are works
also accomplished remarkable things of art and architecture developed during
in architecture. South Indian rulers are this time period.
credited with creating the Temples at During this period, art generally reflected
Thanjavur, Belur, and Halebid for their man’s immediate surroundings or the
superior architectural skills. objects on which he relied, whereas
y The Nagara style architecture developed in classical art mostly depicted what man
North India, which was new and different. saw, and contemporary art primarily
y A magnificent temple complex was built illustrated what man thought. Mesolithic
by the Chandela rulers in Khajuraho, a sites can be found in Uttar Pradesh (e.g.
town in Central India. After the Muslim Sarai Nahar Rai, Morgana Pahar), Madhya
rulers took control of India, a different Pradesh (Bhimbetka), Rajasthan (Bogor),
architectural style developed called Indo- Gujarat (Alhaj, Valsana), Odisha, Tamil
Islamic architecture, which was neither Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh. The following
strictly Hindu nor strictly Islamic. Delhi (the are some of this period’s characteristics:
Imperial Style) and Mughal Architecture y People in this Age utilised microliths,
comprise the two main categories of or little stone tools, which were
medieval architecture. formed by blunting one or more
y There was the development of a new style sides with steep retouches. Obliquely
of architecture that came to be known as truncated blades, crescents, triangles,
Indo- Saracenic architecture which was and trapezes are some examples. The
the result of the Colonisation of India. rock and cave shelters were the only
This architecture was an amalgamation of places where art and building could be
Hindu, European and Islamic architectural found.
styles. Railway stations, rest houses, post y Petroglyphs (rock paintings) and
offices and other government buildings and petroglyphs (rock engravings) are two
utilitarian civic buildings were all part of types of rock art, with Bhimbetka being
colonial architecture. a typical example. The art in these

8 Art, Architecture and Sculpture in Prehistoric Times

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y Temple Architecture: Temple architecture

natural cave shelters reflects social of a high standard was developed in almost
life at the time, particularly hunting, every region during the ancient period.
sexual activity, childbirth, burial, and The differences in architectural styles
so on. were due to the diversity of geography,
y As most of the paintings depicted the climatic conditions, ethnic groups, races,
natural world around them, people religions, and languages in different parts
of this era had a strong aesthetic of the country. There are different styles of
sensibility. ancient Indian Temples built according to
The bazaar paintings during Company their architectural design.
rule, on the other hand, focused more ⚪ On occasion, it becomes very important
on extravagant presentations than on to remind ourselves that we are from a
portraying the aesthetic value. civilisation that stretches back at least
Even contemporary Indian paintings of 4,500 years and has impacted nearly
today exhibit a fine aesthetic sense, as every aspect of our life and society.
they are mostly based on European neo- UNESCO has listed 1154 World Heritage
classical traditions. Whereas abstract Sites, including 40 in India. This is
modern art incidentally lacks the tangible evidence of the creativity and
aesthetics of classical and stone age art industry of this ancient land and people
and appeals to only a selected class of and also of the gifts that nature has
people. granted it.
 From Bhimbetka’s prehistoric rock
art at one end of the peninsula to
the countless Palaces, Temples,
Types of Architecture Mosques, Churches, Gurudwaras,
y Ancient Architecture: It has been and tombs of the region.
recognised that Indian architecture is  One may observe many beautiful
as old as civilisation itself. The earliest buildings, such as monuments,
examples of building in India date back Palaces, Temples, Mosques,
to the Indus Valley. Among the ancient Churches and memorials, while
architectural remains of India are Temples, travelling through Delhi, Agra, Jaipur,
Stupas, Chaityas and Viharas, as well as Mumbai and Calcutta, among others.
other religious structures.  The architecture that stands tall and
y Cave Architecture: The origins of this mighty as a reminder of the brilliant
architecture in India are attributed to the past we have shared is the result of
Third Century BC. Caves in these areas many generations’ work.
were used by Buddhist and Jain monks to ⚪ The architecture and art of India have
worship and reside. To begin with, the caves contributed greatly to the long history
were found in western India, where there of this country. Throughout its long
are Buddhist Chaityas and Viharas. history, architecture developed many
y Rock Cut: Most of the rock-cut structures unique features.
are associated with various religious y Indo Islamic Architecture: A great deal
communities and are one of the most of innovation occurred in the field of
magnificent pieces of ancient Indian art. architecture during the medieval period as
At first, noteworthy Buddhist and Jain Muslims arrived in India and introduced a
monuments were constructed in areas number of new building features. Indian
such as Bihar in the east and Maharashtra Architecture with Islamic Art influences
in the west. can be called Indo-Islamic Architecture.

Art, Architecture and Sculpture in Prehistoric Times 9

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y Colonial Architecture: With colonisation, Conclusion

Indian architecture experienced a new
The architecture is a mirror of the aesthetic
chapter in its history, as did all other
ideals prevalent at a particular time, and along
aspects of colonisation. Among the peoples
with that, it also shows the variations within
who impacted architecture were the Dutch,
those ideals. Buildings that are constructed
French, and Portuguese, but the English
demonstrate the vision of the ones who
had the most profound impact.
constructed them. It has been widely known
⚪ The colonisation of India led to
that historically, kings have built buildings as
the development of a new style of
an expression of their power. Hence a building
architecture, known as Indo-Saracenic
and its architecture is a glimpse into history
architecture, it combines parts of Hindu,
about how power was conceived and also how
Islamic, and European architectural
it was expressed by means of structures and
styles. Post offices and railway stations,
their attributes- pillars and arches, bricks and
rest houses and government buildings
stones, soaring domed or vaulted roofs. The
were all part of colonial architecture,
architecture is also symbolic of the variety of
as well as civic and civic utilitarian
forms in which the cultural conflicts unfolded
buildings.
back in the time and of the political conflicts
that were played out between the imperial
and the national and also the national and the
regional/local.

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2 Classification and Evolution of

Architecture in India
Introduction broad divisions–a citadel on a higher
mound and the lower town.
Architecture is perhaps India’s greatest artistic
⚪ Burnt bricks were used for building
glory. History, culture, and religion have had
houses. The towns had a good drainage
a major influence on Indian architecture.
system.
Different eras have influenced the design
⚪ Some most important buildings in the
and perceived value of the site over time.
Harappan towns were the Great Bath at
Colonisation along with discourse with other
Mohenjodaro, a granary at Harappa, and
countries has added additional layers to
a dockyard at Lothal carried.
Indian architecture. Various civilisations and
⚪ These people practised agriculture
dynasties have contributed significantly to
along with pastoralism.
the evolution of the Indian architectural style.
⚪ Although there were skilled craftsmen
Outside influences have also been important in
who worked in copper and other metals,
shaping the architectural style. Several parts of
the stone tools were still in common
the country are still affected by the influence
use. They supplied beads, terracotta
and remnants of this period.
figurines, potteries and seals of various
Ancient India kinds.
⚪ They out trade, both internal and
external. They had commercial ties with
Harappa Art Mesopotamian cities through Oman
y The Harappan civilisation was the first urban and Bahrain in the Persian Gulf. The
civilisation of the Indian subcontinent. merchants operated trades in various
Archaeological discoveries indicate that commodities of import and export.
this culture evolved from the earlier rural Their society appears to have been
communities. Harappa, Mohenjodaro, matriarchal in nature.
Chanhudaro, Kalibangan, Lothal, Banawali; ⚪ They followed different professions, i.e.,
about 5000 years ago, many building priests, physicians, warriors, peasants,
activities went on in these areas. traders and artisans. Though they wore
⚪ This period saw excellent planning simple clothes made of cotton and wool,
in the town. It was common to use they were affectionate about decorating
burnt brick, road widths were large themselves with various ornaments.
and at right angles to one another, and ⚪ They worshipped the Pashupati (Proto
city sewers were planned with great Shiva), trees and mother Goddess,
forethought and skill. Corbelled arches animals. They also observed different
and baths were also constructed with kinds of burial practices and rituals
great knowledge. associated with them.
⚪ Rakhigarhi and Dholavira were some ⚪ The Harappans were literate, and their
of the main sites of the Harappan script was in the form of ideograms.
civilisation. Still, the script has not been deciphered
⚪ Well-planned towns can be seen in so far. Once it is deciphered, we will
some Harappan centres. be able to know more about Harappan
⚪ These towns were exemplified by two culture.

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Fig. 2.4: Granary at Harappa

Fig. 2.1: Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro

Mauryan Art
y It is known that stone masonry and stone
carving were imported in Ashoka’s times
from Persia. Similarly, to Persepolis, there
are abundant signs of stonemason’s marks.
Still, wood remained the dominant material,
and the gradual transition from wood to
stone can be seen in the architectural
remains from Ashokan times.
y It has been discovered at Pataliputra that
the imperial capital used to be surrounded
by a timber wall, which was clearly
Fig. 2.2: Artistic Representation of Harappa
described by Megasthanes, who asserted
that everything in India was constructed of
timber at the time. Nonetheless, there is
one major exception to this, and that is the
rock-cut architecture of India:
⚪ Early cave architecture is the most
datable cave, the so-called Lomas Rishi
cave situated in the Barabar Hills (Bihar).
⚪ An inscription confirms that this was
excavated for the Ajivika sect during
Ashoka’s reign.
⚪ Symbolically, the entrance represents a
hut, with a bent wooden roof supporting
cross beams that protrude at the ends.
Fig. 2.3: Drainage System at Lothal ⚪ For non-Buddhist monks, Ashoka built
these caves cut from solid rock.
⚪ Rock edicts carved into these caves are
inscribed in local languages and scripts,
as well as inscribed with the cultures of
the time. These caves were the start of
rock-cut architecture which got further

12 Classification and Evolution of Architecture in India

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patronage from later rulers. capital, a true engineering feat.

⚪ Sculpted elephant friezes are copies of ⚪ The bull capital from Rampura has
both wood and bamboo trellis work in Mauryan sculptures, and one of the
stone. most famous capitals is at Sarnath,
⚪ There has been an evolution from which has the Dharmachakra and four
previous shapes in timber to stone in lions.
this stunning example. ⚪ The Indian Republic has declared it to
be its National Emblem.
y The most well-known Mauryan figure is
the Yakshi from Didarganj. Other Mauryan
figures along with the Pillars have also been
discovered.
⚪ Unlike many other figures, these figures
seem to be made from a single piece of
stone, which adds to their magnificence.
⚪ The surface polish on these figures
(known as Mauryan polish now) is unique.
⚪ Although centuries have passed, this
gloss has not diminished in radiance.
y Brahmi script is the earliest known Indian
script, and most of these inscriptions
contain Prakrit.

Post Mauryan Art

y The Greeks, Shakas, Parthians, and
Kushanas were foreigners but gradually
assimilated into society. Since they were
warriors, they were classed as Kshatriyas
by the lawgivers. Only in the post-Mauryan
period, did foreigners in India assimilate
on such a large scale. In the period from
approximately 200 BC to approximately
the 3rd century A.D., there were significant
Fig. 2.5: National Emblem changes in economics, politics, and other
facets of our cultural life, including growth
y The Mauryans made a significant
in technology, science, and art.
contribution to art and architecture.
y Art and Sculpture
Ashoka constructed over 84,000 stupas to
⚪ Indian art and sculpture developed
commemorate Buddha’s many life episodes.
further as the result of Central Asian
Pataliputra’s magnificence was regarded by
invasions. Contact with the West
Megasthenes to be comparable with the
brought many new forms of art to India.
splendour of Persian cities. Stone Pillars
⚪ Gandhara School of Art evolved as the
with single polished sandstone columns
most crucial development.
and caps on top were used to inscribe
⚪ Gandhara school images of Buddha from
Ashokan edicts.
the Kushan period are decorated in the
⚪ Laurita Nandangarh in Bihar has the
style of the Greek and Roman art forms;
best-preserved Ashokan edict, a 32 feet
numerous images have Apollonian
tall column that rests atop a 50-ton lion
faces, Greek and Roman hairstyles, and

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Roman togas. and Palaces with terraces reaching to the

⚪ The Kushan rule probably brought heavens, in his writings, which provide a
together artisans from different cultures peek at Gupta architecture.
trained in different schools, resulting in y The Palaces had many inner apartment
such integration of artistic features. buildings, including a courtyard, prison, a
⚪ A number of images from Mathura still courtroom, and a sabhagriha.
exist which show terracotta and red y A Palace adjacent to the pleasure garden
sandstone with obvious Saka-Kushan contained flowers and trees in various
influences. Mathura has been called a stages of bloom, and moonbeams lit the
centre of indigenous art. verandas on their rooftops at night. The
⚪ Mathura is famous for its headless amount of archaeological evidence for
statue of Kanishka. Gupta architecture is limited. Despite
⚪ The Mathura school was the first to this, Gupta shrines have been discovered
make Buddha statues with faces and in Central India’s woods, particularly in
figures, whereas earlier Buddhists only Bundelkhand and Kanpur’s Bhitargaon.
depicted the Buddha with symbols. y Painting
⚪ The folklore displays long panels of ⚪ The painting was of remarkable
folklore on rock faces like those of excellence throughout the Gupta period.
Jatakas. The wall paintings at the Ajanta caves
⚪ Mahavira statues were also produced (Aurangabad) and Bagh caves (near
alongside the images of Buddha. Gwalior) are important examples.
⚪ Although Ajanta paintings date from the
Kharavela of Kalinga first to the seventh century A.D., the
⚪ Another kingdom that rose to a position majority were created during the Gupta
of significance after the Mauryas was period.
Kalinga, this region included modern ⚪ Buddha’s life is shown in numerous
Odisha and a small part of Northern scenes in these artworks. The artistry
Andhra. with which the depictions of humans,
⚪ The most renowned ruler of the kingdom animals, and plants were made
was Kharavela. The Hathigumpha exemplifies Gupta art and culture’s
Inscription at Udayagiri hills (in a Jain exquisite and sensitive character. The
cave) would give a detailed account concept of beauty was central to Gupta
of his reign, but sadly, it is not easily art. The importance of artistic expression
decipherable. was emphasised since it was seen as a
⚪ He was known for his achievements as means of achieving spiritual bliss.
an administrator of his empire, as well as
for his bravery in battle. He constructed South India Architecture (The Pallavas
roads and gardens and did other good and The Cholas)
works. y During the early centuries of the Christian
era, the Pallavas supported the arts and
Gupta Age Art architecture in the South immensely.
y Gupta architecture in stone and brick can ⚪ The rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram
be seen in several shrines, rock-cut caves are fine examples of the ‘Ratha’ style of
(such as Ajanta), and Temples (such as the temples.
Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh). ⚪ As we see the in Temples like Kailashnath
y The poet has drawn an appealing picture of and Vaikuntha Perumal at Kanchipuram,
a well-planned town, complete with roads they built structural temples.
connecting everywhere, market places, ⚪ As the most important work of art ever

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undertaken in India, the Kailashnath

Temple is a massive complex with Previous Years’ Question (PYQ)
thousands of images. It shows influence (2013, Mains)
of Pallavas.
⚪ A set of bas reliefs found at Chola architecture represents a high
Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) watermark in the evolution of temple
is credited to the Pallava period. At architecture.
Mahabalipuram, there are Pagodas built Answer:
in the first century A.D. The Chola rulers’ patronage was crucial
y As early as the Fifth Century A.D., Temple in the artistic development of Dravidian
building flourished in India. Temples in temple architecture. Chola temples such
North India have shikaras (spiral roofs), as Thanjavur’s Brihadeshwar Temple and
garbhagriha (sanctum) and mandapas Gangaikonda Cholapuram elevated the
(pillared halls) consisting of the Nagara Dravidian style of temple design to new
style, while those in the South have Dravida heights.There are several remarkable
designs. elements of these temples:
y After the Pallavas (6th to 8th century A.D.), y The temple is encircled by a compound
the Cholas (l0th-12th century A.D.) in the wall.
South developed the tradition of building y The front wall features a gopuram, or
temples. entrance doorway.
⚪ The temple was the central place in the y Rather of the curved shikhara of North
rural areas where the people gathered India, the main temple tower, known
every day and discussed all common as vimana, is designed like a stepped
interests and exchanged ideas. It also pyramid that rises mathematically.
served as a school. They served as a y The term ‘shikhara’ refers to the
school, as well. temple’s crowning part, which is
⚪ The Temple yard was also the site of fashioned like a little stupika or an
dances and dramas on festival days. octagonal cupola and is similar to
⚪ In addition to building great structures, the amlak and kalasha seen in North
the Cholas were also good builders. Indian temples.
Under the Chola dynasty, Temple y The garbhagriha doorway of a South
architecture reached its apogee Indian temple is traditionally guarded
especially the Dravidian style of by dvarapalas, or temple doorkeepers.
architecture reached its peak. y A big water reservoir or a temple tank
⚪ The Temple of Rajarajeshwar or is common within the complex.
Brihadeshwara at Thanjavur is one of y Subsidiary shrines are either built
the finest examples of this style. inside or close to the main temple
y In the field of sculpture, great achievements tower.
were also achieved during this period. The Cholas were known for their temple
construction. Currently, over a hundred
important temples of the Chola period
are in a good state of preservation. Due
to their artistic sophistication, many
temples have been globally recognized
and have been designated as UNESCO
World Heritage Sites.

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Medieval India a Mosque near Ajmer, was similarly

built in two and a half days over the
Delhi Sultanate ruins of an ancient Hindu edifice.
⚪ Sultanate kings began building
y A new architectural technique arrived
magnificent archways (Mehrab), domes,
from Persia, Arabia, and Central Asia with
and minarets.
the arrival of the Turks in the 13th century.
 A previous indigenous architecture
The engineering characteristics of these
style, called the “Trabeated” style,
buildings included domes, arches, and
was centred around beams and
minarets. These aspects were combined
brackets.
with parts of indigenous architecture in the
 Islamic designs have a specific style
palaces, mosques, and tombs, resulting in
known as ‘Arcuate’, which uses vaults
a new architectural synthesis.
and arches to connect the spaces
y This occurred as a result of the Turkish
and beautiful domes to replace flat
rulers of Delhi employing local Indian
roofs.
craftsmen who were highly skilled and had
⚪ Traditional structures utilised
previously built beautiful structures.
anthropogenic shapes and natural motifs
y In these constructions, you can observe
in their décor, but sultanic designs used
both the plain Islamic architecture as well
floral, geometric, and arabesque forms
as the ornate sculptures and decorations
instead of living beings.
constructed on indigenous structures.
⚪ Numerous types of coloured stones
Throughout this period’s architecture, a
were used during the Sultanate period.
median path was taken in each design.
The most common were red, light black,
y The following are some of the general
yellow, and white marbles.
characteristics of Delhi Sultanate
 The buildings were made robust by
architecture:
employing exceptionally high-quality
⚪ The architecture can be divided into
stone.
secular and religious structures.
 In the latter phase, the lime mortar
⚪ In addition to secular buildings such
was also commonly used as a
as forts, Palaces, Pillars, and Sarais
binding agent.
(artificial lakes), there are also Mosques,
Mausoleums, Dargahs, and Madrasas, Important monuments of respective dynasties
which belong to the religious structures.
Slave dynasty
⚪ The Indian architects, masons, and
y The Mamluk Dynasty was the first dynasty
workers were employed by the Sultans,
in the Delhi Sultnate. In the early years,
who also pioneered Central Asian
they built buildings with false arches and
architectural ideas.
domes, which were not in keeping with
⚪ Initial constructions were built from
Islamic architecture.
several raw materials and contain
y Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque and Adhai din
many artifacts that were left after the
ka Jhopra in Mehrauli (Delhi) and Ajmer,
destruction of existing structures,
respectively, display influences of both
resulting in a combination of Islamic and
Hindu and Muslim art traditions.
Indian styles in Sultanate architecture.
y Qutub minar
 Qutub-ud-Din Aibak is reported
⚪ In honour of Sufi Saint Qutub-Uddin
to have built Delhi’s Quwat-ul-
Bakhtiyar Kaki, it is one of the most
Islam Mosque by demolishing a
eminent structures of the Sultanate
Hindu Temple erected above a Jain
period.
Temple, while Adhai-din-ka Jhopra,
⚪ Construction began with Qutub-ud-

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din Aibak, then it was built by Iltutmish y In Delhi, Ala-ud-din Khilji constructed the
(subsequent three floors), and Firoz Siri city and the Jamat Khana Mosque. He
Shah Tughlaq built the final two floors also made the Alai Darwaza The building
after lightning struck the top storey. was built with a horseshoe arch. It had the
⚪ This five-storey Minar is 73 meters. Its first scientific dome.
designs feature beautiful geometric y Alai darwaja has a domed entrance which
shapes and Arabesque details. is made up of white marble and red
⚪ Every floor has a balcony that is sandstone. It’s carved in both white marble
intricately carved with flowers and and red sandstone with floral and geometric
geometric designs. Each balcony designs, creating a stunning polychrome
extends into the next floor as if it were effect. The recessed windows on both sides
being held up. of the entrances have perforated lattice-
⚪ Red sandstone was used to build the work window screens (jali). These marble
first three floors and marble was used screens break up the monotony of the
for the last two. calligraphic ornamentation vertical lines.
y Alauddin built hauz khas in delhi. Hauz is a
lake that has been artificially created. The
city relied on it for its water supply during
Khilji’s reign.
y Jamat Khana Mosque is the oldest
Mosque which is still being used. Dargah
of Nizamuddin Auliya and this Mosque are
located in the same complex.
Tughlaq dynasty
y Ghayas-ud-din Tughlaq founded
Tughlaqabad, a new city. Tughlaqabad Fort
was also built during this time period.
It was made of granite because granite
was readily available. The texture of the
building was harsh due to the difficulty of
polishing granite. Instead of being straight,
its boundary wall is slanted.
Lodhi dynasty
y Lodhi had a very stable tenure, and hence
they got a chance to build.
y Buildings were made on a raised platform
with gardens around them. This was made
to copy the theme of heaven; later, Mughals
used the same concept in their buildings.
Fig. 2.6: Qutub Minar y The tombs were made in octagonal shapes.
The Mughals also adopted this feature.
y Balban’s Tomb: This is the first true arch y For the first time, a double dome was
built by Balban on his own tomb. introduced in the tomb of Sikander Lodhi.
Khilji dynasty y Hoshang shah’s tomb, mandu (madhya
y A perfect Islamic viewpoint was used when pradesh).
building the Delhi sultanate’s buildings ⚪ It is one of the best examples of Afghan
during this time due to the established architecture constructed in the 15th
strong economic conditions. century and is said to be India’s first

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marble structure. built by the Sharqui rulers in Jaunpur had a

⚪ It is a magnificent architecture with a gigantic screen covering the dome, whereas
stunning dome, marble jali work, courts, Hoshang Shah’s tomb at Malwa is entirely
porticos and towers. made of marble (yellow and black marble).
⚪ It is thought to be an example of Afghan y In addition, Vijayanagar, an empire founded
structure, but its latticework, torrents in this period, had many achievements
and carved brackets provide a softer to its credit, including building beautiful
hue. Temples and erecting beautiful buildings.
The Temples of Vithalswami and Hazar
Rama at Hampi are examples of these types
of Temples, even though they are now just
ruined.
Bahamani kingdom
y Bahamani sultans borrowed the
architectural styles from Persia, Syria, and
Turkey. Quite well known is the Jama Masjid
at Gulbarga. It is the only Mosque in India
with a covered courtyard and is covered
with numerous domes.

Mughal Period/Architecture
y In architecture, a new era was marked by the
Fig. 2.7: Hoshang Shah’s Tomb coming of the Mughals. A notable feature
of the Mughal Empire was its patronage of
Regional kingdoms
arts and culture. This is when the synthesis
y A variety of beautiful buildings with
of style, which had begun earlier, reached
their own distinctive styles were built in
its height. The Mughal style of architecture
Bengal, Gujarat, and the Deccan during the
began under Akbar’s reign.
formation of the regional kingdoms.
y The Jama Masjid, Sadi Saiyyad Mosque, and Salient features of mughal architecture
Ahmedabad’s shaking towers are among the
y Mughal buildings were a mix of Indo –
best specimens of this style of architecture.
Islamic styles. The Rajput and Buddhist
y The Jama Masjid, Jahaz Mahal, and Hindola
influences are more noticeable in Indian
Mahal were built in Mandu (Central India).
styles, whereas the Iranian and Central
y The Sultans constructed a number of
Asian influences are prevalent in Islamic
structures in the Deccan.
styles.
y Among the famous buildings, Jama Masjid
y The structures, which are frequently vast
in Gulbarga, Madrasa of Mahmud Gawan,
and high in design, depict the empire’s
Ibrahim Rauza, Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, as
wealth and might. Typically, a centralised
well as fort at Golkonda are some of the
plan was produced, which artists were not
examples.
permitted to change until the design and
y The world’s largest dome is in Gol Gumbaz,
construction were completed.
and there are many designs and aesthetic
y Hence, the king tended to take his own time
distinctions between these buildings and
and put his personal stamp on the design
those in North India.
and construction.
y The Adina Mosque and Jallal-ud-tomb din’s
y Each structure had a distinct theme, with
at Pandua, the Khil Darwaza and Tantipara
domes, Pillars, arches, squinches, and
Mosque at Gaur, and the Atala Mosque

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plinths as prominent features. Gardens, of ‘Jannat ul Firdaus’ (the seventh

geometry, and design symmetry were all heaven).
given special attention.
y Red sandstone was used at first because it
was readily available. Marble became more
popular over time, and lime was employed
to glue the pieces together.
y Precious and semi-precious stones, brought
from Iran and Central Asia, were taken for
decoration.
y The use of calligraphy and arabesque on
the walls was common.
y There were two onion-shaped twin domes
created in the Persian style, one of which
was on the Taj Mahal.

Important structures by the rulers Fig. 2.8: Humayun’s Tomb

y Babur
⚪ He did not have much time to build  The tomb is octagonal and built on
anything in India. At Panipat, Sambhal a high platform. It is surrounded by
and Ayodhya, Mosques were constructed gardens and water channels.
during his reign by his men.  Trees are planted on the pathways.
⚪ Babur built Aram Bagh, a garden in It appears as if guards are standing
Agra, after the Mosque in Ayodhya was to pay their tribute to the king.
demolished (now known as Ram bagh).  It is made of red sandstone with a
He was buried here at first, but his white marble dome.
burial is currently in Kabul.  It is a world heritage site and known
y Humayun as a prototype of the Taj Mahal.
⚪ Humayun’s reign was full of turmoil, y Akbar
where he was dethroned by Sher Shah ⚪ It is said that Akbar was an ardent
Suri and regained it. patron of arts and architecture. His
⚪ He started building a new city called buildings showed grandeur and power.
‘Din Panah’, which Sher Shah later Akbar builds Diwan-e-aam in red
completed. In modern times, it is sandstone. Another marvel built during
known as the Old Fort. Sher Shah Suri his reign was the City of Fatehpur Sikri.
constructed a number of monuments, ⚪ Jehangir Mahal is based on the Rajput
including the Rohtas Fort (now a style – it has small doors and his mural
UNESCO World Heritage Site located paintings.
in Pakistan), the Sher Shah Suri Masjid ⚪ Diwan I Khas: Iranian style – it has a
in Patna, several structures in the famous pillar with minute crafts of
Rohtasgarh Fort in Bihar, and the Qila flowers and geometric design with an
I- Kuhna Mosque within the Purana Qila aerobridge.
complex in Delhi. ⚪ Jodha Bai’s Palace (Rajput style): It
⚪ Humayun’s Tomb has a large mural of Krishna. The roof is
 This was the first major Mughal flat with square Pillars. The roof has a
structure built by Haji Begum ‘Chattri’ that provides shade.
(Humayun’s wife and Akbar’s ⚪ Mariam Palace (Mariam was Akbar’s
mother). It is based on the theme Christian wife): It has mural paintings.

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⚪ Birbal’s palace: Based on the design of  Shah Jehan’s buildings, unlike

a Buddhist Vihara. Akbar, instead of Grandeur, showed
⚪ Panch mahal: Multi-storey building. delicacy and sophistication. They
Based on the Buddhist style. It only has depicted luxury more than power.
Pillars and a roof and no walls.  He used Pietra dura extensively.
⚪ Jama masjid (Fatehpur Sikri): Built Also, Gold was used in the ceilings
towards the west of the Palace. Its and walls.
Southern gate is called Buland Darwaza, ⚪ Important works of shah jahan include:
built to commemorate the Gujarat  Shahjahanabad: He built the city
Victory. It is 176 feet tall. of Shahjahanabad (now old Delhi).
⚪ The Tomb of Sheikh Salim Chishti is Three landmarks are there:
inside the Mosque.  Red Fort of Delhi: 80% of the building
y Jehangir was destroyed by the British during
⚪ Jehangir was more interested in art and the revolt of 1857.
painting rather than buildings. Most of  Chandni Chowk Market.
the time, he added some features to  Jama Masjid, Delhi.
the previous buildings.  The most important work and the
⚪ Tomb of itimad-ud-daulah pride of Mughal Architecture, the
 Itimad-ud Daulah was the father-in- Taj Mahal, was built by Shah Jahan.
law of Jehangir and his wazir too. The Taj commemorates the ultimate
 For the first time, the Mughals used moment in the development of
the Pietra Dura technique. Rajput Mughal architecture. The Taj Mahal
previously used Pietra Dura. formed the stage of the art form
⚪ Maximum gardens were made during his where it could only decline. It is the
reign. The most important of them are perfect expression of beauty, and the
the Shalimar Bagh and the Nishat Bagh illusionary effect of the monument
of Kashmir. It is an Italian technique of adds to its aesthetics.
stone inlay. Beautiful shapes and designs y Aurangzeb
were created by cutting precious and ⚪ Aurangzeb did not invest too much time
semiprecious stones and embedding and money in construction. So, there
them in the base stone. are very few buildings associated with
⚪ Tomb of Akbar (Agra): Finished by him.
Jehangir. Based on the Buddhist style, ⚪ One of the most famous monuments of
it does not have a dome and has four his time is ‘Bibi ka Maqbara’ (Tomb of
minarets. Aurangzeb’s wife) in Aurangabad. It is a
y Shah jahan prototype of the Taj Mahal and is not
⚪ Shahjahan was Mughal architecture’s made of precious stones or expensive
greatest builder. He employed building materials.
marble extensively throughout his
constructions. Mughal Architecture Modern India
reached its peak during his reign. It was
because of two significant reasons – Indo-Gothic Style
his interest and the relatively peaceful y Indo-Gothic architecture (also known
period. as Indo-Saracenic, Mughal-Gothic, Neo-
⚪ Iranian style was more dominant. Mughal, and Hindu-Gothic) was a late-
 It included calligraphic work, an nineteenth-century British architectural
Iranian dome (Onion shaped) and style developed in British India. It consisted
marble screen work.

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of onion domes, spires, cusped arches, y There are several remarkable structures
vaulted roofs, pillars, minarets, and facing the seafront in this style, including
overhanging eaves. the Secretariat, University of Bombay, and
y Neo-Gothic buildings were resurrected High Court. Indians also contributed to the
in England in the mid-19th century and construction of some of these structures.
the Gothic style was rooted in medieval ⚪ The University Hall was constructed
buildings such as Churches built in Northern with money donated by Sir Cowasjee
Europe. Jehangir Readymoney, a rich Parsi
y Bombay was building its infrastructure at merchant.
the period, and this style was embraced. ⚪ The University Library Clock Tower
y Today, structures based on the concepts was funded by the banker Premchand
of this movement can be seen in India, Roychand. In honour of his mother, the
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Malaysia, and tower is named Rajabai Tower.
England. y The merchants in India were happy to adopt
y In Victorian England, Gothic Revival and this style since they believed it would help
Neoclassical styles of construction had make Bombay a more modern city. The
merged with Mughal architecture (Medieval Neo-Gothic style was one of many ideas
Indian Islamic) and some Hindu structures. brought by the English to Bombay.
Throughout the subcontinent, it had y However, the Victoria Terminus, the Great
been displayed in governmental offices, Indian Peninsular Railway Company’s
law courts, railway stations, post offices, station and offices are one of the best
palaces for local princes, churches, schools, instances of neo-Gothic architecture.
colleges, town halls, and museums. Since the British empire was successful in
y Despite the fact that Indo-Gothic structures constructing an all-India railroad network,
were originally created to realise imperial a lot of money has been spent on planning
ambitions, it is hard to ignore or belittle their and constructing railway stations in towns.
contribution to the modernisation of South y The uniform neo-Gothic style of these
Asia. As a result, the region has defined buildings dominated the scenery of the
Administrative spaces, Communication central part of Bombay and gave it a unique
networks, and Transportation options. character.
Furthermore, they are tangible evidence of y By the beginning of the 20th century, a
cultural assimilation attempts. new hybrid architectural style developed,
y With at least a modicum of humility, the combining the Indian with the European,
colonisers here offered accommodations i.e., Indo-Saracenic. Here, “Indo” was
and did not “thwart the colonised’s identity shorthand for Hindus, and “Saracen”
by forcing on them styles and fashions was a term used to designate Muslims by
that were utterly alien to their aesthetic Europeans.
sensibility”. ⚪ The British integrated Indian and
y Despite the fact that Indo-Gothic structures European architectural technologies
were originally created to realise imperial into public architecture to demonstrate
ambitions, it is hard to ignore or belittle their authority as the legitimate rulers
their contribution to the modernisation of of India and the central inspiration to
South Asia. be building domes, chhatris, jalis, and
⚪ As a result, the region has defined arches in the style of medieval Indian
administrative spaces, communication buildings.
networks, and transportation options. ⚪ Among the most outstanding examples
Furthermore, they are tangible evidence of this style is the Gateway of India,
of cultural assimilation attempts. built-in 1911 (Gujrati style). It was built in

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such a manner to welcome King George modernity and simplicity. Examples include
V and Queen Mary of England to India. the Parliament Building and Rashtrapati
y The Taj Mahal Hotel was built in a similar Bhavan.
style by the industrialist Jamsetji Tata. y The contributions of Baker can be
Apart from being a symbol of Indian summarised as follows:
enterprise, the Taj Mahal Hotel became a ⚪ Architects of the poor.
challenge to the racially exclusive hotels ⚪ Pioneer of sustainable architecture as
and clubs maintained by the British. well as organic architecture.
y Chawls, multi-storey single-room flats with ⚪ Merged building with the environment.
long open hallways built around a courtyard, ⚪ Ventilation and thermal comfort
are a sort of housing unique to Bombay due arrangement.
to the city’s lack of space and suffocation. ⚪ Used locally available material.
These structures, which housed a large ⚪ Introduced pillar slab construction
number of families sharing common areas, methods to reduce the consumption of
aided in the development of neighbourhood steel and cement.
identity and unity. ⚪ Revolutionise mass housing in Kerala.

Neo-Roman Style Conclusion

y During the 11th and 12th centuries, the Indian architecture has been known to absorb
Romanesque Revival was popular in the elements of its influencers and create
Europe, a revival of earlier classical Roman unique variants. Architectural styles in India
forms which originated through the style are characterized by a variety of expressions
of medieval Europe (Romanesque). The across time and space that have been designed
Romanesque Revival in America is therefore by the forces of history. In India, architecture
the result of a second distinctive revival has evolved through the centuries due to
of classical Roman architecture. Edwin varying factors such as socio-economics and
Lutyen and Laurie Baker started a new geography. Through these varying factors, a
Roman style. The features include an wide variety of architectural specimens have
upturned dome and a hybrid structure with developed, showing some continuity over time.

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3 Harappan Civilisation (Indus Valley

Civilisation) Art
Introduction Indian and Other Contemporary
Civilisation
Humans throughout history have used various
tools and weapons made from different types of y Ancient civilisation in the Indian sub-
materials including stones and bones. But with continent differed from those of Egypt,
time humans have evolved newer techniques Mesopotamia, and Greece in that its culture
of making tools and weapons by the use of and traditions have been preserved without
Copper, it was the first metal used for making a breakdown to the present day.
tools and weapons. With this use of stones and y The great difference between Indian and
cooper, various other cultures had taken birth other contemporary civilisations was that
on Indian soil in different parts of India. The age the other great civilisations were replaced
in which copper and stone were used by human or perished with the time, but the Indian
societies was known as the “Chalcolithic” era. culture and civilisation were never forgotten,
In the chalcolithic era the alloy of copper and and they became a part of Indians even in
tin, called ‘Bronze’ was also used for making the present day.
tools and weapons. A Neolithic settlement has y The main feature of Indian culture was the
been found at Mehrgarh in Baluchistan dating stability it has shown throughout history.
back to 7000 BC, indicating that India has a The main thread of continuity is still visible
long and continuous history. However, the in the present-day despite it having gone
first prominent civilisation flourished in India through major changes and influences from
around 2700 BC in the Northwestern part of the other countries.
Indian subcontinent, over a large area, i.e., the y Since the Harappan Civilisation flourished
Harappan Civilisation (Indus Valley Civilisation). in the Indian subcontinent over 4500 years
ago, the subcontinent has come a long way.
Phases of the Harappan Civilisation y The history of the Indian subcontinent goes
y Early harappan phase: This phase started beyond the thousands of centuries, much
between 3500 BC–2600 BC. The key older than the Harappan civilisation. As per
aspects of town planning were followed: the archaeologists and historians, even the
use of elementary crafts, mud structure older cultures than the Harappan civilisation
and finally trade. had reached their maturity phase.
y Mature harappan phase: This important y The great impact of the Harappan civilisation
phase of the Harappan culture started in can be seen in village homes which show
2600 BC–1900 BC. Some of the prominent resemblance to the Harappan culture. But
features of the Mature Harappan period also, the contrast with today’s multi-storey
include well-developed towns, the creation buildings are found in cities like Mumbai
of different varieties of craft, prosperous and Delhi as compared to single-storey
inland and international trade. buildings of the Harappan civilisation, this
y Late harappan phase: It is believed that shows that the continuation and dynamism
Harappan culture started declining from are the main souls of the Indian culture.
1900 BC to 1400 BC. In this declining y The oldest religious practices are even
period, Harappan culture experienced the followed in today’s time period which
fall and decline of many cities and the includes Pashupati, Mother Goddess (the
disappearance of trade. important elements of the Harappan
culture), and important traditions like Vedic,
Buddhist, Jain, etc.

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y This great feature of change and continuity y In addition to the dockyard, Lothal was an
along with keeping alive the spirit of Indian important port and outlet of sea trade for
culture. It did not pay attention to what western nations. Lothal was situated in the
was becoming obsolete in the modern age. Dholka Taluka of Ahmedabad in Gujarat and
There were times of ups and downs in the had a well-planned walled city.
long history of India, when movements ⚪ Gujarat also had Dhaulavira and
grew, and reforms were introduced. Rajasthan had Kalibangam as its most
important city.
Harappan Art and Architecture y Plants, animals, and nature were worshipped
y The first time the great civilisation was by the Harrapans. They worshipped a male
discovered was in 1920-22. The very first God similar to Lord Shiva of later times
and prominent site of this civilisation and a mother Goddess, among others.
was Harappa, also known as Indus Valley According to Harrapan belief, life after
Civilisation (IVC) because a number of death is possible, and charms and spells
settlements were found on the banks and were used.
tributaries of the Indus River. The Harappan y All the sites comprised walled cities. The
site was discovered on the bank of the river city consisted of an upraised citadel and
Ravi and another key site Mohenjo-Daro the lower part of the city. The western
was discovered on the Indus Riverbank. part is believed to house the elite and the
y As per the archaeological evidence the date important buildings.
of the Harappan civilisation was between y They utilised standardised burnt mud
2600 BC to 1900 BC. This data reveals that bricks as a building material.
it was one of the oldest civilisations in the y There’s no hardcore evidence of temples in
world. the Harappan civilisation.
y It is thought that the Harappa Civilisation y Evidence of some small one-roomed
was the first civilisation in the Indian construction that appears to be working
subcontinent to be connected to cities, as people’s quarters.
they built the world’s first urban centres y Great bath: A public bath was discovered at
with town planning, sanitation, drainage Mohenjo-Daro, signifying that the Harappan
systems, broad roads, and drainage people were great engineers. It is still
systems. operational, with no leakage or cracks in the
⚪ Buildings in the walled cities included structure. The appearance of what appears
buildings such as the Great Bath, to be a public bathing area indicates the
Granaries (where grains were stored) cultural significance of ritualistic bathing
and Assembly Halls. Their houses were and cleanliness.
constructed with burnt brick, and each y There is evidence of fortifications with
had a bathroom, kitchen, and well. gateways enclosing the walled cities,
y They were excellent potters. Various types indicating a fear of attack.
of utensils, figurines, toys and seals have y At most sites, the main citadel was
been excavated from different sites. excavated in the western part of the city
y In addition, they were knowledgeable about containing the public buildings, including
metals and alloying processes. the granaries. The presence of political
⚪ Harappans’ sculptural skills and authority in these cities can be viewed as
aesthetic sense are evident in the bronze evidence of such.
sculpture of a dancing girl discovered in y The remains of a dockyard can also be
Mohenjo-Daro. found in Lothal, Gujarat, suggesting that
y Materials for their crafts and objects trade by sea route was normal at the time.
included shell, ivory, bone, and faience. y The city’s residential parts had an effective

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drainage network, with small drains from pictographic script remains undeciphered,
the houses connected to larger ones along which at most places is in boustrophedon
the sides of main thoroughfares. The drains (It is a type of bi-directional text written
were adequately covered, and loose covers from right to left and from left to right in
were used to clean them. alternate lines) style.
y The residential houses were also y The Harappans were known to have had
meticulously planned. Houses were often numerous seals, including ones depicting
double-storied, as evidenced by stair the One-Horned Rhinoceros, leaves of the
evidence. Peepal tree, and a Male God that revealed
y Since the Harappan settlements were more about their religion.
established along the river’s banks, they y Some of the most noted and significantly
were often devastated by major floods. famous seals are the Pasupathi seal
Despite the disaster, the people of the Indus and the Unicorn seal. Pashupati Seal is a
Valley rebuilt new settlements on the same steatite seal discovered at Mohenjo-Daro.
sites, as shown by the layers upon layers This uncommon seal depicts a seated
of settlements and buildings discovered figure in the yogic pose, most likely Shiva
during the excavations. The turndown and (Pasupati). Both sides of the “God” are
the exact cause of the final destruction animals - an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros,
of the Indus Valley Civilisation, sometime a man, and a buffalo.
around 1800 BC, remains a puzzle unsolved y Elephants, rhinoceros, and humped bulls
till the present day. appear on seals, suggesting they were
regarded as sacred animals. On many seals,
Seals the ‘Peepal’ is depicted.
y The Harappans were literate people. y It seemed that the people knew spinning
Their seals also contain a form of script, and weaving as evidenced by the images
indicating that they knew how to write. As of men and women found on various seals
per scholars and historians, the Harappan discovered in the excavations. They might
script has 400 signs written from the left also have been the first to cultivate cotton.
to right. y Many Indus seals found in Mesopotamia
y Various signs or characters can be indicated a possible trade between the
discovered engraved on Harappan seals. It Indus valley and the Mesopotamian
appears they used ideograms to convey the civilisation.
message directly, even though the script
has yet to be deciphered. It is not known Significance of seals
what language they spoke; scholars believe y These seals were mainly used as units of
that they said “Brahui”, a particular dialect trade and commerce.
spoken and used by the people of Baloch in y They were also used as an amulet to ward
Pakistan today. off evil.
y Seals of Harappa were made in various y The seals were also used as an educational
shapes like square, rectangular, circular or tool.
triangular pieces with engraved pictorial y They threw light on the flora, fauna, social
scripts. The materials mainly used were and religious beliefs of those times, with
steatite (An easily carved soft stone that the motifs, etched on the seals.
becomes hard after firing), chert, copper, y Some historians believe that different
faience, ivory and terracotta. Copper and classes of people used to wear different
gold seals have also been found. The specific types of seals.

Harappan Civilisation (Indus Valley Civilisation) Art 25

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y There is nothing substandard about the

bronze bull from Kalibangan and the copper
dog and bird of Lothal, which are in no way
inferior to the copper and bronze statues
from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.
y The metal casting tradition seems to be a
continued tradition from the late Harappan
and chalcolithic periods. A good example is
Daimabad in Maharashtra, which produced
excellent examples of metal casting. They
largely consist of human and animal figures.
It displays how the tradition of figure
sculpture continued down the ages.

Fig. 3.1: Pashupati Seal, Mohenjo-Daro

Fig. 3.3: Dancing girl, Bronze Statue

Fig. 3.2: Unicorn Seal

Lost wax technique

Sculpture y The cire-perdue or ‘lost wax’ method for
y Three-dimensional statues have been found casting was learnt and discovered as long
in the various places of the Harappa and ago as the Indus Valley Civilisation.
Mohenjo-Daro. In ancient times, the “Lost y It is a technique utilised to make various
Wax Technique” was widely used to produce metal objects, particularly in Himachal
bronze castings. The bronze dancing girl Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha, West Bengal and
of Mohenjo-Daro and the bronze bull of Madhya Pradesh. A slightly different method
Kalibangan have noted examples. All the is used in each region. There are several
cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation had steps involved in the lost-wax process.
the main characteristic of bronze casting. y Wax models of images or sculptures

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are created by hand, composed of pure

beeswax heated over an open flame, then
strained through a fine cloth into a basin of
cold water. The wax then solidifies again.
y In order to create the image, the wax is
squeezed into a noodle-like structure using
a ‘pharni’ or a ‘pick’, which then wraps
around the whole image.
y In the meantime, the image is made into
a thick paste, which is a paste made up
of clay, sand, and cow dung. A clay pot is
placed in one of the openings on one side,
into which molten metal is poured.
y The weight of the metal to be utilised is ten
times compared to wax. (The wax is weighed
prior to the start of the entire procedure.)
This metal mostly scraps metal from broken
pans and pots. The clay-plastered model
is exposed to firing while the hot molten
metal is poured into the clay pot. When the
wax inside melts, the metal flows down the
channel and takes on the shape of the wax
picture.
y Scrap metal from broken pots and pans Fig. 3.4: Male Torso at Harappa
makes up the majority of this metal. The
clay-plastered model is exposed to firing,
whereas the molten metal is poured into
the clay pot. The metal flows down the
channel as the wax inside melts, taking on
the shape of the wax image.
y Two male figures – one a torso in red
sandstone at the Harappa and the other
a bust of a bearded man in steatite in
Mohenjo-Daro are famous artefacts. The
bearded nobleman or high priest wears
a trefoil-patterned shawl. It is strikingly
similar to a figure discovered in the
Sumerian sites of Ur and Susa.
Kalibangan and Daimabad bore excellent
examples of metal-cast sculptures. The buffalo
with its uplifted head, back and sweeping horns
and the goat are artistic masterpieces amongst
animal figures in bronze.

Fig. 3.5: Bearded Man, Mohenjo Daro

Harappan Civilisation (Indus Valley Civilisation) Art 27

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Terracotta y Was also discovered a terracotta mask

y The Terracotta representations look crude depicting a horned deity.
when compared to the stone and bronze y Terracotta-encased toys, including carts
statues. In the Harappan civilisation, with wheels, whistles, birds, animals,
archaeologists have found some well-known rattles, gamesmen, and discs, were also
fine examples of terracotta sculptures like popular.
Mother Goddess, Toy Carts with Wheels, y In 2500 BC the most fascinating terracotta
Whistles, Birds, Animals, etc. figure was discovered during the excavation
y The images found in Indus Valley Civilisation in Mohenjo-Daro. This toy has a moveable
were crude human images when compared head, which belongs to the same time,
with the stone and bronze statues. The 2500 BC. This type of toy was made for
images of mother Goddesses discovered entertaining children as the head is moving
from the various places of IVC are considered with controlled movement of the string.
the most significant images among the
other IVC images. The naturalistic picture Key features of the images
found at Gujarat sites and Kalibangan is y The Female Goddess figure is a primaeval
more accurate. figure of a standing female adorned with
y Some figures of bearded males are depicted necklaces hanging over prominent breasts.
in terracotta with coiling hair, rigid postures, y She adorns a loincloth and a girdle. This
similar arms to the sides of the body, and terracotta figure of a large mother Goddess
legs slightly apart. comes from Mohenjo-Daro and is one of
y This is an indication that the figure is a deity the best-preserved.
as he is repeated in the same position. y Mother Goddesses were probably
worshipped as the bestower of fertility and
prosperity.
y This also suggests that the female deity
worship by Indus Valley inhabitants is
akin to the present-day agriculturists who
naturally worship Gods and Goddesses of
fertility and prosperity.

Fig. 3.7: Toy animal with movable head, Terracotta,

Mohenjodaro
Fig. 3.6: Mother Goddess

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on the purpose like water storage, food

grains etc. The miniature vessels, often
no higher than a half-inch, are crafted in a
manner that is so marvellously detailed as
to arouse admiration.
y Excavations in Harappan sites have
uncovered a number of magnificent works
of art, portraying the intricate craftsmanship
and artistic ability of the sculptors. The
intricate work of art reveals the long
tradition of sculpting in the past.

Iron age pottery

Fig. 3.8: Toy representation of a Bullock Cart
y The Black and Red Ware (BRW) pottery
gave way to the Painted Grey Ware (PGW)
Pottery in the Western Gangetic Plain (Ghaggar-
Hakra valley).
y The excavated pottery of different styles
y The PGW culture, village and town
and varieties of designs as well as shapes
settlements, ivory-working, domesticated
suggest that various types of pottery were
horses, and the dawn of iron metallurgy
created over a period of time.
were described by a style of fine, grey
y Plain pottery includes wares made from red
pottery painted with geometric patterns in
clay and red or grey slip, with rows of screw
black.
like knobs.
y Plain pottery is more common than painted Northern black polished ware (NBPW)
ware. Most of the pottery had geometric
y This was an urban Iron Age culture of the
shapes and animals which were painted in
Indian subcontinent that became urban
the black glossy paint on the black painted
in the late Vedic Period, around 700 BC.
ware with a fine red coloured slip-on
Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) was
coating.
a magnificent style of furnished pottery
y The polychrome pottery was having small,
used by elites.
geometric patterns vasas in red, black, and
green colour, but they are not much found
in white or yellow colour. It is rare, too,
to find incised ware, and on the offering
stands the incised decoration was limited
to the dishes and the bases of the pans.
y The pottery of the Indus Valley is mainly
produced on the wheel, with only a few
exceptions made by hand. The painted
pottery had geometrical figures, while some
were perforated.
⚪ Perforated pottery was probably used to
strain beverages because it contained Fig. 3.9: Pottery Artefacts
holes all over the wall and a large hole
at the bottom. y Delhi (Ancient Indraprastha), Vaishali,
y The size and shape of the pottery used for Rajgir, Pataliputra, Kausambi, Sravasti,
household purposes vary greatly depending Varanasi, Ujjain, Mathura, Ahichatra,

Harappan Civilisation (Indus Valley Civilisation) Art 29

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Vidisha and Ayodhya are among the and artefacts found. There were types of
famous NBPW sites associated with the jewellery found including necklaces made
Mahajanapadas. from stone, gold earrings, gold heads,
copper, bracelets, faience pendants, and
steatite and gemstones beadworks. All
these items were found in jewellery shops
of Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal.
y All these discovered ornaments were
beautifully crafted. It is also found that
this jewellery was used to bury the dead as
one of the cemeteries found in Farman of
Haryana explains about it.
y Another evidence of well-developed beads
industries at Chahundaro and Lothal.
y Among the materials used for making beads
were carnelian, amethyst, quartz, steatite,
jasper, crystal, turquoise, lapis lazuli, etc.
A great deal of technical skill was employed
in the manufacture of these beads, which
were also made of metals such as copper,
bronze, and gold, and shell, faience, and
terracotta or burnt clay.
y Both Chanhudaro and Lothal have been
found to have bead makers’ shops.
Fig. 3.10: Painted Grey Ware y It has also been discovered that gold and
silver beads are used, as well as ivory
carvings and inlays on beads, bracelets,
and other accessories. Harappan artisans
displayed their mastery in a range of arts
and crafts.
y Necklaces, armlets, and finger rings were
worn by both males and females. Earrings
and Girdles were worn by females only.
There is evidence of dead bodies buried
with ornaments. People were fashion-
conscious, which is reflected in the use of
cosmetic products like Cinnabar, face paint
and eyeliner.
Fig. 3.11: Northern Black Polished Ware y Gold jewellery from the Harappan society
included Bracelets, Necklaces, Bangles,
Ear ornaments, Rings, Head ornaments,
Beads and Ornaments Brooches, Girdles, etc. Beads were being
y In the Harappan civilisation men and women made here using simple techniques, so the
were used to wearing ornaments made bead trade was thriving.
from various materials which included y Harappan people used to make well and
various metals, gems, baked clay, etc. The brilliant models of animals. And these
excavation of these types of jewellery is models include animals like monkeys, and
considered the most famous treasure relics squirrels, and are used as pinheads and

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beads. and other ornaments. Silver was a more

y The evidence of cotton and wool spinning commonly used precious metal than gold
is discovered from the house of the Indus, which was acknowledged from a large
where many spindles and spindle whorls number of silver ornaments and dishes that
were found. have been discovered.
y Spinning can be observed in the discovery y The weapons and tools like Knives,
of whorls of faience as well as pottery and Spearheads, Chisels, Saws, Axes, and Saws
shells, which are both economically viable. were made from copper.
y Identical to the dhoti and shawl, men y There is no indication of swords as well as
and women both wore separate pieces of other offensive weapons produced by the
clothing. Covering the left shoulder and Harappans.
passing below the right shoulder, the shawl y Stone tools were also frequently used.
was worn. Metals such as copper and gold were brought
y Different hairstyles were in vogue, and in primarily from Khetri in Rajasthan, silver
wearing a beard was popular among all. from Mesopotamia, and gold possibly from
y In addition to the stone structures found at riverbeds in the Himalayas.
Dholavira, there are many stone masonry y Among the best-known bronze figurines
remains to show how the Harrapans used is the statue of a ‘dancing girl’ found at
stone to construct their buildings. There Mohenjo-Daro. This stylized statue is a
was no shortage of highly skilled craftsmen nude female figure with an arm hanging in
who worked in the Indus Valley: artists and a dancing pose, wearing a lot of bangles.
craftsmen were highly skilled in a variety
of crafts, including metal casting, stone Extensive Town Planning
carving, making and painting pottery, and y The Harappan city or town planning was
making terracotta images of animals, plants considered a model of city development.
and birds with simple motifs. It is a great example of how to plan a city
and is helpful in modern-day city planning.
The key characteristic of Harappan city
planning was considerable uniformity, and
this uniformity is noticed in the layout of
the towns, streets, structures, brick size,
drains etc.
y In most major cities including Harappa,
Mohenjo-Daro, Kalibangan and others, a
citadel was located on the western side of a
mound and a lower settlement was located
on the eastern side.
y The two divisions of the town should be
explained as the higher or upper part which
Fig. 3.12: Harappan Precious Gems and Stones is known as the “Citadel”, considered to be
used for administrative purposes or maybe
for carrying out rituals and the lower part
Industries and Crafts is probably used by the common citizens
y Craftsmen of the Harappa knew about all which are having buildings.
the metal but not about the iron. Harappan y There were several crisscrossed streets
craftsmen had access to almost all the that divided the city into several housing
metals except iron. They made silver and blocks. Narrow lanes connected the main
gold items such as beads, armlets, needles, street, where the doors of the houses were

Harappan Civilisation (Indus Valley Civilisation) Art 31

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unlocked, instead of the main street. rectangular and circular houses with mud
y In Harappa, there were many types of walls and thatched roofs.
houses built by common people, ranging y There are more than 200 archaeological
from one-room structures to big structures sites associated with Jorwe Culture
made from burned bricks. (Maharashtra) that include houses with
y There was usually a square courtyard with only one room, but others have two rooms
many rooms, wells, kitchens, and bathing or three rooms. The floors were made from
platforms in the larger houses. burnt clay or clay mixed with river gravel.
y Archaeologists come to the conclusion The settlements at Inamgaon (Jorwe
that social division might have existed, as culture) suggest that planning was adopted
smaller houses were supposed to be used in laying the settlement.
by the poor section and bigger houses were y One of the most significant features of
used by the rich people. the Indus Valley Civilisation was its city
y Every house had a well - established planning. The excavations at Harappa and
network of drainage systems and every Mohenjo-Daro have shown a lot of evidence
house had outdoor drains like street drains. of this.
These drains were constructed in a manner y Wide Range of Urban and Non-Urban Rural
that they can be cleaned by removing slabs Sites: The urban or the ‘mature phase’ of
or bricks and manholes, which explains that Indus Valley Civilisation includes a wide
Harapan people had very good knowledge range of urban and non-urban rural sites.
and importance of cleaning and sanitation. ⚪ Their size and function varied, but
y At Mohenjo-Daro, the ‘Great Bath’ is some characteristics are inherently
the most important construction of the recognizable, including a defensive wall
Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC). This bath is with gates around the site, a settlement
surrounded by corridors on all sides and is divided into a number of subdivisions or
approached by a flight of steps North and buildings, brick structures at the site,
South. and brick sizes.
⚪ The ‘Great Bath’ had a drain to allow y Town planning: Having a grid pattern
water to drain. There were rooms for urban architecture and an advanced
on either side for changing clothes, drainage system, the Indus Valley Civilisation
suggesting the bath was used for had a flourishing urban architecture.
religious rituals. The west part of this ⚪ Bricks were standardized into a very
great bath had a structure of multiple close size ratio of 4:2:1. This was certainly
rectangular bricks, which is known as the most significant innovation.
the granary. ⚪ There are monuments like citadels,
⚪ There is also a granary at Harappa that defence walls, dams, etc., that prove the
has brick platforms with circular edges existence of monumental architecture.
that are used for threshing grains. It ⚪ Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Rakhigarhi
can be determined by finding chaffs of and Dholavira were the largest urban
wheat and barley here. centres, evidently as important political
y Lothal was a significant port and trading and administrative regional centres.
centre for the Harappan people, as shown y Citadel and lower town: In the metropolises,
by an ancient brick structure that might there existed an upper section called the
have been a dockyard. Citadel for the rulers and a lower section
called the Lower Town.
Houses and Settlements y Private houses and water resources: A
y Rural settlements characterised the central space orients the houses. An
Chalcolithic cultures. There were entrance blocks the view of an interior from

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the street, and the houses are accessed infrastructure and political organisation.
from the street. Traders were the mainstay of the Indus
⚪ Water sources that are discrete and Valley Civilisation, which to a considerable
relatively private may be required extent led to an urbanized society. The
because of the number of wells as present urbanisation planning in the Indian
well as their association with specific Sub-continent can be traced back to the
neighbourhoods. Indus Valley Civilisation.
y Great bath and granaries: The large public
structures have open access or provide a Conclusion
street from one area of the site to another The sites of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro have
like the “Great Bath” of Mohenjo-Daro now been found in West Pakistan. There have
and the “granaries” at Mohenjo-Daro and been approximately one hundred excavations
Harappa. of sites of the Indus Valley culture in India, and
y Drainage system: It is believed that drainage some of those projects have revealed that the
systems were among the most distinctive culture was spread over a wide area. Being an
features of the Indus Valley Civilisation. important landmark in the prehistory of the
⚪ Bricks lined bathing platforms and Indian subcontinent, the Harappan civilisation
wells, and small drains ran from the offers an excellent example to the modern
wells or living area to larger storm world in ways of expertise in town planning,
drains. water management and harvesting systems,
⚪ It appears that non-liquid waste was and an unparalleled drainage mechanism.
collected and dumped outside the The Indus writing system, so far, could not
settlement in bins along the street be translated because of the texts being too
drains, which had sump pits. short. Indus Script could also not be compared
y Rectangular grid pattern: With an efficient to a known writing system because no bilingual
drainage system, the site layout was inscriptions have been found. The Indus
arranged in a rectangular grid, consisting of Script is also said to have been used as an
streets and small lanes. administrative tool at the time because ancient
⚪ It is the first example of town planning writing was generally related to elites recording
in the world, owing to the grid-like and controlling transactions. The Indus Valley’s
arrangement of streets and the stark artists and craftsmen were outstanding at a
uniformity of houses. variety of skills; casting metal, carving stone,
y The Indus Valley Civilisation indicates a making pottery, and carving terracotta images
sufficiently advanced urban civilisation, that featured simplified motifs of animals,
socio-economic and technological fabric plants, and birds, which made the Civilisation
capable of developing a complex urban rich.

Harappan Civilisation (Indus Valley Civilisation) Art 33

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4 Mauryan Art

Introduction reign, many monolithic stone Pillars were

built on which teachings of ‘Dhamma’
The Mauryan period marked the beginning of
were inscribed. The polished Pillars with
an important period in Indian architecture.
animal figures beautifying the capitals
The material fortune of the Mauryans and a
(top) are unique and remarkable. In fact,
new religious consciousness led to triumphs
the Lion Capital of the Sarnath pillar has
in all fields. During this period, sculpture and
been adopted as the Emblem of the Indian
architecture had reached an advanced stage.
Republic.
y Asokan Pillars, along with the animals and
objects that ornament them, are mature Shramana Tradition
art forms. Mauryan stone sculpture is
also unique in that it is polished and has y The shaman movement, like Vedic
a smooth, glassy surface that is unlike Hinduism in ancient India, was a non-Vedic
anything else in history. movement. Jainism, Buddhism, and Yoga
y As well to the animal figures, the most are all descended from this tradition. It was
famous example of art can be found in responsible for the concepts of samsara
Didarganj, Patna, with the figure of Yakshini (the cycle of birth and death) and moksha
which describes the hairstyles, ornaments, (freedom from the cycle of life and death).
and clothing of women during the Mauryan y The Gangetic plains saw the rise of
period. Buddhism and Jainism, both shaman
y Numerous terracotta figurines have been traditions, around the 6th century BCE.
discovered at Mauryan sites. y By the 4th century BCE, a large portion of
⚪ These pieces show that artistic abilities India was under Mauryan control, and by the
were not limited to the Imperial level. 3rd century BCE, Magadha appeared to be a
Terracotta figurines were produced on a formidable kingdom capable of influencing
significant scale even when the reign of neighbouring areas.
the Mauryan Empire was declining, and y In the 3rd Century BCE, Ashoka, the most
new forms of art were emerging. powerful king of the Mauryan empire,
y As seen in Pataliputra, excavations have supported the shramana practice.
revealed wooden walls and columns from y The shramana movement was a non-Vedic
Chandragupta’s wooden Palace, according movement, similar to Vedic Hinduism in
to Megasthenes. ancient India. This tradition is the ancestor
y The accounts of Fa-Hien and Hiuen-Tsang of Jainism, Buddhism, and Yoga. It was in
as well as Buddhist literature also mention charge of the concepts of sasra (birth and
the construction of stupas during the death) and moksha (liberation from the
Mauryan era. cycle of life and death).
⚪ During the Mauryan period, stupas were y Around the 6th century BCE, the Gangetic
likely originally built in Sanchi, Sarnath, plains saw the emergence of Buddhism and
Taxila, and Bharhut, and then later Jainism, both shramana traditions.
added to. y A considerable region of India was under
y Architecture saw significant advancement Mauryan influence by the 4th century BCE,
in the Mauryan period (322-182 BC), and Magadha appeared to be a formidable
especially under Ashoka. Mauryan art and state capable of influencing neighbouring
architecture illustrated the influence of countries by the 3rd century BCE.
Persians and Greeks. During Ashoka’s y The Mauryan empire’s most powerful king,

Mauryan Art 35
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Ashoka, endorsed the shramana practice in ⚪ Dharmachakra, the pillar’s crowning

the third century BCE. element, was also made up of a large
y Religious practices were varied and did not wheel.
adhere to any one form. y Despite the broken wheel lying in the Sarnath
⚪ Multiple forms of devotion were site museum, the capital has been selected
performed throughout that time period, as the National Emblem of Independent
including the worship of Yaksha and India, with the exception of the crowning
mother Goddesses. wheel and lotus base. The capital is kept in
⚪ Despite this, Buddhism grew in the archaeological museum in Sarnath.
popularity as a social and religious y The Lion images in the capital have a
movement. Yaksha worship grew popular massive appearance. Their facial muscles
in Buddhism and Jainism both before are incredibly strong. In order to achieve
and after the Buddha’s arrival. a genuine portrayal, the sculptor inverted
the lines of the lips, which resulted in their
Court Art (State Initiative) projection at the end.
⚪ A Lion’s mane is lined up sharply in
Pillars accordance with the conventions which
Sarnath lion capital were in practice during the Mauryan
period. The Lions appear to be inhaling
y The Lion Capital at Sarnath, regarded as the
deeply.
most exquisite specimen of Mauryan art
y The surface of the sculpture is highly
and selected as India’s national emblem, is
polished, as was common at the time of the
a prime example of Mauryan sculpture.
Mauryans. Their manes curve and have a lot
y With enormous roaring Lion statues forcefully
of volumes. The stretched muscles of each
standing on a circular abacus carved with
Lion’s foot plainly show his bodily weight.
the figures of a Horse, a Lion, a Bull, and
y Between each chakra, the abacus depicts a
an Elephant in vigour, the pillar capital
chakra (wheel) with twenty-four spokes in
that portrays Dharmachakrapravartana
each direction and intricately carved bulls,
has become a standard for this significant
horses, elephants, and Lions.
historical event in Buddhist history.
⚪ The chakra motif is a prominent symbol
y The Lion Capital, which was excavated
of the Dhamma Chakra across Buddhist
more than a century ago at Sarnath, near
art. Each animal form is voluminous, yet
Varanasi, and is considered one of the best
sticking to the surface, and its posture
specimens of Mauryan sculpture, is known
moves the circular abacus.
as the Sarnath Lion Capital.
⚪ A spherical abacus sits above an
y Ashoka created the capital, which was initially
inverted lotus capital, each petal carved
divided into five pieces, to commemorate
to maintain the lotus’ density. Several
the historical event of the Buddha’s first
curving planes have been meticulously
sermon, or Dharmachakrapravartana, in
etched into the lowest part.
Sarnath.
y As a pillar image, it was intended to be
⚪ the axis (broken in many parts now),
viewed from all sides, hence there are no
⚪ a base for a lotus bell,
fixed viewing boundaries. Sanchi also has a
⚪ a clockwise rotation of four animals on
Lion capital, however, it is in poor condition.
a drum on the bell base,
The Lion-capital-pillar theme continued to
⚪ four beautiful addorsed Lions
emerge in later periods.
representations, and

36 Mauryan Art
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circumambulatory walkway, and a stone

barrier with four elaborately carved
entrances in the four principal directions for
the Stupa, which had a domical structure.
y In Buddhism, the Harmika is a square
railing from which rises the shaft that
holds the imperial umbrella, sometimes
one, sometimes three, and finally several,
their sizes diminishing as they rise, befitting
the fact that the Stupa represented and
was built over the ashes of the Lord or his
disciples, a sign of royalty and dignity, the
Harmika is a square railing from which rises
the shaft that holds the imperial umbrella,
sometimes one, sometimes three, and
finally several, their sizes diminishing as
they rise.
y Among the well-known sculptures are
those in Sanchi, Bharhut, and Bodh Gaya in
Fig. 4.1: Lion Capital, Sarnath the North, as well as those in Amravati and
Nagarjunakonda in the South.
⚪ Indian artists were able to carve domes
Stupas
that were the most finely detailed they
y This tradition was adopted by Buddhism, had ever seen using wooden Pillars and
and the structure built over such a site crossbars.
became known as a stupa, the burial place y Some of the Jataka stories of Buddha’s
of important people buried beneath piled previous lives are carved on these surfaces
earth. along with the popular symbols of Buddhism
⚪ It is a different type of building such as the Lotus, Elephant, Lion, Bull, and
with a hemispherical dome, robust Horse.
construction that cannot be entered. A y These gateways have one thing in common:
stupa is a massive funerary mound that they are stone replicas of early wooden
originally housed the ashes and bones structures, as most early Indian architecture
of a saint who was buried there. was composed of wood and timber.
y According to Buddhist scriptures, Buddha’s y A specific form of architecture was
body was divided into eight halves and established in order to build Stupas. The
buried under eight stupas. final structure was shaped like a bowl
⚪ When these were dug and dispersed turned upside down.
during Asoka’s reign, it led to the y On the summit of the Temple, which used
construction of new stupas. to be its harmonica, the dwelling of the
y The ancient stupa at Sanchi was walled in Gods, an urn containing the remains of the
bricks and surrounded by a wooden railing Buddha, or another important personality of
until the stone railing or fence replaced Buddhism was put in a gold or silver casket.
the wooden fencing. The existing stupa at y Three little umbrella-shaped discs sit in
Sanchi surrounds the original stupa and the middle of the rod, signifying respect,
has been enlarged. veneration, and magnanimity. The bottom
y The 1st century B.C. had a base, of this rod is attached to the Stupa, while
sometimes round, sometimes square, a the top is attached to the top of the Stupa.

Mauryan Art 37
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Some of the prominent architectures kingdom worships the Buddha.

y Bodh gaya (bihar) temple: Lord Buddha
achieved ‘knowledge’ (bodhi) about fifteen
kilometres from Gaya.
⚪ At this site, Asoka constructed a ‘Bodhi-
Manda’, but there is no trace of the
original.
⚪ Stone Pillars of the Sunga period have
also been found, formed in relief with
sculptures of panels.
 In the Buddhist Jatakas, they
illustrate storks.
y Sanchi stupa (madhya pradesh): Sanchi,
India’s most famous stupa location, lies 14
Fig. 4.2: Plan of Stupa at Sanchi
kilometres from Vidisha (Bhilsa). There are
three stupas here, each with a gateway.
⚪ The Great Stupa is the most well- Features of stupa
known, having been erected of brick by y Initially, earthen mounds were used to build
Asoka in approximately 250 B.C. the Stupa’s centre. The earthen mound
⚪ A ‘Vedika’ (circular building) was erected would eventually be covered in bricks. A
around it during the Sunga period in 150 stone cover was also overlaid on top of the
B.C, and its circumference was nearly brick encasing.
doubled. Four gates were also built to y Stupas were usually built on a stone or
enhance its beauty during this period. brick foundation. On top of this base, a
⚪ Inscriptions carved on its architrave hemispheric dome (Anda) was constructed.
tell how the incision of its Southern y The drum of the Stupa became longer and
gate was completed by ivory craftsmen higher as time passed.
under the aegis of King Satakarni. y A harmonica was placed on the truncated
 The Northern gate and panels top of the globe, which is surrounded by
feature stories from the Jatakas. a railing, and it came close to taking the
⚪ Here are some of the most notable shape of a cylindrical vessel.
elements of Sanchi’s reliefs: y The stupa is surrounded by a vedika.
 Some of the animals are portrayed y The vedika at Bharhut, Sanchi, and
with heavy coats and boots, while Amaravati was made up of three transverse
others, including Lions, Elephants, bars and upright Pillars. In the railing, there
Camels, and Oxen, are displayed on are four doorways.
the walls. y Within the railing, a ground-level
 A quick review of the Buddha’s circumambulation route (Pradakshina Path)
birth, attainment of enlightenment, runs around the Stupa.
dharmachakra-pravartana, and y Toranas, which were ceremonial gateways,
Mahaparinirvana, as well as the four surrounded stupas.
key events in his life. y Bharhut stupa: The main monastery
 Lotus and wishing vines have building no longer exists at this site South
been carved into the Pillars with of Satna in Madhya Pradesh. The Stupa was
exquisite precision and elegance as situated 21 kilometres South of that city.
adornment. ⚪ These structures, whose important
 Forest animals are solely depicted features still remain, are preserved at
in a way that implies the animal

38 Mauryan Art
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the Indian Museum in Calcutta.

⚪ Stone railings are also imitations of
post and rail fences of Bharhut, but they
are topped with a heavily ornamented
stone border (coping).
⚪ There are carvings of Yakshas along the
uprights of these railings. Yakshas are
associated with Buddhism.
⚪ Some of these divinities contain
inscriptions indicating their
identifications.
 As in other Stupa railings, Buddhist
themes like Jataka stories are Fig. 4.3: Amaravati Stupa
combined with various natural
elements. y Nagarjunakonda: In contrast to the style
y Amaravati stupa: It was built with white of North India, this Stupa was built in a
marble and was constructed 46 kilometres different manner.
from Guntur. Although the Stupa has ⚪ The circular walls joined by spoke-like
completely disappeared, its sculptured walls were each surrounded by mud or
panels remain in the Madras and British small stones or pieces of brick, while
Museums. the space in-between was filled with a
⚪ Stupa construction was mostly funded mixture of the two.
by donations from the public and direct ⚪ An outer casing consisting of richly
help from the City-Chief. carved marble slabs enclosed the outer
⚪ A circular prayer path built of stone that drum of this stupa, whose diameter was
was 10 metres high and 42 metres in 30 meters and height was 18 meters tall.
diameter ran around the Temple. Its ⚪ There were five columns erected at
height was 29 metres, while its diameter the corners of the hemispherical drum
was 42 metres. top, each supported by a rectangular
⚪ The Vedika Pillars are carved with a projection at a cardinal point. The drum
multitude of Gods, the Bodhi Tree, the was decorated with lime and mortar
Bodhi Tree Stupa, the Dharmachakra work.
and stories from the Jatakas. ⚪ Several beautiful panels depict episodes
⚪ Four Lions decorate the Vedika of the from the life of Buddha on this stupa.
Torana, the entrance gate of the Stupa. ⚪ The most important scenes are:
⚪ On the Pillars, there are also lotuses  Gods are praying to Bodhisattva to
carved into the surface. take birth on the earth,
⚪ The Amaravati Stupa also contains  Buddha’s entry into the womb in the
several images. form of a white elephant, and
⚪ Buddha’s symbolism mainly consisted  Birth of the Buddha under a flowering
of symbols, but later Buddha images, teak tree, etc.
along with their symbolism, began to y Taxila excavations: There has been
appear. extensive excavation at Taxila and nearby
places including Sir John Marshall’s
excavation of the Chira Tope Stupa. Among
the adornments on the drum casing here are
images of Bodhisattvas. There was a Stupa
near Peshawar in 1908, erected by Kanishka,

Mauryan Art 39
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that is mentioned in the accounts of Fa ⚪ Numerous stupas have been discovered

Hien. The sculptures and other artefacts throughout India. For example, two of
from this Stupa are Gandharan. them have been uncovered in Mathura.
⚪ The ruins at Jhandial contained a stupa ⚪ A period when the development of the
built in the Scythia-Parthian style, as Stupas was characterized by a variety of
well as a silver casket containing a gold architectural styles and by the mobility
one. The gold casket contained a relic of the artisans who built the Stupas and
bone. the interaction between them, and the
artworks associated with them.

Taxila university
y Taxila university was a centre of its own kind, frequently referred to as a seat of higher
learning in Buddhist literature. It is perhaps best known for its association with Chanakya
due to its status as the capital of Gandhara in Northwest India.
y Arthashastra, Chanakya’s major treatise, is said to have been authored in Taxila. Despite
the fact that Taxila University is one of the world’s oldest universities, many people do
not consider it a university in the modern sense. The following are some of the reasons
for this:
⚪ According to some researchers, Taxila was not a university town with lecture rooms
and residential quarters like old Nalanda university.
⚪ The preceptor in Taxila provided board and lodging for his students, who paid in cash,
type of service to the teacher, or both.
y Students and monks at Taxila University were also catered to by Buddhist monasteries.
At the same time, Nalanda university functioned from the revenue collected from the
surrounding villages.
y In contrast to Nalanda university, the teachers at Taxila university may not have had
official membership in colleges.
y The centralized system of schooling or syllabus in Taxila was absent as compared to
Nalanda university.
y The concept of the examination system and degree certificate was absent at Taxila
University.
y The education system was not as systematic as Nalanda university and was modified
according to a student’s calibre.
y The teachers of Taxila had complete autonomy, and they designed their own school of
learning, rules, and regulation, while at Nalanda University, a well-defined structure of
administration was followed.
Despite this, Taxila University became well-known in ancient India as a centre of learning. The
famed Indian grammarian Panini, a master in language and grammar, was one of its notable
students. He wrote Ashtadhyayi, one of the most important books on grammar. Jivaka, one
of ancient India’s most distinguished physicians, studied at Taxila University. Despite the
lengthy and gruelling journey they had to make, students came to Taxila from Kashi, Kosala,
Magadha, and other countries. Even though Taxila university is not seen in the same modern
sense as Nalanda University, its academic contribution cannot be disputed.

40 Mauryan Art
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Popular Art (Individuals Initiative) Sculpture

y Following his victory over Dhana Nanda in y During this period, a significant advancement
321 BC, Chandragupta Maurya established in Indian sculpture was made. Guilds
the Maurya dynasty under Chanakya’s (registered groups) of artisans who aided
guidance. During the Maurya government, Asoka in his initiatives are mentioned in
the Indian subcontinent was united for the period literature.
first time under a single ruler. ⚪ In order to express Buddhism in stone,
y Chandragupta spread the Mauryan empire the emperor declares himself the
into Central Asia and Persia under his reign. protector of Dhamma. He issues edicts
He is also credited with spreading Jainism in Pali and Brahmi.
in the Southern region of India under his y In the carvings of the Pillars, the ‘relief’
reign. method has achieved a high watermark in
y The kingdom was expanded by his son terms of motifs and designs.
Bindusara, except for the Kalinga region ⚪ Fine animal motifs are arranged in a
of present-day India, over most of the tasteful manner on cave openings.
present-day territory. ⚪ On the ring-stones and disc-stones,
y Asoka took over Bhutan’s kingdom there are also exquisite carvings.
following his father’s death, and during ⚪ With their stone relief method, Mauryan
the invasion of Kalinga, adopted the policy artisans made a significant contribution
of ahimsa and adopted Buddhist beliefs. to the Indian creative legacy.
He inscribed Buddhist messages on the y Monumental paintings of Yaksha, Yakhinis,
rocks and Pillars. Rock and pillar edicts and animals, rock-cut caves, and pillar
are inscriptions on rocks and Pillars (Royal columns with capital figures dating from
inscriptions). the 3rd Century BCE have been discovered
⚪ Emperor Asoka (269-232 BC) was one in various parts of India.
of the first major patrons of Buddhist ⚪ It portrays the prevalence of Yaksha
art and these Edicts are some of the worship and how it became a figure in
earliest historical documents of India. Buddhist and Jaina religious structures.
From his time, approximate dynasty Huge Yakshas and Yakshinis statues
dates became possible. can be found in a number of places,
including Patna, Vidisha, and Mathura.
⚪ It demonstrates the artist’s skill in
representing the human body. The image
has a gleaming finish. The Yakshi statue
is a nice example (Didarganj, Patna).
Comparing Terracotta figurines with
sculptures, one can clearly discern that
the shape of the body is very different.
⚪ The craftsmanship of figure
representation in these rock-cut
examples is outstanding. In Dhauli,
Odisha, for example, the Dhauli elephant
models in the round with a linear beat.
It also contains an Ashokan rock edict.
Fig. 4.4: Ornamented Gate, Lomas Rishi Caves, Bihar y The dazzling polish applied to the stone
surface is one of the most distinctive
elements of Mauryan art. The superiority of

Mauryan Art 41
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an average stone is enhanced by its mirror- A centre band runs all the way down to
like shine. the garment’s feet.
⚪ Due to their massive size, the images ⚪ The torso is heavy, as evidenced by
appear powerful and divine due to their heavy breasts and an equally stunning
round, frontal poses. back. The bells on the foot are thick.
⚪ Because of the size and expression of The image is solidly planted on its feet.
the pillar capitals, the Lion’s roar may ⚪ In the back of the head, there is a knotted
be plainly heard. The sculptors did an knot. The rear skin is exposed. The back
excellent job depicting Asoka’s imperial drapery spreads over both legs.
status. ⚪ In the back of the head, there is a
⚪ As a result, Asoka’s attitude toward knotted knot. The rear skin is exposed.
Buddhism is revealed in the work of The back drapery spreads over both
art, and the material utilised for the legs. The incised lines that extend from
sculptures best conveyed the meaning. the right hand’s fly whisk continue onto
The sculptures’ forms and content are the back picture.
characteristic once again.
y In general, Mauryan sculptors were
exceptionally skilled at carving relief on the
face of stone and carving excellent figurines
with beautiful elements.
⚪ In expressing Asokan Pillars and capitals,
as well as sculptures like the Didargang
Yakshi, Indian symbolism reached its
pinnacle.

Didargunj Yakshini
y A life-size standing portrayal of a Yakshini
carrying a chauri (flywhisk) from Didarganj,
near-contemporary Patna, is another fine
example of the Mauryan Period’s sculptural
style. In Patna Museum, there is a sculpture
made of round sandstone with a polished
surface and a right hand filled with chauri
and a fractured left hand.
y The use of form and media has a high
level of sophistication. It’s evident that it’s
sensitive to a muscular, round body. The
face’s big cheeks are complemented by a
small neck and well-defined eyes, nose,
and lips. Muscle folds are rendered in an
acceptable manner.
⚪ The belly has full circles of beads
dangling from it. Fig. 4.5: Yakshini, Patna Museum
⚪ The well-crafted lower garment
complements the tight, bulging belly y In the early phases of Buddhism, Buddha
of the garment. Protruding lines that is symbolised by footprints, stupas, lotus
adhere to the legs in a transparent way thrones, chakras, and other symbols.
emphasise each fold of the leg garment. ⚪ It symbolises a historicization of life

42 Mauryan Art
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events at times, and it also indicates highly lustrous finish. NBPW ceramics were
a simple act of adoration or paying produced at Kosambi and Patliputra.
respect at other times. Following that,
the story became part of the Buddhist Conclusion
canon. Chunar stone was used for the first time in
⚪ The Jataka stories recounted episodes India to carve relief and circular sculptures
from the Buddha’s life on the stupas’ during this exciting period in Indian sculpture’s
railings and torans. early years. This represented the incredible
⚪ Synoptic narratives, continuous communication of Dharma far and wide
narratives, and episodic narratives are throughout the Mauryan empire. Stone
the most common types of storytelling gradually supplanted wood in the construction
used in the visual tradition. of structural components and the creation of
artwork. With the emergence of social groups
Pottery (Northern Black Polished Ware
that granted substantial patronage for the
(NBPW))
production of art, the Mauryan period witnessed
y A form of Mauryan pottery known as NBPW the production of splendid examples of art and
(Northern Black Polished Ware). also new trends. As a result of the Mauryan
y These were generally used as luxury items Art, Indian Art History was flooded with an
because of their paintings in the black and incredible amount of imagination.

Mauryan Art 43
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5 Post-Mauryan Art

Introduction buildings made the monks’ homes.

y The majority of Chaityas and Viharas were
The Mauryan Empire met its end around 187 BC.
built in the post-Mauryan era in the western
From BC 200 and 300 AD, there were political
and eastern parts of the country.
and cultural developments in the Indian
y Bhaja, Karle, Kondane, Nasik, Chitaldo,
subcontinent from the end of the Maurya to
Ajanta, Kanheri, and other places are among
the rise of the Guptas. In these five hundred
them. These are also built-in Udayagiri in
years, along with the rise of multiple political
eastern India (Orissa).
powers in different parts of the subcontinent,
y The following are the main characteristics
there was also the introduction of new features
of the chaityas:
in art, architecture and religion.
⚪ At the rear of the building is a large
Caves Tradition rectangular hall that is divided into
three sections: a nave, an apse, and two
y According to legend, the Indian tradition side aisles.
of rock-cut dwellings originated in the  Two rows of Pillars separate the
Barabar hills during the Mauryan period aisles from the nave, and they
and then spread widely across the country, surround the votive stupa located in
resulting in many cave temples. the centre of the apsidal part of the
y At first, the rock-cut enterprise was nave.
nurtured by Buddhists but was later  A barrel-vaulted ceiling is found
adopted by Brahmins and Jains as well. in the hall. A horseshoe-shaped
Traditionally, the rock-cut enterprise was window located in the facade, also
based on wooden prototypes, which were called the chaitya window, hints
cut into stone. at the religious significance of the
y Researchers have unanimously agreed that building.
the revival of Brahmanic faith began under y The following are the main characteristics
the Guptas, as evidenced by the Udayagiri of the viharas:
caves near Vidisha. This was the first time ⚪ Both Buddhism and Jainism build
the latter patronized Brahmanical cave monasteries or viharas in caves for their
excavations. monks to utilise.
y Located in the Udayagiri hills, Cave no. 7  An irregular plan is found in the
(Tawa Cave) is a monolith with a well- earlier caves of western India, but
finished chamber and a medallion carved a regular one appears in the later
on the ceiling. It is the first cave temple ones.
in India to be built in the Brahmanical  They usually have a big central hall
style. Compared to the Buddhist rock-cut and are square or oblong in shape.
Temples, the rock shrines belonging to There are several small square cells,
Jainas are not on a large scale. and the monks have benches in
most of the cells and hallways.
Chaitya and Viharas ⚪ The earliest of the Viharas of western
y Chaityas and Viharas are built as sacred India are situated at Bhaja, Bedsa,
sites for Buddhists and Jainas alike. Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Nasik and Karle.
y Chaityas contain a sacred stupa in the  During the reign of Kharavela, two
centre, whereas Viharas are mainly stone Jaina Viharas were excavated:

Post-Mauryan Art 45
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Udayagiri and Khandagiri (Orissa). to visualise and concretise the Temple

 The largest cave in Udayagiri hills is models such as Ellora monoliths, even
Rani Gumpha cave, with its double- in the trapped mass.
storied structure. y The caves at Elephanta, Jogesvari and Ellora
(early phase) were styled for Brahmanical
Gods and on Brahmanical Temple models.
⚪ It may be presumed that prototypes
existed in brick or stone. The architecture
of Elephanta shows development,
integration and elaboration over a
relatively long and mutually related
period and cannot be under the
command of a single king.
⚪ Nor is pasupatism the overwhelming
keynote of the cave Temples under
references.
y They bring Shiva, Karttikeya,
Fig. 5.1: Bhaja caves, Pune
Ganesa, Lakshmi, Saraswati, Durga,
Kalyanasundaram and Saptamatrikas in an
Cave Architecture integrated framework that was part of a
general hieratic Temple formula.
y The Chalukyan and other Southern cave ⚪ They are the resonant, creative
Temples, primarily depicting the sala, Kuta articulations of kings who had a plan
and panjara, are again presented in the and a purpose of propagating Agamic
Brahmanical caves around Bombay. Brahmanical religious art at its best, of
⚪ These caves, however, generally vary in Vaishnava and Shaiva.
Buddhist examples at Ajanta and Ellora. y Further, the sculptural forms of Deccan
The internal unity of Mandapeshwar, were strongly influenced by the artistic
Elephanta, Jogeshwari of Bombay, style of the Pallavas.
Ramesvara (Ellora) and Dhumarlena ⚪ It is characterised by tall and slender
(Ellora) are well known. figures which could be distinguished
⚪ They are different from the Buddhist easily from their Orissan or Vindhyan
groups, which, however, have an internal counterparts.
commonness among themselves. ⚪ Female forms are slim, with narrow
It shows the several stages of waists and small shoulders. The breasts
development. are well rounded but smaller. They wear
y It has to be inferred that pillar and layout fewer ornaments and garments.
details changed quickly within even one ⚪ The male figures are somewhat heavier,
decade, as is sometimes being proclaimed in with broad shoulders supported on an
successive stages of Ajanta and Elephanta- elongated torso. Less attention is given
Jogeshwari. to the expression of emotions through
⚪ Brahmanical cave architecture is not facial movements, poses and gestures.
a finite evolutionary stage in Temple ⚪ These descriptions apply both to human
arts but a prestigious departure from and divine forms. In fact, this trait has
structural erections. The environment been carried over for several centuries
around Bombay or Ellora was yet found down South, as evident in the various
conducive. bronze figures of later dates.
⚪ It was only given to the Rashtrakutas

46 Post-Mauryan Art
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Fig. 5.2: Caves in India

Post-Mauryan Art 47
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Barabar Caves (Located in Present-day Bihar)

y They are believed to be India’s oldest
example of rock-cut architecture.
y There are four caves in the Barabar Hills
built during the Mauryan Period, especially
during the reign of Asoka and his grandson
Dasaratha.
y The caves were built initially for the Ajivika
sect, but later rock-cut caves were built for
Buddhist, Jaina, and Brahmanical practices.
Fig. 5.4: The Great Chaitya at Karle, Pune
⚪ The two ancient emperors (Ashoka,
Dasaratha), who were Buddhist
themselves, took a policy of toleration Kanheri Caves
toward the many religions (including
y The Kanheri caves are near Bombay, and
Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism).
the Kanheri Chaityas are patterned after
the Karle Chaitya.
y There are 109 caves cut out of basalt rock
here. Chaityas were the bigger caves. Even
so, the bulk of the caves were viharas.
y The Mahayana influence is also visible, as
images of Buddha adorn the caves’ outer
walls.

Fig. 5.3: Ornamented Gate, Lomas Rishi Caves

Karle Caves (Near Pune)

y The Karle caves were built in the 1st Century Fig. 5.5: Chaitya at Kanheri, note the similarity with
AD, and their pattern is similar to that of Karle Chaitya
the Bhaja caves, but they are much larger
and more spectacular.
y The Chaitya at Karle is carved 124 feet deep Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves
into the rock and is located two miles North y The Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, near
of the Mumbai-Pune highway. Bhubaneswar, Odisha, were erected in the
y Great Chaitya is the most well-known cave 2nd Century BCE during the reign of King
(Cave no. 8). It is India’s largest rock-cut Kharavela.
Chaitya. ⚪ The caves are supposed to have been
utilised as living quarters by Jain monks.
y Rani Gumpha, Ganesh Gumpha, Hathi
Gumpha, and Vyaghra Gumpha are among
the 18 caverns of Udayagiri.
y There are 18 caves in Udayagiri, such as Rani

48 Post-Mauryan Art
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Gumpha, Ganesh Gumpha, Hathi Gumpha

and Vyaghra Gumpha, among others. Rani
Gumpha is the largest cave, whereas
Khandagiri has 15 caves that comprise
Navagiri, Devsabha and Anant Gumpha etc.
y The Varaha mandapa is an outstanding
representation of the asymmetrical
arrangement of carved figures where Vishnu
lifts the earth from the cosmic ocean.
⚪ In Mahisha mandapa, the fury and
ferocity of the Mahishsura are beautifully
represented. Another impressive panel
depicts Vishnu resting on Shesha Naga.
y The Govardhana carried by Krishna is
proportionally shown in the Krishna panel
in the Panch Pandav cave.
⚪ A scene of milking cows in Brindavana
has been etched beautifully in another Fig. 5.7: Pandavleni Caves, Nasik
panel. It might, however, be interpreted
as a living rock portrayal of the Hindu
epics. Bagh Caves (Madhya Pradesh)
⚪ The structural towers appear to be y The Rang Mahal Cave (Cave no. 4) is the
based on Buddhist depictions of the most well-known and is found about
Jatakas seen in Ajanta and other Indian 100 kilometres North of Ajanta, Madhya
cave Temples. Pradesh. All nine of the caves were carved
from rock, and only five survived.
y Among the caves’ mural paintings (wall
paintings) is a procession of elephants and
a dance scene depicting a female musician
and dancer.

Fig. 5.6: Udaygiri Caves

Nasik Caves
y These caves, also known as the ‘Pandavleni’
caves, are a series of 24 caves that date
back to the first century AD.
Fig. 5.8: Bagh Caves
y They were constructed during the reign of
Krishna, the Satavahana king.
y Photos of Buddha and Bodhisattvas can be
found in the caves.
y As only symbols are used to represent the
Buddha, the Pandavleni caves represent
Hinayana influence.

Post-Mauryan Art 49
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⚪ Among the most famous paintings of

Cave 1 is that of Bodhisattva Padmapani.
⚪ Ajanta Cave was declared a World
Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1983; the
caves are considered masterpieces
of Buddhist religious art and have
been influential on subsequent Indian
creations.

Fig. 5.9: Painting at Bagh Caves

Ajanta Caves (near Aurangabad, Maharashtra)

y Ajanta contains 30 Buddhist caves. They
were found in a horseshoe curve on a
hillside dating to the 2nd century BC. Some
of them are from the 7th century AD. The
caves of Ajanta may be divided into two
phases: Satavahana and Vakataka.
y During the first phase of development,
under the patronage of Satavahana Kings
in the second century BC, Viharas and
Chaityas were established as a symbol of
Buddha, known as the Hinayana phase.
The stupas were more popular during this
period, and the figurative sculptures were
neglected. Fig. 5.10: Bodhisattva Padmapani at Cave 1, Ajanta
y After the completion of the First Phase
of construction, the King Vakataka of the
Gupta era and the Vakataka II of Post
Gupta era (in the 5th and 6th centuries AD)
started the Second Phase of construction.
Since Buddha was depicted as a human
during this period, it was also known as the
Mahayana Phase.
y Rock-cut sculptures and mural paintings
are found in these caves. The sculptures use
a range of shapes, positions, and gestures
to portray diverse emotions. The murals are
based on legends from the Jataka tradition
about Buddha’s previous lives.
Fig. 5.11: Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana, sculpted at
y The fresco technique is used to paint
Ajanta
the murals at Ajanta. In this technique,
watercolours are applied to a layer of lime
plaster that is wet when painted.

50 Post-Mauryan Art
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Ellora Caves (Aurangabad, Maharashtra)

y The Ellora caves are a collection of 34
caves built between the 5th and 8th
centuries AD by the Chalukya, Kalachuri,
and Rashtrakuta dynasties. It is a UNESCO
World Heritage Site with cave Temples
dedicated to Hinduism, Buddhism, and
Jainism. The 17 Hindu (caves 13 to 29,
Caves No. 14 and 15 are famous and are
called Ravan Ki Khai and Dasavatar caves
respectively), 12 Buddhist (caves 1 to 12)
and 5 Jain (Caves 30 to 34), the religious
harmony that prevailed during this time of
Indian history is evidenced by the fact that Fig. 5.14: Jain Tirthankaras at Ellora
they were constructed close together.
y Kailasa temple: Ellora’s Cave 16 is the
world’s largest single monolithic discovery. Badami Cave Temples
During the Rashtrakuta dynasty, Krishna y Located in Karnataka’s Badami town, these
I (757-773), constructed the Kailasanatha cave Temples are exceptional examples
Temple, which is the finest example of of Chalukyan architecture. Featuring
Rashtrakuta architecture. ornamented walls, bracketed ceilings,
and intricately carved statues, they date
from the 6th century AD. The complex is
composed of four rock-cut cave Temples,
three of which are Brahmanical Temples
and one is Jaina. Around a century after the
earlier Temple, the Jaina cave Temple was
built.
y Cave No. 3, which is dedicated to Lord
Vishnu, is the largest cave. It is also
Badami’s oldest cave.
y In modern-day Karnataka, the Chalukyas
Fig. 5.12: Kailasanath Temple, Ellora Temple-builds are distributed in Aihole,
Badami, Pattadakal, and Mahakuta.

Fig. 5.13: Jain Architecture at Ellora

Fig. 5.15: Badami Cave Temples

Post-Mauryan Art 51
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Elephanta Caves ⚪ There is a distinct nature to the

y It had been an economic, military, and experience here, and later at Dumarlena
religious centre for centuries, and vestiges in Ellora, with the sun coming from so
of early Buddhist culture can still be found many directions.
there. As a result of the resurgence of the ⚪ Light shading varies quite a bit within
Brahmanical religion, the large cave was the cave due to the spaces and masses
created exclusively for Shiva. within.
y In this regard, Walter Spink believes that ⚪ By replacing the side cells and walls
the Kalachuris built this cave building in of the monastery with verandas, the
the mid-sixth century. As evidenced in the architect preserved the idea of the
inscriptions, the Kalachuri Kings, particularly Buddha shrine in the back wall and the
Sankaragana and Krishnaraja, have been original front veranda.
fervent worshipers of Maheshvara since ⚪ Caves are the creation of unknown
their birth. geniuses, master builders. To sculpt
y Cave cells are arranged around a square independent freestanding sculpture
court, much like monasteries in Buddhism. and rock-cut architecture, the creator
⚪ Mahayana Buddhism promoted the of this cave must have been a master
worship of the Buddha, so a shrine was carver.
developed to house its image. Cells y Compositions, iconography, puranic
at the back wall of the Temple were narratives, spatial arrangements, styles,
replaced by this shrine. and the use of mathematically precise
y It is through these more elaborate measurements for figures and architecture
monasteries that we get to Elephanta via all serve as continuations from the past.
Ajanta, Ellora and Aurangabad. y With their innovations, the Elephanta
⚪ It is arranged in a square so that you can artists have transformed architectural
circumambulate between the columns tradition in a way that has never been seen
and the cell walls through the halls and before. This fusion of diversified and mobile
columns that vary in size. forms with new modes of expression and
y The same craftsmen and sculptors appear new metaphysical understandings of deity
to have built Buddhist and Brahmanical represents a radical departure from the
sanctuaries. past.
y At Jogeshwari near Bombay, the idea
of a square shrine is linked to an earlier
structure, the fifth-century Temple at
Deogarh.
⚪ This Temple is built in the shape of a
square and sits on a square terrace.
There are three entrance doors available.
⚪ The priest at Jogeshwari still travels
ritually from door to door within the
chaturmukha (four-doored) shrine,
chanting and ringing his bell, but the
walls at Jogeshwari are solid.
y Elephant’s architect was the first to propose
that the Temple be opened to the outside
Fig. 5.16: Elephanta Caves
world on three sides.
⚪ Transitions between light and dark were
permitted and encouraged.

52 Post-Mauryan Art
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Buddhist Architecture Temple, which actually bears witness to

the ancient brickwork of that time.
y Brick structures: Early Buddhist structures
⚪ A stone railing from all sides encloses
were built by cutting caves into rocks. With
the Mahabodhi Temple. This Temple has
the introduction of brickworks during the
an unusual design. It is neither a Nagara
Gupta period, a new chapter in the history
nor a Dravidian Temple. It is small like a
of Indian architecture began. In the Gupta
Nagara Temple, yet doesn’t curve, like a
period and post-Gupta era, many Buddhist
Dravidian Temple.
Temples and monasteries were erected all
y Nalanda university: This university is a
over India.
Mahavira as it is a complex of several
y Mahabodhi temple: One of the oldest brick
monasteries of various sizes. There have
buildings in eastern India is the Mahabodhi
been only a few excavations of this ancient
Temple. Indian brickwork on this building is
learning centre, as most of it lies buried
said to be the finest example in the world,
under contemporary civilisation. This
and it greatly influenced later architectural
poses a challenge for future excavations.
development.
The majority of the information about
⚪ As a pilgrimage site, Bodhgaya is
Nalanda comes from records left by Xuan
renowned for, first and foremost,
Zang. According to Zhang, Kumargupta I
the Bodhi Tree, which has intrinsic
6
significance, butBuddhist
was the one who laid the foundations of a
Architecture
also the Mahabodhi
monastery in the fifth century.

Buddhist Architecture
Stupas
Characteristics of Stupas.
Constructed on a foundation of stone or bricks.
Earthen mounds are used for stupa's centre.
Harmika is at the top
Vedika surrounds stupas
Circumambulation path runs around the stupa
Toranas are ceremonial gateways
Depictions of significant events in the Buddha's life and the Jataka myths.
Brick dome-shaped holy burial mound
Notable examples of Stupas

Sanchi Stupa
Use of mud mortar and large burnt bricks.
Built by Ashoka
Triple umbrella on a pedestal surrounded by a square railing
Plain hemispherical brick structure over a Buddha relic.
It has both – upper and lower circumambulatory paths.
Dhamek Stupa
In Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh
Built by Ashoka, later reconstructed by Guptas
Has buddha relics
Mark the spot of the first sermon of buddha.
Revelation of the eight-fold path.
Solid cylinder of brick and stone.
Bharhut Stupa
Built by Ashoka in 3rd CE.
Various features were added during Sunga Period
Mostly demolished, parts are kept in Kolkata Museum
Central stupa is encased by a stone railing and four Tarana gates.
Amaravati Stupa
Aka Mahachaitya Stupa
Ruined Buddhist monument in Amravati
Initially made by bricks, later on covered by lime

Palaces Pillars
To reflect the grandiose Made of Chunar Sandstone
the empire. Aimed to spread Buddhist ideology and court
Examples – Kumrahar orders of Ashoka
Palace Mostly in Pali or Prakrit language

Post-Mauryan Art Architecture

Buddhist 1 53
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Pillars

Parts of Mauryan Pillars Pillar Edicts and inscriptions

Shaft Ashoka’s 7 pillars edicts
Capitalt
Pillar Edict I – protection of people.
Abacus
Pillar Edict II – talks about Dhamma.
Capital Figure
Pillar Edict III – abolished tortures
Minor Pillar Inscriptions Pillar Edict IV – duties of Rajukas
Rummindei Pillar – Pillar Edict V – abolition of animal slaughter
Ashoka's visit to Lumbini Pillar Edict VI – Dhamma Policy
Nigalisagar Pillar Pillar Edict VII – Ashoka’s work to promote
Major Pillar Inscriptions Dhamma
Sarnath Lion Capital – commemorates Dharmachakrapravartana.
Vaishali Pillar.
Sankissa Pillar
Lauriya Nandangarh
Lauriya-Araraj
Allahabad Pillar
Cave Architecture Features
Mostly belongs to Hinayana or Theravada
Major examples of Caves Buddhism
Have a symbolic representation of Buddha
Barabar Caves
Connection between religion and commerce
India’s Oldest rock-cut architecturer
Chaitya remains mostly the same
Built during the Mauryan period
Viharas got the image of buddha
Initially for Ajivika sect, later
Later modified by Hinduism and Jainism
accommodated Jains, Buddhists, and
Brahmins

Four major caves of Barabar hills Karla Caves

Sudama Cave Built-in 1 CE, similar to Bhaja Caves
Lomas Rishi Cave Chaitya is carved 124 feet deep into rocks
Karan Chaupar Great chaitya in cave no 8 is India's largest
Visva Zopri chaitya
Udayagiri and Khandagiri
Bhaja Caves Near Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Located in Pune Constructed during the reign of Kharvela
22 rock-cut caves Served as a living quarter of Jain monks
Associated with Hinayana Buddhism Nasik Caves
Chaityagriha is the most important part Aka Pandavleni Caves
of the cave Constructed during the reign of Satavahana
King
Kanheri Caves Have Hinayana influence
Patterned after Karle Chaitya
109 basalts cut caves
Have influence of Mahayana

Cave Architecture
Buddhist Architecture 2

Major examples of Caves

Bagh Caves
Nine rock-cut monuments
All are vihara
Known for their mural paintings
Ajanta Caves
Located in Pune
Divided into two phases
Satavahana Period
Vakataka Period
Have both – Hinyana and Mahayana influence
Both pictures and rock cuts sculptures are found
Mural painting based on jataka stories, using the fresco technique
Have a painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani
It is a world heritage site
Ellora Caves
Collection of 34 caves built by Chalukya, Kalachuri and Rashtrakuta
It is a UNESCO world heritage site
Kailasa Temple.
A world's largest single monolithic temple
Ellora cave no 16.
Constructed by Krishna of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty.
Badami Caves
Fine example of Chalukya Architecture
4 rock-cut cave temples
It has all Jain, Hindu and Buddhist caves.
Elephanta Caves
O� the coast of Mumbai
Have a style of Ellora caves
Have both Buddhist and Shaivite features
Famous for their sculptures
It is a UNESCO world heritage site

54 Post-Mauryan Art
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Previous Years’ Question (PYQ) teachings or religious law); and (c)

(2016, Mains) Sangha (monastic community).
y The majority of the relics at Stupas
Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting depict Jataka tales relaying Buddhist
folk motifs and narratives, successfully teachings and values such as ahimsa
expounds Buddhist ideals. or non-violence, as well as nature
Answer: conservation, which are represented
The Buddhist Stupa is the most basic by animal motifs such as a lion, bull,
of Buddhist architectural monuments, horse, stag, and so on.
serving as a sacred area marker and a ⚪ The sculptures depict scenes
representation of the Buddha’s burial in which homage is paid to the
mound. A stupa is a mound-like monument Buddha’s footprints.
that houses relics and is utilised as ⚪ A riderless horse is seen in one
a meditation site. They were made of image, which is thought to reflect
massive mud mounds encased in little the Buddha’s departure from the
standard bricks that had been thoroughly palace.
burned. On many panels of Stupas, y Early Buddhist works demonstrate
Buddha’s life and ideas are depicted. that depictions of the Buddha in bodily
The oldest specimens of early Buddhist form were forbidden, although some
Stupa art can be found in Sanchi, Sarnath, symbols were permitted.
Amaravati, and Bharhut. y The medallions on the railing of
Buddhist stupa-art, depicting buddhist Bharhut Stupa depict various Jatakas
ideals: or stories from the Buddha’s life and
y Built by the Mauryan ruler Ashoka in conception, as well as images of
the 3rd century BCE and afterwards devotees and donors, fertility nymphs
rebuilt in stone to twice its original (s h a l a b h a n j i k a s) ,y a k s h a s , l i o n s ,
size, the huge Stupa at Sanchi is one floral motifs, and pictures of many
of the first Stupas. personages, including what appears to
y Maya is accompanied by two elephants be a Yavana (Greek) warrior.
at the huge Stupa at Sanchi, which The early Stupa arts expound on Buddhist
depicts Buddha’s birth. ideals, and art historian Vidya Dehejia
y In Sanchi Stupa, the crossbars, and believes that the Buddha’s relics are
the intervening square between them not intended for public display in this
are covered with relief sculptures regard. They are housed in a Stupa, which
depicting the events of the Buddha’s worshippers visit to “experience intimacy
life. Here, Buddha is depicted to the Buddha.” The relics are said to
throughout in symbolic form, by a possess the live essence of Buddha. They
wheel, an empty throne, or a pair of are said to remain and be infused with
footprints. the quality that defined and animated the
y The hemispherical mound at Stupas living Buddha.
has a symbolic meaning, since it
represents the gods’ mountain
dwelling at the centre of the cosmos.
y The three Jewels of Buddhism are the
keys to a true knowledge of the faith:
(a) Buddha; (b) Dharma (Buddhist

Post-Mauryan Art 55
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STUPAS to taking the shape of a cylindrical vessel.

y Among the earliest Buddhist architecture, y Harmikas is situated on the truncated tops
Stupas hold the most significance. They of hemispheres surrounded by railings.
show the earliest sculptural depictions of y Surrounding a stupa is a vedika which can
significant events in the Buddha’s life as be found at Bharhut, Sanchi, and Amaravati.
well as the Jataka myths. The railing has four gates. Vedic vedikas are
y A Stupa is a brick dome-shaped holy burial made with upright Pillars and transverse
mound used to house Buddha’s artefacts or bars.
commemorate important Buddhist events. y Within the railing of the Stupa is a
y Buddha stupas were first discovered in circumambulation trail (Pradakshina Path).
the late fourth century BC, based on y Surrounding stupas were Toranas, which
archaeological evidence. were ceremonial gates.
⚪ In India, among the oldest stupas known
are those at Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati The Great Stupa (Sanchi)
(now located in Andhra Pradesh), and y Mud mortar and large burnt bricks were
Bharhut. used to build this structure.
y Many of the relics found at a stupa y Built by Ashoka and destroyed during the
represent Jataka tales narrating Buddhist Mauryan Empire’s disintegration. It was
stories, such as non-violence and nature fully restored in the 2nd century BC, under
conservation, depicted by symbols such as the rule of the Shungas.
lion, bull, horse, stag and many others. y On the pedestal of the Great Stupa stands
⚪ The relics are supposed to contain a triple umbrella, also called a Chattra,
Buddha’s living essence. They are surrounded by a square fence and has a
thought to retain and be filled with the wide hemispherical dome that is flat at the
quality that animated and defined the tip.
living Buddha. y Its nucleus was a plain hemispherical brick
y The carvings portray scenes in which structure constructed over Buddha’s relics.
obeisance is being paid, for example, to y Pradakshina Path or circumambulatory path
the footprints of the Buddha. One scene, is provided at both Stupas at Sanchi. It has
considered to depict the Buddha’s departure four ornately painted toranas depicting
from the Palace, shows a riderless horse. different scenes from the Buddha’s life and
y Such works show that early Buddhism the Jataka tales.
prohibited depiction of the Buddha in y On Sanchi Stupa are motifs depicting
bodily form but allowed representation by Maya flanked by two elephants, marking
certain symbols. Buddha’s birth.
y In Sanchi Stupa, the crossbars and the
Characteristics of stupas intervening square between them are
y Initially, earthen mounds were used to build covered with relief sculptures depicting the
the Stupa’s centre. The earthen mound events of the Buddha’s life.
would eventually be covered in bricks. A ⚪ Buddhism is represented here through a
stone cover is also overlaid on top of the wheel, an empty throne, and footprints
brick encasing. as symbols.
y Stupas usually are constructed on a y The hemispherical mound at Stupas
foundation of stone or bricks. A hemispheric represents the symbolic association, i.e.,
dome (Anda) was built on top of this base. the mountain home of the Gods at the
y As time passed, the Stupa’s drum became centre of the universe.
more elongated and raised. It came close

56 Post-Mauryan Art
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excavations throughout time. One of

these early excavations revealed a stone
tablet indicating that this is the Dhamek
Stupa, which historians primarily believe
to be a slanted form of Dharma Chakra,
which means ‘turning the Wheel of
Dharma’.
⚪ There are Buddhist pilgrims from all over
the world visiting this stupa, including
many national and international
dignitaries.
⚪ It is believed that the stone basement
of this Temple was raised during the
Fig. 5.17: Sanchi Stupa Gupta era, and it boasts eight projecting
faces carved with geometric and floral
designs.
Dhamek Stupa (Sarnath)
y A Buddhist stupa, also known as Dhamek
Stupa, is located near Varanasi in Uttar
Pradesh, India. It is one of the most famous
stupas in the world.
y The massive structure, which was built by
King Ashoka during his reign in 249 BCE,
has been expanded and added numerous
times over the centuries.
y At its present position, the cylindrical-
shaped stupa is 43.6 m tall and its diameter
is 28 m. It was constructed of red bricks
and stones.
y Sacred sites like these may be understood
to be the place where Lord Buddha first Fig. 5.18: Dhamek Stupa
preached to his five disciples after attaining
enlightenment in Bodh Gaya.
y Tourists and pilgrims alike come to Bharhut Stupa
Sarnath to witness Buddhist architecture y It is believed that Ashoka originally built the
and culture at this important centre of Bharhut stupa in the third century BC. The
Buddhism. Pilgrims come from around the Shunga period in the 2nd century BC added
world to circumambulate the holy stupa many works of art, especially the gateway
and worship Lord Buddha. and railings.
y Significance of the place: The place y There are a few railings and entrance
became significant archaeological when in gateways that remain at the Indian Museum
1798, Mr J. Duncan reported a stone box in Kolkata.
containing a casket of green marble, which y The central Stupa was encased by a stone
was discovered while the Dharmarajika railing and four Torana gates in a similar
Stupa was being dismantled by the workers arrangement to Sanchi.
of Jagat Singh, Dewan of King Chet Singh of y Railings of the Stupa are carved and feature
Benaras, many depictions of yakshas and yakshinis.
⚪ The stupa has undergone many

Post-Mauryan Art 57
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Amaravati Stupa or bell-shaped.

y According to ancient inscriptions, the ⚪ Abacus: The abacus was a circular or
Amaravati stupa was the largest in the rectangular base that was placed above
Andhra region, known as Mahachaitya. the capital.
y It is a ruined Buddhist monument in ⚪ Capital figure: All the capital figures
Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh, most likely (usual animals such as a lion, bull
constructed in phases between the 3rd or elephant) are carved standing on
century BC and about 250 CE. a square or circular abacus and are
y The Amaravati stupa was initially paved vigorous.
in bricks before being covered in carved y Ashoka’s 7 Pillar Edicts: These were located
limestone slabs. As in the case of Sanchi, at Topra (Delhi), Meerut, Kaushambi,
the railing and gateways were constructed Rampurva, Champaran, Mehrauli:
around the main structure over time. ⚪ Pillar edict I: Asoka’s principle of
y The Amaravati stupa’s railings, gateways protection to people.
and dome were richly ornamented with ⚪ Pillar edict II: Defines Dhamma as
exquisite relief carvings. the minimum of sins, many virtues,
compassion, liberality, truthfulness, and
purity.
⚪ Pillar edict III: Abolishes sins of
harshness, cruelty, anger, pride, etc.
⚪ Pillar edict IV: provides for the duties of
Rajukas.
⚪ Pillar edict V: List of animals and birds
which should not be killed on some
days and another list of animals that
should not be killed at all.
⚪ Pillar edict VI: Dhamma policy.
⚪ Pillar edict VII: Works done by Asoka for
Fig. 5.19: Amaravati Stupa Dhamma policy.
y Minor pillar inscriptions
⚪ Rummindei pillar inscription: Ashoka’s
Pillars
visit to Lumbini and exemption of
y As a symbol of the state, Ashoka Pillars Lumbini from tax.
(generally made of chunar sandstone) ⚪ Nigalisagar pillar inscription, nepal:
assumed a great significance in the entire Asoka increased the height of the Stupa
Mauryan Empire. of Buddha Konagamana to double size.
y The prime objective of the Ashokan Pillars y Major pillar inscriptions
was to spread the Buddhist ideology and ⚪ Sarnath lion capital: located
court orders in the entire Mauryan Empire. near varanasi. Ashoka built
y Despite being largely written in Pali or it in commemoration of
Prakrit, a few Ashoka pillar edicts were also dharmachakrapravartana or the first
written in Greek or Aramaic. sermon of buddha.
y Mauryan Pillars mainly consist of four parts: ⚪ Vaishali pillar, bihar, single lion, with no
⚪ Shaft: The base of the pillar was a long inscription.
shaft made up of a single stone or ⚪ Sankissa pillar, uttar pradesh.
monolith. ⚪ Lauriya-nandangarh, champaran, bihar.
⚪ Capital: On top of the shaft rest the ⚪ Lauriya-araraj, champaran, bihar.
capital, which was either lotus-shaped ⚪ Allahabad pillar, uttar pradesh.

58 Post-Mauryan Art
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Palaces Chaityas. There are very few Brahmanical

The Mauryan established their capital at sculptures.
Pataliputra and had another Palace at Kumrahar. y As is the case with all religions, the
The structures reflected the grandiose of the Brahmanical tradition conceived of images
empire. Ashoka’s Palace at Kumrahar was yet of different Gods and Goddesses as well.
another magnificent structure with high Pillars This was also done with the Buddha’s image
ornamented with carvings and sculptures. both in the Mathura and Gandhara schools.
y Many sculptures, including those made in
relief on panels, were also sculpted in the
round. These figures are large in size and
well-modelled, yet they do not give a true
representation of anatomical proportions,
as this was not their intended purpose.
y A nude figure from Lohanipur (Patna)
was identified with a Tirthankara whose
damaged torso has been found. Icon or
image worship among the Jainas dates
back to the Sunga period.
y Images were worshipped by the Jainas of
eastern India as far back as pre-Mauryan
Fig. 5.20: Remains of Kumrahar Palace times, according to the Hathigumpha
inscription.
⚪ Images found in the votive tablets of
Sculpture/ Schools of Art (Post
the Jainas from Mathura that have
Mauryan Era)
ashtamangalas (eight auspicious
y Sculptures are inextricably linked to marks) suggest that image-worship
architecture, just as they are to larger was also becoming common among the
structures such as Stupas or Chaityas. Jainas by the 1st Century AD.
y Single images are commonly found in Hindu y The Mahayana sect of Buddhism was
Temples or religious sites. primarily responsible for propagating
y The development of regional or local styles image worship, which included carvings of
or schools in sculpture can be seen in this seated and standing Buddhas at Mathura
period. While in the North, the Gandhara and and Gandhara.
Mathura schools emerged, in the Southern ⚪ In the early development of relief
Krishna-Godavari valley, Amaravati was carving, we can see the bas reliefs of
the principal point. Sanchi, Bharhut, and Bodh Gaya.
y The post-Mauryan period is thought to have ⚪ Stupa railings consist of medallions or
been characterised by a distinct type of art rectangular panels that depict scenes
than the prior period. in Buddha’s life and stories from Jataka
y While the art of the Mauryan period is tales. The imagery depicts the events in
considered Palace art, the Sunga-Kanva a continuous narration depicting scenes
art had a broader social base. It also had from Buddha’s life and Jataka stories.
very different motives, techniques, and
significance. Gandhara School
y During this period, Buddhist sculptures and y Located in the North-western portion of the
images are mostly found on the railings, Indian subcontinent, Gandhara includes
gateways, and plinths of Stupas, as well Peshawar, Svata, Buner, and Bajora. It was
as on the facades and walls of Viharas and ruled by the Achaemenids of Iran in the

Post-Mauryan Art 59
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sixth and fifth centuries BCE. ⚪ There have also been ivory plaques
y It was also occupied by Greeks, Mauryas, found at Begram.
Sakas, Pahlavis and Kusanas, resulting in y The figures sculpted in Gandhara School
an interesting mix of cultures. Although were more spiritually oriented and were
its art was mostly Buddhist, it was deeply mostly painted in grey. Gandhara School
influenced by Hellenistic art. was heavily influenced by Greek schools
y One should keep in mind that the chief and methodologies, and detail was paid
patrons of Gandhara art were the Sakas to have the exact depiction of body parts.
and the Kusanas. This explains, for But, at the same time, this school is also
example, why transparent garments draped influenced by Roman techniques to a
in Graeco-Roman style and very curly hair greater extent.
in Buddha idols. y The region came under the political
y In addition to Jalalabad and Hadda, influence of a variety of kingdoms like Greek,
Bamaran, Begram, and Taxila are also Mauryan, Parthian, Kushan, and Synthian
important art centres for Gandhara School and this resulted in the emergence of a
art. mixed school of art, which borrowed from
y Two schools of Gandhara art exist: early various traditions of art.
and later. y The Gandhara school drew upon the
⚪ There were blue-grey schist stone idols anthropomorphic traditions of Roman
made during the early schools, which religion and represented the Buddha with
existed during the 1st and 2nd Centuries a youthful Apollo-like face, dressed in
AD. garments resembling those seen on the
⚪ However, in the later school, mud, lime, Roman imperial statues.
pilaster and stucco were used rather
than schist stone, with the idols clearly
representing limbs and other sections
of the body.
 Aside from idols and reliefs, you will
find carvings depicting Buddha and
Bodhisattvas, the themes of which
include Buddha’s life and that of
Bodhisattvas.
 Images of Bodhisattvas are placed
in niches for worship on the Chira
Stupa drum at Taxila, for example.
 Buddha, Bodhisattvas, and incidents
from their lives are carved into the
ramparts of the Sehribhelol Stupa’s
small Pillars.
 In addition to the bronze reliquary,
Kusama kings and flying geese
(symbols for wandering monks) were
painted on the sidewalls of Shah-Ji-
Ki Dheri.
y There were also other elements of the
Gandhara art. For example, a series of
figures were arranged within an arcade of a
gold reliquary discovered at Bimaran. Fig. 5.21: Buddha, Gandhara School of Art

60 Post-Mauryan Art
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y Standing figures of Buddha, deceived the

elusive stylistic actions of the Roman Hellenistic cultures.
sculptor, seeking to express majesties. y The Buddhist inscription in the
y The drapery was fundamentally Western, Kharosthi letters was found in the
the folds and volume of dangling garments region.
were carved with realness and gusto Greco-bactrian elements
which earmarked the Gandhara sculpture y Buddha in Gandhara art has a youthful, Apollo
as based on a Roman and Greek classical (Greek god) like face. Many Buddha sculptures
visual impact. include the Greek god Hercules as protector.
y In Gandhara art, the Hellenistic-Roman y Buddha in Gandhara art is dressed like a
elements are proposed to form the basis Roman imperial statue, and for the first time,
for the artist’s conceptions and design. Buddha is represented in a human-like figure.
y The Roman influence is also witnessed y The decorative motifs like fruit garland, scrolls
in the relief carvings which, both in etc., resemble Greek tradition.
their artistic style and in much of their y In combining black stone with stucco, a type
iconographical detail, are widely related to of plaster, many structures were made within
Roman relief sculptures of imperial times. this artistic style. Among the free-standing
⚪ The location of the figures, the treatment structures were many chaityas, Viharas, and
of the body and the architectural forms stupas.
used are all clearly derived from Roman y In the Gandhara School, an amazing amount of
models. naturalness and realism is evident.
Though Gandhara art has been influenced
by Central Asian and Greco Bactrian
Previous Years’ Question (PYQ) elements, it also emerged as a unique
(2019, Mains) art form in India. Due to its strategic
geographical position, the region became
Central Asian and Greco-Bactrian a meeting place for cultures. These
elements in the Gandhara art techniques were endured till the epoch of
Answer: Gupta. It is evident from Gupta’s realistic
Gandhara art flourished from 1st century anthropomorphic representation of
BCE to 4th century CE in the North west Buddha that the Gandhara tradition was
part of India and came under the political influential.
influence of the different kingdoms like
Greco- Bactrians, Pratihars, Kushanas,
Shakas etc. which resulted in the
emergence of a mixed school of arts. It Previous Years’ Question (PYQ)
developed in India during the Kushana (2014, Mains)
period and was one of the major schools
of art in the history of ancient India. Gandhara sculpture owed as much to the
Central asian elements Romans as to the Greeks. Explain.
y The halo behind the head of Buddha Answer:
was inspired by ancient Persian solar Gandhara art, a Greco-Roman style,
deities. appears to have thrived most prominently
y The curly hair of Buddha is similar to during the Kushan era. Some of the
the Parthian style. oldest depictions of Buddha can be found
y The drapery in the statue of Buddha in Gandhara art. Vine scrolls, cherubs
was similar to Parthian drapery in

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wearing garlands, and other motifs and of aesthetic style and iconographical
methods from Classical Roman and Greek intricacy.
painting were used by the Gandhara ⚪ The figures’ positions, treatment
school. However, the core symbology of the body, and architectural
remained Indian. “The Gandhara form elements are all clearly inspired by
of art that evolved in sculpture was a Roman models.
combination of Greco-Roman and Indian According to legend, the Gandhara School
influences,” writes historian V. A. Smith. was highly influenced by Greek techniques,
Roman influence on gandhara sculpture: the figures were more spiritual and
y The Gandhara region was open to sculpted primarily in grey, and attention
foreign influences and one such to detail was given to ensure that bodily
influence from the west was the parts were accurately depicted. But, at the
Roman and Greek realism in art. same time, the Roman practices seem to
⚪ The region came under the have a bigger influence on this school.
political influence of a variety of
kingdoms like Greek, Mauryan,
Parthian, Kushan, and Scythian
and this resulted in the emergence Mathura School
of a mixed school of art, which y The beginning of the Mathura art form is
borrowed from various traditions traced back to the 2nd Century BC. By the
of art. 1st Century AD, in addition to becoming a
y The Gandhara school drew on Roman major centre of art, this school’s art pieces
religious anthropomorphic traditions were also sought in distant areas.
to depict the Buddha as a young ⚪ It produced various artwork for
Apollo-like figure clad in robes similar Buddhists, Jainas, and Brahmanical
to those worn by Roman imperial followers over a period of about four
statues. centuries.
y Standing figures of Buddha, deceived y Mathura art is also notable because it
the elusive stylistic actions of the produced images of prominent rulers and
Roman sculptor, seeking to express others in the Kushana period, much like
majesties. Afghanistan.
y The drapery was fundamentally ⚪ Mathura artists’ paintings reflect their
Western, the folds and volume of understanding of the diverse forms of
dangling garments were carved with art activities at the period and how
realness and gusto which earmarked they addressed the demands of various
the Gandhara sculpture as based on social classes of Indian and non-Indian
a Roman and Greek classical visual origin.
impact. y In addition, they created something unique
y In Gandhara art, the Hellenistic- to Mathura, out of local stone.
Roman elements are proposed to form y Another notable characteristic of this
the basis for the artist’s conceptions school is that it was created during the
and design. Roman period, in addition to the diverse life
y The Roman influence may also be patterns represented on the votive Pillars.
evident in the relief carvings, which ⚪ Scenes from woodlands show men and
are closely connected to Roman relief women collecting flowers, playing with
sculptures of imperial times in terms cranes, feeding birds, and playing in

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gardens and water tanks, among other contributions and dedications made by the
things. members of these faiths.
y The votive Pillars from ‘KankaliTala’ show ⚪ A Jaina Sravaka named Uttaradasaka
how the sculptor has incorporated feminine penned an inscription (pasada-Torana)
beauty into his work. in the mid-2nd century BC.
y The motifs created by Mathura artists are, ⚪ ‘Kankali Tila’ was the main Jaina site at
in fact, elements from nature that the Mathura. It has yielded an overwhelmingly
artist chose to embellish his creativity, as large number of Sculptures stone
in Sanchi and Bharhut. slabs (ayaqapatas) with Jaina figures
in the centre and auspicious marks or
Structure of Mathura school with representations of Jaina Stupas
y A thematic study of the sculpture belonging (these were objects of worship) various
to the Mathura school: architectural fragments like Pillars,
y The Buddha Idols: It’s possible that the capitals, railing - posts, crossbars etc.
first images of Bodhisattvas and Buddha ⚪ The Jainas were first depicted during the
were created in Mathura and sent to other Kushana period, but regular depictions
parts of India. don’t appear until later.
⚪ For example, the Samath image of  Rishabhanatha appears to be
standing Bodhisattvas installed in wearing rocks of hair, but the other
the period of Kanishka-I was made at Tirthankara images are not as easily
Mathura. recognizable. Parsvanatha’s canopy
⚪ There are two basic types of Buddha of snake hoods makes him easy to
images - standing and sitting. Katra’s recognize.
idol is among the oldest sitting images. y Brahmanical images: It has been discovered
⚪ The features of this idol are: that a few Brahmanical images have been
 Buddha in the footprints of a Bodhi found in Mathura. Siva, Lakshmi, Surya,
tree, with his right hand in the and Sankarshana or Balarama are depicted
Abhaya mudra, with tri-Ratna and in the oldest ones.
Dharma chakra chiselled into his ⚪ Kubera, Kartikeya, Vishnu, Saraswati,
palms and his feet, and his head and other Gods were represented in
shaved except for one lock. the sculptures of this period, as were
⚪ Some of the general characteristics of images of Nagas. These images exhibit
the Buddha idols of this period include some iconographic features or features
 They are made of red stone with characteristic of the various Gods.
spots of white. ⚪ In addition, even though Siva represents
 Their images started to become the linga form, he also refers to lingas
round so that they could be seen with four human faces of the Siva
from all angles. on their four sides. This is known as
 A shaved head and face are displayed, Chaturmukha linga.
the right hand is raised up in Abhaya ⚪ As a charioteer, Surya is shown wearing
posture, and there is no mark on the a thick jacket, a dress on the lower half
forehead. of the body similar to a salwar, boots,
 The dress is always tight to the body, and a sword held in one hand and a
while the left hand holds the frill. lotus in the other during this period.
y Jaina Specimens: The city of Mathura was ⚪ Saraswati, dressed in simple clothes
a centre of worship for the Jain faith, as and with no ornaments, is seated
well as the Buddhist faith. Its inscriptions with a manuscript in her hands. She is
mention Jain laymen and nuns as well as accompanied by two figures.

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⚪ Balarama has a heavy turban on his also been found to contain many heads
head. of Scythian dignitaries.
⚪ It is believed that Durga in her Mahisha- ⚪ The Mathura art forms eventually
Mardini form killed buffalo demons. influenced Gupta art forms in a
In Mathura, images of Yaksha and meaningful way.
Yakshini have been found and they are
associated with Buddhism, Jainism and
Brahmanism.
⚪ Linked to wine and parties where people
partake in wine, Kubera is depicted with
a bulging belly. He bears similarities to
Bacchus and Oionysius, two Greek and
Roman Gods associated with wine.
y The images of rulers: A large number of
Kushana kings and other notables are
depicted in the Mat village in Mathura,
including Kanishka, Wima, and Chastana.
⚪ Probably Central Asia was the first place
where portrait statues of rulers and
other dignitaries were deposited. This
was done to give divine status to the
rulers.

Fig. 5.23: Lord Vishnu, Mathura School of Art

Fig. 5.22: Mathura School of Art

⚪ These discoveries demonstrate that

Mathura was one of the major centres
of the eastern Kushan empire. It has Fig. 5.24: Mathura Buddha

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Amaravati School of Art/Vengi School

y In the Eastern Deccan, the Amaravati school
of art developed during this period in the
lower valleys of the Krishna and Godavari
rivers. The Satavahana rulers were the first
to endorse it, followed by the Ikshvaku
rulers, officials, merchants, and others.
y Buddha-related themes were developed
in Nagarjunakonda, Amaravati, Goli,
Ghantasala, Jaggayyapeta, etc. The most
productive and prosperous period of this
art is dated to 150 BC-350 AD.
y In the reliefs of various stupas, we see a
variety of sculptural forms represented by
themes from the Buddha’s life and Jataka
stories. The railings and plinths of several
stupas also depict sculptural forms.
⚪ The whole story of the Buddha taming
an elephant has been portrayed by
the sculptor in relief on a medallion at
Fig. 5.25: Amravati School of Art
Amaravati. The sculptor has rendered
the whole story in relief on a medallion
by himself.

General features of Amaravati art

y White marble is used in carving the figures;
though natural forms are depicted, kings,
and princes’ Palaces feature prominently
in the sculptural representations of nature.
This art is distinguished by beauty and
sensuality; though nature is depicted, the
central characters are humans.
y Over the course of five hundred years,
Amaravati art evolved toward maturity.
⚪ In these examples, one finds
isolated units rather than consistent
compositions. For example, the earliest
examples from Jaggayyapeta date back
to 150 BC.
y However, “one can see here the beginning
of that tall and slender human frame which
is so characteristic an ethnic form in the
narrative reliefs of the Krishna valley, and
later, of Pallava sculpture”. There are well-
shaped and carefully interconnected figures
in later narrative reliefs.
Fig. 5.26: Amravati Buddha

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and his queen. A relief medallion shows

the king receiving gifts from the court. A
relief panel shows a Palace procession
decorated with elephants, horse riders,
and footmen.
y As a result of the patronage of the
Satavahana dynasty and the master
craftsmen who headed it, the Amaravati
school was responsible for some of the
finest art productions of ancient India.
y Moreover, some regions developed
distinctive art forms. These are seen in
the schools of Gandhara, Mathura, and
Amaravati. Although these schools’ themes
Fig. 5.27: Queen Mahamaya’s Dream are predominantly religious, nature and
man are also prominent elements.

Art and architecture Conclusion

y Despite a very different thematic treatment,
Artists produced requisite art pieces during
there are numerous similarities with
this period of maturity in both architecture
Mathura in some instances. An Amaravati
and sculpture. The development of art forms
relief panel illustrating six bathing women
and thematic representation was gradual,
with pots of water bears striking similarities
such as the early creative expressions like
to Mathura’s depictions.
rock paintings, terracotta figurines, etc., it has
y Amaravati has sculptures representing
matured into sculptural shapes A vast number
kings and princes as themes; Kushana kings
of stone sculptures were created during this
are represented in the form of statues from
time period. They give us an understanding of
Mathura.
the social and economic life of the time. Indian
y Amaravati’s statues, however, aren’t each
art during this period was also influenced by
individual but rather part of a narrative.
other cultures.
⚪ Reliefs depict the story of King Udayana

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6 Gupta Age

Introduction y Along with these, there were various

carvings on the walls which depicted the
In the aftermath of the decline of the Kushanas,
images from mythology.
Northern India witnessed the rise of the Gupta
y The finest example of Gupta art can be seen
empire. The rulers of this dynasty carved out
in the Udayagiri cave in Madhya Pradesh.
a vast empire that encompassed almost the
These caves are dated from 401 CE. Here
entire Northern part of India. They exploited
we find Vishnu as a boar headed Varaha in
the ores of Central and Eastern India, as well
human form.
as Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar which were
⚪ The 7 x 4-metre panel depicts a round
very fertile.
figure floating from the cosmic waters
y During the Gupta Dynasty (fourth-sixth
after defeating a snake-like monster
century), they were built as the first
and saving Bhudevi (earth). A famous
purpose-built Hindu (and also Buddhist)
Hindu story of peace and protection
Temples. These shrines were often adorned
may be interpreted as an allegory for
with towers and elaborate carvings and are
Gupta kings’ protection and peace.
often dedicated to all the Hindu Gods.
y Ajanta caves from the Waghora riverbed
y In terms of style, design, and features,
region in Northwest Deccan the remarkable
Gupta architecture was very diverse, and
example of Indian wall paintings. Here the
their rule spanned approximately circa AD
wall doesn’t belong to one particular time.
550. As a result, many regional kingdoms
These belong to periods ranging from the
arose in North India following their collapse.
2nd century to the 7th century.
y The Chalukyas and the Pallavas, respectively,
⚪ In these caves, the majority of sculptures
dominated South India from AD 550 to 750.
depict the Buddha’s life.
Gupta Age Architecture ⚪ Sculptures depict scenes from Buddha’s
life in most caves. Cave 1 has a Guptan
Temple architecture was exceedingly diversified shrine with flat cushion-topped column
during the Gupta period. This kind of diversity capitals. Cave 19 also has a Gupta-
shows that the architecture was i.n its initial style chaitya facade and porch and the
stage of development. Therefore, it has not aperture above is almost semi-circular
achieved the proper standard which was later and also large.
developed. Since the Gupta period was from
the 4th century to the 6th century, a long time
has gone, therefore only a few Temples of that
time have survived. But the influence of that
time on Indian Temple architecture has been
remarkable.

Gupta Cave Shrines

y The earliest example of religious architecture
is found in cave Temples. In these, there
was generally one single doorway and also
a relief sculpture on the outside. Within
the shrine were ritual sculptures, such as a Fig. 6.1: Udaygiri Caves

Shiva linga (phallus).

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Gupta Temples: Structure, Design and Material decide whether there was a second floor or
y Gupta was the first who built permanent not. Triangle motifs on doorways along with
free-standing Temples. In the beginning, lion’s heads which are embedded in stone
the Hindu Temples were not built as a place beams are the other remarkable feature of
for worship. In the beginning, they were the Gupta period.
thought to be dwelling places (devalaya). y A second-storey shrine room from the
⚪ Along with the priest, private individuals Parvati Temple, erected in the late 5th
could also make offerings to God. These century CE, survives in Nachana Kuthara.
offerings are to a relic representative of y One of the best examples of Gupta period
a specific deity. This deity is located in Temples is the Dashavatara Temple. This
a space with no window. This space is Temple is built on a platform also known as
known as garbhagriha. jagati in the 6th century CE.
⚪ There is a path around the Temple, ⚪ Ramayan epic poems are depicted
walking over it is considered an in the form of scenes on all the sides
important ritual. of the platform. At the centre of this
y Gupta period architecture is deeply platform i.e. jagati at Deogarh, a large
influenced by Kushan, Mathura and shrine is built. One important feature of
Gandhara. In Gupta’s architecture, we find this is that it has no window. Apart from
T shaped doorways, elaborate jambs, and the main shrine, four less important
sculpted panels with high-relief figures. Temples are also built at each corner of
y If we see the material used, we find that the complex.
granite and sandstone are used on a large y At the time, Hindu Temples were not
scale. Along with horseshoe gavakshas dedicated to just one God, but to a number
arches, we find the curved shikhara which of them. Following the same tradition, the
are decorated with ribbed disks known as Gupta period Temples were devoted to
amalakas. many Gods.
y To adorn these buildings in the Gupta time, ⚪ Dashavatara Temple is the best
a large number of figurines and ornate illustration where several Gods appear
mouldings are used. in scenes of Hindu mythology and are
y Temples were designed to carry decorative present in the square sanctuary tower.
architectural features from all sides so that There we find sculptures of various
they could be seen from every angle in Hindu Gods including Brahma, Vishnu,
Gupta architecture. Ganga, Yamuna and Indra. Maithunas
⚪ Square Temples with the garbhagriha and attendants are also depicted there.
in the centre are also frequent and are ⚪ Vishnu Anantasayana, a well-known
normally entered through an entry porch panel depicting sculpting, is also on
placed over a single, lavishly adorned display in the Temple. On this panel,
doorway with a projecting lintel. Vishnu is shown lying on the head of
⚪ In Madhya Pradesh, flat roofs can still a serpent with multiple heads. The
be found in Tigawa and Sanchi. The serpent is called Ananta and it is drifting
columns can support a pot-and-foliage in the water of oblivion. From the navel
capital. of Vishnu, a lotus leaf is coming out over
y Since the various Temples of that time were which the God of creation i.e. Brahma is
never restored, therefore it is difficult to sitting.

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as the tower goes up toward the pinnacle.

On the ornamented capitals, frames are
formed where terracotta panels were
originally existent.
y Though only a few panels are present now,
proof from other sites suggests that these
panels depicted the scene from mythology.
Grotesque faces, similar to gargoyles of
gothic cathedrals, are present on the panels
of the upper tower.

Fig. 6.2: Parvati Temple at Nachana Kuthara

Fig. 6.4: Bhitargaon

Aspects of Jain Temples

Fig. 6.3: Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh The Jain architecture was essentially an
outgrowth of Hindu and Buddhist architecture.
It will not be assigned a specific subject.
Bhitargaon Though there are many Hindu Temples, there
Though there is only a handful of surviving are just a few Jain Temples. The regional styles
Temples from the Gupta period that are in of Jain Temple architecture are widely distinct
decent shape, Bhitargaon is one among them. in different parts of the world.
This Temple was built in the late 5th century. y The architecture of early Jain Temples was
One of the unique qualities is that it is the early primarily rock-cut, with no use of bricks. As
Hindu Temple which was entirely made up of time went on, brick Temples proliferated,
bricks. and at the same time, they separated from
y Though the upper portion is damaged, Hindu and Buddhist sites to construct their
gavaksha niches and pilasters are kept own structures.
intact by the four-sided and curved y In the design of the Jain Temple we find
shikhara. This shikhara decreases in size three features:

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⚪ Image chamber – Garbhagriha freestanding wall.

⚪ Hall – Mandapa y The square design of the Jain Temple has
⚪ Porch four cardinal directions of apertures. These
y Antarala, which is a small vestibule, is also openings could lead to a Tirthankara image.
present. This is found between the chamber ⚪ Lord Adinath’s Chamukh Temple in
where the image is installed and the hall. It Ranakpur is an example of a four-door
is a place where worshippers can stand and Temple.
participate in the rituals. y Ellora and Aihole in the Deccan are two
y Temple cities were well-known in Jain architecturally significant Jain sites.
tradition as places where Jain Temples ⚪ The prominent Gomateshwara statue in
might be found. Temples are constructed Shravanabelagola, Karnataka is another
in enormous complexes here. These remarkable example of Jain Temple
complexes of temples are interwoven in architecture.
Jain Temple architecture. ⚪ Deogarh, Gwalior Khajuraho, and
y There are several Jain Temples built on Chanderi are some wonderful examples
hilltops, such as Palitana temple in Gujarat, of Jain architecture in central India.
Sonagiri temple in Madhya Pradesh, etc. ⚪ Gujarat and Rajasthan are two states
These Temple houses have pointed domes where Jain influence was greater.
and octagon-shaped chambers within.  A bronze Jain picture in Akota,
y Marble and ornamentation are used on a Gujarat, is one of the best examples
large scale in the Jain Temples. of Jain architecture.
y There are a number of points in front of the
domes extending into the sky that give the Some of the Most Important Jain
building its distinctive appearance. When Temples Listed
we compare the top dome of a Jain Temple
to that of a Hindu Temple, we see that it is Dilwara Temple
smaller. y In Mount Abu, Rajasthan, stands the
y The Jain Temple is a well-designed Dilwara Temple, a Jain Temple dedicated
construction with Pillars that form a square. to the Tirthankaras. It was built entirely of
y The square that was made created pure white marble and bedecked with fine
chambers that housed the deity’s picture. sculptures.
The Temple’s top and Pillars are ornately y It was constructed with the assistance
carved and ornamented. of Solanki rulers. Sculptural decorations
y Furthermore, the Jain vihara cells are adorn their lace-like facade, which has
modest and straightforward. The reason deep undercuts.
for that is to control Jain monks’ strict
asceticism. The monks have to bend or
crawl to enter these viharas as the doorways
are very narrow.
y The Jagat or Vedi is the platform on which
most Jain Temples are erected. Platforms
can be found even in cave Temples carved
out of rock. The Temple was built on a
platform to elevate the Temple above
the surrounding landscape and create a
separate sacred place.
y The Temple, which is known as Prakara
in general, is mostly surrounded by a Fig. 6.5: Dilwara Temple, Mount Abu

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y Doomed ceilings and exquisite patterns on y This monolithic statue was constructed by
every ceiling are unique features of this Chamundaraya, who was general–in–chief
Temple. Dilwara Temple is also well-known and prime minister of Ganga king of Mysore.
for its graceful bracket figures. Lord Bahubali is famous for his asceticism
in a standing position. He was standing till
Ranakpur Temple ivy-covered his legs apart from anthills
y The most remarkable example of Jain built near his feet.
architecture is the fifteenth-century Jain
Temple in Ranakpur, Rajasthan. This is
in honour of the first Tirthankara, Lord
Adinath. Because of its four faces, this
Temple is also known as Chaumukh.
y A light-coloured marble was employed in
the construction of this Temple. It even has
its own dome. It rises majestically from
a hill’s slope. The Temple is supported by
1444 marble Pillars, each carved with fine
intricacies and unique.

Fig. 6.6: Ranakpur Jain Temple

Fig. 6.7: Gomateshwara Statue at Shravanabelagola

Jain Idols
Bawangaja
Shravanabelagola
Bawangaja in the Barwani district in Madhya
y Among the many Jain pilgrimages,
Pradesh is famous for the Jain pilgrimage. At
Shravanabelagola in Karnataka holds
this site, there is an 84-foot tall lord Adinatha
special importance. Lakhs of people visit
statue. This statue of Adinath is the largest
this place every year. Chandragiri and
megalithic figurine in the world. This statue
Vindhyagiri mountains are present on two
was carved prior to the 12th century out of the
sides of this place. There is a 57-foot-high
mountain.
monolithic statue of Lord Gommateshwara,
also known as Lord Bahubali, son of the
first Tirthankara, Adinath, on the peak of
Vindhyagiri.

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built during the 1st century BCE.

y One of the oldest rock-cut architecture
was found in the Barabara caves in
Bihar, built around the 3rd century
BCE, which depicts the Ajivika sect.
Economic: Commerce and religion
complement each other in ancient India.
This is further elaborated by the fact that
Bhaja and Karle caves were situated on
the busiest trade routes in the Western
Ghats.
Fig. 6.8: Bawangaja y This trade route was used to connect
the interior parts with the seaports of
the western coast.
Previous Years’ Question (PYQ) Educational: The famous Kanheri caves
(2020, Mains) in western India was an educational hub
where evidence of water harvesting can
be found.
The rock-cut architecture represents
y Bhaja cave has clusters of Stupas,
one of the most important sources of our
where the relics of the teachers were
knowledge of early Indian art and history.
obtained.
Answer:
Political: Many political rulers protected
In this type of architecture, the structure is
such architectures under their patronage.
made with the help of carving and cutting
y For example, Barabara caves by King
of the natural solid rock. This is found in
Ashoka, Ellora by the Rashtrakuttas,
abundance in the Indian sub-continent
and the Chalukyas protecting Badami
than anywhere else in the world. Most
cave temples testify to political
of the rock-cut architectures found in
patronage in ancient times.
India are religious in nature, but they also
These findings clearly explain how the
give the economic, societal, political, and
rock-cut architectures have been an
educational insights of the past.
essential source of information regarding
Knowledge of Early Indian Art and History
ancient India’s various aspects of life
from the Rock-Cut Architecture:
and help us holistically understand
Religious: The western Deccan area of
their culture. It also paves way for us to
India has many caves, which even date
understand how evolution in society has
to the before Christ era. Example: Bhaja
taken place.
cave, Kanheri cave, Ajanta Cave. These
were identified to be Buddhist caves.
y Ellora cave and Mahabalipuram having
temples of Kailashnath and Shore
respectively signify the Hinduism Rock Cut Cave
ideology being predominant in the
y The Gupta period is the golden age of
region during the 6th century CE.
architecture. Hence it was a time of
y The signs of Jainism can be found in
flourishing Buddhism. A famous monastery
the caves of Udaygiri and Khandagiri in
in Ajanta contains beautiful Chaitya halls
the eastern part of India. These were
and many residential Viharas with beautifully

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painted murals depicting figures whose ⚪ Arch makers of India were aware of arch
lines move elegantly. making even before Muslims came to
y At this time large size stones are used. India. This is proved by the presence of
Stones were carved, and terracotta relief a curve on MirpurKhas stupa.
along with bronze statues was very refined y Several brick relics, including the Dhameka
as per the Gupta style. During this time the Stupa, are representative of Gupta
production of these was very high. architectural pattern.
y After the 7th century, several notable y During the Gupta period, the architecture
Buddhist works of art were made. Buddhist developed not only in the form of Hindu
art grew significantly under the reigns of Temples but also in the form of Buddhist
the Pala and Sena dynasties (730-1197). Temples. Along with the temple, caves were
y Gupta style’s focuses on embellishment and another major development in the Gupta
fabrication. Most of the architecture of the time.
Gupta period is of bronze and hard black y Gupta period cave paintings, such as those
stone. One of the examples is Nalanda. at Bagh, Ajanta, and Ellora, depict Buddhist
y Caves and Temples dating from the Gupta figures and stories. The Hindu caves, on the
dynasty have been preserved. Two Buddhist other hand, are located in Udayagiri, Bhopal.
stupas are an excellent example of this. The y Cave paintings from the Gupta period stand
MirpurKhas stupa, built in the 4th century out from the rest because of their artistic
AD, contains several arches. refinement and design.

Ajanta caves
y Ajanta Caves are about 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments that date from the 2nd
century BCE to around 480 or 650 CE, and they seem to be hidden in the hills of Northwest
India, some 200 miles away from the bustling streets of Mumbai.
y Among the finest examples of ancient Indian art, the paintings and sculptures of the
Ajanta caves exhibit expressive paintings that convey emotion through gesture, pose and
form.
y In UNESCO’s view, these masterpieces are representative of Buddhist religious art that
influenced India’s art in subsequent centuries. Caves were constructed over two waves
of time, with the first settling around the 2nd century BC, and the second settling around
400 to 650 AD, or all within just a few years between 460 to 480 according to Walter M.
Spink.
y Mural paintings survive from both the earlier and later groups of caves. Many of the
fragments of ancient murals preserved from earlier caves (Caves 9 and 11) are unique
examples of ancient Indian painting from this period, and they illustrate how the Indian
artist was capable of mastering an elegant and fluent naturalistic style by Satavahana
times.
y Four of the later caves have large and relatively well-preserved mural paintings which,
states James Harle, “have come to represent Indian mural painting to the non-specialist”
and represent “the great glories not only of Gupta but of all Indian art”.
y They fall into two stylistic groups, with the most famous in Caves 16 and 17, and apparently
later paintings in Caves 1 and 2.
y In contrast, the Ajanta Frescoes are classic paintings. They are rich and complex works
of confidence, without cliches. Early Western observers found these caves shockingly

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out of place because of the luxurious, sensual, and stunning aesthetic aspects, which
were assumed to be a result of religious worship and ascetic monastic life.
y Among the main colours used were red ochre, yellow ochre, brown ochre, lamp black,
white, and lapis lazuli from the Middle East which were mixed with Indian yellow ochre
to create the green.
y Indian art features vivid and multi-coloured scenes with most characters never being
repeated, a simple and fundamental principle in the art. Ceilings, walls and pilasters are
all covered with overlapping figures, with vivid, contrasting colours.
y While Ajanta’s painting techniques are similar to European fresco techniques, it stands
out because the pigment was applied to the layer of dry plaster rather than wet. A rough
plaster of clay, cow dung, and rice husks was first applied to the rough cave walls. This
was then coated with lime juice in order to create a smooth working surface.

Fig. 6.9: Ajanta Caves

Fresco Technique
Fresco painting, method of painting water-based pigments on freshly applied plaster, usually
on wall surfaces. The colours, which are made by grinding dry-powder pigments in pure water,
dry and set with the plaster to become a permanent part of the wall. Fresco painting is ideal
for making murals because it lends itself to a monumental style, is durable, and has a matte
surface.

Fresco Mural painting inside the cave

The subject matter of Ajanta frescoes can be divided into the following:
● Figures of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas
● Scenes and incidents from the Buddha’s life
● Narratives from Jatakas (stories of previous births of the Buddha)
● Representations from nature, such as flowers, trees and animals
● Mythological figures such as Yakshas, Apsaraas, Gandharvas etc.

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Avalokitesvara is depicted here, one of the

on the stupa on live rock. Therefore, three-
most beloved bodhisattvas. This painting is
located to the left of the main shrine. fourths of the image emerge.
The term “bodhisattva” refers to a person y Rounded sculpture: it was in the Gupta
in whom the Buddhist spirit has awakened.
Mahayana doctrine teaches that
period that Hindu Gods were carved in a
Alavokitesvara delayed achieving
Buddhahood until he was able to help all
rounded shape. Similarly, the Varaha image
beings attain Nirvana.
of Udayagiri is made in deep detail. It is a
monolithic image. Similarly, the rounded
Over the Asia-Pacific region, there are the
most different forms taken by

full-size Vishnu sculptor is painted in the

Avalokitesvara. Originally a masculine figure,
Avalokitesvara is known in China as Guanyin

Dashavatara Temple. Stone, clay, wood,

and in Japan as Kuan Yin.

An enchanting painting depicts the

attendant’s tanned body adorned with
pearls and amethysts. He is dressed in
and bronze are used for making the
traditional Indian jewelry as well.
rounded sculptor. Since these were three
At some point, his heat was probably
painted in extreme detail, but has
dimensional in the Gupta period therefore
deteriorated over time, resulting in a
magnificent crown. they were very expressive.
In his right hand, he holds a lotus blossom,
which represents his spiritual awakening.
His meditative eyes are lower and his calm,
Sarnath School of Sculpture
During this period, the Sarnath School
spiritual face sets the tone and mood of the
scene. y
of Sculpture was founded. Sandstone in
Fig. 6.10: Bodhisattva Padmapani
Cream colour was used for the construction
of the school. The Gupta sculptures did not
Junagadh Caves
 Located in Gujarat, the Junagadh Caves have artificial
platforms 30-50 feet high, and a staircase connects them to
exhibit the nakedness prevalent earlier.
(Uparkot) the hall of the cave. The cave contains religious relics related
to Buddhism.
They were properly dressed and covered.
⚪ Halo is more decorative and detailed
in these sculptors. For centuries, these
have also often been circularized, and
 A throne and footprints indicate that Buddha was present in they have influenced Buddhist drawings
most of the caves belonging to Hinayana, with the exception
Nashik Caves of the 18th, which was a Chaitya. The caves are called Pandava throughout Asia, including China and
Leni/Trirashmi.
Japan. And even metal sculptures came
into being during this period.
⚪ The Sultanganj Buddha is a sculpture of
 These are located on the banks of the River Dhaisa near Mount considerable size and importance from
Poinsur in Borivali, and an eighteenth century memorial to
Montepzir/
Mandapeshwar Cave
Shiva can be viewed in them. this period. It measures 2.3 meters high
 After the Portuguese converted it into a Christian cave, this
open ground is used by the residents of the slum in front of it. and 1 meter wide and weighs more than
500 kilograms.
Fig. 6.11: Caves y During the period of the Guptas, the
Gandhara School of art and sculpture had
reached a very high degree of perfection.
Sculpture
Other schools developed in Mathura. But
y Relief sculptures: These paintings were the highest degree of perfection is achieved
made in high relief. Buddha’s halo and other in the Sarnath school.
decorative elements are painted on a large y The spiritual and religious characters were a
scale and in high relief. Here Buddha motifs major motif in Gupta painting. They created
are painted centred on his life incidents. depictions of Gods such as Shiva, Vishnu,
These paintings show how much the artist and Buddha as a result of this.
mastered the stone carving. y The Gupta time sculptors were magnificent.
y Bas-relief: because the images are very Their figure was very proportionate. Detailed
large in size therefore the bas- relief postures and gestures were shown in these
technique is used. Under this sculptor images. The sculptors’ works were stunning,
carved the Buddha image and decoration and the figures were proportionate and

Gupta Age 75
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balanced. characteristics of Indian Temples including

y Shiva-Parvati relics in Kosam, Ramayana plastic forms were developed and included
panels in Deogarh, and bodhisattva elaborately during this time.
images in Sarnath are examples of Gupta y The carvings from the Temples of Udayagiri
architecture. These were produced by and Ajanta are very good examples of figure
the Mathura school of art, which was sculpture in their decorative settings: the
unparalleled during this period. Temples of Deogarh also have excellent
y Gupta sculptures were renowned for their stone carvings from the Temples of
artistic finesse and brilliance during the Udayagiri and Ajanta.
Gupta era. ⚪ Sheshashayi Vishnu, who is pictured on
y The magnificent image of Buddha carved the serpent Ananta in Deogarh Temple,
out of red sandstone dates from the 5th is shown sleeping awake on the panel,
century AD. This is a fine example of Gupta the symbol of eternity, in the interval
architecture from Mathura. between the dissolution of the universe
⚪ In all his sublime splendour, the great and its new creation, is a magnificent
master stands here holding the hem of example.
his garment with his left hand and right y From the sites of stupa, chaityas, and vihara
hand in Abhaya mudra, ensuring his of the Gupta time, many remains have
protection. been discovered. These all are Buddhist
⚪ Embedded in spiritual ecstasy, the sites. The remains from other sites like
smiling countenance and down-cast Nalanda, Rajgir, Julian and Mohra maraud
eyes are gilded with intricately designed and Pushkalavati are also found.
folds on the robe covering both
shoulders. Temple Architecture of Gupta Age
⚪ An elaborate halo garnished with y During the Gupta dynasty, free-standing
concentric bands of graceful ornament temples became increasingly popular.
is the centrepiece of the head covered During this time the Temples are decorated
with schematic spiral curls and a with ornaments on a very large scale.
protuberance in the middle of the head. y In the Gupta period, the base or the
⚪ Several countries adopted Buddhism foundation was a permanent material like
and modified its image and forms brick and stone rather than bamboo and
to embody the finished mastery of wood.
execution and the majestic serenity of y During this time the purpose of the Temple
expression found in the Buddha’s image, is to be a place of worship rather than a
including Siam, Cambodia, Burma, Java, dwelling as was the case with the caves.
Central Asia, China, Japan, etc. y As the Gupta period went on, the art gained
y An excellent example of Gupta art in its more richness and details.
mature form, the standing Buddha is a y The one prominent feature was the shikhara
softly moulded figure that appears to be of the Gupta period. The Gupta time dome,
ensuring protection with its right hand. on the other hand, demonstrates the
Here the drapery is different from Mathura sculptors’ ingenuity. These features make
because only the edge is visible unlike in the Gupta Temple different from other
Mathura where delicately designed drapery periods.
is visible. The flawless execution, as well as ⚪ Gupta architecture may be seen in the
the serene expression of the sublime being, Shiva Temple in Nachana, the Parvati
make this sculpture truly worthy. Temple in Ajaya Garh in Uttar Pradesh,
y India Temple architecture rose to its the Ekkalinga Shiva Temple in Satana,
zenith in the Gupta period. All the specific

76 Gupta Age
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and the Vishnu Temple in Central for excellent possibilities for the future,
Province. leading to the development of distinctive
y The Garbhgriha is the locus of the Temple styles of architecture for Indian Temples.
where the idol of God is located. This y Creativity and a deep sense of beauty
garbhagriha is connected to the hall by a were the central features of Gupta art.
vestibule. A court is present around the The following surviving examples illustrate
Temple. The writing of text on and around these characteristics:
the Temple is a prominent feature of Gupta ⚪ Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh in
Temples. Jhansi district (UP),
y There has been a revival of Hindu beliefs ⚪ Bhitargaon Temple near Kanpur (UP),
during the Gupta period due to the ⚪ Vishnu Temple at Tigawa (Jabalpur
construction of Temples and the placement district, MP),
of images of their devoted Gods (ishta- ⚪ Shiva Temple at Bhumara (Satna district,
deva). MP) and Khoh (Bharatpur district,
⚪ The Bhakti ideology and the increasing Rajasthan),
importance of image worship led to the ⚪ Parvati Temple at Nachana-Kuthara
construction of free-standing Temples (Panna district, MP),
containing the image of the deity ⚪ Temple dedicated to the Sun-God at
within a dedicated chamber called the Ashramaka (Satna district, MP) and
Garbhagriha. Many of these Temples can Mandsaur (MP),
be found in this period. ⚪ Yaksha Temple at Padmavati (modern
⚪ The buildings were constructed from Pawaya) near Gwalior (MP),
stone or brick and had a roof with spouts ⚪ Temple at Bhitari (Ghazipur district,
for water drainage. Initially, they were UP) a great Temple complex and
small structures with central shrines. accompanying sculptures at Eran (Sagar
⚪ Sanchi’s Temple No.17 is the earliest district, MP) etc.
Gupta Temple that can still be visited
today. It is well designed. There is an Five Main Types of the Gupta Temples
enclosed cell with a square chamber y Devagrahas of the pre-Christian era
and columns in the front. were excavated in extremely fragmentary
⚪ In the later Gupta and post-Gupta conditions, perhaps dating back to the
periods, this design was adopted on a second century BC. Buildings in the Gupta
large scale. era were constructed with lasting materials,
y A Temple-building activity carried out by such as dressed stone and brick, but
the Guptas grew out of the rock-cut shrines were built of perishable materials, giving
of old, which reached a whole new level in little scope for architectural principles.
the later stages of the Gupta period. This During the Gupta period, Indian Temple
time marks the commencement of Temple architecture took its first steps. From those
construction in India, and it influenced experiments, two major styles emerged.
Temple design well into the medieval period. There were five phases to the construction of
y During this era, the ground was prepared Temples in the Gupta Age.

Gupta Age 77
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 Temples on low platforms with flats roofs, square temples, shallow

pillared approaches to the front and temples with flat roofs were visible
Square Building with in the first state. The Kankali Devi temple at Tigawa and the Vishnu and
Flat Roof Shallow Varaha temples at Eran are examples of this stage. Another is Temple 17,
Pillared Porch which is located in the city of Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh). A temple’s
nucleus is here for the first time, a sanctum (garbhagriha), with one
entrance and some porches.

 In the Second Stage, flat roofs and square temples continued, and pillar
approaches were not shallow, but temples were now elevated on a
raised platform and there were covered ambulatories around the
The Addition of An
Ambulatory sanctum sanctorum. There were also two-storeyed temples seen at
Bhumara (Madhya Pradesh) and at Aihole. Examples are the Shiva
temple at Bhumara and the Ladh-Khan.

 In this third stage, one can find square temples, the pillared approach,
high platforms that are low and squared, and the concept of subsidiary
shrines, which is based on the Panchayatan Style. The Nagara style is a
successor of the third stage of temple making. Dashavatara temple
The Square Temple
(built in stone at Deogarh, Jhansi district) and Bhitargaon temple
with a Low and
Squat Tower (Kanpur district) fall into this category. The base of the structure is
raised, and the tower adds to the composition’s elegance. [The second
and third types—storeyed and shikara—underwent further
developments to crystallise into two distinctive styles in the south and
the north, respectively].

 The fourth stage was characterized by rectangular temples with all

Rectangular Temple
with An Apsidal other features remaining unchanged. Examples: Koteswara temple at
Back Chejerla (Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh).

 Only the Rajgir Maniyar Matha Shrine in Bihar exemplifies this style from
Circular Temples the fifth stage. The fifth stage included circular temples with shallow
with Shallow rectangular projections while all others continued. [The fourth and fifth
Rectangular
types appear to be survivals/adaptations of the earlier forms and do not
Prjection
appear to have much influenced subsequent development].

Fig. 6.12: Temples

Paintings of the Gupta Period Padmapani standing in Tribhanga position

with a white lotus in his right hand and a
y Paintings were more important than
jewelled crown on his head. His visage is
buildings and sculptures during the Gupta
filled with melancholy and sympathy for
era. During the Gupta dynasty, paintings
his fellow beings as he looks down from
became more secular.
heaven.
y Gupta paintings were depicted in the cave
y Painting throughout the Gupta era took on
paintings of Ajanta, Badami, and Bagh.
a new dimension that had never been seen
y The majority of cave paintings reflect Jataka
before. Gupta’s painting is unrivalled in
stories and Buddha’s life.
ancient Indian history for its magnificence
y A painting from Ajanta depicts Bodhisattva-
and splendour.

78 Gupta Age
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y The Ajanta frescoes (Aurangabad district, whilst Varaha Purana, Vamana Purana,
Maharashtra) and cave paintings at Bagh and Narasimha Purana glorify Vishnu’s
(Dhar district, MP) and Badami/Vatapi numerous incarnations. The common man
(Bagalkot district, Karnataka), as well as was supposed to worship them.
faint vestiges at numerous other locations, y During the Gupta dynasty, some “smritis”,
are the most well-known examples. or law texts, were compiled. The Narada
⚪ It appears that visionaries and those Smriti, for example, is a compilation that
who enjoy the beauty of nature chose offers light on social and economic rules
the Ajanta site. On a long horse-shaped and regulations of the time. This period’s
hill overlooking a deep valley, the Ajanta literature was written in Sanskrit.
caves are located. There are 29 caves y Kalidasa, who flourished in the court of
total, of which Caves 1, 2, 16, 17, and 19 Chandragupta II in the 5th century AD, was
have survived, allowing us to assess the the finest of all the poets. His works are
exceptional level of painting during the well-known, and they have been translated
Gupta dynasty. into a number of European languages.
y Although the frescoes date from the 1st to Meghadutam, Abhijnanashakuntalam,
the 7th centuries CE, the majority of them Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava, and
are from the Gupta period. Ritusamhara are some of his works. The
y The Bagh cave paintings are equally characters of higher castes speak in
impressive, because of their bold execution Sanskrit, while those of lower castes and
and range of artistic elements like patterns women speak in Prakrit.
and scrolls. They are more secular in nature y Shudraka, the author of Mrichchhkatikam,
than their Ajanta counterparts. and Vishakhadatta, the author of
y Because of the art, architecture, and Mudrarakshasa, are two additional well-
sculpture that reached pinnacle levels known dramatists who flourished at this
during the Gupta period, it was regarded as time.
India’s Golden Age. y Banabhatta, Harsha’s court poet, penned
Harshacarita in praise of his patron in the 7th
Literature century. It became a model for succeeding
y The Gupta period is considered the Golden writers since it was written in an elaborate
Age of art and literature. A huge body style. This text is used to reconstruct
of religious and secular literature was Harsha’s early history. Kadambari is another
compiled in this period. text he wrote.
y In the 4th century, the two major epics, ⚪ Harsha was also regarded as a literary
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were monarch. Priyadarshika, Nagananda,
finally completed. Both epics’ storylines and Ratnavali are said to be his three
represent the triumph of good over evil. plays.
Both Rama and Krishna were thought to be y The Tamil language experienced growth
Vishnu’s avatars. in Bhakti literature from 550 to 750,
y Puranas, or ancient Indian literature, began when songs were penned by Saiva saints
to be written during the Gupta period. These (Nayannaras) and Vaishnava saints (Alvars)
books contain anecdotes about Hindu Gods in praise of their Gods.
as well as instructions on how to satisfy ⚪ Andal, a woman, was one of the most
them through fasting and pilgrimages. The prominent of the Alvar saints.
Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana, and Matsya ⚪ The devotional songs of the Vaisnavas
Purana are the three major Puranas written are collected in the work Nalayira
during this time period. Shiv Purana was Prabandham, while those of the Saivites
composed to glorify Shiva’s worship, are preserved in the text Devarama.

Gupta Age 79
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Coins y The rapid deterioration in the number and

purity of later Gupta coins was exacerbated
y Besides being pieces of art, the Gupta
by the emergence of new independent and
gold coins are elegantly designed and
self-sufficient local entities (Shrenis).
meticulously crafted. They depict the
y The Post-Gupta coins became repetitive,
rulers’ activities in an extremely pleasing
with only minor or no inventive alterations.
manner. The lyrist type of gold coin
y In the post-Gupta period, numismatics
depicts Samudragupta playing the lute. His
quality declined due to a reduction in trade
interest in music can be detected from this
and frequent conflict for power.
representation. He also issued Ashvamedha
type of coins.
y Renowned for their gold coins, the Gupta
Previous Years’ Question (PYQ)
numismatic art has a plethora of coins in
(2017, Mains)
various designs. They also distributed silver
coins. However, coins made of copper,
bronze or any other alloy metals were How do you justify the view that the level
limited. This plethora of gold coins from the of excellence of the Gupta numismatic
Gupta era has led some scholars to regard art is not at all noticeable in later times?
their reign as the ‘rain of gold’. Answer:
y The gold coins of the Gupta dynasty are From the early fourth to the sixth
known as Dinars, and they are among the centuries C.E., the Gupta dynasty ruled.
finest examples of numismatic and artistic The Gupta numismatic art is known for
perfection. its gold coins, but it also includes a wide
⚪ The metallurgy and iconography of range of other patterns. Silver coins were
Gupta coins were at their pinnacle. also given out. On the other hand, copper,
Because they were local, they dressed bronze, and other alloy metal coins were
the king, queen, and deities in Indian uncommon. Some scholars refer to the
garb and with great grace. Gupta period as the “rain of gold” because
y Post Gupta age, we find a decline in of the abundance of gold coinage.
numismatic art. Coins were rare during the The Gupta Numismatic Art:
period 900 A.D-1200 AD. The Gupta gold coins, known as dinars, are
⚪ The level of excellence of the Gupta among the best examples of numismatic
numismatic art declined in later times. and artistic perfection.
Islamic rulers like the Delhi sultanate The metallurgy and iconography of Gupta
and Mughals did not feature on the coins were at their peak. Because they
coins and preferred minting teachings were local, they dressed the monarch,
from the Quran instead. queen, and deities in Indian clothes and
y It was emphasised that the early Medieval with exquisite grace.
age was inflicted with monetary anaemia, y The coins had the following features
and from the side of coinage, it was a dark and themes:
age. ⚪ Royal themes: Image of king
y Recent Historical research had brought to and queen involved in various
light that monetisation was never wholly ceremonies. For example, coins
absent in India and its level was reasonably depicting Chandragupta I and
high during 900 A.D-1200 AD. queen Kumaradevi etc.
y The decline in internal trade and the
weakening of a powerful centre also
resulted in a broad scarcity of coinage.

80 Gupta Age
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y The advent of self-contained local

units (Shrenis) contributed to the
rapid drop in the number and purity of
later Gupta coins.
y Later on, the Gupta numismatic art’s
level of quality decreased. Islamic
rulers like the Delhi sultanate and
Mughals did not feature on the coins
and preferred minting teachings from
the Quran instead.
y The Post-Gupta coins were bland, with
little or no new features.
Fig. 6.13: Gupta age coins A general atmosphere of peace and
prosperity aided the development of a
⚪ Themes depicting valour: civilisation favourable to cultural and
Samudragupta carrying an axe, social advancement. Classical India’s
bow and arrow, standing with a “Golden Age” is regarded as the Gupta
dagger, Skanda Gupta sitting on an period. The circulation of gold coins by
elephant and hunting a tiger in one many Gupta monarchs indicated that
of the coins. the economy was prospering. In the
⚪ Religious themes: Image of a post-Gupta period, numismatics quality
female goddess in almost every declined due to a reduction in trade and
coin, an image of the king holding frequent conflict for power.
an animal at the altar for sacrifice,
ruler performing Ashwamedha
Yajna.
⚪ Cultural themes: King Conclusion
Samudragupta playing the Veena.
India was incredibly wealthy during the Gupta
Coinage of Post Gupta age:
dynasty’s reign. The Gupta kings outperformed
y Since the Gupta dynasty, numismatic
most Indian dynasties in terms of architecture,
art has decreased. Coins were rare
sculpture, painting, and other forms of art.
during the period 900 A.D-1200 A.D.
During this time, there was a convergence
y It was emphasized that the early
of past architectural tendencies and styles,
Medieval age was inflicted with
as well as a blooming of new styles and
monetary anemia, and from the side
techniques. The human mind’s ideas and
of Coinage, it was a dark age.
faculties were free to work, resulting in the
y Recent Historical research had brought
development of numerous literary and creative
to light that monetization was never
masterpieces. Temple architecture reached its
wholly absent in India & its level was
pinnacle during this time period as well. It was
reasonably high during 900 A.D-1200
also during this time that Cave Architecture
A.D.
reached its pinnacle. While Gupta Architecture
y The decline in internal trade and the
began with Hindu art, it went on to contribute
weakening of a powerful centre also
to Buddhist and Jain art in subsequent years.
resulted in a broad scarcity of coinage.

Gupta Age 81
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7 Temple Architecture in South India

Introduction Shilpa Shastra is an Indian text that covers

Temple building principles and introduces three
Hindu Temple architecture comes in a variety
primary forms of Temple construction: Nagara
of styles, but its essential beliefs remain the
(Northern style), Dravida (Southern style), and
same. Hindu Temple design shows a blend of
Vesara (central style) (the mixed style). The
Hindu principles, dharma, values, beliefs, and
essential features of a Hindu Temple comprise
lifestyles. Hindu Temples were built from rock-
a Garbhagriha (Sanctum Sanctorum), Mandapa,
cut caves that were inspired by early Buddhist
Shikhara and a Vahana. In the Garbhagriha, the
formations such as stupas. With the arrival of
deity resides. The Mandapa is the entrance
Gupta architecture in the 4th and 5th century
path to the Temple. Shikhara is a pyramidal
CE, the first free-standing Hindu Temples with
curvilinear spire arising over the Garbhagriha.
characteristics such as towers and projecting
Vahana is the vehicle of the deity.
niches were created.

Temple
Architecture

Nagara Dravida Vesara Nayaka Vijayanagara Pala

Odisha Khajuraho Solanki Pallava Chola Chalukya Hoysala Rashtrakuta

Fig. 7.1: Classification

Classification of Temple
of Temple Architecture
Architecture of India of India

Nagara School of Architecture culture of Hinduism.

y Hindu Temples were first built inside
Nagara is a unique style of Temple construction
rock-cut caves, influenced by Buddhist
found only in Northern India, and all Temples
structures, such as stupas. Following
in the region are built on stone platforms
the introduction of Gupta architecture
with steps going up to them. In contrast to
during the 4th to 5th century CE, the first
South India, there are rarely elaborate walls or
freestanding Hindu Temples with towers
gateways, and the earliest Temples only had one
and niches were constructed.
shikhara (tower). Later Temples usually have
y A Hindu Temple’s basic elements are
several towers and the garbhagriha is generally
a Garbhagriha (Sanctum Sanctorum),
located right under the tallest tower. The
Mandapa, Shikhara, and Vahana. In the
Temples built in the Nagara Style architecture
Garbhagriha, the deity resides. The Mandapa
did not have a tank. The sculpture was created
is the entrance path to the Temple. Shikhara
in three vertical planes known as ‘rathas.’
is a pyramidal curvilinear spire arising over
Later styles such as Pancharatha, Saptaratha,
the Garbhagriha. Vahana is the vehicle of
and Navaratha evolved. In Northern and central
the deity.
India, these styles were well-established, but
not in the Peninsula. Five Major Stages of Temple
y Temples of Hinduism follow a synthesis Development and Important Features
of arts, ideals, beliefs, and values that
y Stage 1: Flat roof temples, shallow pillared
are cherished by Hindus. Hindu Temple
approach at the front, Square Temples and
architecture exemplifies the worldview and

Temple Architecture in South India 83

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low platforms. Example: Sanchi and Kankali y Stage 4: Most of the important elements
Temple, Tigwa. of the 3rd stage are carried forward, with a
y Stage 2: Continued the flat roof Temples noticeable transformation from the square
and square pillared approach (not shallow), to the rectangular shape of the main shrine.
high or lifted platforms, covered ambulatory y Stage 5: Most of the significant
around the sanctum (garbhagriha) for characteristics of stage 3 are carried
believers to do a parikrama, and sometimes forward. It has the beginning of circular
two-storied Temples. Example: Parvati Temples with shallow rectangular
Temple, Nachna Kuthara, Madhya Pradesh. projections.
y Stage 3: Most of the characteristics of
stage 2 are carried forward; the flat roof Three Subtypes of Nagara Temple
evolved into a curvilinear roof (shikhara), There are many sections of nagara Temples,
the Beginning of the Panchayatana style depending on the shape of their shikhara.
of Temple making. Example: Dashavatara The various portions of the Temple are given
Temple, Deogarh (Uttar Pradesh). distinct names in different parts of India.

Fig. 7.2: Subtypes of Nagara Style of Temple Architecture

84 Temple Architecture in South India

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Three Sub-Schools Developed Under the y The lower upright portion is known as
Nagara Style “Bada”. The tall middle portion is known
Nagara style was built regionally, with each as “Chapra”, over which is a flat fluted
region having its own distinct characteristics. disk known as “Amla”. Shikara is known as
Three sub-schools have adopted the Nagara “Duel”.
Style: Odisha School, Khajuraho School, and y Mandapa is known as “Jagmohan”.
Solanki School. Narasimhavarman built the well-known
Temple at Konarak in the middle of the 12th
Odisha school century and dedicated it to the Sun God.
y The major architectural elements of Odisha ⚪ It was envisioned as a gigantic stone
Temples are grouped in three orders, i.e., chariot pulled by seven rearing horses
Rekhapida, Pida Deul and Khakra. The with large wheels.
majority of the great Temple sites are ⚪ Its presiding deity, the Sun God, is
in ancient Kalinga. The majority of the pictured here, dressed in traditional
main sites are located in the current Puri North Indian garb, wearing chainmail
District, which includes Bhubaneswar, or armour and clutching a lotus in each
ancient Tribhuvanesvara, as well as Puri hand. He is being dragged along by a
and Konark. chariot drawn by seven horses.
y Odisha’s Temples reflect a distinct subtype
of the Nagara style of Temple architecture.
⚪ In general, the shikhara, also known as
deul in Odisha, is virtually vertical until
it turns significantly inwards towards
the top.
⚪ Deul is preceded, as is customary
in Odisha, by mandapas known as
Jagamohana.
y Odisha’s largest Temples almost always
have a square ground layout, but the
crowning mastaka becomes circular in
the superstructure’s upper reaches. This Fig. 7.3: Nagara Style of Architecture, Odisha School
creates the spire almost cylindrical in
appearance and length.
Khajuraho/chandel school
y Exterior walls are intricately carved, and
interior walls bare an important feature of This style was created by the Chandela Rulers.
this school. This Temple’s interior and façade are both
y By the middle of the 9th Century AD, a beautifully ornamented with elaborate carvings.
school of sculpture had grown in Odisha, The Temples had erotic-themed sculptures,
which took lavish pride in the lovely forms but there were no border walls. Shikaras could
of women, among other items. be found on subsidiary shrines, and Temples in
⚪ On the face of the walls, there are many these designs were placed on high platforms.
sculptures of beautiful female figures. This style has three distinctive traits: Garbha
y Young and lovely animals with tempting Griha, Assembly Hall and Portico (Veranda
smiles and lustrous hair full of gems are surrounded by Pillars)
frequently found in Odisha’s Nayika Temples.

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Fig. 7.4: Khajuraho Temple Architecture

Solanki school sculptures that adorn the Jain Temples at

Located in Gujarat under the Solanki Rulers, Mount Abu, Palitana, and Girnar is evidence
this school was based on Temples built on of Gujarat’s marble sculpture practices.
steps of a massive rectangular step tank. The Since the 13th century AD, people have
Temple’s primary shrine, facing east, was devoid been customising the image of Vishnu, the
of carvings. As a result, at the Equinox, the sun Hindu God of preservation.
shines directly on the Central Shrine every y Example- Sun Temple at Modhera, Dilwara
year. On the balconies of the Temple’s west, Temple at Mount Abu, Bemala Temple at
North, and South sites, purna-kalasha columns Mount Abu.
and deep frame structures are common. The
Temple’s main entrance is normally on the east Sun temple at modhera:
side. y It was built around 1026 by Raja Bhimdev I
y Western India and Rajasthan had beautiful of the Solanki Dynasty in the early eleventh
sculptures, with the Jain Dilwara Temples century. The Solanki dynasty was a later
of Mount Abu achieving a high level of Chalukya branch.
architectural excellence in stone. They were y In front of it stands the ‘Surya Kund’, a
created by the Solanki emperors. massive rectangular stepping tank.
⚪ The Dilwara Temples in Mount Abu y By the early 11th century, water sources
are excellent examples of the western such as tanks, rivers, or ponds had become
school of the Jain tradition. integral parts of many temples, because
Rather than being architectural monuments, they were so close to sacred architecture.
they are sculptural masterpieces. In terms Perhaps the grandest temple tank in India
of complex sculptural carvings, the Dilwara is this 100 square meters rectangular pond.
Temple’s roof is a piece of art. y There are 108 small shrines carved between
y The enormous number of elaborately carved the stairwells within the tank.

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y Visitors to the sabha mandapa (assembly ⚪ Subsidiary shrines are either built
hall) are greeted by a great ornate arch- into the main Temple tower or stand
Torana, which is accessible from all sides, alongside it as lesser shrines.
as was the case in western and central y In a strategy different from the Nagara
Indian Temples. style, one of the smallest towers can be
found in the main temple of some of the
Dravidian Style most sacred temples in South India.
y This Dravidian style was seen during the y A large water reservoir (temple tank) is
Pallava Period and can be divided into commonly found inside the complex, which
four stages. Shikara (tower) is the crowning was generally not associated with the
element on the top of the Temple, like Nagara style.
Amalak and Kailash of Nagara Style. The y Some examples include Brihadeshwara
entrance has sculptures of dwarpalas. It has Temple (Thanjavur), Shore Temple
only one vimana. These temples functioned (Mahabalipuram), and Meenakshi Temple
as religious centres, administrative centres (Madurai). Sub-divisions of Dravida Temples
and centres of education and revenue. based on shapes.
y In South India, Temple buildings in the y There are mainly five different shapes:
Dravida style became prominent. Although ⚪ Square, generally called caturasra or
the Dravida Temple design altered over time, Kuta,
the primary elements of these Temples ⚪ Rectangular or ayatasra or shala,
remained intact. ⚪ Vrittayata or elliptical also called
elephant backed or Gaja-prishta,
⚪ Circular or vritta,
Shikhar a
⚪ Octagonal or ashtasra.
y This is, however, a reduced division of
subdivisions. Several different forms can
be blended at various times and in various
Gopuram Mandapa Vimana locations to create a unique design.

Garbha griha

Fig. 7.5: Schematic of a Dravidian Style Temple

Distinct Features of Dravida Style

y The Dravida Temple is encircled by a
compound wall, with an entrance gateway
in the centre known as a gopuram.
y In contrast to North India’s curving
shikhara, the major Temple tower, Vimana,
is geometrically shaped.
y The word shikhara is used for the crowning
element for the top of the temple, which
corresponds to the amalaka and kalasha of
North Indian temples.
Fig. 7.6: Brihadeshwara Temple, Thanjavur
y There are sculptural representations
of ferocious dvarapalas or Temple
Doorkeepers.

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Four Stages of Temple Architecture Stage–III–rajasimha group

in South India y The third stage is evidenced by the Raja
Simha Group’s building of true structural
Stage–I mahendra group temples including the coast temple at
y Mahendra Group, Rock Cut Arches, and Mahabalipuram and the Kailasanatha
Mandapa were included in the first stage. Temple at Kanchipuram.
y Rock-cut architecture is exhibited. y Development of real structural temples
y The word mandapa is used instead of the was seen.
temple. y Shore Temple and Kailash Nath Temple.

Stage-II–narsimha group Stage IV – nandivarman group

y The Second Stage included the Narasimha y The construction of tiny temples and the
Groups, and Mandap became Rathas. Dravidian architecture continued into the
⚪ There is a decoration in rock-cut caves. fourth stage under the Nandi Varman Group.
⚪ Biggest rath – Dharmaraja Ratha. y Development of small temples was seen.
⚪ Smallest – Draupadi Ratha. y Dravidian style continued.
⚪ Dravidian Style – Dharmaraj rath was a
precursor.

Chola sculpture: NATRAJ

y From the 9th to 13th centuries, the Cholas succeeded the Pallavas and built the great
Temples at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Thanjavur, and Darasuram, which are a veritable
treasure house of their art
y At the Brihadeswara Temple at Thanjavur, the most mature and royal of the Chola
Temples, the sculpture has achieved a new maturity which is understandable in the
gracefully modelled contours of the figures, their flexed poses, pleasing faces, fragile
ornamentation, and freshness, all of which contributes to the work’s charm.
y Gajsurasamaharamurti is a fine example of Chola craftsmanship from the 11th century. It
portrays the vigorous dance of the irate God after he killed the elephant – demon. Stone
and metal sculptures are noticed in plenty in Chola Temples.
y They depict the socio-religious ideas of the Chola period. The Nataraja sculpture is world-
famous not only for its beauty but also for its spiritual meaning.

Fig. 7.7: Bronze Sculpture of Nataraj

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Features of nataraj
y Deity: Natarajan a representation of the Hindu God Shiva as the cosmic dancer. He
performs the divine dance to demolish a weary universe and prepare for the God Brahma
to start the process of creation.
y The picture of “the Lord as the Cosmic Dancer” is exhibited at the Chidambaram Temple
in Tamil Nadu.
y He dances within an arch of flames. The surrounding flames symbolise the manifest
Universe.
⚪ A snake encircles his waist, and he has four hands.
⚪ The upper left hand contains fire or Agni which represents destruction.
⚪ The second left hand, which points to the raised foot, represents upliftment and
liberation.
⚪ The upper right hand contains Damaru.
⚪ The second right-hand suggests the Abhaya Mudra.
y The demon Apasmara is the dwarf on which Nataraja dances.
As the Nataraja performs the Tandava, the dance creates, maintains, and dissolves the
Universe.

Sub Styles of Dravida Temples were also noted. This style is exemplified by
the Lotus Mahal.
Nayaka style y Vijayanagar was South India’s last
y Following the downfall of the Vijayanagar great Hindu kingdom. Several beautiful
Empire in 1565, when the Nayak military Temples were founded during the reign
governors proclaimed independence, the of the Vijayanagar empire in places like
Nayak dynasties arose in South India. Kanchipuram, Hampi and others.
y Architecturally, it was similar to a Dravidian y The Vijayanagar emperors caused
school, but with a few additions: The outstanding portraits to be carved by
Gopurams built here were the world’s the sculptors to immortalise them in the
largest. vicinity of their favourite deities.
y The best example of the Nayaka style of ⚪ The sculptures of Krishnadevaraya at
Temple architecture is the world-famous Gopura near Chidambaram are a great
Meenakshi Temple at Madurai, which has example of this.
the world’s tallest Gopuram. ⚪ During this period, illustrations in the
y Some of the other important features are Ramayana and Krishna narrative forms,
the presence of huge corridors around Bal Lila became favourite themes.
the Garbhagriha, and the structure of the y They have huge gopurams in their Temple
Temple was covered with intricate carvings. structures, known as “Raya Gopurams”.
Along with this, the Kalyana Mandapa was
Vijayanagar legacy added to perform marriage ceremonies of
Slight variations are noticed in the Temple Gods and Goddesses.
architectures. The Gopurams had grown in size, y Vijayanagar’s architecture combines the
high compound walls had been discovered, Dravida Temple style with influences from
additional embellishment had been added, the Islamic sultanates that surround it.
and the Motif sculpture of a magical horse ⚪ Their sculpture, too, reveals the
had become more visible. Secular structures presence of foreigners on occasion,
despite being essentially derived from

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and consciously trying to revive Chola y Vasanta mandapa was added for the
ideals. gathering of devotees, and a hall of dance
at Lepakshi was added.
y The site in Hampi has been declared a
World Heritage by UNESCO.
y Example- Hazara Rama Temple at
Hampi, Virupaksha Temple at Hampi,
Veerabhadreshwara Temple at Lepakshi.

Fig. 7.8: Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal

Fig. 7.9: Hazara Ram Temple, Hampi

Fig. 7.11: Monolithic Nandi at Lepakshi

Vesara Style
The Vesara style is a hybrid of Dravidian and
Nagara styles, with finely carved Pillars,
doorways, and ceilings. The Vimana and
Mandapa are the two most important elements
of this style.
y In the mid-seventh century, a distinct
type of Temple construction arose in the
Karnataka region under the patronage of
Chalukya rulers. The temples in this area
follow a hybridised style that incorporates
Fig. 7.10: Virupaksha Temple at Hampi
both Nagara and Dravida elements.
y Vesara is a distinct Indian Hindu Temple
architecture tradition used in Deccan

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central India between Vindhya and river

Krishna.
y Both the Dravida and Nagara styles are
represented in the Vesara style.
⚪ For example, Nagara and Dravida
Temples are raised side by side in
Badami.
y It is described as “Karnataka style” or
“Chalukya style” of temple architecture.
⚪ The Rashtrakuta and Hoysala dynasties
further managed it.
y In comparison to their Nagara and Dravida Fig. 7.13: Keshava Temple at Belur
predecessors, the height of these temples
was reduced. y A circular shikhara above the neck crowned
⚪ The temple tower over the sanctum is Vimana.
typically shorter than the Vimanas in y Durga Temple (Aihole), Badami Temple,
Dravida Temples. Miniature Vimanas are Keshava Temple (Somnathpur), and
what they are called. In profile, these Virupaksha Temple (Pattadakal) are some
towers had a pyramidal shape. examples.

Various Schools of Temple Architecture

During the Medieval Period

Pala School of Architecture

y Sculptures produced in Bengal (including
Bangladesh) and Bihar between the 9th and
11th centuries are known as Pala. This style
was developed by the ruling dynasty at that
time. However, architectural styles of the
mid-11th century to the mid-13th century
are named after the Sena kings.
y While many Buddhist Temples are built
in the Vanga style in honour of the Palas,
the Palas are considered patrons of many
Buddhist monasteries.
⚪ The Siddheshvara Mahadeva Temple in
Barakar, Burdwan District, for example,
features an early Palla style roof topped
by a large amalaka and was built in the
9th century.
y There are many temples in the Purulia
District from the ninth to the twelfth
century that were submerged when dams
Fig. 7.12: Vesara Temple Styles
were built in the area. It is similar to
contemporary Odisha Temples.
y Nonetheless, numerous temples from this
time can still be found in Purulia District.
The black to grey basalt and chlorite stone

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Pillars influenced the early constructions of by Chalukyas are the Vishnu Temples at
the Bengal Sultanate at Gaur and Pandua. Badami and Aihole and the Virupaksha
⚪ Many local vernacular building practices Shiva Temple at Pattadakal. The cave
affected the architecture of temples in Temples, mainly those at Badami, include
Bengal. fine sculptures of Vishnu.
y The most prominent aspect of a Bengali y The Ravana Phadi cave in Aihole is thought
hut’s bamboo roof was its curved or sloping to be the first example of Chalukyan art.
side. This feature was subsequently used in ⚪ It is the Nataraja sculpture that is one
Mughal constructions, and it is currently of the most impressive on the site,
known in North India as the Bangla roof. surrounded by six larger-than-life-size
representations of the saptamatrikas:
Khajuraho Temple three on Shiva’s left and four on his
y It was built in the 10th century and right.
demonstrates how the structure, design, y The Chalukyan figures are distinguishable
and style of nagara temple architecture from contemporary western Deccan or
changed and progressed considerably. Vakataka styles by their thin bodies and
⚪ This Temple architecture is a UNESCO beautiful long, oval faces.
world heritage site.
y These Temples were supported by the
Chandela dynasty. At Khajuraho, there are
numerous different types of temples, with
the most temples dedicated to Hindu Gods.
There are a few Jain Temples as well.
y The Lakshmana Temple, dedicated to
Vishnu and built in 954 by Chandela king
Dhana, is the most important temple in
Khajuraho.
⚪ A lofty platform attached to a stairway
can be seen in Nagara Temples. Four
tiny temples can also be seen in the
corners.
Fig. 7.14: Ravana Phadi Cave At Aihole
⚪ Towers called shikharas rise in a curved
pyramidal pattern, emphasizing the
temple’s vertical thrust. They lead to a Rashtrakutas
horizontal fluted disc called an amalak
y Rashtrakutas created a monolithic rock-
crowned by a vase called a Kalash.
cut architecture in their Kailash Temple
y The temples of Khajuraho are also known
at Ellora, one of the greatest wonders of
for their enormous erotic sculptures and
medieval Indian art. The Rashtrakuta style
statues; erotic expression is given equal
of tall, firmly shaped figures symbolising
weight in the human experience as a
spiritual and physical composure is depicted
spiritual pursuit, and it is seen as a part of
in this Temple’s bold and stunning carving.
a wider cosmic whole.
y Ellora’s Rashtrakuta-period sculpture is
Chalukyas School complex and different from contemporary
regional styles. Its figures are often larger
y Early Chalukyan activity took the shape of
than life-size, infused with unparalleled
rock-cut caves, whereas later Chalukyan
grandeur and the most overpowering energy.
activity took the form of structural
⚪ An example of this is the well-known
Temples. The distinguished Temples built

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Nandi Shrine in the Kailash Temple. Pallavas (3rd and 9th centuries CE)
y A panel representing Ravana shaking Mount y The Pallavas, who left behind magnificent
Kailash is another remarkable sculpture at statues and temples, laid the groundwork
Ellora. for medieval South Indian architecture.
⚪ In this extraordinary scene, the A great creative movement flourished
trembling of the mountain could be during the Pallava kings of Kanchi, and
felt, and Parvati is displayed as greatly they are attributed to the construction of
agitated, turning to Siva, and grabbing Mahabalipuram’s seven monolithic pagodas,
his hand in fear. known as the Rathas.
y Elephanta’s cave shrine, which includes the The three stages of pallava architecture are:
famous Maheshmurti (three-faced Shiva),
is another great Rashtrakuta monument.

Fig. 7.15: Ravana Shaking Mount Kailash

Fig. 7.17: Stages of Pallava Architecture

Fig. 7.16: Maheshmurti at Elephanta

⚪ The excavated pillared chambers and

monolithic shrines known as Rathas
may be discovered in Mahabalipuram.
Pallava architecture demonstrates
the shift from rock-cut to stone-built
temples.
y Some of the terrific sculptures

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recognised for their patronage are the which revolve in an orderly succession.
Mahishasuramardini, Giri Govardhan panel, y An upraised platform or a Jagati and a star
Trivikrama Vishnu Arjuna’s penance or the and zig-zag design are seen among these
Descent of the Ganga, Gajalakshmi and temples.
Anatasayanam. y They designed temples at Halebid and Belur
that resemble lacework in stone.
⚪ Most of these sculptures were made
out of soapstone, allowing the artists to
create intricate carvings.
⚪ The plan of the Temple was star-shaped
(stellate). The Temple walls show in a
zig-zag design.
⚪ Mandakini figures at the ceilings etc.
y The God’s jewellery, which can be seen
on the Temple wall, is an example of this
style of craftsmanship. The ornamentation
is intricate, focusing on embellishment
rather than movement or the human body’s
elegance.
Fig. 7.18: Arjuna’s Penance
y Hoysala sculptures are squat and short,
heavily embellished, or almost overloaded
Hoysalas with ornamentation, but they are pleasing
to look at.
y The Hoysalas were a South Indian dynasty
y Example- Keshava Temple at Belur,
that emerged around the beginning of the
Hoysaleshwar Temple at Halebidu, and
12th century.
Natraja sculpture.
⚪ Hoysala is in South Karnataka in the
Mysore Region.
Conclusion
y The central chamber is surrounded by
a number of shrines. It adheres to the By studying these artworks, one can learn much
Stellate Plan, which consists of shrines in about the kind of society that made these
the shape of stars. objects. Through them, one can surmise what
y This style has softsoap stone temples, and their buildings were like, what types of clothes
both the exterior and the interior of the they wore, and above all, the art material could
Temple have carvings. be used to reconstruct the history of their
y The Shikara in each inner chamber is radially religions. Religions were numerous and varied,
arranged in horizontal lines and mouldings and they were always evolving. There are many
Gods and Goddesses in Hinduism, Buddhism,
and Jainism, and this was the time when bhakti
and tantra, two key breakthroughs, influenced
them. Many other art forms, such as music and
dance, were performed in temples during the
ancient and medieval centuries.

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8 Architecture in Medieval India

Introduction subcontinent is known as Indo-Islamic

Architecture. This feature can be widely seen
Art and architecture are authentic reflections of
in Modern Indian, Pakistan, and Bangladeshi
society as expressions of its ideals and methods.
architecture. Persian, Arabic, Indian, and
It is in these works that a period’s culture finds
Turkish components combine to form Indo-
its expression. The medieval period witnessed
Islamic architecture found in secular and
a remarkable growth in the development of
religious structures.
regional art and architecture. Each region
developed its own style of architecture and Trabeate Method and Arcuate Method of
sculpture under the patronage of different Architecture
political dynasties in different parts of India.
y India was already familiar with monumental
Once there was contact between the Perso-
constructions in grand settings by the
Turks and the Hindus, first on the battlefield
twelfth century, which was added to
and then in the bazaars of cities, they could
buildings between the seventh and tenth
not but be impregnated by each other in their
centuries.
culture and their ideas which are so visibly
y Roofs, doors, and windows were still
enshrined in medieval architecture, art and
spanned between two vertical columns, a
literature.
style known as “trabeate” or “corbelled”
Indo-Islamic Style architecture.
⚪ Certain decorative techniques and
Architectural components were accepted, embellishments were prevalent in
rejected, or changed over time, resulting Roman architecture, such as trabeation
in a combination of structural techniques, (pillars, brackets and lintels) for
stylised shapes, and surface adornment. The supporting a flat roof or a shallow dome.
architectural units displaying numerous styles ⚪ Wooden and stone arches stood, but
are known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic the weight of the top construction was
architecture. too much for them to hold. Buildings
Islam came to India in the seventh century, related to stepped-wells (baolis) were
bringing with it a variety of architectural built in the trabeate style as early as
characteristics that affected Indian the eighth century and as late as the
architecture. This hybrid feature in the Indian thirteenth century.

Fig. 8.1: Comparison of Indian and Islamic Architecture

Architecture in Medieval India 95

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y The arcuate structure, which can support the surrounded Mosques and Mausoleums.
domes’ weight, was gradually incorporated. y Mortar is a cementing substance used in
These arches were built with interlocking the construction of their structures.
bricks and keystones on top. y Natural figurines were incorporated into the
y Architectural support like squinches and design. Animal and human figures are not
pendentives were introduced because of included.
which the need for Pillars was done away y For decorating, calligraphy was used, as well
with, and the interiors of domes could as the arabesque technique, which featured
cover large regions of the building. the use of geometrical ornamentation. The
y Muslim conquests and migrations brought ornaments were also put in a symmetrical
their Local cultural components and pattern.
customs to the Indian subcontinent, and y The Jaali work is a feature that allows light
its influence can be seen in their building to enter the constructions.
practices. y Pools of water were used for ornamental,
cooling, and religious purposes throughout
the building.
y Surface embellishment included
tessellation (mosaic designs) and pietra
dura, particularly in the wall panels.
y False arches and domes were used in
early Slave dynasty structures, which did
not follow authentic Islamic architectural
forms.
y Alai Darwaja, a site near Qutub Minar,
contains the earliest instances of genuine
Fig. 8.2: Trabeate Style arches and domes.
y The practice of burying the deceased
has led to the development of tomb
architecture, which is another hallmark of
Islamic architecture. Qutub Minar is one
example.

Fig. 8.3: Arcuate Style

Important Features of Indo-Islamic

Architecture
y Unlike the Ancient Indian style known as
“Trabeate”, where beams, lintels, and Pillars Fig. 8.4: The Art of Pietra Dura
were widely used, Indo-Islamic Architecture
featured arches, beams and minarets that

96 Architecture in Medieval India

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The Tomb Architecture ⚪ Twined and scrolled branches and

y The practice of erecting monuments over leaves inspired by natural settings were
the graves of monarchs was common. profusely used in these kinds of designs.
Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, Abdur ⚪ In 16th-century France, the word simply
Rahim Khan-i-Khanan in Delhi, and Akbar meant “Arabic,” but in a dictionary
and Itmad Ud Daulah in Agra are some of published in 1611, it was defined
the most famous instances of such graves. as “arabesque labour, a small and
y Dedicated believers on the Day of Judgement distinctive blooming”.
were rewarded by building a tomb. The y One of the three primary branches of
tomb’s imagery is set in a utopian setting. Islamic art is biomorphic art, often known
y Charbagh Style was employed in the as Islimi, Nebati, or Arabesque (the other
building of Humayun’s tomb and the Taj two being Calligraphy and Geometry).
Mahal. These places are associated with y Islimi patterns are biomorphic floral patterns
burials. Further, there are gardens, water that symbolise nature’s fundamental order
bodies and Quranic verses placed on the and oneness, and they can be seen in
walls. artwork from Morocco to Malaysia.
y The prime purpose of large organised and y There are many different types of Islimi
ornamental buildings was to convey the within Islamic art, yet they all follow the
majesty, grandeur and might of the buried same core principles.
person there. It also gives tranquillity and ⚪ These concepts apply to biomorphic
contentment. decorative arts from all around the
world, including Celtic, Norse, and
Arabesque Method Aboriginal cultures.
y The Arabesque style is defined by interwoven y Surprisingly, it was antique Roman Stucchi,
plants and abstract curvilinear shapes. or plaster models discovered in Roman
⚪ The Arabesque, which was created by cemeteries, that first influenced Italian
Hellenistic craftsmen in Asia Minor, painters’ early Renaissance work.
originally included birds in a highly y The Vatican’s lobbies were embellished
realistic setting. with Arabesque stonework by the mid-
⚪ Due to religious reasons, birds, human fifteenth century, and paintings in the style
shapes and monsters were not depicted of Giulio Romano and Raphael’s students
by Muslim painters, and painting was were completed. Italian painters had drawn
more formalised in nature. inspiration from these plaster models.
⚪ The Arabesque was an important y The themes were also used in the
decorative feature in Islamic culture and decoration of majolica, armour, tapestry,
has been employed widely in Europe for and illuminated manuscripts at Mantua, and
a long time since the renaissance to they started to emerge in the decoration of
decorate manuscripts, furniture, wall majolica, armour, tapestry and illuminated
and pottery. manuscripts at Mantua.

Architecture in Medieval India 97

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1 Medieval Architecture

Indo-Islamic – Fusion of Hindu and Delhi Sultanate –

Islamic features (1206 CE –1526 CE)

Important features Important Features

Arches and Beams Fusion of Secular and religious
Minars structures
Mortar Fusion of Indian and Islamic
Art of Calligraphy structures
Tessellation (Mosaic Design) and Fusion of Trabeated and Arcuate
Pietra Dura styles
False Domes and False Arches Avoided portrayal of Living beings
Used coloured stones
Medieval Unique features
Architecture
Domes
Minarets
Mughal Architecture
(1526 CE –1858 CE) Important structure of various
dynasties

Important features Slave – Quwat ul Islam Mosque,

Adhai din ja jhopra
Concoction – a mix of Rajput, Buddhist,
Khilji Dynasty – alai Dhawaja
Iranian and Central Asian styles
(Alaud din Dhilji), Haz Khas, Jamat
Big and lofty
Khana Mosque
Pillars, Dome, arches, squinches and
Tuglaq – Tughlaqabad city and fort
plinth
Lodhi Dynasty – Tomb of Sikander
Special focus on gardens, the geometry
lodhi
of design, calligraphy and arabesque.
First-time use of Red sandstone.
Use of lime as a building material.
Iranian and central Asian precious and
semi-precious stones
Jehangir – Tomb of itimad-ud-
Persian style domes
daulah (mini taj), Shalimar Bagh
and Nishat Bagh of Kashmir.
Important structures
Shah Jahan – Red fort of Delhi,
Babur – three mosques in Panipat, sambhal Chandni Chawk, Jama Masjid of
and Ayodhya, Aram Bagh garden Delhi, Taj Mahal of Agra.
Humayun – new city named Din Panah (Old Aurangzeb – Bibi ka Maqbara.
Fort)
Akbar – Humayun tomb (first major Mughal
architecture), Red fort of Agra, Fatehpur Sikri,
Diwan I Khas, Jodha bai’ palace, Maryam, Palace,
Panch Mahal, Birbal Palace, Jama Masjid
(Fatehpur Sikri), Shiekh Salim Chisti, Tomb of Agra.

Medieval Architecture 1

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Provincial Architecture

Malwa Style

Features Important structures

Absence of minars Jahaz Mahal

Inclusion of Rajput features Rani Rupmati Pavilion
Use of boat keel dome Hindola Mahal
Fusion of arches and pillarsres
Bengal Style

Features Important structures

Small minars Adina Mosque

No use of decoration
Focus of massivity
Use of black marble and brick
Jaunpur Style/Sharqi School

Features Important structures

Absence of minars Atala Mosque

Focus on massivity

Medieval Deccan style

Architecture

Bijapur school

Features Important structures

Three arch facades Gol Gumbaz

Bulbous door
Use of minars and stone carvings
Golconda School

Features Important structures

Hindu influence in motifs Charminar

Medieval Architecture 2
Architecture in Medieval India 99
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Medieval Decan style

Architecture

Kashmir Style

Features Important structures

Similar to Wooden architecture Khanqah Mosque
Buddhist influence
Creation of square hall with primordial roof crown
Rajput architecture

Features Important structures

Forts and luxurious palaces Jantar mantar

Tall walls with granite Jaipur (pink city)
Forts and palaces on hilltops Hawa mahal
Use of beams and pillars
Use of Chattri
Special focus on ventilation
Strong Mughal influence in
later structures
Sikh Style

Features Important structures

Religious in orientation Golden temple

Fusion of Mughal and Rajput styles Nankana sahib
Devoid of sculptor and images
Four side entrances and larges halls
and kitchens
Square petal-shaped central dome
Use of cupolas

Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate) elements of both Indian and Islamic

architectural forms. They also helped to
Some of the general characteristics of Delhi
popularise Central Asian architectural
Sultanate architecture are as follows:
ideas.
y The two types of architecture that
y Raw materials from previous builds were
can be found are secular and religious
used in the new structures built during this
constructions.
period. It was believed that there was a
y Castles, Palaces, Pillars, Sarais, Hauz
Hindu Temple earlier, which was replaced
(made lakes), and Mosques are among
by the construction of the Quwat-ul-Islam
the attractions.
Medieval Architecture Mausoleums, Mosques,
Mosque. Similarly, at Ajmer, the Mosque 3
Dargahs, and Madrasas can all be found in
‘Adhai-din-ka Jhopra’ was built over the
this area.
ruins of a Hindu structure in just 12 days.
y The Sultans used Indian architects, masons,
y Minarets, domes, and archways were
and labourers for building purposes. As a
erected by Sultanate kings (Mehrab). The
result, Sultanate architecture incorporated

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ancient indigenous architecture, known appear to be supporting the next storey.

as the ‘Trabeated’ style, was made out of The first three levels are constructed of
beams and brackets. Islamic architecture, red sandstone, while the latter two are
on the other hand, was ‘Arcuate’, which constructed of marble.
means it employed arches and vaults to ⚪ The mausoleum of balban: According
connect components and allowed for the to mythology, Balban constructed his
production of beautiful domes rather than own Mausoleum, which is said to be the
flat roofs. world’s first true arch.
y The Indigenous architecture was replete
with anthropogenic images and natural
figures, but the same features were
foregone by the Sultanate style. In their
place, Arabesque, Geometric designs and
floral patterns were introduced.
⚪ High-quality stones of red, light black,
yellow colour and white marbles were
used to make the structures more
robust. Lime mortar was used as a
building ingredient in the last stages of
construction.

Slave Dynasty (1206-1290) Fig. 8.5: Quwwat Ul Islam Mosque

y Islamic principles were not followed while

building structures during the first dynasty
of the Sultanate. There was a mere presence
of imaginary domes and arches.
y The ‘Quwat ul Islam’ (Mehrauli) Mosque in
Delhi and the ‘Adhai din ka Jhopra’ Mosque
in Ajmer both display Hindu and Muslim art
influences.
⚪ The magnificent structure of Qutub
Minar was built in honour of Sufi Saint
Qutub-Uddin Bakhtiyar.
⚪ Patron: After the top level was wrecked
by lightning, Firoz Shah Tughlaq repaired
the final two stories after Qutub-ud-
din-Aibak began work, and subsequently
Iltutmish completed the next three
floors.
⚪ Minar is 73 metres tall and contains five
stories. They are arabesque and have
wonderful geometric motifs.
⚪ Floral and geometric motifs are
intricately carved onto the balconies on
each storey. They’re also designed to

Fig. 8.6: Qutub Minar, New Delhi

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y The oldest Mosque still in operation is the

Jamat Khana Mosque, which is located in
the same courtyard as the Nizamuddin
Auliya Dargah.

Fig. 8.7: Qutub Minar, New Delhi

Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320)

y By this period, the Sultanate of Delhi had
been established and had a prosperous Fig. 8.8: Nizamuddin Dargah
economy. Their structures were built with a
flawless Islamic perspective in mind.
Tughlaqs
y Alauddin khilji: He founded the city of Siri in
Delhi, as well as the Jamat Khana Mosque. y The town of Tughlaqabad was built by
⚪ The Alai Darwaza was also constructed Ghayasuddin Tughlaq. The buildings of
by him. The Ali Darwaza, which was Tughlaq were sturdy buildings having
created with a horseshoe arch, is bastions, thick and sloping walls and a
located inside the Jamat Khana Mosque. fortified fortress at the centre, which makes
The dome is the world’s first scientific it difficult to be intercepted them.
dome. y Its plain grey stone elevations, cross arches
⚪ Alai darwaja’s key characteristics above hallways, large battered walls, secret
include: White marble and red sandstone passages, and hidden escapes are all
combine to form a domed entrance. It designed to convey the feeling of defence.
has floral and geometric shapes carved y The fort of Tughlaqabad is fashioned of
in both white marble and red sandstone, granite because it is readily accessible.
giving it a striking polychrome look. On Because polishing granite is difficult, the
both sides of the entrances, perforated texture of the construction is rough, and
latticework window screens line the the fort’s boundary walls slant rather than
recessed windows (jali). These marble remain straight.
screens break up the monotony of the y Domes style, which belonged to Byzantine
vertical lines of the calligraphic design. and Syria, was employed to build structures
⚪ In Delhi, Alauddin built Hauz Khas. The during the Tughlaq period. False arches and
term “hauz” refers to a man-made ancient India’s trabeated style could also
lake. It was the city’s principal supply be seen.
of water during the period of Khilji. The
area’s tourism industry is still thriving.

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Lodi’s Style
Lodhi’s had a very stable tenure, and hence
they got a chance to build. The important
features include:
y Buildings were made on a raised platform
with gardens around them. This was made
to copy the theme of heaven, later, Mughals
used the same concept in their buildings.
y The tombs were made in octagonal shapes.
This feature was also adopted by the
Mughals.
y For the first time, a double dome was
Fig. 8.9: Daulatabad Fort
introduced in the tomb of Sikander Lodhi.
y Hoshang Shah’s Mausoleum in Mandu
Sayyid Period (1414-1444) (Madhya Pradesh) is said to be India’s
earliest marble monument and one of the
y The Timurid monarchs revolutionised
finest examples of 15th-century Afghan
Islamic architecture in the 14th century.
architecture.
y Narrow horseshoe arches were used until
⚪ It has a spectacular dome, marble prison
the genuine arch, a Persia-inspired design
work, courts, porticos, and towers.
was constructed. The Indian masons, on
⚪ It’s thought to be an Afghan construction,
the other hand, raised concerns about the
but the latticework, toranas, and carved
structure’s stability.
brackets give it a softer look.
y As a result, wooden beams were popular as
a means of supporting an arch, while four-
centred arches without beams became
fashionable later.
y Under the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties, about
fifty tombs of varying sizes were built.
y The tombs of Mubarak Sayyid (1434 AD)
and Muhammad Sayyid (1444 AD) are both
octagonal.
y Mubarak Sayyid Tomb is an octagonal
structure with an octagonal dome in the
centre and eight octagonal roof kiosks
(chhatri) on each side.
y The roof kiosks are positioned in the middle
of the sides, with stone buttresses at the
structure’s empty corners. Fig. 8.10: The Tomb of Sikander Lodhi
y As a result of its design, the tomb takes on
a pyramidal look.
Provincial Style
y The funerary Mosque lies next to the tomb,
and it is thought that the tomb and Mosque Bengal, Gujarat, Jaunpur, Golconda, Malwa, and
previously shared the same precinct. The the Deccan temporary kingdoms all developed
Sayyids erected only this Mosque. Indo-Islamic architecture in this manner.

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Bengal School of Architecture

y The Indo-Turkic Ilyas Shahi dynasty ruled
Bengal for fifteen decades after Ilyas Shah
created it.
y Iliyaz Shahi Minars are smaller than the
main structure in this type of architecture.
The emphasis was placed on the huge
structure rather than the adornment.
Bricks and black marble were used in the
construction. Adina Mosque, for example.
y In terms of construction and layout,
Bengal’s Islamic monuments are unlike any Fig. 8.11: Adina Mosque
other, yet they are defined by the use of
unique building materials and the infusion
Malwa School of Architecture
of local customs-inspired qualities.
y Muslims adopted the sloping cornices of the y Malwa was influenced by Delhi’s early
“Bengal” roof, which originated in bamboo Tughlaq style. Malwa lacked significant
buildings and quickly spread throughout native customs and had a strained
the world. relationship with Gujarat, both of which
y From ancient times, the alluvial plains of contributed to the situation.
Bengal were largely composed of brick, with y Dhar and Mandu are the most well-known
the majority of the stone originating from examples of the type.
damaged temples that were mostly used as y Minars aren’t found in Malwa architecture.
pillars. y Many Rajput traits are featured, such as
y Decorative features like bricks, covered pavilions.
bricks, and glazed tiles are frequently y A combination of Arch, Lintel, and Bracket,
employed in trabeated construction. as well as boat keel domes, are just a few
y Even when formed of bricks, Bengal Pillars of the significant elements.
are frequently small and square, with y It has the most inventive use of arches,
precise holes. pillars, and beams of any structure.
y Barbak Shah (1959-74) erected the Dakhil y Buildings are built on high plinths with long,
Darwaja at Gaur as a ceremonial doorway magnificent staircases leading up to them.
in front of the castle, displaying his y There is the use of a lot of colours in the
construction style and ornate skills. decoration. The materials included marbles
y It has an especially threatening look due to of various colours, semi-precious stones,
the tall arch between the pylons on either and glazed tiles. Malwa’s artisans use a
side and the corner towers. unique technique for creating turquoise
y The walls of Ahmedabad’s Sidi Sayed blue.
Mosque, which was erected in 1572, are y Such constructions include Jahaz Mahal,
covered in perforated screens. The “palm Rani Rupmati pavilion, and Hindola Mahal.
and parasite” theme is depicted on some of y This style has three stages:
the perforated screens in Bengal’s Darasbari ⚪ First phase: Temples are demolished,
Masjid. These screens have a fairly subtle and Mosques are built in their place.
filigree design. Kamal Maula Masjid (Dhar), Lat Masjid
(Dhar), and Malik Mughis Masjid are
the main structures of the first phase
(Mandu),

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⚪ Monuments with original characters Jaunpur School of Architecture

in the second (classical) phase were (A.D. 1360- A.D. 1480)
elegant and sober. A more official and y Sharqi School is another name for it.
substantial arrangement has been Minars are noticeably absent, and the huge
established. Jami Masjid in Mandu, structure takes precedence. For instance,
Ashrafi Mahal, Hushang Shah’s Tomb, Ibrahim Shah Sharqi constructed the Atala
Hindola Mahal, and Jahaaz Mahal are Mosque.
the main structures of the second y The Tughlaq king in Delhi bestowed the title
(classical) phase. of “Malik-ush-Sharq” (King of the East) upon
⚪ Third Phase: Structures that are less the Governor of Jaunpur, the Sultanate’s
austere and more fantastical, reflecting eastern region.
a more relaxed and luxurious lifestyle. y The dynasty was given the name Sharqi as
Pavilions, loggias, kiosks, terraces, and a result of this.
other similar structures are some of the y Jaunpur, also known as ‘Shiraz-i-Hind’ after
most common examples. Baz Bahadur’s the Iranian city of Shiraz, became a well-
Palace, Kushk Mahal (Chanderi), and known centre of Islamic art, architecture,
Jami Masjid at Chanderi are the three and learning during the Sharqi dynasty.
main structures of the third phase. y The majority of the style’s structures
were demolished when Delhi’s Sikander
Lodi reclaimed Jaunpur, leaving only five
Mosques remaining.
y Sultan Shamsuddin Ibrahim was a major
influence on the style (1402- 36).
y The following are some of the most
important characteristics:
⚪ Pylons, which are used to highlight
entrances and other features on the
façade, are a typical sight.
⚪ Arches with ‘Fleur-de-Lys’ fringes are of
the ‘depressed four centred’ or ‘Tudor’
kind.
Fig. 8.12: Jahaz Mahal ⚪ The arches’ curves and shapes, which
swayed weakly in the larger instances,
were never certain to the builders.
⚪ The pillar, beam, and bracket (trabeate)
form of construction, which was widely
utilised, was more familiar to the largely
Hindu masons and artisans.
⚪ Square monolithic shafts with bands
running across the middle characterise
the Pillars. Bracket clusters emerge
from the same bands as above. They
have a clumsy appearance to them.
y Main buildings: Atala Masjid, Khalis Mukhlis
Masjid, Jhangiri Masjid, Lal Darwaza Masjid,
Fig. 8.13: Hindola Mahal
Jami Masjid at Jaunpur.

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Kashmir Style
y It has a resemblance to wooden architecture
and Buddhist influence.
y A square hall primordial roof crowned with
a long slender spire.
y Example: Khanqah Mosque.
y Open verandas, opulent colonnades, tall,
narrow windows, cornices, jaalis (circular
stone apertures), chhajjas (broad roof
overhangs), and chhatris (free-standing
pavilions) were all used as decorative
features from traditional Indian architecture
Fig. 8.14: Atala Mosque, Jaunpur at the same time.
y Lutyen designed Rashtrapati Bhavan, which
was once the Viceroy’s home. It’s built
Bijapur School
of sandstone and has Rajasthani design
y The Gol Gumbad of Bijapur, which houses features like canopies and jaali.
Muhammad Adil Shah’s Mausoleum, is the y Lutyen also designed several additional
world’s largest dome cubicle, at over 1600 monuments in Delhi, in addition to India
square metres. Gate. In recognition of his efforts, New Delhi
y It is simple in form, with a subterranean has been dubbed Lutyens Delhi.
and above-ground burial chamber split into
four square portions, a massive hemispheric
dome, and seven levels of octagonal towers
at each corner.
y Each of the exterior walls includes a
3.4-meter-wide gallery at the level of the
drum.
y A running bracket supports the cornice of
the panelled central arch. The whispering
gallery is a large hemispherical dome with
petals at the base that resonate even at
whispering volume.

Fig. 8.16: Khanqah Mosque

Rajput Architecture
Rajputs, the native of Rajasthan, are famous
for their strong, glorious forts and luxurious
Palaces.
Unique style of the Rajputs:
y Tall walls were made of strong granite, and
they were very thick to avoid invasion.
Fig. 8.15: Gol Gumbaz y Kumbhalgarh Fort is famous for its wall. It

106 Architecture in Medieval India

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is the second-longest wall after the Great y Apart from the central dome, there are four
Wall of China. cupolas in the corner.
y Forts and Palaces were usually built on y Prominent examples are Harminder Sahib
hilltops for security purposes. A higher or Golden Temple, Nankana Sahib etc.
vantage point gave a better view and range
to attack.
y They used beam and pillar structures to
support the buildings.
y The pillars were square with intricate
carvings, unlike Mughal Pillars, which were
cylindrical.
y They used Chattri in their structures. It is
an outer protruding slab moving away from
the window.
y They took care of the ventilation. Even
though the temperature outside gets high
during summer, the air inside the Palace
Fig. 8.18: The Golden Temple at Amritsar
remains cool and moving.
y Later part of Rajput Architecture had a
strong Mughal influence, and they started Mughal Period (Delhi, Agra, Lahore)
building domes and arches.
In a way, the Mughals introduced a new
bloodline to Indo-Muslim architecture since
its activity had declined significantly during
the Lodhis’ reign. A lasting Mughal empire in
India could only be established if the princes
took the Indians into their fold, mixed with the
locals and mingled with each other, especially
the Rajput princess.
Mughals were art and culture benefactors who
Fig. 8.17: Kumbhalgarh Fort created spectacular monuments. The following
are some of the most notable elements of
Mughal architecture:
Sikh Style of Architecture y The Mughals’ architecture was a mix of Indo-
y It was mainly religious and witnessed the Islamic and European elements. In Indian
construction of Gurudwaras and other designs, Rajput and Buddhist influences
monuments. It was highly influenced by are more prominent.
the Mughal style and Rajput styles of ⚪ Iran and Central Asia have the most
Architecture. significant Islamic fashion designs, with
y Structures are devoid of any sculptor and buildings that are generally massive and
images in and around Gurudwaras. lofty, showcasing the empire’s riches
y The monument has entrances from all four and might.
sides and a large empty space. They have a y The king used to pay meticulous attention
common kitchen, a dining hall, and a pond. to detail in everything he did, from planning
y There is a central dome that has a closed to construction.
petal shape rather than a smooth round y As a result, a centralised plan was usually
shape. It springs out from a floral base. It is established, with artists being prohibited
usually white or gold plated. from altering their minds during the process.

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y Pillars, a dome, arches, squinches, and a Shah Jahan (1627-1658), with a transitional
plinth were among the most prominent phase under Jahangir (1605-1627).
features. y The style may be divided into two periods:
y A distinct motif can be found in every one during Akbar’s reign, when most of the
construction. Special emphasis was placed structures were made of red sandstone,
on gardens, geometry, and design symmetry. and another during Shah Jahan’s reign
y It was decided to use red sandstone when most of the structures were made of
because it is readily available. Later, marble marble.
became very popular. A binding agent was y Due to the empire’s centralised political
used, and it was lime. framework, the Mughal style of architecture
y Precious and semi-precious stones were did not have provincial or regional
used to decorate the garments. They’d manifestations but rather was a style
travelled all the way from Iran and Central heavily influenced by imperial policies.
Asia. y The Mughal style combines Persian elements
y Calligraphy and arabesque were prominently with Gujarati and Rajasthani elements.
featured on the walls. The Taj Mahal has the
most well-known of these. Babur and Humayun
y The double onion-shaped domes were y Babur, the creator of the Mughal emperors,
fashioned in Persian style. was a well-educated man with a keen
artistic sense. He was also a sharp thinker
with a diverse set of abilities. He ruled
India for four years, most of which he spent
fighting. He’s also recognised for his passion
for formal gardens, which he frequently
creates himself. Only a few Mosques and
works of modest art were built during his
rule.
y Sher Shah Suri forcibly expelled Babur’s
son, Humayun, from India, and Humayun
recaptured the throne. After defeat by
Sikander Shah Sur, Humayun went to Iran.
⚪ Surs built the tombs in Bihar, including
Sher Shah’s, an octagonal structure
Fig. 8.19: Double Dome
surrounded by arches and topped by a
massive, wide dome. The red and dark
Mughal Empire and the Rulers grey stone lattice screens had turrets,
painted ceilings, and coloured tiles,
Emperor Babur formed the Mughal Empire in
among other features.
1526, and because of the empire’s riches and
⚪ Sher Shah Suri also created the Purana
political stability, as well as the emperors’
Qila and the Quila Kohna Masjid. The
artistic taste, Islamic architecture in India
Purana Quila’s walls are built of massive
reached its apex during this time. In the early
half-fashioned stones with minimal
years of the monarchy, the architectural style of
adornment or patterns that are sturdy
the empire flourished under Babur, Humayun,
and substantial.
Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan. The style
y Begha Begum, Humayun’s widow,
declined after Aurangzeb’s rule.
constructed his Mausoleum in Delhi, which
y The most prolific architects of the dynasty
is the oldest known example of genuine
were Akbar (1556-1605) and his grandson

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Mughal architecture inspired by Persian on the banks of the Yamuna River, which
architecture. he began in 1565 and finished in 1574. The
⚪ A detailed investigation of this tomb is ramparts were built using depressed stone
required to comprehend the evolution for the first time.
of following Mughal architecture. y The fort at Agra created a pattern in the
Designers of the Jahangir Mausoleum in construction of royal citadels that became a
Shahdara, Lahore, and the Taj Mahal in model for others, with its towering walls of
Agra used it as a model. perfect sandstone facing the gates, flanked
y We are captivated by Humayun’s tomb by bastions, large halls, Palaces, Mosques,
despite the fact that Sikander Lodi’s garden bazaars, spas, gardens, and homes for
tomb was India’s first garden tomb. The courtiers and noblemen.
tomb is built in the centre of a square y The Akbari Mahal and its structures, as well
garden, on a wide platform separated into as Fatehpur Sikri’s vast and ancient city,
four halves by Charbagh Style that carries are built of red sandstone with trabeated
small water channels. architecture and sparse ornamentation.
y The Mausoleum’s two-storey square red Sculpted jambs, brackets, corbels, and
sandstone structure sits atop a high square lintels, as well as a Chajja above them,
terrace with a series of compartments that adorn the Jahangiri Mahal’s doors.
resemble a musical arrangement. y Established as a unified administrative
y The octagon-shaped tomb is located in the body, Fatehpur Sikri existed alongside
centre chamber. It was inspired by Syrian government offices and private residences.
and earlier Islamic styles. Sheikh Salim Chisty predicted that Akbar
y For the first time, Spectacular results can be would have three sons after many children
seen with a good blend of Pink sandstone. died in infancy, and his vision was rewarded
Doors and windows are highlighted in the city of Fatehpur Sikri.
underlined with flawless white colour. ⚪ Construction of the city began in 1569
⚪ The tomb is a substantial and large and was completed in 1574, the same
work of art made for a great emperor, year as the construction of Agra Fort. The
an adventurous warrior, and a powerful city is a small and compact community,
man by a loyal wife. with buildings such as halls, Palaces,
offices, gardens, amusement parks,
spas, Mosques and tombs adding to the
nobility of the city. Almost all structures
contain profiled materials.
⚪ The Panchmahal, commonly known as
a five-storey Palace, is the city’s most
well-known and easily recognised
monument. It is the city’s tallest and
most visible structure. Except for the
greatest dome-shaped pavilion, which
was purposely extruded from the centre
of the entire building and the tower, it is
Fig. 8.20: Humayun’s Tomb, New Delhi built on a Hindu trabeated construction
consisting of columns, architrave, and
brackets.
Akbar and Jahangir ⚪ The Diwan-i-Khas, also known as the
y Akbar’s capital was Agra, where he began Private Audience Hall, is a one-of-a-
and completed his red sandstone palace kind structure. It’s a square chamber

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with three openings on each side and adorned with intricate inlay work and
a magnificent flower-shaped capping paintings depicting classic Persian
supported by a finely carved column in motifs such as cypress trees, vases,
the centre. In addition, each wall has fruits, and wine glasses, among other
four perforated windows opposite one things.
another to provide enough ventilation. ⚪ The elaborate latticework, traceries,
On the first floor level, a magnificent and inlay, as well as the four corner
balcony has been constructed, which minarets, are forerunners of similar
runs the length of the hall and extends decorations that would eventually be
around all four corners, supported developed and used in a variety of ways
by brackets. The Emperor’s throne is in the Taj Mahal.
thought to have been in the centre, with
the Emperor’s Ministers positioned in
the corners or along the periphery.
⚪ A tiny chamber separates the Turkish
Sultana’s apartment from the rest of
the house, which is surrounded by a
verandah. The huge dado, which is
expertly carved on both the exterior and
inside and shows jungle settings with
animals, birds, and plants, stands out.
⚪ The Buland Darwaja, a towering entryway
erected after Akbar’s Deccan conquest,
may be seen on the South side of
Fatehpur Sikri’s Jama Masjid. It is India’s
Fig. 8.21: Tomb of Akbar (Agra)
highest and most spectacular doorway,
with a semi-octagonal projection and a
towering arched alcove. Shah Jahan
y Sheikh Salim Chisti, Akbar’s spiritual y Shahjahan was the Mughal Empire’s chief
preceptor, had Fatehpur Sikri built with builder, and he had a lifetime passion for
white marble. The structure is stunning, construction.
with spacious rooms and verandas, as well y He thought white marble was the ideal
as high-quality latticework. building material for a Hindustan monarch
y Nur Jahan, Jahangir’s queen, completed since it was both rich and lovely. By this
Akbar’s tomb at Sikandra and built the time, the Mughal artistic legacy had matured
Musamman Burj, a double-storeyed significantly.
pavilion on the Agra fort with beautiful y The biggest boom of Mughal architecture in
inlay, in addition to finishing Akbar’s tomb India occurred under Shahjahan’s reign.
at Sikandra and building the Musamman y Shahjahan’s architecture is more sensual,
Burj, a double-storeyed pavilion on the Agra delicate, and feminine than Akbar’s.
fort with beautiful inlay. y Instead of the previous relief work in red
⚪ A square building with a grave chamber sandstone utilised by Akbar, Shah Jahan’s
surrounded by verandahs sits within a structures are embellished with magnificent
garden. marble sculptures that resemble filigree
⚪ A pavilion with a rectangular dome and and inlay work in pietra dura.
screens that cover Itmad-ud-Daulah’s y Shahjahan was an outstanding builder of
false tombs can be found on the second the Mughal period, and he had a lifetime
storey. The white marble structure is interest in architecture. The arch was

110 Architecture in Medieval India

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foliated, and the pillars were elevated with Fort, which was begun in 1639 and finished
shaft capitals. The dome was bulbous and nine years later.
had a tight neck. y The Red Fort is an irregular octagon with
y Even the Agra Fort was renovated by him, well-planned red sandstone walls, gates,
with sections of Akbar’s basic red sandstone and a few other structures, as well as
defences demolished and replaced with marble Palaces.
more spectacular marble buildings. ⚪ It includes a Diwan-i-Am, which houses
y Shahjahan built the Taj Mahal, as well as the marble canopy with magnificent
the Khas Mahal, Diwan-i-Khas, Moti Masjid, pietra dura panels displaying a few
and Jama Masjid in Delhi, as well as the paintings.
Mausoleum of his adored wife, AIjumand ⚪ The Diwan-i-Khas is a pillared hall with
Bano Begum, known as Mumtaz Mahal. ornate ceilings and a flat roof supported
⚪ The Taj Mahal is a square tomb on a high by carved arches.
terrace with imposing tall minarets on ⚪ The pillars are decorated with pietra
each end. It represents the pinnacle of dura and were formerly plated and
the garden tomb era, which began with painted in the upper part.
Humayun’s tomb in Delhi and continues ⚪ The legendary Peacock Throne is said to
to this day. The tomb chamber is have formerly been positioned on the
octagonal in plan, with auxiliary rooms marble dais of the Peacock Throne.
at each corner, and it is topped by a
magnificent double dome comparable
to Humayun’s.
⚪ Although the doorway is narrower
and higher, the dome is larger. A lotus
pattern has been added to the bottom
of the dome beneath the finial.
⚪ The Taj Mahal is known for its dreamy
lightness, lovely proportions, and a
harmonious blend of architecture and
ornamentation.
⚪ In the floral and arabesque pattern,
there is a lot of carving and superb inlay
Fig. 8.22: Red fort of Delhi
work, with rich multi-colour stones,
frame borders, inscriptions in black
marble, delicate traceries and trellis Deccan Style (Bijapur and Golconda)
work on a white marble background.
y Bijapur was known as Vijayapura in ancient
⚪ The feminine character is obvious in its
Hindu times, and it was the capital of the
dreamlike airy lightness and delicate
Adil Shahi Dynasty, which was founded by
inlay work, just like the great lady in
Yusuf Adil Khan and was the first of the Five
whose memory it was made, gentle,
Deccan Kingdoms, which included Bijapur,
lovely, and yielding.
Berar, Ahmednagar, Bidar, and Golconda
⚪ It was built in the centre of a char
when they broke away from the Bahmani
bagh, or flower-filled garden with water
Dynasty in the 15th-16th centuries.
channels, just like Humayun’s tomb.
y Bijapur prospered for two centuries before
y In 1638, Shahjahan relocated his capital
being overthrown by Mughal Emperor
from Agra to Delhi, laying the groundwork
Aurangzeb in 1688.
for Shahjahanabad, Delhi’s Seventh City,
which contains his iconic fortress, the Red

Architecture in Medieval India 111

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y Some of the features include Three arch

facades, the introduction of bulbous doors,
and the used minars as a part of the main
structure which was also rich in stone
carvings.
y The dome of Gol Gumbaz is the world’s
second-largest.

Golconda school: Hindu influence observed in

motifs.
y Their facades were beautifully carved.
y For example, Charminar.

Conclusion
The surviving remnants of buildings are
Fig. 8.23: Charminar the most important source for studying
architecture. They do not, however, provide
y The Adil Shahi dynasty in Bijapur developed
insight into other aspects of architecture, such
about the same time as the Golconda
as the role of architects and the drawings,
Sultanate. Unlike the Qutub Shahi
estimates, and reports of the constructions,
emperors, who supported a wide range of
despite the fact that they provide insight into
scholarly activities, the Adil Shahi rulers
the styles and procedures specific to our
were primarily interested in architecture.
century. The introduction of Turkish control in
⚪ The Jami Masjid in Bijapur, Ibrahim
India, on the other hand, is significant in more
Rauza, Gol Gumbaz, and the Mihtar
ways than one. It not only brought about a new
Mahal are just a few of the great
socio-political system but also a new aesthetic
buildings that have been built in the
expression.
style that developed in Bijapur.

112 Architecture in Medieval India

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9 Modern India and European

Influence
Introduction they erected more durable structures such
as robust fortifications and lofty Churches.
‘India’ is a word that invokes a host of clichés:
Throughout colonial control in Europe,
a timeless civilisation of living traditions,
architecture became a symbol of authority to
great spiritual wisdom and artistic riches;
promote the occupying state. Many European
a subcontinent of astonishingly diverse yet
countries invaded India and developed
harmonious regional, religious and linguistic
architectural styles rooted in their origins
differences; a crucible of cultural synthesis.
and adopted homelands. European colonisers
Apart from factories and certain European-style
constructed architecture that reflected their

2
homes, Europeans established settlements in
Architecture
India in various areas. As their in Modern
grasp grew firmer,
conquestIndia
mission and was dedicated to the
state or religion.

Colonial Architecture

Characteristics

A symbol of power
Residential areas like civil lines and cantonments
Sparse use of stone
Brick became the primary building material, slate, machine-made tiles.

Different styles

Neo-classic

Features Examples

Fusion of classical Greco-Roman style Town Hall in Mumbai

Had Mediterranean roots
Geometric structure with tall pillars.
Neo-Gothic Style

Features Examples

Revival of mediaeval gothic architecture University of Bombay

Includes High-pitched roofs and pointed arches Bombay High Court
Indian merchants supported such structures Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus
Indo-Saracenic Revival Style

Features Examples

Fusion of European, Islamic and Indian styles Chepauk Palace

Had features of Victorian architecture Gateway of India
Use of domes, jalis, chhatris etc
Art-Deco Style

Features Examples

Evolved in Mumbai in 1930s, with angular sha- Regal Cinema, Metro Cinema,
ped buildings and Eros Cinema.
Fusion of Islamic and Hindu Architecture The high court building
Have Victorian influence
Cinema halls in Mumbai have Art-Deco architecture

Architecture in Modern India 1

Modern India and European Influence 113
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Colonial Architecture

Different styles

Famous Architects

Laurie Baker

Made the housing notion in Kerala

Structures are environment friendly with good ventilation and thermal comfort.
Charles Correa

He is the architect of Gaon structures.

Designed MP assembly hall and British Council Building.
Le-Corbusier

French architect
Known for planning the city of Chandigarh
Launched the idea of sectors in the planning of cities.
Grid system for fast traffic
Sir Edwin Lutyens

Architect of the capital of India, Delhi

Designed the urban street complex
Use of open verandas, lavish colonnades, tall slender windows, cornices, jaalis,
chhajjas, and chhatris.
Designer of Rashtrapati Bhavan and India Gate.

The Portuguese Style of Architecture Old Goa, namely ‘churches and convents
of Old Goa’ and ‘Basilica of Bom Jesus’.
y The Portuguese landed in India in 1498
⚪ ‘Sanctuary of Saint Joseph Vaz’ in
predominantly as merchants and eventually
Sancoale;
gained control over Goa, where they ruled
⚪ ‘Convent of Santa Monica’ and ‘The
for over four centuries. Portuguese rule in
Chapel of The Weeping Cross’ in Velha
the enclaves of India ended after around
Goa;
450 years in 1961 when the Indian Armed
⚪ ‘Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception
Forces seized Goa, Daman and Diu, resulting
Church’ in Panjim;
in their annexation to the Indian Union.
⚪ ‘Fort Aguada’ over the 2 Sinquerim beach.
y On the other hand, Portuguese cultural
⚪ ‘Reis Magos Fort’ on the Northern bank
influences may still be observed in many
of the Mandovi River and
places of Goa, particularly in Margao, the
⚪ ‘Church of St. Francis of Assisi’ in Old
ancient capital.
Goa, among several others.
y Portuguese colonists’ missionary zeal
y Among the many sites of Goa, the ‘Basilica
resulted in the construction of Churches,
of Bom Jesus’ or ‘Borea Jezuchi Bajilika’
cathedrals, seminaries, and basilicas in
holds a special significance not only as an
Goa that combined Indian, Islamic, and
architectural wonder displaying one of the
Portuguese architectural forms.
finest examples of the Baroque Style of
y In addition to their religious and historical
Architecture but also as a landmark in the
significance, the Portuguese era marvels
history of Christianity.
that eventually became popular tourist
⚪ This Renaissance-style Church
attractions in Goa include
constructed with plaster and laterite
⚪ Two World Heritage Sites are located in

114 Modern India and European Influence

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comprising three storeys consecrated enterprise in 1664 and saw its successful
in May 1605 houses a decorated silver establishment by 1719.
casket holding the mortal remains of St. y The de facto incorporation of these enclaves
Francis Xavier, who founded the ‘Society into the Union of India later took place in
of Jesus’ with St. Ignatius Loyola. 1950 and 1954.
⚪ The Basilica is an Architectural Gem, y ‘French establishments in India’ located
the interior of which showcases Mosaic- in the Indian peninsula are Pondicherry
Corinthian style consisting of white and its territory including districts of
marble flooring with inlaid gem, highly Pondicherry, Bahour and Villenour, and
embellished gilded altars and paintings Karaikal with its dependent districts on
depicting scenes from the life of St. the Coromandel coast; the ‘Calicut Lodge’
Francis Xavier. and Mahé and its territory on the Malabar
y With the exception of Hindu homes, many coast; Surat factory in Gujarat; Yangon and
Goan homes feature stunning Portuguese its territory including dependent villages
architecture. and the ‘Masulipatam Lodge’ on the Odisha
⚪ Distinct features of these Portuguese (Orissa) coast; and Chandernagore on the
– Large buildings with a vibrantly bank of river Hoogly including its territory
painted exterior were common among and five lodges in Patna, Balasore, Dacca,
Catholic houses facing the street in Jugdia and Cossimbazar in Bengal.
order to be easily recognized by sailors. y After 1816, French India contained lodges in
The windows that open to verandas towns of little commercial significance, in
were decorated, verandas and porches addition to lodges in many other locations,
covered, false wood ceilings above while the towns linked with such lodges fell
the timber floors, vibrantly coloured under British administration.
interior walls contrasted against earthy y In the French colonies, especially
furniture, and fences and gate posts Pondicherry, a town that has become
were intricately carved. synonymous with the rich French legacy
in India, the echoes of French India and its
heritage, such as French style, culture, and
architecture, can still be discerned.
y Originally a fishing village in Tamil Nadu,
the French colonized and converted it into
a blooming port town that remained under
their control till 1954.
⚪ French grid patterns, distinct parts,
and perpendicular streets are three
distinguishing aspects of the town
layout.
y The French Quarter, also known as ‘Ville
Blanche’ or ‘White Town’, and the Indian
Fig. 9.1: The Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa
Quarter, also known as ‘Ville Noire’ or ‘Black
Town’, are two different areas.
French Architecture ⚪ The ‘Ville Blanche’ houses have verandas
and are ornamented with massive
y The French occupations in different
French doors and grills, whereas the
enclaves in the Indian subcontinent
‘Ville Noire’ houses have verandas and
occurred with the arrival of the ‘French East
are adorned with big French doors and
India Company’ founded as a commercial
grills.

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⚪ Historic villas, both French and

Indian, are protected by the non-
profit INTACH (Indian National Trust
for Art and Cultural Heritage), which
must be notified before any original
infrastructure displaying French
architecture is dismantled.
y The imprint of the French style of
architecture can be clearly distinguished
in different infrastructures of the region
including Pondicherry International Port,
police stations and banks.
y Many of Pondicherry’s streets have French
names, with menus and signs are written Fig. 9.3: Le Foyer du Soldat, Puducherry
in French.
y The Joan of Arc statue on Dumas Street, ‘Le
Café’, the Mairie building, which now houses Indo-British Style of Architecture
the Puducherry Municipality, the French The colonial architecture straddling about 150
consulate building, ‘Le Foyer du Soldat’, a to 200 years under the British Empire attained
legion hall for veteran soldiers who fought its golden age in the second half of the 19th
in French wars, and the ‘Lycée Français de century, representing an important phase in
Pondichéry’, the oldest French international the modernization of the country, alteration
school on the Asian continent’, are just a few of a stark medieval lifestyle got to ultimately
of the notable buildings and monuments in become a democratic one at the dawn of
the French style. Independence in 1947.
⚪ ‘Our Lady of Angels Church’, also known y In India, the colonial architecture reflects
as Karaikal Church, is a Neo-Gothic the penetration of colonial ideals and
structure in Karaikal; ‘Sacred Heart practises, as well as their impact on local
Church of Chandannagar’ (l’Église du institutions, modes of life, and construction
Sacré Cur); and ‘St. Ann’s Catholic processes, resulting in situations of conflict
Church’, in Yangon, are some of the between foreign and indigenous values.
other notable structures established y From 1615 to 1947, India was under British
during the French colonial period. colonial authority for three centuries.
Many huge and impressive buildings and
infrastructures, as well as their particular
architectural styles, exist as vestiges of the
British legacy in their former colonies.
y British-influenced cities include Agra,
Bankipore, Bhopal, Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi,
Hyderabad, Karachi, Madras, and Nagpur.
y Beginning with traditional British
architectural precedents, British colonial
rule witnessed the emergence of a new
architectural style known as Indo-Saracenic
Revival, also known as Indo-Gothic, Neo-
Mughal, Mughal-Gothic, and Hindu-Gothic
Fig. 9.2: Statue of Joan of Arc, Puducherry
architecture.

116 Modern India and European Influence

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y It was a combination of the Gothic revival architect William Emerson among others.
style with that of the Neoclassical, Indo- y The ‘Victoria Terminus’ (VT), now known as
Islamic and Indian architectural styles the ‘Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus’
initiated by the British architects in British (CSMT), at Bori Bunder, Mumbai (formerly
India during the late 19th century and soon Bombay), is a beautiful masterpiece
became a favoured style. combining Victorian Italianate Gothic
y Over time, many buildings and Revival architecture with traditional Mughal
infrastructures, such as institutions, style.
government buildings, railway stations, y One of India’s oldest railway stations, it
post offices, and rest rooms, began to be was once the headquarters of the ‘Great
constructed in this design. Indian Peninsular Railway’ and was rebuilt
y From the mid-nineteenth century, the Anglo- to commemorate Queen Victoria’s Golden
Indian Church builders started following Jubilee. It is now a UNESCO World Heritage
the layouts of different combinations Site and India’s busiest railway station.
of architectural styles suggested by the This royal and spectacular structure was
revivers, including the application of even built with cutting-edge technology and
heavier styles. is considered a fantastic blend of Gothic
y The first Indo-Saracenic structure was Revival and previous architectural styles.
the Chepauk Palace in Chennai (formerly y One of the most revered and recognised
Madras). chef d’oeuvres of the British colonial era is
⚪ Many additional buildings in Chennai the vast and elegant ‘Victoria Memorial’,
that portray this architecture are now dedicated to Queen Victoria’s memory and
listed as heritage structures, including located in Kolkata (formerly Calcutta).
the ‘Madras High Court’, ‘Chennai Central ⚪ This monument made of white marble
Station’, and the ‘Victoria Public Hall’, epitomising beauty and elegance was
among others. designed by William Emerson and
y This unique design may be seen in the Taj showcased the Saracenic revivalist style
Mahal Palace Hotel in Mumbai, the ‘Mysore of architecture comprising a fine blend
Palace’ in Mysore, the ‘Victoria Memorial’ in of British architectural style with that of
Calcutta, the ‘Khalsa College’ in Amritsar, Deccani, Egyptian, Venetian, Mughal and
and the ‘Mumbai GPO’ in Mumbai, to name other Islamic styles.
a few.
y The second half of the 19th century
saw significant advancement in colonial
architecture including the development
of infrastructures like the ‘Rajabai Clock
Tower’ (modelled on ‘Big Ben’ in London),
the ‘University Senate Hall’ and the
‘University Library’ within the premises of
‘Bombay University’ by prominent Gothic
revival architect Sir Gilbert Scott; ‘Victoria
Terminus’ by English architectural engineer
Frederick William Stevens; ‘Bombay High
Court’ by British engineer Col. James A.
Fuller; and ‘Crawford Market’ by British Fig. 9.4: Chepauk Palace, Chennai

Modern India and European Influence 117

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climate.
y It featured recreation, revival, and
adaptation of ancient Greek and Roman
building architecture.
y The construction of geometrical
constructions with tall Pillars in front of
them characterised it.
y Bombay’s Town Hall is an early example of
this style.

Fig. 9.5: Victoria Memorial, Kolkata

Characteristics of Colonial Architecture

y The British saw themselves as Mughal
successors and exploited architectural
style as a power symbol.
y The structures they built in India were a
direct mirror of their architectural triumphs
in the United States.
y Under the British administration, the
purpose of colonial architecture was to Fig. 9.6: Town Hall, Bombay
build structures to house their people and
organisations in order to maintain control
over the Indian empire. Neo-gothic style
y As a result of colonial architecture, new y It was a revival of the early Gothic
residential districts such as Civil Lines and architectural style, which had its origins
Cantonments formed in cities. Another in Northern European buildings, especially
element of Colonial architectural design in Churches, during the medieval era.
British India was the sparse use of stone, y High-pitched roofs pointed arches, and
notably marble. intricate decoration was used to describe
y Brick eventually took the place of stone it.
as the most common building material in y This style was modified for building
Britain. Slate, machine-made tiles, and infrastructure in Bombay.
steel girders became popular in India, and y The seafront of Bombay is dominated by
galvanised iron revolutionised the Anglo- several beautiful buildings of this style.
Indian roof. These include the Secretariat, University of
Bombay, and High Court.
Neo-classical style y Many Indian merchants gave money for a
y This architectural style can be seen in few of these buildings. They were excited
British India’s late-nineteenth-century to use the neo-Gothic theme because they
structures. thought it was progressive and would help
y It’s a re-creation of the classical Greco- to make Bombay a modern city.
Roman style of architecture. y The British put a lot of money into the
y The Mediterranean roots of this style were design and construction of railway stations
thought to be ideal for India’s tropical in this style, with the Chhatrapati Shivaji

118 Modern India and European Influence

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Terminus in Mumbai serving as an example. ⚪ This was an anachronism of the highest

order because, while at that time
contemporary Europeans were engaged
in the most progressive thinking in
architecture, Sir Edward Lutyens’ work
was a masterpiece in high renaissance
architecture, the result of a way of
thinking typical of the early nineteenth
century in Europe.
y It’s worth noting that, at the same time
as Delhi was being built, Europe was
experiencing a “heroic phase of modern
architecture” in schools of thought like
Fig. 9.7: Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus Mumbai “Bauhaus”.

Palladian Style of Architecture

Victorian Architecture y In the 18th century, some British officers
y Architecture traditionally, i.e., before the attempted to introduce the Palladian
arrival of the British on the Indian soil, was, architectural style to India. Constantia,
from the social point of view, the creation erected by General Martin in Lucknow, is the
of spectacular sculptural forms hewn out most notable example in India. This style is
of stone. characterised by a large central tower rising
y Architectural material was stone, tools, from a series of terraced roofs.
chisel and hammer, and the aim was y In the second half of the 19th century,
glorification. In contrast, the everyday some European builders in India tried their
needs of a common man were ruthlessly best to combine elements and features
neglected. from Indian and Western architecture.
y Then the British arrived, and India had The pioneer of this movement was a civil
its first introduction to modern building servant, F. S. Browse.
construction and planning through them. ⚪ This architectural style can also be seen
in Jaipur’s Museum and Madras’s Moor
⚪ Their aim, however, was to house their Market (now Chennai).
organisations, their people and whatever
was necessary to control an empire as
big as India.
⚪ Apart from self-serving military
cantonments and civil lines, they also
left the basic problems well alone.
⚪ It was no intention of the British to
educate Indians in the art and science
of architecture. Thus, during the reign
of the British, Indian minds were out
of touch with the progressive thinking
taking place elsewhere in the world.
y The construction of Imperial Delhi was the
most significant architectural development Fig. 9.8: Moor Market in Madras
in this country throughout the first part of
the twentieth century.

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⚪ The Central Museum and Senate architectural works.

House in Lahore were designed by
Sardar Ram Singh, a notable Punjabi The Indo-Saracenic Revival/Indo-
builder (Pakistan). G. Wittet designed Gothic/Mughal-Gothic, Neo-Mughal
the Gateway of India in Mumbai with The colonisation of India ushered in a new
elements derived from the Mughal style. era in Indian architecture. While the Dutch,
Portuguese, and French erected structures in
India, the English left an indelible mark on the
country’s architecture. At the commencement
of a colonial government, there were attempts
to establish power using classical models.
Colonial architecture evolved into Indo-
Saracenic architecture during the colonial
period, which is a blend of Hindu, Islamic, and
western elements.
y “Indo” was shorthand for Hindus, and
“Saracen” was a term Europeans used to
assign Muslims.
y Native Indo-Islamic architecture was
Fig. 9.9: Constantia, Lucknow
combined with Victorian Britain’s Neo-
Classical forms to create Indo-Saracenic
Victorian Gothic Revival Architecture Revival architecture. This style was inspired
y The Victoria Terminus Station in Mumbai by Indian medieval architecture, which had
(now known as the Chhatrapati Shivaji domes, chhatris, jalis, and arches, among
Station) is a magnificent example of other elements.
Victorian Gothic Revival architecture in India, y Institutional, civic, and utilitarian facilities
combining Indian traditional architecture such as post offices, railway stations,
with Victorian Gothic Revival themes. rest rooms, and government buildings
y Thanks to the design of F. W. Stevens it characterised Colonial architecture. This
became the symbol of Bombay, India’s architectural style began to appear in
‘Gothic City’ and major international considerable numbers throughout the
mercantile port, in the mid-nineteenth empire. Colonial architecture in India
century. The terminal was constructed over followed developments from metropolises
a ten-year period, beginning in 1878, in the and took inspiration from existing
High Victorian Gothic style, based on late architecture in India.
medieval Italian models. y From the mid-nineteenth century onwards,
y Traditional Indian Palace architecture can it became customary for Anglo-Indian
be seen in the stone dome, turrets, pointed Church architects to emulate the revivalists
arches, and distinctive ground plan. By of England’s many Gothic art combinations.
blending Indian architectural traditions and Rather than following the principles of
idioms with British design, British architects practicality, imperialism influenced many
created a new Mumbai (now Bombay) style. buildings. Heavy styles other than Gothic
y Victorian structures include the Churches were often used, such as the Mutiny
of Kolkata and Chennai, the cathedrals of Memorial Church at Kanpur and the last
Simla and Lahore, the Lahore High Court, garrison Church in New Delhi.
and the Calcutta High Court. However, y The Italian Gothic architecture style was
none of these can be considered notable chosen for Bombay University because

120 Modern India and European Influence

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it was thought to be more appropriate Art-deco style

for India’s climate. Sir Gilbert Scott’s y In India (and particularly in Mumbai), Art
architectural style gave colonial structures Deco evolved into a distinct style known as
an ‘Indian’ appearance. There’s little doubt Deco- Saracenic.
that this was the start of an imperial style y It was essentially a fusion of Islamic and
that would culminate in New Delhi. Hindu architectural forms.
y In the late 19th century, British architects y Mumbai and its suburbs are home to some
constructed buildings in the Indo-Saracenic of the most prominent Art Deco buildings in
Revival style (also known as Indo-Gothic, the world, though Mumbai and its suburbs
Mughal-Gothic, Neo-Mughal, and Hindu- are one of the least observed architectural
Gothic), where public and government styles.
buildings were often rendered on an y Floors, wood panelling, railings, weather
intentionally grand scale. shades, verandahs, balconies, and facades
y It drew elements from native Indo-Islamic that are very airy and built-in stepped-back
and Indian architecture and combined them design, etc. are all deco elements.
with Gothic revival and Neoclassical styles y The interiors have Victorian influences,
favoured in Britain. whereas the exterior was Indian.
y Public and government buildings, such y Art Deco architecture first appeared in
as clock towers, courthouses, municipal Mumbai in the 1930s, with angular-shaped
buildings, colleges, and town halls, were structures with facades.
often rendered on an intentionally grand y The Art Deco style is prevalent in many
scale, reflecting and promoting a notion of cinema halls that sprang up in the early
an invincible British Empire. to mid-twentieth centuries, such as Metro
y Infrastructure was composed of iron, steel, Cinema, Eros Cinema, and others.
and poured concrete and included domes, y In 2018, the UNESCO World Heritage
overhanging eaves, pointed arches, vaulted Committee officially recognised an
roofs, pinnacles, open pavilions, and pierced ensemble of such buildings as a World
open arcading. Heritage site.
y ‘Chepauk Palace’, located in Chennai y Regal Cinema, The Mahalakshmi Temple,
(erstwhile Madras), was the first Indo- and The High Court building in Mumbai are
Saracenic revival building. a few examples.
y The Gateway of India is the most celebrated
example of this style.

Fig. 9.10: Chepauk Palace Fig. 9.11: Bombay High Court

Modern India and European Influence 121

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Difference between Portuguese and British Style

● During the European settlements in India, besides the factories and some European style houses,
the Europeans built settlements at various locations. Having gained a significant foothold, they
developed more durable constructions such as strong fortifications and imposing churches.

● In Goa, the Portuguese built impressive buildings in the style of Iberian architecture, and the
English, though less ambitious, built structures that were reminiscent of their own village
churches. Thus, a distinctive architectural style developed in India.

● Despite this, the Victorian-style architecture itself, being imitative rather than original, didn’t
have the vitality to inaugurate a style of architectural design that could have been Indo-British
(like Indo-Islamic architecture) in India.

Some Famous Architects Karl Heinz

of Modern India y The year 1935 was a watershed moment for
revolutionary ideals, as colonial imperialism
Laurie Baker was called into question and national
He was responsible for the mass housing notion movements grew in strength. Many Indian
in Kerala. The structures were environment- educational establishments were founded
friendly and made of locally available material. during this period in response to Mahatma
The Filler slab construction was used to Gandhi’s appeal to boycott all British
diminish the consumption of steel and cement. institutions.
Highlighting on ventilation and thermal comfort y Jamia Millia Islamia was able to acquire
were very high. funds for a school facility in its current
Jamia Nagar location in 1935, after operating
out of improvised quarters in Karol Bagh.
y In keeping with the anti-imperialist stance
that the founders of Jamia espoused,
the German architect Karl Heinz was
commissioned for this project with precise
instructions that he could not incorporate
any elements of British or Mughal
architecture in any form.
y In keeping with their liberal and revolutionary
views, the Jamia founders also intended to
move away from the traditional image of
Muslim architecture.
y Heinz employed locally available materials
like red sandstone and lime, but the
floorwork was in poor condition and had to
be rebuilt with fresh Kota sandstones.

Le-Corbusier
He worked as an architect in France. He
developed Chandigarh on the pattern of a well-
Fig. 9.12: Laurie Baker Homes ordered matrix, bringing the idea of a planned

122 Modern India and European Influence

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city with him. In India, he pioneered the concept y In addition to India Gate, Lutyen designed
of sectors. A self-sufficient green belt was one a variety of other monuments in Delhi. As
of the sectors. For quick traffic, there was a a result of his contributions, New Delhi is
regular grid in place. called Lutyens Delhi.

Charles-Correa
Charles Mark Correa (1 September 1930 – 16
June 2015), who was credited with the creation
of modern architecture in post-Independent
India, was an Indian architect and urban
planner. He was remembered for his sensitivity
to the needs of the urban poor and for his
use of traditional methods and materials. His
significant projects were: Mahatma Gandhi
Sangrahalaya (Mahatma Gandhi Memorial)
at Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad, Madhya
Pradesh Legislative Assembly in Bhopal and Fig. 9.13: Rashtrapati Bhawan
British Council Building.

Sir Edwin Lutyens Conclusion

y The British government, experiencing a
sense of predicament due to rising anti- The establishment of the British Empire in
imperialist waves in India, declared Delhi to the 18th century, as well as the subsequent
be its new capital in 1911. westernisation of India, paved the way for a
y The architects planned a monumental fundamental shift in aesthetic taste, resulting in
urban street complex that was very alien to the birth of a new style of art and architecture.
Indian cities. In general, the entrance of the Europeans is
y Their architectural style entailed a fusion defined by a jaded attitude toward indigenous
of Indian elements and classical European. art traditions, with erstwhile Indian patrons of
y Open verandas, lavish colonnades, tall, the arts becoming less affluent and influential,
slender windows, cornices jaalis (circular and Western art becoming more widespread.
stone apertures), chhajjas (wide roof During this period, architectural styles emerged
overhangs) and chhatris (free-standing as a result of the fusion of Indian culture with
pavilions) were utilised at the same time as European design. Similarly, to the Mughals,
decorative elements from typical historic architecture under the European colonial
Indian architecture. administration became a symbol of power to
y Rashtrapati Bhavan, formerly the Viceroy’s support the invading force. Toward the end
home, was designed by Lutyen. It is made of of the nineteenth century, rising nationalism
sandstone and features Rajasthani design attempted a purposeful revival of Indian art.
elements such as canopies and jaali.

Modern India and European Influence 123

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10 Indian Dance, Theatre and Music

Introduction historical (like chronicles, genealogies of

kings and artists) as well as archaeological
A human’s life cannot be fully understood
(like excavations, inscriptions, sculptures,
without music. It plays an integral part in man’s
and paintings of different periods), offer us
religious, social, and artistic engagements.
an insight into its visible existence. It played
Music is as old in the history of civilisation as
an important role in the social as well as
human speech, and it forms an integral part
religious lives of many people in India. The
of man’s life. Also, the tradition of writing and
Indian Classical dance traces its roots in ‘Natya
enacting plays has been there in India for a
Shastra’ written by Bharat Muni, and six major
long time, along with plays, the theatre had
classical dance schools emerged as part of
also developed.
religious ritual. Here the dancers did worship
Gods by way of narrating their life stories. He
Indian Classical Dance traces its source to Lord Brahma, who created
a fifth Veda called ‘Natyaveda’, representing
The roots of rich Indian dance traditions are the essence of four existing Vedas.
deep and very old. Various sources, including

Components of Classical Dance

Fig. 10.1: Basic Elements of Classical Dance

Two Aspects of Dance

y Tandava: this masculine form indicates fourth chapter of Bharat Muni’s Natya
movement, rhythm, and heroism. Shastra. Natya Shastra is known as Fifth
y Lasya: this feminine form is soft, lyrical, Veda. It has been recorded as the cosmic
and graceful and indicates grace, and dance.
‘abhinaya’. Natya Shastra talks about Tandava and
Lasya. Tandava is the expression of lord
shiva’s eternal dance. According to Natya
Shastra, Shiva was very much fond of
Previous Years’ Question (PYQ)
dancing, and he adopted the dance
(2013, Mains)
form Tandava which has several specific
characteristics, such as:
Tandava dance is recorded in the early y The portrayal of power and force.
Indian inscriptions. y It represents the angry mood of Shiva.
Answer: y It signifies destruction.
Tandava dance has been described in the

Indian Dance, Theatre and Music 125

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Silappatikaram, an ancient Tamil epic.

y It symbolises five main divine actions, y Its origins can be traced back to an ancient
known as Shristi, Sthati, Samhar, Sanskrit text, which was written by Bharata
Tirobhava, and Anugraha. Muni named “Natya Shastra”.
Through Tandava Shiva terrifies all other y It is very well recognised for its fixed
gods who plead for Shiva’s mercy. It upper torso, legs bent/knees flexed out,
symbolises the idea that Shiva is the and spectacular footwork. It is also a
‘Destroyer’ among the trinity (Brahma and sophisticated vocabulary of sign language
Vishnu being the others). based on the hand, eye, as well as facial
Rasanubhuti: The 9 Rasas muscle gestures.
The Rasanubhuti is the pinnacle of these y The body’s weight is placed down the centre
dance forms. The Natya Shastra talks of the body with the emphasis on striking
about nine Rasas. They are as follows: the floor with feet and jumps known as
“Bhramaris”.
y It is very much symbolic in terms of its
abhinaya (i.e. in acting) as well as its goals.
Shringar : The roots of abhinaya were found in the
Love
Shanta: Natyashastra text.
In its standard form, the dance is generally
Peace
y
Hasya:
Humorous
sub-divided into 7 major parts:
Adbhoot:
Wonder

Rasanubhuti: Karuna: Alarippu

The 9 Rasas Sorrow

Bibhats:
Disgust
Jatiswaran
Raudra: Sloka
Anger

Bhayanak:
Fear
Veer:
Heroism

Shabda
Fig. 10.2: The 9 Rasas of Rasanubhuti Thillana

Classical Dances of India

In India, there are presently eight classical Pada
Varna

dance forms, which are as follows:

Fig. 10.3: Dance Parts of Bharatnatyam
Bharatnatyam
y Place- Tamil Nadu. y Both Krishna Iyer and Rukmini Devi Arundale
y Origin- Devadasi’s tradition. were quite instrumental in regaining the
y Themes- Ramayana, Mahabharata, Shaivism, organisation’s fallen popularity as well as
Vaishnavism, Shaktism. its position.
y Both Lasya and Tandav predominate.
Features: Kathak
y Bharat Natyam is also called Sadir. y Place: Uttar Pradesh (UP) & Central India.
y In India, Bharatanatyam is the oldest y Origin: Devadasis in Mughal court.
classical form of dance. y Theme: Radha-Krishna but later secular
y Its existence was mentioned in themes.

126 Indian Dance, Theatre and Music

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y Lasya predominates.
y Music: Hindustani music.

Features:
y The Kathak form of dance is attributed
to the ancient Northern Indian travelling
minstrels recognised as Kathakars or even
as storytellers. The term “Kathak” is derived
from the Vedic Sanskrit word Katha, which
signifies “storey”, and also from Kathaka,
which means “one who tells a storey” or
“having something to do with stories”.
y It narrates stories from the great epics and
ancient mythology by performing a dance, Fig. 10.4: Kathak
displaying hand movements and footwork,
facial expressions, singing songs, and
Kathakali
playing music.
y Kathak evolved during the Bhakti movement. y Place: Kerala.
It comprises the stories from Lord Krishna’s y Origin: Ramanattam village.
childhood. It is found in 3 distinct forms, y Theme: Ramayana and Mahabharata.
which are known as Gharanas (branches y Tandav predominates.
from where Kathak dance evolved). There y Music: Carnatic music.
are mainly three such types of Gharanas: Features:
Banaras, Lucknow, and Jaipur. y Dance in the open air after dawn in front of
y This particular style of dance mainly a brass lamp known as “Nilavillaku”.
emphasises rhythmic foot movements y Kathakali has had a major impact on its form
adorned with the Ghungroo (i.e. small and technique from the ritual performing
bells) and also movements that are in arts of Kerala known as Chakiarkoothu,
perfect sync with the music. The legs and Krishnattam, Koodiyattam and Ramanathan.
torso are generally kept straight. The story y Kathakali is a combination of dance, music,
is told through a developed vocabulary as well as acting, which also dramatises
based on the gestures of arms and through stories based on the Indian epics such as
the movement of the upper body, stage the Mahabharata.
movements, facial expressions, bends and y They use bulky make-up as well as
turns. stunning costumes in this particular
y The dance mainly focuses on the eyes and dance form, along with elaborate masks,
the foot movements. large headdresses, and also huge skirts.
y Lady Leela Sokhey (also known as Menaka) Kathakali’s form of dance is distinguished
brought new life into Kathak’s classical by the reddish-white portion of the eye.
style. Birju Maharaj (who died recently) and y This particular style of dance is performed
Sitara Devi have been among the prominent by dancers dressed as Gods, kings, demons,
dancers of this style. and so on. Vocalists, along with percussion
performers, do the narration part with the
help of musical instruments.
y Different facial colour combinations depict
different mental stages of a person and
also reflect his/her character. Where black
represents wickedness, green represents

Indian Dance, Theatre and Music 127

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nobility, red patches combine royalty and Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh. This
evil. village has had a long-held tradition of dance
y Various types of facial expressions, hand & drama. It was popular as Yakshagana.
gestures, as well as eye movements are y The Kuchipudi style of Yakshagana was
also quite significant. promulgated by Siddhendra Yogi in the 17th
y The person’s (i.e. dancer’s) body weight is century, who, as per literary Yakshagana
supported by the outer edges of the feet tradition, was sheared and guided by his
(which are curved and it is also slightly Guru Theertha Naaraayana Yogi. His Guru is
bent). known to have compiled a Sanskrit Kavya-
y Vallathol Narayana Menon founded the the Krishna-Leelatarangini.
Kerala Kalamandalam in 1930 and is credited y This dance is performed both in dance and
with revitalising the classical Keralite dance drama. It is performed in groups as well as
form Kathakali. in solo items.
y Its renowned artists include Ramankutty y There is a key role played by ornaments,
Nair and Kalamandalam Gopi. costumes, and jewellery in this dance form.
y The Balagopala Taranga, in which dance is
done on the edges of a brass plate with a
pitcher full of water on the head. Manduka
Shabdam, which is a story of a frog maiden
and the Tala Chitra Nritya, which includes
drawing pictures with dancing toes, are
some famous solo items.
y Vedantam Lakshminarayana Sastri (1886–
1956) was a prominent figure who led various
efforts to revive, protect and reconstruct
the classical Kuchipudi dance form.
y Some renowned dancers of this form
include Yamini Krishnamurthy and Raja
Reddy.

Fig. 10.5: Kathakali

Kuchipudi
y Place: Andhra Pradesh.
y Origin: Bhagavathulu dances in the Temple.
y Theme: Bhagavata Purana.
y Both Lasya and Tandav predominate.
y Music: Carnatic music.
Features:
y Kuchipudi is the name of a village in the Fig. 10.6: Kuchipudi

128 Indian Dance, Theatre and Music

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Odissi y The dancer’s body creates geometrical

y Place: Odisha. shapes and patterns and is hence called
y Origin: Mahari, Nartaki, Gotipua, Devadasi ‘Mobile Sculpture’ with ‘Chauka’ posture
tradition. imitating a Square.
y Theme: Purana stories. y Elements of Odissi include
y Both Lasya and Tandav predominate. y The Odissi dance form also represents
y Music: Hindustani music. water.
Features: y Some of the renowned artists of this form
y The name ‘Odissi’ finds its genesis in ‘Odra include Guru Pankaj Charan Das and Guru
Nritya’, which is mentioned in Natya Shastra Kelu Charan Mohapatra.
of Bharat Muni, and some early examples
of Odissi dance are visible in Khandagiri-
Udayagiri caves.
y This particular dance form was popularised
by the Jain King Kharavela and also was
primarily performed by the Maharis.
y The Odissi dance form was given a new lease
of life by Kabichanda Kallicharan Patnaik,
and later, the efforts of Indrani Rehman and
Charles Fabri brought International acclaim
to it.
y Its postures (Mudras) to express emotions
are identical to that of the Bharatanatyam.
y Tribhanga posture: The posture signifies a
key feature of Odissi dance is the tribhanga,
or three-bent form.
y Natya’s Odissi dance performance combines
the best of acting as well as dancing.
y It also possesses a great deal of grace,
sensuality, and also beauty.

Mangalacharan :
It is the
opening of the
dance.

Fig. 10.8: Odissi

Tarijham : Pure Batunirtya : Manipuri

It encompasses
y Place- Manipur.
dance before
the conclusion. dancing.

y Origin- socio-cultural ceremony.

y Theme- Rasleela.
y Both Lasya and Tandav predominate.
y Music- Manipuri music.
Comprises the
facial Features:
expression and
representation y The Manipuri dance traces its genesis as
the mythological celestial dance of Shiva
Fig. 10.7: Elements of Odissi and Parvati, along with the ‘Gandharva’ in

Indian Dance, Theatre and Music 129

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Manipur’s valley. Sattriya

y This form of dance rose to prominence with y Place-Assam.
the upsurge of Vaishnavism. y Origin- Shankardeva- Sattaras.
y This dance was introduced in Shantiniketan y Theme- Devotion to Vishnu and Krishna.
by none other than Rabindra Nath Tagore, y Both Lasya and Tandav predominate.
and it brought it back to new life in modern y Music- local Assamese music.
times. Features:
y Manipuri lays stress on devotion and y The name “Sattriya” is derived from the
includes both Tandava and Lasya. Major Vaishnava Monasteries, which are often
emphasis is given to Lasya here. recognised as “Sattras”.
y Nagabandha Mudra forms a key feature of y The devotional/spiritual aspect of this
this dance form. The body in this form of particular dance form is more emphasised.
dance is linked in this by curves in the form Also, the dance form tells the mythological
of an ‘8.’ stories of Vishnu.
y ‘Ras Leela’ (i.e. related to Lord Krishna) is a y This form of dance is a group ritual
popular subject in the Manipuri dance form performed by the ‘Bhokots’ (i.e. male monks)
recitals. as a part of their day-to-day rituals.
y Following are the major instruments used y The main instruments of this form of dance
in Manipuri dance: Drums, Flute, Horns, are the khol and the flute.
Tamboura, Esraj, Cymbals, and Mridang. y The main instruments of this form of dance
y Some of its famous performers include the are the khol and the flute. This dance also
Jhaveri sisters and Guru Bipin Singh. places a high value on rhythmic syllables,
dance postures, as well as on footwork.
y The Sattriya dance also has strict and
unyielding guidelines for footwork as well
as for hand gestures.
y Its two offshoots of modern times include
Gayan-Bhayanar Nach and Kharmanar Nach.
y The dance form has its source of origin
in the ‘Sattras’, which were set up by
Mahapurush Srimanta Sankardev in the 15th
and 16th centuries.
y Later prominent personalities and
reformers such as Late Maniram Dutta
Muktiyar Barbayan, Late Dr Maheswar Neog
and Late Roseshwar Saikia Barbayan etc.,
contributed to developing and bringing the
classical Sattriya dance to the outer world.

Fig. 10.9: Manipuri

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(grace and elegance) and Kathakali (vigour)

but simultaneously exhibits more erotic,
delicate, and lyrical qualities.
y It uses realistic make-up and simple
dressing (in Kasavu saree of Kerala).
y Its lyrics are written in Manipravalam, which
is a medieval South Indian language that
combines Sanskrit, Tamil, and Malayalam
together.
y Some renowned artists include Sunanda
Nair and Pallavi Krishnan.

Folk Dances
The Indian folk dances aid in the exploration of
its cultural landscape. The Indian folk dances
vary by state or particular region and are based
on the local myths and also on legends. These
dances are the ideal blend of sophisticated art.
The Indian folk dances also differ from that
classical dances in that they have been quite
spontaneous and are performed by the locals
Fig. 10.10: Sattriya
without any formal training. These forms of
dance grow and prosper only among a specific
Mohiniyattam group of people or in a specific location. The
knowledge is passed down from one generation
y Place: Kerala.
to that of the other generation.
y Origin: Bhasmasur story.
y Theme: Devotion towards Vishnu and to
Chhau
Lord Krishna.
y The Chhau dance form (which is derived
y Lasya predominates.
from the word ‘Chhaya’, which implies
y Music: Carnatic music.
shadow) is practised by tribals as a martial
Features:
art. The dance form is mainly performed in
y Mohiniyattam finds mentioned in texts
the states of West Bengal, Jharkhand, and
like Vyavaharamala of Mazhamagalam
Odisha.
Narayanan Namputiri (written in 1709) and
y It is a form of mask dance in which martial
Ghoshayatra of renowned poet Kunjan
movements are often used to show
Nambiar.
mythological stories.
y Maharaja of Travancore Kartika Tirunal and
y Various natural themes, such as Sarpa
his successor Maharaja Swati Tirunal (18th-
Nirtya as well as Mayur Nritya, are also used
19th century) structured it on the lines of
in this particular form of dance.
contemporary classical form.
y Saraikela Chhau of Jharkhand, Mayurbhanj
y Most girls render their solo performances
of Odisha (in this form of dance, no mask
and use circular movements, subtle
is used here), along with Purulia Chhau
expressions, and delicate footsteps.
of West Bengal are the three important
y Mohiniyattam borrows its movements from
methods of Chhau dance.
Nangiar Koothu and female folk dances the
y In the year 2010, UNESCO inscribed the
Tiruvatirakali and Kaikottikali.
Chhau dance on its Representative List of
y This retains elements of Bharatanatyam
Humanity’s Intangible Cultural Heritage.

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Fig. 10.12: Kalbelia

Fig. 10.11: Chhau

Bihu

Kalbelia y A fashionable dance form of Assam, Bihu,

is performed in a group by both men and
y Women from the Rajasthan’s Kalbelia
women.
community used to practice this form of
y The dancers in this form of dance are
folk dance.
dressed in colourful traditional garb
y The dance movements, as well as costumes
displaying a fair bit of pomp and show.
in this dance form, are reminiscent of
y The rapid hand movement, along with group
serpents.
formation, as well as brisk footstep, are all
y The most adorable musical instrument of
important aspects of this particular form of
this form of dance is the ‘Been’ (it is a wind
dance.
instrument played with the help of a snake
chain).
y The Kalbelia dance form was added to the
UNESCO’s Representative List of Humanity’s
Intangible Cultural Heritage in the year 2011.

Fig. 10.13: Bihu

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Bhangra
y Bhangra, a very well-known Punjabi folk
dance, is practised during all festive
seasons.
y The dancers in this particular form of dance
begin with as many new entrants as time,
as well as circumstance, allow, establishing
large circles.
y The drummer (are those who sit in the
centre of the circle) in this dance form
controls the dancers’ speed and also its
movement.
y It ultimately results in the dancers’ rhythmic
cry or joy.
Fig. 10.15: Ghoomar

Dollu Kunitha
y The Dollu Kunitha dance form is a unique
and dynamic Karnataka folk art.
y This particular dance form is only open to
male dancers with a good physique.
y The dancer/performer in this dance wears a
hollow drum around his waist.
y Kurubas (they are the devotees of Beere
Devaru) are the ones who usually carry out
this religious and cultural ritual.
y As the drumbeat begins, the dancers/
performers in a circle begin to move.

Fig. 10.14: Bhangra

Ghoomar
y The Ghoomar dance form is Rajasthan’s
most popular folk dance form.
y This particular dance form is performed
by the veiled women dressed in a ‘Ghagra’
(which is a type of flowing dress).
y This form of dance incorporates any song
that depicts love, glory, or defeat.
Fig. 10.16: Dollu Kunitha
y Ghoomar is performed throughout the year.
y The dance form is also presented by men.
y In a circle, men and women dance in equal
numbers.
y This form of dance also incorporates both
instrumental as well as vocal music.

Indian Dance, Theatre and Music 133

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Rouff y This form of dance commemorates the birth

y During the harvest season, the women anniversary of God Rama and is performed/
of Jammu and Kashmir perform Rouff, a danced by the young girls holding small
regional folk dance. sticks.
y In this dance form, two rows are formed, y Pinnal Kolattam is a hybrid form of Kolattam
and then a sort of chain is formed on their dance (wherein the songs or choruses
arms across each other’s back. related to the trapping of sticks in rhythm
y The dance has bright costumes as well as are used).
draperies with silver ornaments.
y The dancers/performers smile & exude GiDdha
ebullience, exuding heavenly charm & glee. y Giddha is a popular Punjabi folk dance that
is mostly performed by women.
y To begin performing this particular dance
form, girls or women form a circle.
y They all clap their hands and sing small,
humorous couplets in the Punjabi language.
y Then two or three of them make their way
to the centre and perform the dance.
y Except for the occasional Dholak, no
musical instruments are normally escorted
by giddha.

Fig. 10.17: Rouff

Kolattam
y This Tamil Nadu folk dance form is well-
known throughout India.
y The term ‘Kolattam’ is a portmanteau
formed by combining the words ‘Kol’ (stick)
and ‘Aatam’ (meaning dance).
y
Fig. 10.19: Giddha

Garba
y This dance style is mostly found in Gujarat.
y It is traditionally performed during the
nine-day Hindu festival of Navratri.
y The lamp (that represents the Garba Deep)
or an image of the Goddess Durga is placed
in the centre of concentric rings, and
also the people dance around it, bending
sideways at every step, their arms making
Fig. 10.18: Kolattam sweeping gestures, and each movement
ends with a clap.

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Fig. 10.21: Padayani

Pata Kunitha
Fig. 10.20: Garba y The Karnataka state is well-known for its
folk dance (more specifically, the region of
Mysore).
Padayani y This particular dance form is a religious
y The Padayani dance form is a martial folk dance performed primarily by men.
dance that is mostly performed in the state y The long bamboo poles, which are decorated
of Kerala. with colourful ribbons (also known as Pata),
y The word ‘Padayani’ means “infantry line”, are used by the dancers/performers.
which is a very rich and colourful dance y The dance form is extremely popular among
form. people of all faiths.
y The dancers/performers in this dance form,
known as ‘Kolams’, wear enormous masks.
y This dance form also tells stories that are
both divine & semi-divine.
y Bhairavi, Kalan, Yakshi, and other recurring
characters appear in this dance form.

Fig. 10.22: Pata Kunitha

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y Puja Kunitha is a variation of Pata Kunitha,

which is very popular in the regions of
Bengaluru and Mandya.

Raslila
y This dance form is popular in the Mathura
and Vrindavan region of Uttar Pradesh.
y The dance form illustrates Radha & Krishna’s
love stories.
y The dance movements used in this dance
form resemble those of Kathak.
y This presents forth full charm and freshness.

Fig. 10.24: Jhoomar

Kummi
y Kummi is a popular form of folk dance
performed in the state of Tamil Nadu.
y The dance is carried out by women.
y In this particular form of dance, the women
form a circle and also clap their hands
rhythmically as they dance.
y One among the women (i.e. a woman from
a circle) leads the singing with a positive
song, while the others sing the refrain.
y This form of dance is typically performed
at Temple festivals, Pongal, and family
gatherings.

Fig. 10.23: Raslila

Jhoomar
y Jhoomar is a Punjabi folk dance performed
during the harvesting season.
y This form of folk dance is a slower and also
more rhythmic bhangra figure.
y The composition of these songs varies, and
also they are generally fond of emotional
Fig. 10.25: Kummi
songs as well.
y This particular dance form is a joyous dance.
It is performed in a circle and is practised Changu
on the music of emotional songs.
y Changu dance is a popular folk dance form

136 Indian Dance, Theatre and Music

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practised in Orissa.
y It gets its name from a type of drum named
“Changu”, which is invariably used in the
dance.
y Women are the only ones who can perform
this particular form of dance.
y Men just sing songs, perform the Changu,
as well as move-in simple steps with the
women dancers.
y The women participants/dancers performed
in a half-sitting position, swaying as well as
occasionally jerking their bodies.

Fig. 10.27: Therukoothu

Mayilattam
y Mayilattam is an imaginative & religious
form of folk dance that is only performed
in the Hindu Temples and performed in the
state of Tamil Nadu.
Fig. 10.26: Changu

Therukoothu
y The Therukoothu is a widely known folk
dance in the state of Tamil Nadu.
y The dance form usually occurs during the
village festivities and has become the focal
point of all entertainment, frolic, and folk
awareness.
y This particular dance form has carried out
the villages’ injunctions.
y Only men can take part in this form of folk
dance, and the men even play female roles.

Fig. 10.28: Maliyattam

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y Dancers in this particular form of dance Yakshagana

dress up as peacocks, with beaks that can y Yakshagana is a famous music dance-drama
be opened as well as closed with a thread. practised in the state of Karnataka.
y The dancers also perform some specific y The dance performance of Yakshagana
dance movements. begins an hour before the ‘actors’ take the
y The dancers in this form of dance do not stage in the twilight hours with the beating
dance barefoot but rather on a tall piece of of various fixed compositions on the drums.
wood tied to the ends of their feet. y In general, a performance of Yakshagana
depicts a story from the Indian epics &
Kavadiyattam Puranas.
y During the Murugan’s (i.e. the Tamil God y A narrator in this dance form either sings
of war) ceremonial worship, devotees/ the story or sings the pre-written dialogues
worshipers perform this particular form of of characters, and he is accompanied by the
folk dance. musicians who perform traditional musical
y The dancers/performers use Kavadi (it is a instruments, whereas the actors dance to
physical burden) in order to seek assistance the music.
from the God Murugan.

Fig. 10.30: Yakshagana

Fig. 10.29: Kavadiyattam

Bamboo Dance
Dandiya Raas
y Nagaland’s bamboo dance is a tribal folk
y Raas or Dandiya Raas is a traditional form dance.
of folk dance form of Gujarat, India. y This form of dance style is only performed
y The performance of this particular dance by females.
form depicts scenes from Holi and Krishna y The dancers, in the form of dance, gently
as well as Radha’s Lila. jump over the bamboo sticks that have
y The dance is performed on the evenings of been placed horizontally in parallel spacing
Navratri. over through the bamboo sticks, which have
been placed vertically to form an interlace.
y Two women, sitting on the opposite sides of
the floor, slide the sticks over the bamboo
sticks that are vertically positioned.
y This form of dance is accompanied by
rhythmic music that the performers/
dancers adjust their steps to.

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Theatre Forms of India y Drama is a complete form or package of

art that includes acting, poetry, dialogue
y Living traditions play a significant role in
music, and so on.
India’s social system. The traditions are
y The art of singing has a distinct significance
prevalent throughout every living culture.
in any community.
y The traditional art forms, without a doubt,
y Songs and also the art of singing play a key
portray the ideals of the society in question.
role in all traditional theatre styles.
It also depicts its determination to survive,
y The traditional music of the theatre
its ethos, emotions, fellow feelings, and so
represents a community’s mindset.
on.

Bhand Pather (Jashin) – Kashmir

y It aptly combines dance, music and acting together.

y In order to create laughter, Satire, wit, and parody are spiked in it.

y Music is generated using Surnai, Nagada and Dhol.

y The actors being mainly from the farming community visibly exhibit an impact of their way
of living, ideals and sensitivity.

Swang - Haryana

y It’s mainly music based.

y As it progresses, prose also play its role in the dialogues.

y Some visible features include softness of emotions, achievement of rasa along the
development of character.

y Its 2 vital styles hails from Rohtak and Haathras.

y Haryanvi (Bangru) in Rohtak style and Brajbhasha in Haathras style is used.

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Fig. 10.31: Swang

Nautanki - Uttar Pradesh

y Kanpur, Lucknow and Haathras are its epicentre.

y The meters employed in the verses are Doha, Chaubola, Chhappai, Beharetabeel.

y Women have also started participating of late.

Fig. 10.32: Nautanki

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Raasleela

y It is mainly based on stories of Lord Krishna.

y It is believed that the early plays based on the life of Krishna were written by Nand Das.

y Dialogues (written in prose) here are merged artistically with songs and scenes from Krishna’s
pranks.

Fig. 10.33: Raasleela

Bhavai – Gujarat

y Key centres-Kutch and Kathiawar.

y Bhungal, Tabla, Flute, Pakhawaj, Rabaab, Sarangi, Manjeera are some basic instruments
used.

y It has a rare blend of devotional as well as romantic sentiments.

y It is only performed by males and female part is also played by them.

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Fig. 10.34: Bhavai

Jatra – Bengal

y Musical plays forming a part of fairs (organised in honour o f God), or r eligious rituals and
ceremonies are known as Jatra.

y Influence of Shri Chaitanyaprabhu popularised Krishna Jatra.

y Jatra in its original form was musical and dialogues were added at its later stages.

y The actors themselves portrayed the change of scene, the place of action, etc.

Fig. 10.35: Jatra

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Bhaona (Ankia Naat) - Assam

y It has cultural glimpses of Assam, Bengal, Orissa, Mathura and Vrindavan visible in it.

y The story is started by Sutradhaar (narrator) in Sanskrit first and then in either Brajboli or
Assamese.

Fig. 10.36: Bhaona (Ankia Naat)

Maach - Madhya Pradesh

y Maach is exercised for the stage itself as also for the play.

y Importance is given to songs in between the dialogues.

y The dialogues are referred to as bol and rhyme in narration is named Vanag.

y The tunes of this theatre form are called Rangat.

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Fig. 10.37: Maach

Tamasha - Maharashtra

y It originated from Gondhal, Jagran and Kirtan like folk forms.

y The female actor known as Murki plays the key role in the play. She remains the key exponent
of the dance movements.

y Portrayal of all the emotions is made possible through dance using classical music, footwork
at lightning speed, and vibrant signs used during this.

Fig. 10.38: Tamasha

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Dashavatar - Konkan and Goa

y In this dance form, 10 embodiments of Load Vishnu (the God of preservation and creativity)
are personified. These 10 incarnations are mentioned in Matsya Purana and include Matsya
(fish), Kurma (tortoise), Narsimha (lion-man), Varaha (boar), Vamana (dwarf), Parashuram,
Rama, Krishna (or Balram), Buddha and Kalki.

y Apart from stylised make-up, the Dashavatar performers wear masks of wood and papier
mache.

Fig. 10.39: Dashavatar

Krishnattam – Kerala

y It developed under the patronage of King Manavada of Calicut in mid-17th Century AD.

y It is a cycle of 8 plays performed for 8 days consecutively.

y Avataram, Rasa Krida, Kaliamandana, Kamasavadha, Swayamvaram, Bana Yudham, Vivida

Vadham, and Swargarohana are some key plays used.

y Episodes are based upon the themes of Lord Krishna which range from his birth, childhood
pranks and diverse deeds depicting victory of good over evil and the like.

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Fig. 10.40: Krishnattam

Mudiyettu – Kerala

y It is celebrated in the month of Vrischikam (which corresponds to November-December

of Gregorian calendar). It is performed only in the Kali temples of Kerala in the form of an
offering to her.

y It depicts the victory of goddess Bhadrakali over the Darika (an asura).

y Shiva, Darika, Narada, Danavendra, Bhadrakali, Kooli and Koimbidar (Nandikeshvara) are 7
characters in Mudiyettu all of which are greatly made up.

Fig. 10.41: Mudiyettu

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Theyyam – Kerala

y The word ‘Theyyam’ is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Daivam’ meaning God.

y Therefore it is known as dance of God.

y It is performed by different castes in an attempt to appease and worship spirits.

y Colourful costume and awe-inspiring headgears (known as mudi) nearly 5 to 6 feet high
made of arecanut splices, bamboos, leaf sheaths of arecanut and wooden planks and dyed
into different strong colours using turmeric, wax and arac are some of its defining features.

Fig. 10.42: Theyyam

Koodiyattam – Kerala

y It is based on traditions of Sanskrit theatre.

y Chakyaar or actor, Namblyaar, the Instrumentalists and Naangyaar, those taking on women’s
roles are some key characters of this theatre form.

y The Sutradhar (narrator) and the Vidushak (entertainers) remain its key players. The dialogues
are delivered by Vidushak only.

y It stresses upon hand gestures and eye movements which make this dance and theatre
from unique.

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Fig. 10.43: Koodiyattam

Karyali - Himachal Pradesh

y It confronts the serious query of life and death briefly and with simplicity of expression and
diction swathed in humour.

y Audience are given spirit of our cultural heritage of viewing the world as a stage and as an
insubstantial pageant which is to be negotiated and lived by rising above it.

y There is often stylistic diversity which makes it stand out from Swang, Nautanki, Bhagat etc.

Fig. 10.44: Karyali

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Fig. 10.45: Dance and Music Form

Indian Music y Vedas are like a treasure house of all ancient

Indian knowledge and culture. Sama Veda is
y India’s ancient literature (including
primarily considered the originator of Indian
Vedas, Agamas, Upanishad, Vayu Purana,
music.
Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata,
y Bharata Muni’s Natyashastra was the first-
Brihaddharma Purana and Shiksha granthas
ever comprehensive work that clearly
etc.) has priceless references to the basic
stated as well as consisted of detailed
principles of classical music like including 7
musicology. The book recognised 22 keys
swaras, 3 gramas, 3 layers (speeds), 9 rasas,
related to the octave; these 22 keys were
21 murchanas, 3 sthayis (octaves) and srutis
later known as shrutis or srutis. The classic
etc.
text in the field of music, the Sangeet

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Ratnakara, was written by Sarangdeva Dadra, ektal, rupak, jhaptal, teen-tal, as well
(a 13th-century musicologist). Sangeet as Adha-chautal are some of the numerous
Ratnakara recognised and described the different talas that are used & recognised.
various microtones and classified them
into different categories. Hindustani Music
y Matanga’s Brihaddeshi centred on the y Hindustani music (one among the two
definition of the word ‘raga’. Sangeeta distinct schools of Indian Classical Music) is
Makaranda, supported by Nanda, primarily practised in the Northern regions
enumerated 93 ragas and categorised of India.
them as feminine or masculine. Another y Carnatic music is another school of Indian
important book on musicology was classical music, which is mostly practised
Chaturdandiprakssika. This 17th Century in the regions of Southern India.
book was written by Venkatamakhi. y The historical roots of both forms of music
y Ramamatya printed Swaramela-Kalanidhi in styles can be found in the Bharata Muni’s
the 16th century. The seven notes that make Natyasastra, even though they diverged
the basic scale in music are sa (sadja), re after the fourteenth century.
(rsabha), ga(Gandhara), ma (madhyama), pa ⚪ Hindustani music puts more emphasis
(panchama), dha (dhaivata) and ni (nisada). on the musical structure as well as the
Besides the scale, there is the fundamental possibilities for improvisation.
classification of the ragas (the tunes), which y Hindustani music adopted the Shudha
is a series of five or more notes that create Swara Saptaka scale, furthermore known
a perfect melody. There are six basic ragas: as the ‘Octave of Natural Notes.’
Bhairava, Kaushika, Deepaka, Hindola, y Hindustani music incorporates an ancient
Sriraga and Megha. Others are called raginis form of Hindu tradition, and also Vedic
(the wives of the ragas, which are known philosophy, as well as Persian tradition.
as masculine). The ragas are categorised Different elements like Arab, Afghan, and
depending on the meticulous time of the Persian impacted it as well, giving the
day or the night when they are used. Hindustani music a new dimension.
y The tala (i.e. a rhythm) is still an essential y In ancient times, the Guru-Shishya
thing in the line of melody. Raga can be Parampara did serve as its conduit, and it
classified into different categories based on was then passed down through generations.
the number of notes in the raga: Audav or y Some of the most important musical
Odava Raga, Shadava Raga, and Sampurna instruments used in Hindustani music are
Raga. the tabla, sarangi, sitar, santoor, flute, and
y Raga Bhed or Raga is categorised into three violin.
types: Shudha Raag, Chayalag Raag, and y It is completely centred on the Raga system
Sankeerna Raga. Shuddha Raag’s nature (i.e. a melodic scale encompassing basic 7
and form do not vary; the nature and form notes) of music.
of Chhayalag Raag change while Sankeerna y Hindustani music focuses on the voice.
Raag combines together two or more ragas. ⚪ The khayal, dhrupad, ghazal, dhammar,
y Audav Raga is a ‘pentatonic’ raga, which thumri, and tarana are the main vocal
consists of five notes; Shadava Raga is a forms associated with Hindustani
‘hexatonic’ raga, which consists of six notes; classical music.
and Sampurna Raga is a ‘heptatonic’ raga, y The ten major styles of singing in Hindustani
which consists of seven notes. music are Dhrupad, Tappa, Khayal, Tarana,
y It is deemed to have more than 100 talas, Sargam, Chaturanga, Thumri and Ragasagar,
but only 30 talas are currently known to Hori, and Dhamar.
us, and only 10 to 12 talas are used today.

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3 Hindustani Music

Definition - Hindustani Music is one of the two discrete schools of

Hindustani Music
Indian Classical Music practised mainly in North India.

Features

Can be traced to the time of Tansen

Blend of Hindu, Vedic, and Persian tradition
Emphasise more musical structure and improvisation
Focus on the law of the octave
Passed in a guru-shishya Parampara
Vocal centric
Based on Raga System
Has the concept of time
Has 6 major ragas

Instruments used

Tabla Sarangi Sitar Flute Violin Santoor

Khayal

Meaning Stray thoughts or imagination

Romantic style of singing
Styles of Hindustani Music Composed in a particular raga and tala
Six gharana of Khayal

Gwalior (oldest)
Dhrupad Delhi
Patiala
Earliest and the grandest Agra
Poetic form Kirana
Involves variation of Raga Atrauli-Jaipur
Alap is the starting and the longest
Tarana
portion
It is declining
Rhythm and Melody are important
Uses fast tempo
Involves rhythmic manipulations
Fastest Tarana Singer – Pandit Ratan
Mohan Sharma

Hindustani Music 1
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Hindustani Music

Styles of Hindustani Music

Thumri Dadra

Originated in eastern UP. Close resemblance to Thumri

Romantic and erotic style of singing Have more than on Antara
Known as the lyric of Indian Classical Music
Mostly on love, separation and devotion Dhamar Hori
Lyrics in Braj bhasa
Last item of the Khayal Concert Like Dhrupad
Major Gharanas Specially linked to Lord Krishna
Specially associated with Janmas-
Benaras htami, Ram Navami and Holi
Lucknow
Patiala Ragasagar
Most famous singer – Begum Akhtar
Composed of different raga ~
Tappa
8 to 12
Fast, subtle and knotty construction Smooth music passage with
Folk song of camel riders the change of raga
Famous singers

Mian Sodi
Pt. Laxman Rao
Shanno Khurana
Ghazal

Poetic in nature
Started in Iran in 10 CE
Maximum of 12 ashaar or couplets
Sufi mystics spread it to entire south Asia
Famous singers

Amir Khusrau (first expounder)

Mirza Ghalib
Md. Iqbal
Hafez
Rumi
Kazi Nazrul Islam

Hindustani Music 2

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Various Styles in Hindustani Music at the moment.

Dhrupad Thumri
y Dhrupad is the earliest and most stunning y It first appeared in the eighteenth century
style of Hindustani vocal music. in the eastern parts of Uttar Pradesh (mainly
y It is primarily a form of poetry that is in regions of Lucknow & Benares).
included in an extended presentation style, y It is a romantic & erotic singing style known
and also it denotes an accurate & orderly as ‘the lyric of Indian classical music.’
expansion of a raga. y Love, separation, and devotion continue to
y Alap is the illustrative example that comes be central themes in its compositions.
before the composed verses and also is y The subjects (i.e. mostly erotic) are drawn
usually the longest part of the act. from Lord Krishna and Radha’s lives and are
y Since the 18th century, Dhrupad has been usually portrayed in an interesting way.
decadent. y Brij Bhasha lyrics are typically romantic and
religious.
Khayal y Thumri is typically performed as the final
y Khayal translates as ‘a stray thought’, ‘a item in a Khayal concert.
lyric’, and ‘an imagination.’ y Thumri has three major gharanas: Benaras,
y It’s also the most important genre of Lucknow, and Patiala.
Hindustani vocal music as well as it depicts y Begum Akhtar is a well-known Thumri
a romantic singing style. singer.
y Khayal is reliant on the performer’s
Tappa
imagination and improvisations.
y Khayal is written in a specific raga & tala y This particular style of music emphasises
and also has a brief text. rhythm, and its compositions are based
y The Khayal texts range from the king or on fast, subtle, and also on knotty
season praise to the season descriptions to constructions.
that of Lord Krishna’s pranks, divine love, y It evolved from the folk songs of camel
and separation sorrow. riders in the North-West region of India in
y Delhi, Patiala, Agra, Gwalior, Kirana, and the late 1800s AD.
Atrauli-Jaipur are the six major khayal y This style of music also makes excellent
gharanas. use of quick-expression changes.
y Because it is the oldest, the Gwalior y Some of its well-known performers usually
Gharana is deemed as the mother of all the involve Mian Sodi, Pandit Laxman Rao of
other gharanas. Gwalior, and Shanno Khurana.

Taranga Ghazal
y The importance of rhythm in this style y This style of music includes poetic
cannot be overstated. expressions of both the pain of loss as well
y The melody is also included in the structure. as separation and also the beauty of love in
y It includes a lot of words that are sung the face of that pain.
quickly. y It all started in Iran in the 10th century AD.
y Because of the rhythmic emphasis, singers y It never exceeds 12 ashaar or couplets.
must be skilled in rhythmic manipulation y It extended to South Asia in the 12th century
and also have received special training in as a result of the influence of Sufi mystics
this area. and also the courts of the new Islamic
y Pt. Rattan Mohan Sharma of the Mewati Sultanate.
Gharana is the world’s fastest Tarana Singer y The style of music was at its peak during

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the Mughal period. Carnatic Music

y Amir Khusrau was among the first to y Carnatic music gets its name from the
expound on the art of writing Ghazals. Sanskrit word Karnâtaka Sangîtam, which
y The famous Ghazal writers include Mirza also translates loosely as “traditional” or
Ghalib, Muhammad Iqbal, Hafez (of 14th “codified” music.
century), Rumi (of 13th century), Kazi Nazrul y It is made up of a Ragam (means Raga) and
Islam, and others. Thalam (means Tala) system and has a long
and distinguished history.
Dadra y The states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra
y This form of music has a striking Pradesh, and Karnataka are some of the
resemblance to Thumri. Southern Indian states where the Carnatic
y The texts of Dadra are as passionate as Sangeet has evolved.
Thumris’. y These particular states are well-known
y The main distinction is that Dadras have for their extensive production of Dravidian
more than one Antara, and the Dadra tala culture.
singers typically sing a Dadra after a Thumri.
Evolution of carnatic music
Dhamar-Hori y Throughout the evolution of Indian music,
y These are Dhrupad-like compositions, two distinct subsystems widely recognised
which are mostly associated with the Hindu as Hindustani & Carnatic music emerged.
Holi festival. y Both these terms first appeared in Haripala’s
y Compositions in this particular form praise “Sangeeta Sudhakara” (which was written
Lord Krishna. in the 14th Century AD).
y Music is performed in the dhamar tala and y These two particular styles of music (i.e.
is primarily used during festivals such as Hindustani & Carnatic music) became
Janmashthami, Ramnavami, along with very much popular following the arrival of
Holi. Muslims (more specifically during the reign
y In this, compositions depict the spring of Mughal Emperors).
season. y Purandardas (during 1484-1564), a prolific
y The compositions are based largely on the poet-composer as well as a mystic from
Radha-love Krishna’s pranks. Vijayanagar, is regarded as the father (or
Pitamaha) of Carnatic music.
Ragasagar y Venkatamakhi is regarded as Carnatic
y Ragasagar is a song composed of various music’s grand theorist.
musical passages from various ragas. y In the 17th century AD, he devised
y The compositions of this song contain 8 to “Melakarta” (it is the system for categorising
12 different ragas, with lyrics indicating the South Indian ragas). There are presently 72
raga change. Melakartas.
y The elegance of changing musical passages, y Tyagaraja (during 1767-1847), his
as well as the change of ragas, contribute contemporaries Syama Sastri, and
to the uniqueness of this style. Muttusvami Dikshitar comprise the “Trinity”
of Carnatic music.

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Carnatic Music

Carnatic Music

Features
Derived from the Sanskrit word “Karnataka Sangitam” (Traditional/Codified Music)
Have Ragam (Raga) and Thalam (Tala)
Belongs to the southern states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
Tyagaraja, Shyam Shastri and Muttasvami Dikshitar are known as the Trinity of
Carnatic Music.
Only one style of singing
Mostly indigenous
Has no concept of time
Evolution
Mentioned in Haripala’s “Sangeeta Sudhakara” of 14 CE
Vijayanagar mystic poet Purandardas is the father of Carnatic Music
The Grand Theorist of Carnatic music is Venkatamakhi

Styles of the Carnatic Music

Kriti
Gitam Developed from Kirtana
Simplest style The Raga Bhava is used
Pada
Suladi
Usually composed in Telugu and Tamil
Like Gitam Majorly used in dance forms
Have higher standards than Gitam Slow-moving
Varnam Javali

Combines all the characteristics Used in concerts and dances

Has attractive melodies
of the raga.
Sensuous in concept and spirit
Provide mastery over Raga, Tala
and Bhava. Thillana
Svarajati Corresponds to Tarana of Hindustani
music
Follows Gitam Short and crisp in composition
Provides a way to learn Varnams Mostly a dance form but can be used
Devotional, heroic or amorous in nature as the conclusion in music concerts
Jatisvarnam Pallavi
Like Svarajati. Most significant branch of Carnatic music
Has no Sahitya or Words A kind of manodharma sangeeta
Sung in solfa syllables only Depends upon the imaginative skill
Kirtanam and musical intelligence
Tanam
Has devotional content
Abounds in Bhakti Bhava A division of raga alapana
Used in congregational singing Sung in average speed (madhyamakala)
and individual presentation Perceptible rhythm is used
Most captivating part of raga exposition
Carnatic Music 1

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Different styles of carnatic music This form of music is sung in both concert
y Gitam: This is the most basic composition programmes as well as in dance concerts
style. This particular style of music is and also is praised for the attractive
taught to beginning musicians, and also melodies where it is written. In contrast to
its structure is very simple, with an easy & that padas, which mainly reveal divine love,
melodious rhythm of the music. javalis are sensual songs in concept as well
y Suladi: It is the musical structure & as in spirit.
arrangement are very similar to that of y Thillana: The Thillana is a short as well
gitam, however they adhere to a higher as a crisp variety that corresponds to the
standard than gitam. Tarana style of Hindustani music. It is
y Varnam: It is a remarkable work of musical mainly a dance form, and because of its
craftsmanship of the highest calibre that brisk & appealing music, this style of music
integrates all of the character traits of is occasionally performed as a concluding
the raga in which it is written. The singing piece at the time of music concerts.
practice in this music style improves a y Pallavi: It is a creative music branch of
musician’s presentation skills as well as manodharma Sangeeta. This style of music
gives him command of raga, tala, and bhava. allows a musician to demonstrate his/her
y Svarajati: This form of music learned after creative abilities, along with imaginative
taking a gitams course. It is more enigmatic vision and musical intelligence.
than the gitas, and it also serves as the y Tanam: In Madhyamakala, this is a division
foundation for learning the Varnams. The of raga alapana, or avg. speed. The Tanam
premise of this form of music can be singing is a captivating part of raga exposition
devotional, heroic, or romantic. because of its discernible rhythm as well as
y Jatisvaram: The musical structure of this the rhythmical flow of music, and elegant &
form of music is similar to svarajati, but it fascinating patterns.
contains no Sahitya or words. This is sung
entirely in solfa syllables. Folk Music
y Kirtanam: This style of music first appeared Baul, Wanawan, Pandwani, Alha, Paani Hari, Ovi,
in the second half of the fourteenth century. Pari Song, Lavani, Maand, Dandiya, Powada,
The devotional content of the Sahitya Khongjom Parva are some of the popular folk
garners praise. It utilises simple music as music of India.
well as contains a lot of Bhakti bhava. It is y Baul is both a religious sect and a folk
relevant for both the congregational singing music tradition.
and also focuses on individual presentation. y Wanawan is folk music that is sung at
y Kriti: It is a highly developed musical form wedding ceremonies in Kashmir.
or style that evolved from Kirtana. People y Pandwani is based on the religious scripture
strive for the highest level of aesthetic Mahabharata.
excellence in the case of Kriti composition. y Alha is widely known in Madhya Pradesh
The Theraga bhava manifests in all of its rich state and is sung in several languages, such
and varied colours in this style of music. as Braj, Awadhi, and even Bhojpuri.
y Pada: Padas are intellectual compositions y Paani Hari is Rajasthani folk music about
written in Telugu & Tamil languages. They those women who go and get water from
are primarily composed as dance forms, the nearby well and carry it back to their
but due to their musical excellence as well homes.
as aesthetic appeal, they are also sung in y Ovi, too, is the song of women and originated
concerts. The music involved in Pada is in the states of Maharashtra and Goa.
slow and dignified. y Pari Songs are mostly from Madhya Pradesh.
y Javali: It is a type of light classical music. y The Bhagwati, or emotional songs, are very

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prevalent among a huge number of people Gurdwaras in honour of the Sikh religious
in the states of Karnataka & Maharashtra. Gurus.
y Sugam Sangeet, which brings classical and y Qawwali is a style of devotional music in
folk together, has various subcategories. which the lyrics praise Almighty ‘Allah’,
Major subcategories are Bhajan, Shabad the Prophet Muhammad, or any other
and Qawwali. substantial Sufi or Islamic saint.
y Mirabai, Tulsidas, Surdas, Kabir were
the major exponents of Bhajan. Musical Music Instruments of India
instruments used in Bhajan comprise The Natya Shastra of Bharat Muni divides
chimta, dholak, dhapli, and manjira. musical instruments into 4 main categories
y Shabad is the devotional song sung in which are based on the way they produce
sound.

Fig. 10.46: Division of Musical Instruments in Natya Shastra

Sitar
y It is one of the most famous musical
instruments of North India and has a long
neck with 20 metal frets and 6 to 7 key
cords. Below the frets of the sitar, there are
13 sympathetic strings in the sitar that are
tuned to the Raga’s notes.
y A gourd remains at the lower end of the
sitar’s neck, serving as a resonator for the
strings.
y In order to regulate the notes, the frets in
the sitar are moved up and down.
y Some of the notable Sitar players include
Ustad Vilayat Khan, Ustad Imrat Khan,
Pandit Ravishankar, Ustad Rais Khan, Ustad
Abdul Halim Zaffar Khan, and Pandit Debu
Chowdhury.

Fig. 10.47: Sitar

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Sarod Flute
y The Sarod has a steel-covered fingerboard y The flute is a simple cylindrical tube with a
as well as a small wooden body wrapped uniform bore that has been associated with
in skin. that Indian music since ancient times.
y It has no frets, and 25 strings, 15 of which y Flutes come in a variety of sizes.
are sympathetic strings. y When playing the flute, it must be held
y In Sarod, a metal gourd serves as a resonator. horizontally as well as angled downwards.
y The triangular plectrum in Sarod is used to y To produce sound or melody, the finger
pluck the strings. holes are wrapped with the fingers of both
y Some well-known Sitarists include Ustad left & right hands.
Amjad Ali Khan, Ustad Ali Akbar Khan, Pt. y The pitch changes in the flute are produced
Buddhadev Das Gupta, Zarin Daruwalla, by varying the effective length of the air
and Brij Narayan. column.
y Some prominent Flute players include
Sarangi Pandit Pannalal Ghosh and Pandit Hari
y This particular instrument is one of India’s Prashad Chaurasia.
most well-known and oldest bowed
instruments.
y The hollow body of Sarangi is made up of
teak wood and also is decorated with ivory
inlays.
y The instrument is made up of 40 strings, 37
of which are sympathetic.
y The Sarangi is held vertically and also is
played with a bow.
y To perform with the Sarangi, the left hand’s
Fig. 10.49: Flute
fingernails of the individual must be pressed
against the strings.
y Some prominent Sarangi players include Shehnai
Rehman Bakhs, Ghulam Sabir, Pandit Ram
y The Shehnai is a traditional style of musical
Narayan, and Ustad Sultan Khan.
instrument that is played at any auspicious
occasions such as weddings & Temple
processions.

Fig. 10.48: Sarangi Fig. 10.50: Shehnai

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y The Shehnai is a double-reed musical y The Pakhawaj is a barrel-shaped drum with

instrument with a tapering bore, which two layers of skin on the head.
gradually increases towards the bottom. y The leather straps that run along the sides
y The Shehnai consists of finger holes for of Pakhawaj’s body over the small cylindrical
creating semi-tones, quarter-tones, and wooden blocks used for tuning enlarge the
micro-tones. heads of Pakhawaj.
y Ustad Bismillah Khan was Shehnai’s
unrivalled genius. Harmonium
y The Harmonium is a traditional and very
Tabla well Indian musical instrument.
y The tabla is a very well musical instrument y The Harmonium consists of a keyboard
in the Northern region of India. with over two and also half-octaves, and it
y The tabla includes two drums and the operates via bellows.
Bayan. y The right hand of a person is used to play
y The tabla is made of wood, and also the the keyboard, while the person’s left-hand
head is made of animal skin. controls the bellows.
y In Northern parts of India, Harmonium is
more well-known compared to Southern
India.

Fig. 10.51: Tabla

y The tabla tuning is improved by striking the

rim of the instrument with a small hammer. Fig. 10.52: Harmonium
y The Bayan of Tabla is the bass drum, which
is typically made from metal, and it also
has a stretched skinhead. Jalatharangam
y The manganese or iron dust is used to y Jaltarangam has a collection of eighteen
create the black spot in the centre of the porcelain cups in various sizes.
drums of tabla. y In the decreasing order of size, the cups are
positioned in a semi-circle in front of the
Pakhawaj performer.
y The tabla is thought to have evolved from y The largest cup among all other cups is
the Pakhawaj. still on the performer’s left, whereas the
y The Pakhawaj is a musical instrument that smallest is on his right.
is typically used to accompany Dhrupad- y The cups are filled with water, and also the
style singing. pitch is distorted by ranging the amount of

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water in the cup. a ridge.

y The two thin bamboo sticks are often used y The instrument is primarily made of clay
to strike the cups of Jaltarangam. baked with that of the brass or copper
filings as well as a trace of iron filings.
Mridangam y The Ghatam generates a rapid rhythmic
y The Mridangam is a famous classical pattern.
instrument in Southern India. y This particular instrument is typically used
y The instrument is used to accompany vocal, as a secondary percussion instrument in
instrumental, as well as dance routines. order to accompany the persons’ who play
y The present Mridangam instrument is made Mridangam.
from a single block of wood.
y The body of Mridangam has a barrel-shaped
double-headed drum with a smaller right
head than compared to a larger left head.
y The two heads of the instrument have
finished skin layers.

Fig. 10.53: Mridangam Fig. 10.54: Ghatam

Ghatam Conclusion
y The Ghatam is a classical musical
India has a rich culture of music, theatre and
instrument, which is one of Southern India’s
dance. The government comes up with schemes
oldest drumming instruments.
and initiatives to preserve and enhance and
y The shape of Ghatam has a mud pan with a
promote the rich culture of arts. India is faring
small mouth.
well in propagating this art in the whole world
y From its mouth, it slopes upwards to form
by having people of diaspora take the lead.

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11 Indian Paintings and Murals

Introduction
The Sadanga translated means:
Painting is a form of art that gives the painter
Every great Indian masterpiece is a result
a way to express his emotions and thoughts
of the six Sadanga principles. From Ajanta
through line and colour. This makes it one of the
Rock paintings to the modern paintings
most distinctly human artwork. Thousands of
of Raja Ravi Verma and Hussain, all
years before, a cave-dwelling man painted his
noteworthy artists have made use of
rock shelters to meet his sense of aesthetics
the six principles. A true artist is one
and creative urge. This reflects the love for
who understands these prime principles
painting and design that has been deeply
holistically.
ingrained in us from time immemorial.
From the prehistoric period, painting has been
practised in India. The painting history with
rock paintings and carried through pottery, Rupabheda
textiles, miniature paintings and finally ends y Roopbheda refers to the knowledge of
up with modern paintings. The range in the appearances. The term ‘Roopa’ means the
style of paintings is very diverse in parts of the exterior or external appearance of a subject.
country, indicating the diversity in culture and y Visual and mental perceptions combine to
livelihood being the themes of paintings and form the term ‘Bheda’. In order to create
later dominated by spirituality. In India, two of a painting, an artist should have a deep
the main influences have been roots in history, understanding of the diverse forms that
culture, and foreign races. There are four major exist. It is important to understand how
religions, namely Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, one form of life differs from another. Their
and Jainism. In India, paintings portray the sublimity and distinct features are both
spiritual essence, the highest ideals, and equally compelling.
universal values.
Pramanam
Types of Paintings y Pramanani denotes the precision of
measurement and structure. One can
‘Six Limbs’ of Indian Painting prove the accuracy of our experience and
y The word ‘Sadanga’ consists of two words; circumscription through the application of
‘shad’ means six, and the other is ‘anga’, certain laws.
which means part. In the 1st century BC, y ‘Pramamani’ measures the exact distance,
the Indian culture became famous for the proportion and measure of each subject as
“Sadanga” or the “Six Limbs” of art, still well as provide an overview of the structural
considered to be the prime principles of anatomy of objects.
the craft.
Bhava
y Bhava refers to an emotion, an idea, or an
intention. An artist depicts this feature of
“Roopabhedah pramanani bhava- art through the feeling of the subject. Any
lavanya-yojanam. painting from an online Indian art gallery is
Sadrishyam varnakabhangam iti chitram incomplete without a bhava.
shadakam”.

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Lavanya yojanam ⚪ Upper

y Lavanya Yojanam is a combination of grace y There have been no paintings found from the
and artistic expression. Pramanani is about lower or middle Palaeolithic period yet, but
proportions, while Bhava is about feelings. in the Upper Palaeolithic period, there have
Lavanya on the other hand aims to control been a number of artistic manifestations.
both; it is all about giving rise to beauty Early works focus on simplistic human
with a dignified and systematic approach. features, their daily activities, generic and
crude geometric shapes, and symbols.
Sadrisyam y Remnants of rock paintings in India have
y Among all, this form of painting is the been found on the walls of caves situated
most difficult to make. Sadrisyam means in the Northern states of Bihar, Uttar
resemblance, it helps in the understanding Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Uttarakhand and
the extent to which a depiction is close to the Southern state of Telangana, Andhra
an artist’s vision. Pradesh, Karnataka.
y Some examples of early rock painting sites
Varnaka bhanga are Lakhudiyar in Uttarakhand, Piklihal
y Varnakabhangam refers to methods in and Tekkalkotta in Karnataka, Kupgallu
which a subject is drawn and coloured in Telangana Bhimbetka and Jogimara in
using brushes and pigments. The term Madhya Pradesh etc.
means that pigments and brushes are used ⚪ Paintings found here are divided into
to finish the work. This principle stresses three categories: man, animal, and
the ways in which strokes are applied to geometric symbols.
a canvas and the artist’s experience with y The two magnificent sites of prehistoric
different colours. paintings in India:
⚪ Bhimbetka Caves is located in the
Prehistoric Paintings Foothills of Vindhya, Madhya Pradesh.
⚪ Jogimara caves in Amarnath, Madhya
y The categorisation of drawings and
Pradesh.
paintings has been done broadly into the
⚪ In Bhimbetka, 20 layers of paintings are
following periods: Palaeolithic, Mesolithic
found, one on top of another.
and Chalcolithic.
y General features of prehistoric paintings
⚪ Art of the Prehistoric Era consists of
(from the study of bhimbetka paintings):
the art of the Paleolithic Age, Mesolithic
⚪ Used various colours, including white,
Age, and Chalcolithic Age (mostly rock
yellow, brown, orange, red ochre, purple,
art).
green and black.
y In terms of prehistoric human evolution,
⚪ But white and red seemed to be the
the Old Stone Age or Paleolithic period is
favourite.
generally known.
⚪ The paints were made by grinding
⚪ Until prehistoric sites began to be
various coloured rocks.
excavated, scholars had difficulty
⚪ Red colour extracted from hematite
imagining how Prehistoric people lived.
(Geru in India).
y Painting and drawing were the earliest
⚪ Brushes are made from plant fibre.
art forms used by humans to express
themselves with cave walls as their canvas. Wall Paintings or Mural Paintings
y The Paleolithic period is divided into three
phases: y The mural is derived from the Latin word
⚪ Lower ‘Murus’, which means wall. Murals are
⚪ Middle noteworthy as they bring art into a large
public sphere because they are put up on

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a large wall and, thus, an effective tool for

social emancipation. Murals could add to
the scenic beauty of a place where they are
painted.
y Mural Painting in India began from around
the 2nd Century BC to the 10th Century
AD. They were rock-cut chambers; they
also originated in natural caves. Examples
of mural paintings include Ajanta caves,
Jogimara Caves etc. In India, they are of
steep size, found in Ajanta, Ellora, caves,
Temple walls, etc.

Nayaka Murals Fig. 11.1: Nayaka Paintings of South India

y South Indian paintings of the last three

centuries have survived to a certain. Both Ajanta Cave Paintings
Madurai and Thanjavur have paintings
y It dates to the 4th Century BC and was
of the Nayak phase equally precious as
rediscovered in 1819 in Aurangabad.
the paintings of the Vijayanagara era.
y They are horseshoe-shaped caves.
Apart from Vijayanagara paintings, traces
y Theme: They are basically Buddhist in
of Nayaka paintings can be found at
theme and carved on a perpendicular cliff.
Thiruparuthikundram. The majority of the
y Composition: There are 4 Chaityas and 25
Nayaka paintings date from the 16th century,
Viharas. Hence in Ajanta, there are a total
and a few others are from the 17th century.
of 29 caves.
y Depiction in nayaka paintings: Nayaka
y It signifies the social fabric along with
paintings depict scenes from the life of
costumes and ornaments.
Rishabhadeva, the first Tirthankara of
y Birds and animal figures can be found here
Vardhamana, of Krishna, Neminatha’s cousin,
in these paintings.
and Neminatha himself. The paintings in
y Female figures had distinctive hairstyles.
Chidambaram are a graphical presentation
y Red ochre was in outline, whereas the
in a long series with minute labels in Tamil
contours had brown, black etc.
that have details regarding each painting.
y The Bodhisattvas are painted upon the
Labels like these can be seen in Tiruvallur
walls of Ajanta.
paintings, and similar labels can be found
y An ancient tradition of painting is recognised
in Chidambaram paintings.
as the Chitrasutra of the Vishnudharmottara
Purana.

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y These are the largest rock-cut paintings

with 34 caves.
y It has inclinations toward Buddhism,
Hinduism, and Jainism.
y There are five caves in total.
y Kailash Temples are one of them.
y Shiva is depicted in many forms.
y Vishnu, Laxmi, Garuda are found too.

Bagh Cave Paintings

y It is an extension of Ajanta school, found
mainly in Madhya Pradesh.
y There are nine rock-cut caves.
y These are more earthly, humane, and tightly
modelled.
y These are worldly paintings more willingly
than any spiritual or religious theme.
Fig. 11.2: Padmapani, Ajanta Caves
y Reddish-brown gritty and thick mud and
plaster are found in these paintings.
y Lime priming is also found.
y Buddhist paintings and jataka tales are also
found.
y Paintings are both secular and religious.

Fig. 11.3: King Janaka and his Wife

Ellora Cave Paintings

Fig. 11.5: Bodhisattva, Bagh Caves

Fig. 11.4: Cave Painting of Ellora

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Fig. 11.6: Other Cave paintings of Bagh Caves

Fig. 11.8: Lepakshi Paintings

Sittanavasal Caves
Ravan Chhaya Paintings
y These are found in Tamil Nadu.
y Jain Temples are the main features here. y Found in Odisha.
y Vegetable and mineral dyes are used. y Shadow of Ravana is made here.
y Caves were found during the Pallava period. y Half opened umbrella shapes can be found.
y A royal hunting lodge can be seen.
y It was done during the Chola period.
y The Royal procession can be found here.

Badami Mural Paintings

y A cave site in Karnataka.
y Patronised by the Chalukya king, Manglesha.
y Because of its Vaishnava affiliation, the
cave is known as the Vishnu cave.

Miniature Paintings
y Miniature paintings are described as small
and detailed paintings. These paintings
Fig. 11.7: Sittanavasal Cave Painting, Tamil Nadu
are handmade, small-sized, very colourful
paintings. The primary characteristic of
Lepakshi Paintings these Miniature paintings is that they
incorporate complex and gentle brushwork,
y Found in Karnataka.
which gives them a unique character.
y These paintings belonged to the Vijayanagara
y A variety of colours were used in different
period and are the largest in Asia.
characters, and a variety of paint bases
y The absence of the primary colours can be
were used, including paper, cloth, palm
seen here.
leaves, etc., on which the human figures
y Black outlined costumes were used.
were painted.
y The tradition of Indian miniature painting
can be traced to the palm-leaf manuscript
of the 9th- 10th century in the Buddhist
Pala period in eastern India and western
India in the Jaina palm-leaf manuscript.
Miniature painting was greatly influenced

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by the entrance of Muslims. Western Indian School of Painting

⚪ Key characteristics of miniature y Also known as Jaina Painting, it primarily
paintings vary from region to region, but relates to Jaina religious texts of the 12th–
they all exhibit earth tones, the absence 16th century.
of primary colours, and detached y Important sites of this school are present in
appearances. Gujarat, Rajasthan and Malwa.
⚪ Sultanate bourgeois school of y Some of the important features of this
manuscripts emerged during the Lodi school are a solid, angular drawing, simple,
period (1451- 1526 AD). An illustrated bright colours, and highly conventionalised
manuscript representing the Sultanate figures.
style can be found in the manuscript.
The Mughal era (1526- 1757 AD)
witnessed the gradual evolution of
miniature paintings when studios were
established at the Imperial court.

Eastern India: The Pala School

(11th – 12th Century)
The pala school (11th – 12th century)
y The Palas of Bengal were the founders of
miniature paintings in India.
y It exists in the form of designs to religious
texts on Buddhism executed under the rule
of Palas of Eastern India and the Jains texts
executed in Western India.
y The Buddhist monasteries of Odantapuri,
Vikramshila, Nalanda, and Somarupa were
great Buddhist learning and art hubs.
y This region’s Buddhist centres produced
a large number of palm-leaf manuscripts
focused on Buddhist themes.
y There are sinuous lines in the Pala painting,
and the colours are muted. Fig. 11.10: Jaina Paintings From Western India

Apabhramsa school
y This school of painting was in Gujarat
and Mewar Region during the 11th to 15th
centuries.
y Initially, the painting was done on Palm
leaves, but it shifted to paper after some
time.
y The lack of natural scenes, angular faces,
bulging eyes and margins are important
Fig. 11.9: The Green Tara, Pala School elements of this school of painting.

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Delhi Sultanate Period (13th – 16th AD) Deccan school

y Despite Islamic injunctions against y The Deccani Paintings emerged with the
anthropomorphic figures, Delhi Sultanate main centres at Ahmednagar, Golkonda,
patronised artistic work and painting. We Bijapur, and subsequently Hyderabad. It
see the fusion of Indigenous and Persian evolved in the second half of the 16th
elements in this period. century.
⚪ Delhi Sultanate paintings are inspired ⚪ Most painters working at these courts
by Indian traditions: groups of people came from Anatolia (Turkey), Persia and
standing in rows and identical poses, Europe. The Deccani artists introduced
narrow bands of decoration running art styles and skills that their lands
across the width of the painting, and had acquired by then. Because of this,
bright and unusual colours. Deccani art developed into a mature
y Examples can be found as early as the 15th form, refined in subtlety, and of
century, including a copy of the Shahnama comparable merit to Mughal art.
or Book of Kings, produced by Lodi rulers. y Bijapur was the major centre of the school,
The images in this work of art are remarkably which rose to prominence under Ibrahim
similar to contemporary Jain paintings. Adil Shah. Although contemporary to the
Additionally, the Khamseh (“Quintet”) of Mughal Style, this painting style continued
Amir Khosrow of Delhi, the Bostan painted in to grow independently in the beginning.
Mandu, and the Ne’mat-nameh manuscript ⚪ Primary patrons of this school were
commissioned by a sultan of Malwa in the Ahmednagar Bijapur Golconda Qutb
16th century deserve great attention. The Shahi rulers. To name, ‘Lady with the
drawings of the Ne’matnameh manuscript Myna bird’ and the ‘Lady smoking
are rooted in the Turkmen style of Shiraz Hookah’ are some important works from
but show clear Indian features adapted this school.
from the local design of the western Indian ⚪ Gold colour used generously.
style.

Ahmednagar Bijapur

Hussain Nizam Shah I of Ahmednagar was the Ali Adil Shah I and his successor Ibrahim II were
main patron the main patrons
‘Tarif-i-Hussain Shah’ is significant manuscript Najum-al-ulum (Stars of Sciences) is a major
Exhibited Persian influences like the landscape, work
gold sky and high horizon Gold colour used generously

Deccan Paintings

Golconda Hyderabad

Qutb Shahi rulers were the main patrons Emerged during late 18th century under the
‘Lady with the Myna bird’ and the ‘Lady smoking Asaf Jah Dynasty
Hookah’. are its notable works :Princes in the company of maids” is a famous
painting

Fig. Schools of Deccan

11.11: Schools Paintings
of Deccan Paintings

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Mughal Paintings (16th – 19th century) y Open-air paintings along with trees and
As the nomenclature suggests, Mughal blossoms and royal merrymaking, which
paintings developed during the Mughal Empire depicts the ancestral representatives of the
(16th - 19th centuries) purely as Court Art. Its Mughal Empire, were major themes during
growth was affected due to the patronship and Humayun’s reign. The essential features
enthusiasm of the ruler. such as figures, format, colour palette and
theme are remarkably Persian.
Babur
Akbar
y Babur set up a tradition of keeping memoirs,
and the variety of albums and books created y A combination of Persian, Indian, and
in the royal ateliers were calligraphed and European art was born in 1556 with Akbar’s
painted. arrival in his father’s footsteps. Workshops
y Among the artists mentioned in Babur’s (Karkahnas) were set as collaborative
memoirs is Bihzad (master artist from enterprises comprising papermakers,
the Persian school of painting). Bihzad’s calligraphers, illuminators, gilders,
art was dainty; however, he did not draw illustrators, and binders. These were
the faces properly; he used to lengthen supervised by a master.
the double chin (ghab-ghab) considerably; y Many painting projects were commissioned
and drew bearded faces admirably. Along by Akbar from 1560 to 1580. Tutinama,
with Bihzad, the name Shah Muzaffar also which means ‘Tales of a Parrot’, is a 52-
finds mention as a great painter, who Babur part episodic Persian short story. It was
thought excelled and did very well in the commissioned by Akbar as one of his
depiction of hairstyle. first projects. “Hamzanama,” which Akbar
commissioned as his second major project
Humayun (continuation of his father’s creative and
y During his exile in Shah Tahmasp’s (Safavid artistic legacy of Hamza Nama) narrated the
Persian ruler) Court, Humanyun experienced legend of Amir Hamza. They were painted
the superb artistic tradition of Miniature on cloth, and were large, measuring 20” x
Paintings and Manuscripts. 27”, with dominant colours of red, blue, and
y When Humayun re-captured his throne green.
by defeating the Suri ruler, he brought y Akbar’s other famous paintings include
two great artists Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus ‘Gulistan’, ‘Darab Nama’, ‘Khamsa of
Samad. These two great artists, with their Nizami’, ‘Baharistan’, etc. The famous work
great learnings from the Persian court, ‘Gulistan’, the masterpiece of Saadi Shirazi,
were responsible for establishing the first was created at Fatehpur Sikri.
workshop of painting in India. y Sayyid Ali, Khwaja Abdus Samad, Baswan
y He established the Nigaar Khana (painting and Daswanth were the most prominent
workshop), which was also an element of artists.
his library. Not much is known related to
the composition and size and composition
of Humayun’s workshop in India.

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y Jahangir employed Aqa Riza, a renowned

Iranian painter and his son Abul Hasan to
attain unmatched elegance in the painting.
y The Muraqqas individual paintings to be
displayed in albums became popular under
the patronage of Jahangir.

Fig. 11.12: Mughal painting under Akbar

Jahangir Fig. 11.13: Mughal painting under Jahangir

y During the reign of Jahangir, the Mughal

painting reached its pinnacle. He himself Shah jahan (1627–1658)
was a well-known painter. He always
y Shahjahan continued the legacy of Jahangir
encouraged painters, especially in the area
and patronised painting. During his reign,
of portraits and durbar scenes.
the aesthetics of Mughal painting was the
⚪ Since Jahangir was highly influenced
prime focus, which greatly contributed
by European painting, painters were
to the development of Mughal paintings.
generally instructed to follow the single
However, the paintings suffered due to
point perspective used by European
Aurangzeb’s distaste for fine arts.
artists.
⚪ ‘Jahangirnama’, an autobiography of
Jahangir, consists of several paintings.
It included some unusual themes, such
as fights between spiders.

Fig. 11.14: Schools of Rajasthani Paintings

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Malwa Paintings (17th century) to modern style. Rajput painting is further

y These paintings are mainly centred in Malwa separated into Rajasthani painting and
and Bundelkhand regions. Pahari painting (the art of the Himalayan
y It is sometimes referred to as a Central kingdoms).
Indian painting due to its geographical y These take inspiration from the Indian
distribution. tradition of Puranas, epics, songs and
y Figures are displayed on solid colour folklore.
patches with black and chocolate-brown y Mughal artists of lower merit with less utility
backgrounds and lively architecture. to the Mughal court migrated to Rajasthan.
y This school’s most attractive features are
its primitive charm and a simple childlike Kishangarh Paintings (18th century)
vision. y Individualism and religious intensity
separate it from other groups.
Rajput Painting (16th – 19th Century) y In the 1748-1757 AD period, it was
y This is the art of the Hindu feudal states of commissioned by Raja Savant Singh by
India. Nihal Chand, a master artist.
y Rajput art relates to traditional Indian y Synthesis of Mughal and local style.
painting, unlike Mughal art, which relates y The Kishangarh school is known for its Bani
Thani paintings.

Fig. 11.15: Bani Thani, Kishangarh School

Mewar (Udaipur) Paintings y An earliest dated instance of a set of

(17th –18th century) Ragmala (musical modes) paintings dating
y The design is well known for its bold, back to 1605. It contains portraits and
contrasting colours and emotional appeal. details of the ruler’s life as well as religious
themes.

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Bundi Paintings (Late 17th century)

y The style of this painting was very similar to
that of the Mewar’s, but it was much better
in quality.
y This painting is distinguished by its vibrant,
rich colours, a golden sun rising, a crimson-
red horizon, and a brilliant red border (in
the Rasikapriya series).
y Examples include Bhairavi Ragini (Allahabad
Museum), a manuscript of Bhagavata Purana
illustrated with colour (Kota Museum) and
the Rasikapriya series (National Museum,
New Delhi).

Fig. 11.16: Ragamala, Asawari Ragini

Marwar (Jodhpur) Paintings

y Performed in a primitive and energetic folk
style.
y They are not influenced by the Mughal style
of paintings.
y It primarily portrays court scenes and also
a series of Ragamala and Baramasa.

Fig. 11.18: Bundi School of Paintings

Fig. 11.17: Marwar (Jodhpur) Paintings

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Kota Paintings (18th – 19th century) y In the nice oblong format, there’s usually
y Very similar to the Bundi style of paintings. some architectural detail separate from the
y A tiger and a bear are prominent themes in picture space, often breaking through the
this painting. typical red border.
y The hilly jungle occupies much of the y The large, intense eyes dominate the
painting’s space. stylised facial type, shown in the profile.

Fig. 11.19: Maharana Ram Singh II playing Holi, Rajput

miniature, Kota

The Pahari Schools (17th – 19th century)

y The paintings in the region of sub-
Himalayan states of Himachal Pradesh and
Jammu and Kashmir, which were in the
patronage of Mughals, are called the Pahari
Paintings. Because of the family relations
of the Rajput kings of Rajasthan with the
Pahari Rajas, these paintings were deeply
influenced by the Rajput style of paintings.
y It flourished in the 17th and 19th centuries,
and paintings that were associated with it
can be divided into two major categories,
those that reflect the Basholi and Kullu
Fig. 11.20: Basohli Paintings
style and those that reflect the Guler and
Kangra style.
Guler Painting (Jammu)
Basohli Paintings (17th – 18th century)
y It mainly consists of portraits of Raja
y It is known for its courageous vitality of
Balwant Singh of Jasrota (Jammu) designed
colour, lines and red borders.
by Nainsukh.
y Emotional scenes from a text known as
y In contrast to Basohli school, these colours
“Rasamanjari” Krishna legend.
are cool and soothing.

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y Naturalistic paintings of the Mughals may They are usually boldly drawn and feature
have influenced the style. dark and dull tones.

Fig. 11.21: Guller Paintings

Kangra Painting (Late 18th Century)

y The Kangra style is expanded out of
the Guler style and possesses its main
characteristics, like the delicacy of drawing
and naturalism.
y There are various places where the Kangra
style thrives, such as Kangra, Guler, Basohli,
Chamba, Jammu, Nurpur and Garhwal etc.
y Still named Kangra style, they are identical
to the portraits of the Raja Sansar Chand
of Kangra.
y Women in profile have a narrow chin, long
and narrow eyes, and a nose nearly in line
with the forehead.
y The hair is only represented as a flat mass
since no figures are modelled.
y Nainsukh is mainly responsible for the
Kangra style of painting.

Kullu-Mandi Painting
y Folk paintings in the Kulu-Mandi area are
predominantly coloured in dark, dull tones Fig. 11.22: Kullu-Mandi Painting
and are often influenced by local tradition.

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Miniature Paintings in South India y Styles characterised by delicate lines, the

use of subtle colours, graceful delineations,
Tanjore painting luscious gold leaf, and complicated
y A style of painting emerged during the 18th brushstrokes are typical for this style.
and 19th centuries with characteristics y Many literary pieces were organised, and
such as bold drawing, shading, and the the most famous was Sritattvanidhi, a
use of bright colours thrived at Tanjore. A voluminous 1500-page work.
typical example of this painting style lies y These paintings were made in a diverse
in the collections of the National Museum style using gesso paste, which used to be
in which the coronation of Rama is shown. prepared by mixing Zinc Oxide with the
Rama and Sita are sitting on the throne, Arabic Gum.
listened to by his brothers, rishis, princes,
Folk Paintings
courtiers, along with Hanuman and Sugriva,
who is being honoured. y A common element of folk art is the use of
y Tanjore miniature paintings are often vibrant colours and natural materials.
characterised by a conical crown. y They have existed since ancient times, and
y The paintings are exclusive because they the styles and patterns have a vast diversity
are generated on glass and board, unlike in various regions of the country.
cloth and vellum in North India. y Most folk paintings are symbolic
y There is still such a school of painting in representations, and the subject varies
operation today. from region to natural things and day-to-
day activities.

Kalighat Paintings (Kolkata – 19th century)

y Patua painters from rural Bengal came and
settled in Kalighat to make images of Gods
and Goddesses in the early 19th century.
y The artists came up with a quick way to
paint on mill-made paper.
y The lampblack was used to paint with
brush and ink.

Fig. 11.23: Tanjore Painting

Mysore painting
y It was supported by the rulers of Mysore
and continued in British India also, and the
main themes include the depiction of Hindu
God and Goddesses. Fig. 11.24: Kalighat Paintings

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Madhubani Paintings (Mithila – Bihar) Phad Paintings (Bhilwara, Rajasthan)

y These colourful images on the interior walls y The Phad represents stories about local
of homes on rituals and festivity are painted deities and legendaries of epic dimensions.
by women. y These scrolls are transmitted on the
y This ancient custom has continued till shoulders of Bhopas (local priests) from
today. village to village as part of a performance.
y It is used to paint the walls of a room where y A moving shrine is regarded as an object
the newlywed couple first meets, called of worship and is a representation of the
KOHBAR GHAR. deity.
y Very theoretical; first, the painter thinks y Most recognised and largest Phad – local
and then “draws her thought”. deities Devnarayanji and Pabuji.

Kalamkari Paintings (Andhra Pradesh)

y The literal meaning is painting done by
kalam (pen), mostly in Andhra Pradesh
(developed under Vijayanagara rulers).
y There are narratives that are common to
the epics, i.e., the Ramayana, Mahabharata,
and Puranas.
y Each scene is surrounded by floral
decorative patterns in order to decorate the
Temple interiors.
y Two distinct styles of Kalamkari design in
India:
⚪ The Masulipatnam style of Kalamkari
painting is influenced and inspired by
Persian art. The various motifs utilised
are flowers, trees and leaf patterns
printed using blocks.
⚪ The Srikalahasti style Kalamkari painting
flourished and grew around Temples with
Hindu patronage; therefore, it has an
almost religious identity. The pen (kalam)
is utilised for freehand drawing, and
filling in the colours is finished by hand.
Fig. 11.25: Madhubani Paintings

Fig. 11.26: Phad Paintings

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y Pattachitra: It is practised in Odisha.

Painting is done on canvas.
y Thangka
⚪ Location: Sikkim.
⚪ Cotton canvas as the base.
⚪ Influence of Buddhism.
⚪ Use of different colours for different
scenes.
⚪ Noticeable by rich, colourful motifs and
designs.
⚪ Frequently mythological depiction.
y Kalamezhuthu
⚪ Practised in Kerala.
⚪ Kerala features groves and Temples that
practice ritualistic art.
⚪ It is upon the floor that deities like Kali
and Lord Ayyappa demonstrate their
Fig. 11.27: Kalamkari Paintings power.
y Manjusha
⚪ Location: Bihar.
Warli Painting
⚪ Also called Snake painting (use of snake
y Performed in tribal regions of Maharashtra motifs).
with subjects predominantly secular. ⚪ Paintings were performed on jute and
y An intricate, central motif is surrounded paper.
by images of hunting, farming, fishing,
festivals, dances, trees, flora, and fauna
scenes depicting the activities, events, and
objects of their everyday lives.
y They are used to decorate the walls and
floors of homes, Churches and Temples
belonging to the ‘Gond’ and ‘Kol’ tribes.
y They are modelled by geometric shapes like
triangles, squares, and circles.
y Unlike other tribal art forms, this painting
does not occupy religious iconography and
is more secular.

Fig. 11.29:Manjusha Paintings

Modern Painting

Bengal School of Painting/Renaissance

School/the Revivalist School
y The Bengal School of Painting was founded
by Abanindranath Tagore and Havell with
the main purpose of reviving lost values,
Fig. 11.28: Warli Painting which were contrary to the authority of

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western art. y Ajanta pictures were depicted elegantly

y Based on limited Indian tradition. here.
y It broke away from the Raja Ravi Verma y It had an influence on Mughal and Rajasthani
art of paintings as it was made in western schools.
styles. y Arabian Nights series of Abanindranath
Tagore (1930) are among his renowned
works.
y Other well-known painters such as Nandlal
Bose, Jamini Roy, Sarada Charan Ukil, Devi
Prasad Roy, and Asit Kumar Haldar also
belonged to this school.
y The abstract movement is characterised by
painters like V. S. Gaitonde, Balraj Khanna
and J. Swaminathan.
y Other big names in India’s contemporary art
scene include Gulam Muhammad Sheikh
(The Figure with Bird), Tyeb Mehta (St
Francis and the Wolf), and Akbar Padamsee
(The Woman).
y The names of Arpana Caur, B. Prabha, Kamala
Das, Anjolie Ela Menon, and Lalitha Lajmi
may be mentioned among the fashionable
modernist women painters of India.
y South India saw the propagation of good
painters like K. C. S. Pannikker, K. Madhava
Fig. 11.30: Bengal School of Painting Menon, L. Narasimhamurty, etc.

y Based on historical and religious subjects, Rabindranath Tagore

social and daily life scenes. y Graphic paintings were his main themes.
y The shades were light in colour. y Paintings made by him were small.

Fig. 11.31: Paintings by Rabindranath Tagore

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y Simple and bold forms can be witnessed in there are often influences from Western
his paintings. styles, as well.
y Landscape subjects were used. y After India’s economic liberalisation in the
y Highly imaginative and creative works. 1990s, new concepts were introduced by
y Paintings directly linked with his writings. artists outside of previous academic traditions.
y Black ink was used for paintings. A new genre of art called Pseudorealism
was introduced by artist Devajyoti Ray, in
The Major Characteristic of Contemporary which there was a use of offbeat colours and
Indian Painting (1947) Onwards abstract shapes to create imagery depicting
y Bengal school of art: This art school, regular scenes of Indian life.
toward the end of the 19th century, helped
reconnect Indian artists with their heritage
and helped to pave the path for the
modernist movement.
⚪ At the end of the 19th century, traditional
Indian paintings were replaced by
Western and colonial influences until
the Bengal School of Art, founded by E.
B. Havell and Abanindranath Tagore.
⚪ This school did a great deal to pave the
way for the future modernist movement
to reshape contemporary taste by
drawing inspiration from the past and
carrying awareness of the heritage of
Indian artists.
y Post-independence indian art: The
Progressive Artists Group was formed in 1947,
shortly after India gained independence,
which profoundly altered Indian art.
⚪ India had a number of schools of art by
the time it gained independence in 1947,
which had introduced the country to Fig. 11.32: F. N. Souza – Balzac etcetera, 1971: Artist
modern techniques and ideas. Souza uses an expressionistic style to capture
⚪ The same year a group of six artists (K. H. aspects of Indian life in his paintings.
Ara, S. K. Bakre, M. F. Husain, H. A. Gade,
S. H. Raza, and F. N. Souza) founded the
Progressive Artists Group. Conclusion
⚪ Despite the group’s dissolution in 1956, From the 1990s onward, there was an increase in
it had a great influence on changing the the number of forms used by the Indian Artists
Indian art culture. It sought to establish in their work. The economic liberalisation of
new ways of expressing Indian art in the the country during that decade resulted in the
post-colonial era. introduction of new concepts from Indian Art.
⚪ While Indian themes and images are This led to both work within previous academic
predominant in modern Indian art, traditions as well as work outside of them.

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12 Religions in India

Introduction of all that is. Shaivism has a vast literature

that includes texts representing multiple
Religion is generally understood as a socio-
philosophical schools, including non-dualist
cultural system of certain practices, behaviour,
(abheda), dualist (bheda), and non-dual-
morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts along with
with-dualism (bhedābheda) perspectives.
transcendental and spiritual elements. One of
Vedic God Rudra can be considered at
the important sources of morality and ethics
the root of Shaivism. It is believed to have
is religion. In India faith has been a decisive
existed before Vaishnavism.
role in people’s lives. Religion has also been
y Shaktism: Their core belief is in the
a dynamic concept which has evolved a lot
supremacy of Goddesses also known
since its conception. In India, faith was never
as Devi. Within Shaktism, there is little
a static entity but was driven by an inherent
emphasis on doctrinal sampradayas, and
dynamic strength.
much ideology comes from Shaivism. Tantra
Hinduism sub-traditions are present in many major
religions practised in India.
y It is the world’s third-largest religion y Smartism: Smartism is a liberal or non-
with over 1.2 billion followers. In India, sectarian denomination of the Vedic Hindu
approximately 79.8% of people follow religion which accepts all the major Hindu
Hinduism. Hinduism is not only a religion deities as forms of the one Brahman. Five
but also a way of life. Hinduism consists of deities: Shiva, Shakti, Ganesh, Vishnu,
many philosophies, cults and sects. People and Surya are at the core of this tradition,
of the Indus River region were referred under which these deities are worshipped
to by the word “Hindu”. Its fundamental domestically. Their system is based on
philosophy and concepts are based on the Puranas’ teachings. They believe in both
teaching of the four Vedas. forms of Brahman i.e., Sagun Brahman and
Nirguna Brahman.
Four Sects of Hinduism
y Vaishnavism: Vaishnavites worship Lord Prominent sects under vaishnavism
Vishnu and his incarnations, especially y Varkari sampradaya or varkari panth:
Krishna and Rama. They lead a way of life Vithoba, a form of Vishnu, is worshipped by
promoting differentiated monotheism. this denomination (sect). Their worship is
Upanishad is at the core of its belief, based on Vithoba’s Temple in Pandharpur,
practices, and concept of bhakti and bhakti- Maharashtra. Cigarettes and alcohol are
yoga. These things are also associated with strictly prohibited in the sect. Vari is their
puranic texts, Vedas, Bhagavad Gita and annual pilgrimage. During this pilgrimage,
Bhagavat Purana. Bhagavatism, also known exciting activities are conducted. Namdev
as Krishnaism, can be traced back to the (1270- 1350), Jnaneshwar (1275-1296),
first millennium BC. There are various Tukaram (1598-1650) and Eknath (1533-
sampradayas, or sub-schools, within the 1599) are a few prominent personalities
Vaishnava tradition. under this sect.
y Shaivism: Shaivism reveres the God Shiva y Ramanandi sampradaya: Advaita scholar
as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe Ramananda’s teachings are the foundation
that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, of this sect. Within Hinduism, this is
preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer the largest monastic order, and these

Religions in India 179

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Vaishnava monks are described as Vairagis, in dreadlocks, and when they stop walking,
Ramanandis or bairagis. They worship they keep a sacred fire called dhuni.
Rama, one of Vishnu’s ten incarnations. y Lingayatism: Lingayatism is a Shaivite
These ascetics meditate and conform to denomination which beliefs in monotheism.
strict ascetic rituals. On the other hand, Shiva in the form of linga is worshipped here.
they still believe that only by God’s grace Lingayatism is also known as Veershaivism.
one can get salvation. The major region Under this sect, both authority of the Veda
where this sect is present is the Gangetic and the caste system are denied. Basava
plains. This sect is further classified into developed this practice in the 12th Century
Tyagi and nagas. AD (a Kannada poet).
y Brahma sampradaya: Under this sect, the y Dashanami sanyasis: Advait Vedantic
core belief is that Vishnu is the ultimate philosopher, Adi Shankracharya’s teachings
creator, who is also known as param- are followed under this sect. They are also
Brahma. Therefore, Vishnu is worshipped known as “Dash Nam Sanyasi’’ because
here. According to historic belief, the founder they are divided into ten classes.
of this belief was Madhvacharya. Chaitanya y Aghoris: They believe in salvation from the
Mahaprabhu’s Gaudiya Vaishnavism is cycle of birth and death through sadhana
associated with the Brahma Sampradaya. on the cremation ground. Therefore, they
y Pushti marg sampradaya: Vallabhacharya believe in bhairava. They also believe in
established the Vaishnava sect around the elimination of bonds from their lives
1500 AD. The ultimate truth, according such as sensual gratification, rage, greed,
to their philosophy, is one and only one obsession, fear, and hatred. They participate
Brahm. In this denomination, Lord Krishna in tamasic ritual activities to the extreme.
is worshipped by the followers. Here he is y Siddhars or siddhas: Siddhars were Tamil
worshipped on the basis of the concept of Nadu saints, physicians, and mystics. For
pure love. Under this, the practice of all achieving spiritual perfection, they perform
devotees performing Seva for their personal rasayanas in a hidden form to perfect their
idol of Krishna is very prominent. bodies, so that they are able to meditate for
y Nimbarka sampradaya: The followers of the long periods. They also perform pranayama
Kumara Sampradaya or Hamsa Sampradaya which remarkably decreases the number of
or Nimbarka Sampradaya worship the breaths. They possess many unique abilities.
deities of Krishna and Radha. Varmam, which is a martial art and medical
treatment, was founded by them.
Prominent sects under shaivism
y Nathpanthi: Under this, the teachings
of Gorakhnath and Matsyendranath are
followed. The followers of this sect are
called by a special name i.e., Siddha
Siddhanta. Followers of this sect worship
Adinatha which is a form of Shiva. They focus
on transforming one’s body into a state of
fully awakened self-identity with utter truth
which they achieve through Hatha Yoga.
Monks under these sects wander from one
place to another rarely halting at one place
for long. They wear dhoti and loincloths, the Fig. 12.1: Varanasi
body is covered with ashes, hair is tied up

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Fig. 12.2: Varanasi

Religions in India 181

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Fig. 12.5: Rishikesh

Fig. 12.3: Rameshwaram

Fig. 12.6: Tirupati Temple

Fig. 12.7: Amarnath Caves

Fig. 12.4: Puri

182 Religions in India

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Mohammad which were collected by his

followers.
⚪ The Quran was compiled and confirmed
twice by the Prophet before his death.
136 Sharia or Islamic rules are based on
this book and Sunnah.
y Prophet Mohammad is taken as the last and
final messenger by the Muslim community.
A Muslim follower is required to do Hajj in
his lifetime, similarly, he is expected to do
namaz five times a day.
⚪ In Islam, there is a concept of judgement
Fig. 12.8: Badrinath Temple day. On the judgement day, the deeds
of an individual will be taken stock
off and depending on how many good
Islam
deeds or bad deeds one has committed
y Muslims pray to Allah as the only God the individual is sent to either hell or
and reject the presence of another God. heaven.
They also follow the teaching of the ⚪ Jumma Namaz, held in groups in
Prophet Muhammad. The core concept Mosques, is also a very important
of Islam is ‘submission to God’. Muslims practice. It is a Friday prayer. Muslims
believe Mohammed was the last and most fast in the month of Ramadan which
important in a series of prophets, including ends with Eid celebrations.
Abraham, Moses and Jesus. ⚪ Another important tenet is the Zakat. It
⚪ Muslims consider Abraham as their is the charity that one has to do. Under
ancestor. It is believed that Allah this one has to give a portion of his
revealed himself to Prophet Mohammad income to the poor or needy.
and then he started preaching and y While Islam is divided into several sects,
reciting the message of Allah or God to there are two main sub-divisions: Shia and
the Muslim community. This revelation, Sunni.
he attained on a mountain through an ⚪ Shia is those who believe in Ali and
angel. Sunni are those who believe in Sunnah.
⚪ At the beginning of his journey, Prophet ⚪ These two sects differ in various beliefs
Muhammad preached in Mecca. But and rituals, but the core difference is on
there, he faced lots of difficulties due the issue that who should succeed the
to which he had to leave for Medina. But Prophet Muhammad.
when things improved, he went back ⚪ According to Sunnis Abu Bakr who was
to Mecca. This journey from Medina to the closest to Prophet Muhammad
Mecca is considered a holy pilgrimage. is a rightful successor. Whereas Shia
Also known as Hajj by the Muslim accepted Prophet’s son-in-law Ali
communities. Out of the various core as the rightful successor of Prophet
practices, Hajj is considered mandatory Muhammad because he was the blood
for Muslims. Every Muslim is expected relative of Prophet Muhammad.
to do Hajj at least once in his or her ⚪ Sunni Muslims constitute 85-90% of
lifetime. the total Muslim population in India.
y Apart from Quran, Hadith is another ⚪ Islam in the Indian subcontinent has
holy book of Islam. Hadith contains the been a very dynamic religion. It has
teachings (sayings) and activities of Prophet evolved and changed. In the long

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history of Islam in India, there were Christianity

many occasions where Islam has been
y There is no consensus on the question of
moulded to suit the demand of the time.
how Christianity gained ground in India. Few
historians support that St. Thomas worked
a lot for the spread of Christianity when he
came to India in 52 AD. On the other hand,
some believe Christianity spread under
a Syrian merchant, Thomas of Cana, who
came to Travancore in Kerala. In Kerala,
he established a Christian colony. Thomas
Didymus had visited India twice.
⚪ He reached to Parthian empire in
Kandahar which is in modern Afghanistan
for his first pursuit. King Gundapar of
India gave permission to Thomas to
preach the Gospel in his kingdom.
Fig. 12.9: Dargah of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (Ajmer
⚪ When he came again in 52 AD, Musiris
Dargah Sharif)
(Cranganore) in Kerala was his focus
area. In Cranganore, Palayur and Quilon,
he converted some Jews and Hindus to
Christianity.
⚪ From there he shifted his focus to the
east coast, after that he went to China.
When he returned to India, he shifted
his base to Madras. Even after their
ardent efforts of Thomas, people had
not welcomed the new religion. This was
the reason why Thomas was tortured
and killed in a cave which got known to
be called St. Thomas in 72 AD.
y In the Indian religious profile, Christianity is
the third-largest religion after Hinduism and
Fig. 12.10: Haji Ali Dargah, Mumbai
Islam. As per the census of 2011 Christian
constitute approximately 2.3% of the
Indian population. Christianity was founded
by Jesus Christ in Jerusalem. Christianity
has begun to gain followers on a large scale
after the world has seen the resurrection
of Jesus.
⚪ With time Christianity has spread to
Europe and became the official religion
of the Roman Empire. If we see it on
a global scale, then Vatican City is the
pivot of the Christian world.
Fig. 12.11: Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia Dargah, Delhi ⚪ Over a while, many Christian reform
movements emerged, and sects such
as Protestants, Methodists, and others

184 Religions in India

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grew popular. are Baptists, 7% identify with the Church

y Monotheism is the core teaching of of North India, and 7% identify with the
Christianity. According to them, there is Church of South India.
only one God. The universe is created by
that one God. Like Islam, Christianity also Sikhism
believes that God sends his messenger y Sikhism, literally meaning learner, also
to the world. Therefore, Jesus Christ is known as Gurmat was founded in the 15th
considered a messenger to help people in century by Guru Nanak and subsequently
discovering the truth and save the people evolved under the teaching of 9 other
from ignorance and evil. Jesus was the Gurus. Guru Nanak’s teaching has been the
saviour. core of Sikhism and his nonconformist view
⚪ The concept of the Holy Trinity in influenced the development of Sikhism.
Christian worship is the central idea of It was his systematic struggle which has
Christianity. According to them, Father ensured the separate development of
(God), Son (Jesus), and the Holy Spirit Sikhism from Hinduism.
are the Holy Trinity and God’s influence ⚪ He was a strong critic of Punjab’s
on this world is continued after Jesus’ lifestyle at that time. He has not
death is maintained through the Holy only criticised but also provided an
Spirit. alternative way for social and religious
⚪ The Bible is considered by Christian organisations.
as the holy book. It has both the old ⚪ His idea of congregational worship was
testament and the new testament. The his way of governing his follower’s life.
new teaching of the Roman Catholic He devised community dining (Langar)
Church was included along with the to bring people together.
Jewish old testament. y He was not only a blind critic of the
⚪ Christians have many rituals like prevailing social order. He has provided
Baptism, through which a minor joins an alternative way of life. According to
the Church’s services. Apart from this, him, human redemption is the final goal of
they assemble in Church to celebrate humans, which one can achieve by stopping
Christ’s birth in the form of Christmas. the endless cycle of birth and rebirth.
⚪ Another rite is Eucharist, which involves ⚪ According to him, only through Guru’s
breaking bread and wine with God to teaching and direction about the
symbolise peace with the Universe. correct belief, worship and action, one
y The Christian community in India is divided can achieve redemption. He believed
on the basis of caste which a person held that the redemption path is open to
during their conversion. all regardless of religion, race, or caste.
y They are not present at any one location New modes of worship like community
but dispersed throughout India. kitchens also known as langar were
⚪ In the Indian Christian community, devised by him. He has rejected the
people of different castes are allowed method of redemption mediated by
to worship and eat together but inter- pandits and maulvis.
caste marriage is not acceptable in the y He has rejected the extreme means
community. of salvation such as asceticism and
y Indian Christians as only 37% of Indian renunciation of the household. He believed
Christians identify as Catholic while various that a practical way is a more appropriate
other denominations are present in India. way for salvation.
Hence, no clear majority denomination. ⚪ He has a belief that salvation can
⚪ For example, 13% of Indian Christians be achieved by a person who lives a

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life like an ideal person, who runs his and hill chiefs. In these fighting, he lost
home with his own hands, who attends his four sons. Therefore, this is considered
the community gathering also known an important reason for the end of the
as Sangat and who attends kirtan in institution of personal Guruship.
Gurudwara. y Before his death, he gave the Guru Granth
y Nanak said that one has to come closer to Sahib/Adi Granth, which was the Bani of
God along with maintaining his household the Sikh Saints and thus had their spiritual
and livelihood. As per him, a person who help, the authority to make decisions for
eats the fruits of their labour is one who is the Sikhs.
on the right path. y Another major contribution of Guru Gobind
y The factor which created the divide Singh was the creation of the Khalsa
between Mughals and Sikhs was the institution which is the warrior community.
murder of Guru Arjan Dev by the Jahangir. They are distinct from non-Khalsa Sikhs
Before this incident, the relationship was also known as Sahajdhari Sikhs. They
cordial between the two. The murder of included the Nanak Panthis and Udasis.
Guru Arjan dev is considered by many as y In Sikhism also there is a system of
the “First Martyrdom of the Sikhs”. baptism. Male baptised are called ‘Singh’,
⚪ Militancy culture in Sikhism started with whereas women baptised are called ‘Kaur’.
the formation of the army at Ramdaspur They have adopted uniforms so as to make
by Guru Har Gobind (1595-1644). It was the appearance similar for everyone. It
created to fight the East India Company. is mandatory for a Sikh to wear the five
The Guru converted the Sikh cult into K’s i.e., Kachcha, Kesh, Kangha, Kirpan,
the Sikh CORPS, in which the followers Kara. A Khalsa Sikh cannot get his hair
would serve as “saint warriors” or cut as this is strictly prohibited in their
“soldier saints” who would eventually belief. Due to these physical distinctions
enter heaven. Sikhs got uniformity in their followers and
y Aurangzeb’s relations with Sikhs were not distinguished themselves from others.
cordial. He has imprisoned two Sikh Gurus
i.e., Guru Har Rai and Guru Har Krishan. Due
to this act of Aurangzeb, the relationship
between Mughals and Sikhs deteriorated
further.
⚪ The first sovereign and supreme
authority of Sikh was established by
Guru Tegh Bahadur. His relationship
with the Aurangzeb was always sour
and therefore executed in Delhi in 1675.
⚪ The last Guru in the physical form was
Guru Gobind Singh. It is believed that
after the death of Guru Gobind Singh
Fig. 12.12: Golden Temple, Amritsar
the eternal spirit was transformed into
the Guru Granth Sahib also known as
Adi Granth. Therefore, the system of Zoroastrianism
personal Guruship came to an end. Now
the authority resides in Guru Granth y Zoroastrian believe in monotheism i.e.,
and Guru Panth. there is only one supreme deity known
y During the time of Guru Gobind Singh, there as Ahura Mazda. Ahura Mazda personifies
was continuous fighting between Mughals justice and goodness. This religion was

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founded by Prophet Zarathustra in Persia ⚪ The Silent Tower in Mumbai city is one
around the 7th century BC. According to of the famous ones. Now due to the
their belief, Angra Mainyu i.e., a spirit of evil dwindling number of vulture population,
and bad conduct exists. the practice of keeping the body open
y Both evil and good will keep on fighting for a vulture is decreasing and people
in an everlasting battle. But the ultimate are adopting alternatives such as;
winner would be “good” and according to burying the dead for or her last rites.
Zoroastrian belief that will be the last day
as well.
y In Iran, there was an invasion by Islam
around the 8th-10th centuries AD, because
of which they had to flee from Iran and
came to India.
⚪ In India, they constitute a small part of
the population, which is also decreasing
day by day. Here they are called by
different names like Parsis and Iranis.
Currently, they are living mostly in urban
areas like Goa, Mumbai and Ahmedabad.
⚪ If we consider the date of arrival, then
Parsis came before Iranis in India and
Iranis are smaller in number than Parsis Fig. 12.13: Iranshah Atash Behram (Iranshah Fire
in India. Temple), Udvada, Gujarat
y Zend Avesta, which is written in old
Avestan is the sacred text of Zoroastrians [Note: Buddhism and Jainism are discussed in
which includes 17 sacred songs along with detail in the Ancient History text.]
Athena Vairyo. According to some beliefs,
this is written by Zarathustra himself. Conclusion
⚪ Zend applies to the translations of these Indian society has been influenced by religion
texts as well as the collected glossaries. on a political, cultural and economic level.
y According to their belief fire and earth are Religion, in India, is more publicly visible
sacred features that’s why they worship than it is in most English-speaking Western
fire. countries. There is a sense of pride correlated
y They have a cultural practice of conducting with the country’s rich religious history as the
the last ritual of the dead body by leaving traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and
them outside in open for vultures to eat Jainism all emerged in India. There is a sense
because they have the belief that dead of inclusiveness and diversity when it comes
matter is corrupted. to religions in India. But we have a long way
⚪ The place where these dead bodies to go to embrace all that this culture has to
are kept for vultures to eat is known offer. There are shortcomings in the name
as Dakhma or Silent Tower. They also of religious disparities, riots in its name, and
call the vulture by the name of Dakhma discrimination that needs to be taken care of
Nashini. on both individual and societal level.

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13 Indian Literature and Schools of

Philosophy
Introduction culture evolved its own literature, language,
and philosophies. While literature in India may
The human wish to express and influence has
be both religious and secular, in most cases,
taken a variety of forms. The most sophisticated
the subject is a didactic one, urging readers
kind of such expression is through writing. Ever
to walk the righteous path for a joyful life. The
Since human beings have invented scripts,
story of Indian literature starts with the Vedas;
writing has reflected the various important
the oral preservation of which for many years
aspects such as culture, lifestyle, and the

5
has been unprecedented.
Indian Literature
polity of the society. In the process, each

Indian Literature

Indian Literature

Vedic Literature

Period division
Meaning – superior knowledge.
Mantra period – Samhitas
Division of Veda. Brahman period – Brahmanas,
Srutis Upanishads and Aranyakas
Sutra Period.
Rig Veda.
Yajur Veda. Text division of Veda
Sama Veda.
Atharva Veda. The four Vedas i.e., Samhitas
Brahmanas under each Samhitas
Aranyakas.
Vedas Upanishads

Rig Veda (17000 BCE – 1100 BCE)

Compilation of vedic Sanskrit hymns
Divided into 10 parts
Oldest text in the Indo-European language
Composed by Angira and Kanva Families
Talks about the origin of the entire universe i.e., Prajapati
Hymns (Sukata) are used for rituals
Has reference to various gods – Indra, Varuna, Agni and Surya
Purusha sukta is a part – talks about varna system
(Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra)
Sama Veda
Book of Chants
Mixture of Poetry and Verse
Considered the origin point of music and dance in India
Hymns to be chanted on Sama Sacrifice by Brahmins
Yajur Veda
Collection of sacrificial prayers (Yajus)
Prescribes the procedure of sacrifice also
Division of Yajur veda
Black Yajur Veda (Krishna Yajur Veda) – un arranged
Taittirīya saṃhita,
Maitrayani saṃhita,
Kapiṣṭhala saṃhita
Kaṭha saṃhita
White Yajur Veda (Shukla Yajur Veda) – well arranged
Vajasaneyi Samhita is a part
Indian Literature 1

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Indian Literature

Vedas

Atharva Veda
Knowledge storehouse of atharva�as ' or 'the procedures for everyday life.
Latest addition to Vedas
Divided into 20 books
erent recensions
Veda Paippalada and Saunkiya
Has earliest evidence of religious medicine/folk healing in the
Indo-European language
Composed by rishi Atharvanas and rishi Angirasa
Mundaka Upanishad and Mandukya Upanishad are their parts.

Aranyaka
Third stage of Vedic literature
Placed in between Brahmanas and Upanishads
Considered the essence of Vedas
Also known as ‘forest texts.’
Their main feature is symbolism.
Depicts secrets, mystic subjects and daily rituals
Depicts the transition from rituals to philosophy
Considered the final part of Brahman
They stress morality and meditation then rituals

Puranas
Source of political history.
Written in Sanskrit.
Gives insight into various aspects and phases of Hinduism.
There are a total of 18 works and other associated works.
Deal with 5 topics
Sarga – evolution of the universe
Pratisarga – Involution of Universe
Manvantara – Recurrence of time
Vamsa – Genealogical list of sages and kings
Vamshaharita – life stories of certain characters
Provides sources historical accounts of Hastinapur, Ikshvaku Kings,
shishunaga and nanda.
Description of tirthas, pilgrimage places and significance.
Talks about the division of time (age).
Krita Trata Dvapara Kali
The increasing age represents the moral decline of society.
Bhagwat Purana is the most known part of puranas
Gives an account of geographical history of Indian sub-continent
Issues Poor usage of language
Bad grammar
Between reality and fiction

Indian Literature 2

Vedic Literature Vedic literature contains two significant

y Veda has the meaning of ‘superior elements, and these are known as “Srutis”
knowledge’ due to its roots in the word and “Smriti”.
‘vid’, which means to know. ⚪ The important Srutis are Sama, Rig,
y Vedic literature is defined as “literature Atharva, Yajur and Upanishads.
based on, or they are obtained from Vedas”. ⚪ Important Smritis are Puranas;

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Mahabharata including Bhagavad Gita. Rigvedic hymns were God of Fire Agni,
y Even Vedic literature is divided into 3 Sun God Surya, God of Sky Varuna, etc.
periods and these periods include: ⚪ The explanation regarding the caste
⚪ During the “Mantra Period”, the system was given in the famous ‘Purusha
‘Samhitas’ were collected. Sukta’ which is known as an important
⚪ At the time of the “Brahman Period”, part of the Rigveda. The Purusha Sukta
‘Aranyakas’, ‘Brahmans’, and ‘Upanishads’ talked about 4 varnas, which include
were composed. Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and
⚪ And the last period was the “Sutra Shudra, and all these varnas were taken
Period”. from the mouth, arms, belly, and legs
y The texts that constitute the Vedic literature of the Creator respectively. Later on,
are: this became the important source of
⚪ The four Vedas i.e., Samhitas the caste system, which is still present
 The Brahmanas connected to each in modern-day Hinduism, with slight
of the Samhitas modifications.
⚪ The Aranyakas y Sama veda: Sama Veda is also called
⚪ The Upanishads the book of prayers or “storehouse of
knowledge of chants”. It is a combination
Vedas of poetry and verse.
y The Vedas are most likely the earliest ⚪ It is considered the source of origin of
documents of the human mind and have the music and dance in India.
divine revelation. They are divided into: ⚪ There are around 1549 verses (except
y Rig Veda: It is known as one of the most for 75 verses, everything has been
sacred texts or books in Hindu philosophy. taken from Rigveda). These hymns are
It has been engrossing to historians and chanted at the Soma Sacrifice by a
scholars for centuries because of its specific category of Brahmins known as
collection of ancient Vedic Sanskrit hymns. Udgatris.
⚪ As a collection of 1,028 hymns and a y Yajur veda
collection of 10,600 verses, the Rigveda ⚪ The 4 Vedas primarily reflect the Vedic
is divided into ten parts called Mandalas. sacrifice in its full rituality and scope,
Rig Veda is considered the oldest text of and the yajnas (sacrificial prayers) were
the Indo-European language. used by the Adhvaryu priests.
⚪ It can be traced back to 1700 BCE-1100 ⚪ In this text, various rituals and
BCE; the Rishi family composed 35% of procedures are explained and those
them, and the Kanva family composed were supposed to be followed when
25%. According to the Rig Vedic hymns, sacrifices were carried out.
the universe originated from ‘Prajapati’ ⚪ Yajur Veda has existed in two main
(the initial God, comparable to Zeus in categories, ‘Krishna Yajur Veda’, which
Greek mythology). This is the origin of is also known as ‘Black Yajur Veda’ and
everything in the universe. ‘Shukla Yajur Veda’, known as ‘White
⚪ Generally, during rituals ‘Suktas’ or Yajur Veda’. The Black or Krishna Yajur
‘Hymns’ were sung. Veda existed in 4 versions and the
⚪ ‘Indra’ also known as “King of Heavens”, other one Shukla or white Yajur Veda
was an important deity worshipped existed in 2 versions. The meaning of
during the Rigvedic period, as his name black entails ‘unarranged collection’ of
came in Rigvedic hymns multiple times. verses and in white entails a collection
Along with Indra other important Gods of verses well-arranged and clear.
were worshipped and mentioned in ⚪ The Samhita in the Shukla Yajurveda is

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also called the ‘Vajasaneyi Samhita’. mostly practices beliefs along with the
 Out of 16 recensions of the superstitions related to the humble folk
Shukla Yajurveda, the endured including charms and spells to ward off
“Madhyandina’ and ‘Kanva’ are diseases and evils.
slightly different from each other.
⚪ There are four living recensions of the Aranyaka
Krishna Yajurveda Taittirīya saṃhita, y The Aranyakas comprise the third stage of
Maitrayani saṃhita, Kapiṣṭhala saṃhita development of the Vedic literature, placed
and Kaṭha saṃhita; each has its own in between Brahmanas and Upanishads.
characteristics. y Their implication in the Vedic literature is
⚪ The well-known and well-preserved indicated in the Mahabharata by saying that
recension is “Taittriya Samhita”, which Aranyakas are the essence of the Vedas.
was composed by the Yaksha’s pupil, ⚪ But till now, their precise role in Vedic
Tittri as mentioned by the Panini. literature is not clear.
⚪ The oldest recension known is y Usually, the word ‘Aranyaka’ is associated
“Maitrayani Samhita”. with the forest. Aranyakas, also called
⚪ Yajur Veda has a collection of various Aranyakas, are a set of meditations written
short magic spells, which are used by the by hermits and ascetics in forests about
priests at the time of ritual sacrifices. God, man, and the world.
y Atharva veda y The four texts of Vedic literature, such as
⚪ It is also known as “Brahmaveda”. the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and
It is believed that Atharva Veda was Upanishads, though they represent an
composed of the groups 2 rishis, and expansion of Vedic belief, are not distinct
they are ‘Atharvans’ and ‘Angrasas’, parts of the Vedas, and their significance
therefore the oldest and most ancient cannot be diminished by calling them mere
name of this text is “Atharvangirasa”. ‘forest texts.’
⚪ It has a very significant place in y In the work of Panini, the term Aranyaka
‘Atharvanas’ daily life because it has occurs as a reference to a forest-associated
guidelines for everyday life. Atharva Veda man. In the work of Katyayana, the term
is also considered very important due appears in a forest-related chapter.
to it being a “knowledge storehouse of y Aranyakas hold symbols and other aspects,
atharvaṇas’. It was added later in the but the symbolism is considered their main
later Vedic period. feature because it is mainly discussed in
⚪ The Atharva Veda has 730 hymns and them.
about 6000 mantras which are divided y Besides only depicting secret or mystic
into 20 books, and all this is written in a subjects, sandhyopasana, Pancha maha
language called “Vedic Sanskrit”. yajnas, and brahmopasana illustrate the
⚪ The Saunakiya and Veda Paippalada are daily activities of households or commoners,
also available in 2 different recensions. too.
⚪ As per Kenneth Zysk, Atharva Veda is one y The study of these teachings of the Vedas
of the ancient and earliest texts having recognised as Aranyakas does not harm the
various evolved religious practices, persons who study them.
rituals, and medicines. It unveils the y Role of Aranyakas in Vedic Literature: The
“earliest forms of folk healing of Indo- common view of the Vedic literature is that
European antiquity”. Aranyakas are pragmatic and display the
⚪ It incorporated 2 Upanishads and they transitional phase from ritual to philosophy.
are Mandukya and Mundaka. The verses ⚪ The Aranyakas were written in Forest
of these 2 Upanishads have described and are the final parts of the Brahmans.

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Moreover, they include information succeeding age is worse than its preceding
about rishis living in jungles. one in terms of the social institutions and
⚪ While they oppose early rituals, the the overall moral values in the society.
Aranyakas place a lot of emphasis y Srimad bhagavata purana is the most
on moral values and don’t place any popular among all the Puranas. It comprises
importance on sacrifices. 18000 verses and contains a description of
⚪ So, they act as a bridge between Dashavatara, the celebrated ten avatars of
work (karma marga), the focal point Lord Vishnu.
of Brahmana thought, and knowledge ⚪ The tenth chapter of the Purana deals
(gyana marga), the perspective of the with the deeds and exploits of Lord
Upanishads. Krishna during his childhood.
⚪ This is the longest chapter of the Purana
Puranas and contains a theme that many Bhakti
y The Puranas are important works of ancient saints later elaborated on.
Sanskrit literature in India. Some of them y Apart from being a source of political history,
have been considered significant sources of Puranas are also an important source of
political history. As religious works, Puranas ancient Indian geography. In them, we come
offer us great insights into all the aspects across the names of many cities which
and phases of Hinduism, its theism, idol existed during their times. The distance
worship, mythology, philosophies and between the various cities mentioned can
superstitions, festivals and ceremonies, be approximately determined from the
and ethics, which are different from any information contained in the Puranas.
other religious work. y They also help know the old names of the
y There are 18 subsidiaries of Puranas and cities, rivers, and mountains of a particular
many other associated books. Every Purana region mentioned in a Purana.
deal with five topics viz., y However, the Puranas are criticised for
⚪ Sarga is concerned with the evolution their poor language usage, including the
of the universe. verification, resulting in bad grammar.
⚪ Pratisarga is related to the involution of ⚪ They are known for boundless
the universe. exaggeration of events and as a confused
⚪ Manvantara deals with the recurrence medley of contents.
of time. ⚪ In the present times, there is a consensus
⚪ Vamsa contains the genealogical list of among historians regarding the Puranas.
sages and kings. They should be understood neither with
⚪ Vamshaharita deals with the life stories prejudice nor as historical truths.
of certain selected characters. ⚪ A middle path should be followed, and
y The Puranas begin with the rulers who only those aspects of the Puranas which
trace their origin to the sun and the moon. seem reasonable should be accepted.
They refer to the various kings who ruled in
Madhyadesh. They fill in the gap between the Sanskrit Literature
Puru kings of Hastinapur and the Ikshvaku y Ashtadhyayi: It is a Sanskrit treatise on
King of Kosala. They give us facts about the grammar, which was written by Panini in the
Shishunaga Kings and Nanda Kings. 5th to 6th century BCE. This is an example
y Puranas also describe the tirthas, sacred of classical Sanskritic linguistic standards
places of pilgrimage, and their mahatyam, work.
or their religious importance. y Kalidasa was a Classical Sanskrit writer,
y They mention the four ages of Hinduism generally considered India’s greatest poet
viz., Krita, Treta, Dvapara, and Kali. Every and dramatist in the Sanskrit language.

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Some of the major works done by Kalidasa were fascinated by geography, and it
are Malavikagnimitra, Vikramorvashi, appears that Megasthenes’ discussion
Abhijnana Shakuntalam, Raghuvamsha and of India’s location, measurements, and
Meghaduta etc. topography is the most republished
y Katha kosa: Harisena’s Katha Kosa is the section of Indica.
most excellent example of Jain short y Fa-hien
stories in Sanskrit. ⚪ The Chinese traveller visited India around
y Rajatarangini: The Rajatarangini or the “River 400 AD during the reign of Chandragupta
of Kings” by Kalhana is the most primitive II. In his important travelogue, ‘A Record
history of Kashmir. It is a historical poem of Buddhist Kingdoms’, he describes his
that was written between 1148 and 1150 AD. journey. His accounts tell us about the
⚪ The book grants valuable social and economic prosperity and administration
political information about Kashmir and of the Gupta age.
the rest of India. y Huen tsang
⚪ The book is written in the Sanskrit ⚪ Period of stay in India: 630 AD – 645 AD.
language and translated into different ⚪ Chinese travellers visited India during
languages by various scholars and the reign of Harshavardhana.
translators. ⚪ On his journey, he visited several places
⚪ The first translation of a segment of the and took careful note of the country’s
Rajatarangini was carried out in Persian, social, religious, political, cultural, and
at the behest of Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin economic conditions.
(1421- 1472) AD of Kashmir. The version ⚪ In his book ‘Si-yu-ki’, or ‘Record of the
was entitled Behrul- Asmar (or the sea Western Countries’, he wrote a detailed
of tales). description of India.
y Kathasaritsagara: The Kathasaritsagara y Al-biruni
(“Ocean of the Streams of Stories”) is a ⚪ He came from Uzbekistan (eleventh
renowned 11th-century collection of Indian century).
legends, fairy tales and folk tales as retold ⚪ He was well proficient in several
in Sanskrit by Shaivanamed Somadeva. languages: Syriac, Persian, Arabic,
y V i k r a m a n k a d e v a c h a r i t a : Hebrew and Sanskrit.
Vikramankadevacharita is a tribute written ⚪ The Kitab-ul-Hind, written in Arabic by
by Bilhana praising Vikramaditya VI. Al-Biruni, comprised chapters covering
religion and philosophy, social life,
Accounts of Important Foreign Visitors festivals, astronomy, alchemy, weights
to India and measures, iconography, rules, and
y Foreign traveller accounts are crucial in metrology.
determining Indian history, especially in y Ibn battuta
ancient and mediaeval India. During their ⚪ This Moroccan traveller, born in Tangier,
visit, their account shed light on various had made pilgrimages to Mecca before
aspects such as administration, social life, setting off for India in 1332-33.
financial conditions, and common practices. ⚪ Ibn Battuta arrived in Sind in 1333 after
y Megasthenes travelling overland through Central Asia.
⚪ Seleucus Nicator, the Greek ruler ⚪ Visited India during the reign of
of West Asia, sent Megasthenes to Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
Chandragupta’s court as an envoy. ⚪ Ibn Battuta’s travel book, Rihla, is
Megasthenes visited the court of written in Arabic and contains a wealth
Chandragupta Maurya in Patna around of information about the social and
300 BC and wrote ‘Indica’. The Greeks cultural life of the subcontinent in the

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14th century. ⚪ Nayanars, who are devotees of Shiva,

y Abdur razzaq wrote the Thirumurai, a collection
⚪ He visited South India in the 1440s. He of devotional poetry called the Tamil
wrote one of the most valuable accounts Veda. There were 63 Nayanars. Of the 12
of Vijayanagara in the fifteenth century. volumes that make up this collection,
y François bernier the first seven volumes are classified
⚪ He was a French doctor, political as Thevaram, which includes hymns
philosopher, and historian. and songs praising Lord Shiva.
⚪ From 1656 to 1668, he lived in India y Bhakti movement’s contribution to north
for twelve years and was closely india
associated with the Mughal court, first ⚪ During the 12th century AD, the pioneer
as a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh, admirer of the Bhakti movement in North
Emperor Shah Jahan’s eldest son, and India was Ramananda. This resulted
later as an intellectual and scientist in huge growth in literature including
with Danishmand Khan, an Armenian in various languages such as Hindi,
noble at the Mughal court. Marathi, Bengali, Gujarati, Punjabi, etc.
⚪ He wrote ‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’. ⚪ ‘Ramcharitmanas’ and ‘Hanuman
Chalisa’ are the famous works of
Bhakti Literature Tulsidas. The main contribution of
Tulsidas was, that he made sacred
Bhakti and sufi movement texts and Ramayana accessible to every
y Bhakti movement is considered a cultural person. The contribution of Tulsidas
revolution against the ill practices carried is so precious, hence his works,
out in Hinduism during the Medieval period including verses and phrases, have a
of India. This cultural revolution had a very significant place in Hindi speaking
very significant impact on the treasure of regions because of the use of the
Indian literature. This literary work was common Hindi dialect.
mainly written by elaborating new forms of ⚪ As an admired poet by Hindus,
devotion towards the God and focussed on Muslims as well as Sikhs, Kabir wrote
the close relationship between the devotee in his own vernacular. His works were
and deity. primarily composed of two lines,
y Alvars and nayanars often called ‘Dohe’, but they were not
⚪ Bhakti literature started to be composed strictly grammatically correct. He used
in the 6th Century AD in South India by metaphors and similes from everyday
the Tamil poet-saints. life, through which he expanded his
⚪ Through the Divya Prabandha, the philosophical understanding. Many of
devotional poetry of Vishnu devotees, his verses are included in the holy book
the Alvars expanded Vaishnavism. of the Sikhs, the Guru Granth Sahib.
 The Alvars were 12 in number. ⚪ Mirabai was the most famous lady
Tiruvaymoli was written by saint of the Bhakti movement. She
Nammalvar and is highly revered by composed various devotional songs,
Vaishnavas. known as Bhajans, to express her love
 The only female among the Alvars and devotion to Lord Krishna. Even
was Andal whose collection of today her bhajans are highly valued
poems, celebrated as Tiruppavai, literary works and they are still listened
enjoys great popularity even in to during the auspicious and festival
present times for its touching times. It is said that Meerabai has written
fervour and simplicity. more than 1300 songs in her repertoire

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that represent passion, eroticism, and y Bhakti movement’s role in the

complete surrender to Lord Krishna. development of telugu and kannada
⚪ Surdas was a blind poet who composed ⚪ The Bhakti movement has played a very
songs tributing to Lord Krishna. There significant role in promoting and growth
are approximately 8000 poems that of local languages like Kannada and
have survived from Surdas’ collection of Telugu in the Southern part of India.
more than 1,00,000 poems. The language The trio jewel Pampa, Ponna and Ranna
he used to compose was Braj Bhasha have written significant literature in the
(Hindi dialect), which eventually gained Kannada language, which also helped in
the status of literary language because language development.
of his compositions. ⚪ The Telugu literature has been greatly
⚪ Jagadeva has written popular poetic enriched by the various saint poets,
texts during the Bhakti period in during the Bhakti movement, including
devotion to Lord Krishna and thus kirtan verses written in the devotion of
famous sacred text called “Gita Lord Vishnu by Annamacharya, in the 11th
Govinda”. This poetic text of Jagdeva century Nannay translated Mahabharata
celebrated the love between Radha into Telugu and Vallabhacharya have
and Krishna. It is considered this work written texts like Bhagavata Tika and
laid the foundation for the evolution Subodhami.
and development of Bengali literature. ⚪ At the time of the Bhakti Movement, in
This famous work is considered a mix of South India, another religious movement
passion, devotion, and lyricism. was started which was called as
⚪ Vaishnava poets Chaitanya and Virashaiva movement and the pioneer
Chandidasa were famous in Bengal. of this movement was Basaveshwara.
They produced eroticism combined with He used the Kannada language as a
spiritual fervour in their poetry. medium to reach the common masses
⚪ Among the Vaishnava saints of Assam as well as for teaching and instruction
were Shankara Deva and Madhavadeva. purposes.
Kirtana-ghost features devotional  His contemporaries like Allama
songs composed by both of them, but Prabhu and Akka Mahadevi invented
mostly by Shankara Deva. Bhattadeva a new kind of prose composition
had translated the Bhagavad Gita into called the Vachanas. Noted for their
Assamese, which led to the enrichment directness, ease, and poetic beauty,
of Assamese prose. they played a significant role in
⚪ Gujarati literature was developed enriching Kannada literature.
under the influence of Vaishnava Bhakti ⚪ As a result of Bhakti literature, the
through the works of Narasimha Mehta, Bhakti cult was popularized. It marked a
Akho, and Bhalana. Narasimha Mehta is conceptual leap from earlier devotional
considered the father of Gujarati poetry. literature, which was based primarily in
⚪ Accordingly, the works of Jnanadeva Sanskrit and centred on rites and rituals.
(also known as Jnaneshwari) and Bhakti literature also popularised
Amrutanubhav are considered sacred spirituality among the common people.
in Marathi. In the present time, there is
also great fame for the works of Namdev Hindi Literature
and Tukaram, who rebelled against y Prithviraj raso
the Sanskrit elite to write devotional ⚪ The book reports the exploits of Prithviraj
literature in Marathi. Chauhan and is said to be the first book
in Hindi. It is credited to Chand Bardai,

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who, according to the text, was a court after being made aware of the beauty
poet of the king. of Queen Rani Padmini who was the
y Padmavat wife of king Rawal Ratan Singh. This
⚪ A poem describes the story of the book was composed in Awadhi by Malik
historic siege of Chittor by Alauddin Muhammad Jayasi. His other important
Khilji in 1303, who attacked Chittor works are Akhrawat and Akhiri Kalaam.

Other Regional Languages

Language Writer (Period) Works Remarks

Amukta Malyada
Krishnadevaraya
Manucharitam ● Extended patronage by
Telgu Allasani Pedanna
Pandu Ranga Vijayanagara rulers.
Tenali Ramakrishna
Mahatmyam
Jhaneshwar (1275-96) Amruthanubav
Namdev (1270-1350) Bhavarh Deepika ● Earliest Marathi works
Marathi Eknath (1533-1599) Commentaries on ● Greatest Bhakti poet.
Tukaram (1598-1650) Ramayana and ● He was the guru of Shivaji.
Ramdas (1608-81) Bhagawat Purana
● Language developed fully
Rashtrakuta king
after 10 Century AD.
‘Nrupatunga’
● Earliest available Kannada
Amoghavarsha I
literary work (850 CE).
Pampa, Ponna and Kavirajamarga
● Three gems of Kannada
Kannada Ranna Basava and Akka Girija Kalyana
literature
Mahadevi under Harischandra Kavya
● Leaders of Veera Shaiva
Hoysalas (approx 1200
Bhakti movement, through
CE)
their vachanas, a type of
Harishvara Raghavanka
poetry.
● The hymn “Vyshnava Jan to”
Gujrati Narsih Mehto (1414-1481) Vaishnava poetry
is his work.
● Translation of Valmiki
Ramayanam.
Kambar (12th century) There were 12 Alvars, who
Kamba Ramayanam
Alvars (saints devoted to came from equally divergent
Tamil Bhakti songs
Vishnu) Nayanars (saints backgrounds.
Bhakti poets
devoted to Shiva) There were 63 Nayanars, who
belonged to different caste
backgrounds.
Adhyatma
Malayalam Ezhuthachan Ramayanam
● Father of Malayalam language.
(evolved by Poonthanam Mahabharatham
● Hymns in Bhakti tradition.
14th century.) Cherusseri (1375-1475) Njamappana
Krishnagadha
Translated
Saraladasa (15th cent) Mahabharata ● First works of Oriya literature.
Oriya
Indian LiteratureUpendra Bhanja
and Schools of PhilosophyBaidehisha Bilasa ● New era of Oriya. 197
Labanyabati
 Adhyatma
Malayalam Ezhuthachan Ramayanam
· Contact Admin · ● Father of Malayalam language.
(evolved by Poonthanam Mahabharatham
● Hymns in Bhakti tradition.
14th century.) Cherusseri (1375-1475) Njamappana
Krishnagadha
Translated
Saraladasa (15th cent) Mahabharata ● First works of Oriya literature.
Oriya
Upendra Bhanja Baidehisha Bilasa ● New era of Oriya.
Labanyabati

Fig. 13.1: Literature in other Regional Languages

Modern History Literature y The first nationalist poet of modern India,

y An increasing dissatisfaction against British Henry Vivian Derozio stimulated his pupils
rule in India began in the 19th century, to think freely and rationally, opposing
giving rise to a planned national movement. any forms of traditional or customary
Inspired by this movement, a corpus of oppression as well as for women’s equality
literature surfaced that contributed to the as well as their right to education.
growth and spread of nationalist sentiments y By publishing his weekly Darpan, Bal Shastri
across various regions of the country and Jambekar sought to reform Hinduism and
among the different sections of Indian disturb Brahmanical orthodoxy.
people. y Jyotiba Phule’s Gulamgiri is work
on Brahminical supremacy, and the
Miscellaneous Work discrimination faced by the Shudras. He
y Apart from the freedom struggle, the promoted an end to the caste system and
social and religious reforms underway in the abolition of socioeconomic inequalities
Indian society since the early 19th century through his work. Gulamgiri played an
also added to the spread of nationalist important role in the backward class
literature. movement in the early 20th century.
y Bharatendu Harischandra wrote Andher y Dayanand Saraswati wrote Satyarth
Nagari (city of darkness), a drama on the sad Prakash in which he presented his vision of
state of matters in urban India under British a classless and casteless society, as well as
rule. He highlighted the administrative a united, free India (from imperialism).
inefficiency of the British officials and the y Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, a Muslim leader,
corruption being done to them. He also founded a magazine called Tahdhib-ul-
wrote Bharat Durdasha which became a Akhlaq that promoted progressive ideas,
well-known nationalist work. such as supporting education for women
y The works of Munshi Premchand (Godhan) and opposing purdah and polygamy, among
and Deenbandhu Mitra (Neel Darpan) others.
emphasised the struggles faced by the poor y Our national song, Vande Mataram, was
in India. composed by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
y Raja Rammohan Roy wrote several works and was included in his novel Anand Math,
that formed the basis of his reform agenda, one of the greatest works of nationalist
influenced by modern western ideas. In literature. By tackling colonialism, Bankim
his Gift to Monotheists, Roy emphasised created a space for nationalist writings in
monotheism. Roy also brought out many Indian literature.
English, Hindi, Bengali, and Persian journals y In his writings, Rabindranath Tagore
to educate public opinion and take the emphasized federalism and the idea that
public’s grievances to the government. India’s unity could only come through unity
y Debendranath Tagore wrote Tattvabodhini in diversity.
Patrika, which endorsed a rational outlook ⚪ Through his novel Gora, Tagore
and a systematic study of India’s past. confronted colonial rule and inspired
the national movement.

198 Indian Literature and Schools of Philosophy

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⚪ The national anthem of India, Jana Gana ‘My Experiments with Truth’, celebrated
Mana, is a product of his nationalistic for its literary flair. His ‘Hind Swaraj’
literature. played a very important role in the
y Throughout their literary works, Sharath growth of the national movement.
Chandra Chatterjee and R. C. Dutt also y Aurobindo Ghosh
promoted the nationalist movement ⚪ He was a well-known philosopher, poet,
and contributed significantly to Bengali and sage. He used poems as the main
literature. form of mediation. He contributed to
English literature by writing an epic
Economic Critique called Savitri and Life Divine in 2
y The moderate nationalists generated volumes.
another type of nationalist literature in the y Sarojini Naidu
form of economic critique of British rule. ⚪ Sarojini Naidu (1879-1949) was a
y Dadabhai Naoroji had put forward the renowned poetess whose romanticism
theory of the Drain of Wealth that disguised enamoured readers in India and Europe.
those British economic policies directly ⚪ Her Golden Threshold (1905) and The
resulting in a significant outflow of national Broken Wing (1917) are works of great
wealth from India annually. A drain resulted literary merit.
from such an outflow because India did not y Jawaharlal Nehru
get anything in return. ⚪ Although he was a well known and
y Romesh Chandra Dutt calculated how much recognised leader, he also contributed
capital was lost during the period of British well to literature by writing.
rule in his work (The Economic History of ⚪ He is chiefly remembered for his
India). Glimpses of World History, Discovery of
y In terms of economics, the British were no India and an Autobiography.
longer able to justify colonial rule on the y Bhagat Singh
basis of the White Man’s Burden, and thus ⚪ ‘Why I am an Atheist’ is an essay written
to civilise and rule over us for their own by Bhagat Singh in Lahore Central Jail in
benefit. 1930. This was written in response to a
y As a result of the critique, nationalist religious man who thought Bhagat Singh
leaders invented protest devices such as became an atheist out of vanity.
Swadeshi and Boycott, taking the freedom y Mulk Raj Anand
struggle to the next level. ⚪ Mulk Raj Anand (1905), popularly known
for his short story ‘The Lost Child’, has
Contribution By Others written several works of prose, poetry,
y Mahatma Gandhi and drama.
⚪ The English language now became a ⚪ His novels Coolie (1933), Untouchable
sharp and strong tool in the hands (1935), and The Woman and the
of Gandhiji, who edited and wrote for Cow (1960) reveal his worry for the
papers like ‘Young India’ and ‘Harijan.’ downtrodden and underprivileged in
⚪ Gandhiji also wrote his autobiography, India.

Indian Literature and Schools of Philosophy 199

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Book Author Remarks

Tabaqat-e-Nasiri Minhaj Siraj Mainly on Ghurids and some info on early Sultanate.

Zia-ud-din
Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi Period of Balban to the first six years of Firuz Shah Tughluq.
Barani

Kitab ur Rehla Ibn battuta History of Muhammad Tughluq.

Tarikh-i-Mubarak Yahya bin A detailed account of region of Mubarak Shah of Sayyid

Shahi. Ahmad dynasty.

Tuzk-e-Babri/Babur First written in Turkic translated to Persian during Akbar’s

Babur
nama time.

Gulbadan
Humayun Nama Detailed account of the life of Mughal Emperor Humayun.
begum

Akbarnama and Abul Fazl

One of the best works of the period.
Ain-e Akbari (1551-1602)

Fig. 13.2: Mughal Period Literature

y R.K. Narayan Classical Languages in India

⚪ He was known for his excellent
y At Present, six languages have been
creative and imaginative writings and
designated as ‘Classical’ languages: Tamil
contributions to Indian English writings.
(2004), Sanskrit (2005), Kannada (2008),
A great example of his work is his first
Telugu (2008), Malayalam (2013), and Odia
novel called, Swami and Friends written
(2014). The criteria for classifying a language
in 1935 in an imaginative and fictional
as ‘Classical’ are as follows:
place called ‘Malgudi’. In which he
⚪ A remarkably long history of written
explained the Indian ethos, which has
text/recorded history, stretching back
an entirely distinct identity of its own.
roughly 1500-2000 years.
⚪ Malgudi days is perhaps the single most
⚪ A body of ancient literature/texts is
appealing work R.K. Narayan has been
regarded as a valuable legacy or heritage
created. Some of his popular novels
by generations of speakers.
including, Bachelor of Arts (1937), The
⚪ The literary tradition must be original
Financial Expert (1952), The Guide
and unique and not copied from another
(1959), and Waiting for the Mahatma
speech community.
(1955) are his other famous novels.
y With classical literature and language
distinct from modern, there may also
be a discontinuity between the classical
language and its later forms or offshoots.

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Schools of Philosophy because it resembles male

characteristics.
y In ancient Indian literature, philosophy
 On the other hand, Prakriti is made
has a long history. Several thinkers were
up of three main characteristics:
interested in the mysterious existence of
thought, movement, and
life and death and the powers beyond them.
transformation.
y There are sometimes overlaps between
y Yoga school
religious denominations and the doctrine
⚪ Yoga translates to “union of two
that they support. When the state and varna
large entities”. They claim that by
split social order, the differences between
incorporating meditation with the
different philosophical schools crystallised
physical practice of yogic methods,
and became the mainstay of the Indian
humans can attain redemption. These
sub-continent.
techniques, it is said, lead to Purusha’s
Orthodox School liberation from the Prakriti and, as a
result, to salvation.
y In this school, important literature and
⚪ The Yogasutra of Patanjali, which is
works include the Vedas. As per this school,
tentatively dated to the 2nd century BC,
Vedas are supreme scriptures which are
describes the origins of Yoga and the
having secrets to attain salvation. Vedas
school. The physical component of this
have 6 schools Samakhya, Yoga, Nyaya,
school focuses on exercises in different
Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta.
postures, also known as asanas. The
y Samkhya School
word “pranayama” refers to several
⚪ This is the oldest philosophical school,
breathing exercises.
founded by Kapil Muni, credited with
⚪ The Yoga school favours these exercises
writing the Samkhya Sutra. The word
because they aid in controlling the mind,
‘Samkhya’ or ‘Sankhya’ means ‘count’
body, and sensory organs. They claim
in Sanskrit. It is possible to achieve
that these exercises can be beneficial
salvation through gaining knowledge.
if one believes in God as a guide, tutor,
The root cause of man’s suffering is
and instructor. They would assist the
thought to be a lack of understanding.
individual in moving away from worldly
⚪ Samakhya school mainly believed
things and achieving the focus needed
in dualism which was also called
for salvation.
“dvaitavada”. As per this belief soul and
y Nyaya school
matter are 2 different entities. Hence it
⚪ They believe in the methodology of
is considered that it is the cornerstone
critical reasoning to attain redemption,
of all the true knowledge.
as the name of the school implies.
⚪ Three key principles can be used to
They regard life, death, and redemption
obtain this knowledge.
as enigmas that can be deciphered
 Pratyaksha: Perception
by rational and empirical reasoning.
 Anumana: Inference
Gautama, who is also known as the
 Shabda: Hearing
author of the Nyaya Sutra, is said to
⚪ Samakhya school was popular for its
have created this school of thought.
scientific investigation methods. As per
⚪ The school believes that a human being
the final philosophy of this school, the
can verify the validity of a proposition
Purusha and Prakriti are the completely
or argument using logical methods such
independent base of the truth.
as inference, listening, and analogy. It
 Purusha is linked to consciousness
holds that God not only created but
and cannot be modified or altered
also sustains and destroys the world.

Indian Literature and Schools of Philosophy 201

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The emphasis in this theory was always God’s wishes.

on systematic logic and thought. y Mimamsa school
y Vaisheshika school ⚪ Mimamsa literally translates to “the
⚪ The Vaisheshika school is a logical art of reasoning, interpretation, and
and rational philosophy that rules the application”. This school focuses on
universe. A physical universe is what it the interpretation of Vedic texts such
believes in. The basic text regulating as the Samhita and Brahmana. They say
Vaisheshika philosophy was written by that the Vedas are the repository of all
Kanada, also regarded as the school’s wisdom and contain the eternal truth.
founder. If one wishes to obtain religious merit,
⚪ They say that the five primary elements heaven, and redemption, one must
of fire, air, water, earth, and ether formed perform all the duties prescribed by the
everything in the universe (sky). Dravya Vedas.
is another name for these material  The Sutras of Jaimini, which were
elements. They also assert that truth is supposedly compiled in the 3rd
divided into various categories, such as century BC, are the texts that explain
attribute, behaviour, genus, inherence, Mimamsa philosophy in detail. Two of
substance, and distinct consistency. their most ardent supporters, Sabar
⚪ Because of this school’s scientific Swami and Kumarila Bhatta, made
bent, they also established the atomic further inroads into philosophy.
theory, which claims that all material ⚪ They argue that performing rituals can
objects are made up of atoms. They lead to salvation but that understanding
say that atoms and molecules joined the justification and rationale behind
to form matter, which is the foundation Vedic rituals is also needed. It was
for all that can be physically touched important to comprehend this logic
or observed to explain the phenomena if one desired to execute the rituals
of this world. This school was also flawlessly and achieve salvation.
the birthplace of physics in the Indian  Their deeds determined the merits
subcontinent. and demerits of a person, and a
⚪ They are thought to be the promoters person would enjoy the bliss of
of the universe’s mechanical creation heaven as long as their meritorious
process. acts lasted.
 They believe in God and consider  They will not, however, be exempt
him the guiding force, despite their from the cycle of life and death.
reasons for scientific reasoning. They will be able to break free from
 They also assume that the rules of this never-ending loop until they
karma govern this universe and that have found redemption.
everything is determined by human ⚪ The key emphasis of this philosophy
behaviour. Our acts decide whether was on the Vedic ritualistic aspect,
or not we are praised or punished. i.e., performing Vedic rituals to attain
 God establishes the merits and salvation. Since most people did not
demerits of our deeds, and man is understand the rites, they would have to
sentenced to either heaven or hell enlist the aid of priests. Consequently,
as a result. this philosophy indirectly legitimised
 They also believed in redemption, the social division between groups.
but it was in tandem with the cyclic The Brahmans used this to retain their
process of the universe’s creation power over citizens, and they continued
and death, which was dictated by to rule the social hierarchy.

202 Indian Literature and Schools of Philosophy

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y Vedanta school matters of the spirit,

⚪ Vedanta is made up of two words: Veda ⚪ The efficacy of Vedic sacrifices and
and Ant, which refers to the end of the ⚪ The supremacy of the Brahmin.
Vedas. This school adheres to the life y History records many movements opposed
philosophies outlined in the Upanishads. to orthodox religion. The most prominent as
The Brahma Sutras of Badarayana is the they find constant mention in the polemical
oldest text on which this philosophy is treatises of orthodox schools: Charvaka,
based. According to the theory, Brahm Buddhism and Jainism.
is the truth of creation, while everything
else is imaginary or Maya. Charvaka school or lokayata philosophy
⚪ In addition, the Atma, or self- y Brihaspati laid the foundation stone for this
consciousness, is identical to the school, which is thought to be the first to
Brahm. This claim equates to Atma and establish a philosophical theory. Lokayata
Brahma, implying that if an individual often denoted a strong connection to the
achieves self-knowledge, he will physical and material world (Loka).
immediately comprehend Brahm and y They argued that every universe outside
achieve salvation. this one populated by a human should
⚪ This logic would render Brahma and be completely ignored. They rejected the
Atma immortal and indestructible. presence of any supernatural or spiritual
This theory had social consequences, agent capable of regulating our actions in
in that true spirituality was implicit this world.
in the unchanging social and material y They claimed that redemption was
circumstances in which an individual unnecessary and rejected the presence
was born and placed. of Brahm and God. They were believers
⚪ But, thanks to the philosophical in everything that could be touched and
intervention of Shankaracharya, who sensed through the human senses.
wrote commentaries on the Upanishads y A few of their main teachings are:
and the Bhagavad Gita in the 9th Century ⚪ They pleaded with Gods and their
AD, this philosophy developed. Advaita earthly leaders, the priestly class. They
Vedanta arose from his transformations. said that a Brahman fabricates fake
Ramanujan, who lived in the 12th rituals to obtain gifts (Dakshina) from
Century AD, was another important his devotees.
philosopher of this school. ⚪ Man is at the centre of all things, and he
⚪ Shankaracharya’s view: Brahm, he can have fun for the rest of his life. He
believes, is stripped of all qualities. He should eat everything on the planet and
finds jnana/Gyan, or knowledge, to be enjoy sensual pleasures.
the primary means of salvation. ⚪ Since ether cannot be perceived by
⚪ Ramanujan’s view: He considers Brahm thought, the Charvakas do not consider
to possess certain attributes. The key it to be one of the five fundamental
to salvation, he believes, is to love the elements. As a result, they believe
faith and practise obedience. that the universe comprises only four
elements: fire, earth, water, and air.
Heterodox School ⚪ This school contends that since there
y The Naastikaas or the heterodox thinkers is no other universe beyond this one,
are those who questioned the authority of death is the ultimate goal of life, and
the Veda. They were particularly concerned happiness should be the ultimate goal
about three issues: of life. So, they formulated the principle
⚪ The authority of the Veda concerning of ‘eat, drink and make merry’.

Indian Literature and Schools of Philosophy 203

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Buddhism philosophy which is a very old form of heterodox

y “Buddhism” discusses the teachings of the system repudiate the teachings of the
practical teachings of the Buddha (early Vedas. The word ‘Jainism’ is derived from
Buddhism), which were carried forward ‘Jina’ which means conqueror, i.e., one who
almost faithfully by all the followers of has conquered one’s passions and desires.
Buddhism. y Mahavira denied the existence of God. He
y Buddha was against the social rigidity emphasised that the universe continues
practising in Brahmanical order. on its own through the cycle of rising
⚪ He was strongly against priestly (Utsarpani) & the cycle of fall (Avasarpani).
domination. y Jaina philosophy believes that all those
y The caste system was rejected by Buddhism living things have jiva, meaning soul in its
when it emerged during later periods. body or physical structure. As per Jainism
y They do not believe in Idol Worship soul is impure because it is bound by
(Hinayana). different actions, however in order to attain
true knowledge or moksha the soul should
Jainism philosophy be pure and free from all the boundations
y The philosophical teachings of “Jainism”, and actions which may make the soul
impure or pollute it.

Ajivikas
y This school was founded in the 5th century BC by Makkhali Gosala, who founded a school
which is today known as Ajivikas. Niyati (fate) i.e., the doctrine of an absolute determinism
is the foundational philosophy of this school.
y This school has no belief in the doctrine of karma since they have a belief that there is
no free will and everything which has happened, is occurring, or will occur in future is
predetermined and dependent on cosmic concepts.
y About the creation of the world, they believe in the atomic principle. As per this principle,
everything in this world is made up of atoms. They believe that different qualities arise
from predetermined aggregates of atoms.
y Ajivikas were atheist. They rejected both Buddhism and Jainism. They live a very simple
and ascetic life which is devoid of clothing or material possessions.
y Ajivikas criticised Jainism and Buddhism. They do not believe in the doctrine of karma.
y Like Buddhism and Jainism, they have also rejected the authority of Vedas. They differ
from Jainism on the basis of the type of soul. Jainism believes in formless souls whereas
ajivikas believe in material souls.
y Bindusara (4th Century BC) was one of the important followers.
y Savatthi (Sravasti) in Uttar Pradesh is the locus for the development of the ajivikas sect.
y Ajivikas are mentioned in Ashoka’s seventh pillar edicts, but the sect’s texts are currently
unavailable. But this sect has lost its glory today.

Conclusion tell stories, publish philosophy, question society

and examine laws, rules and government. One
Indian literature, one of the most ancient of
can learn from the literature of other cultures
literature, has been exemplary for the rest of
as well as their own. Literature from the past
the world. Using literature, humans have been
has even given archetypes to use in modern
given the ability to express history, and ideas,
writing as well.

204 Indian Literature and Schools of Philosophy

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14 Indian Puppetry and Martial Arts

in India
Introduction Categorisation of Puppetry

Throughout history, puppetry has played an y String puppet: Kathputli, Kundhei,

important role in traditional entertainment. Gombeyatta, Bommalattam.
Like traditional theatre, puppet theatre topics y Shadow puppet: Togalu Gombeyaata, Ravan
are frequently inspired by epics and tales. India Chhaya, Tholu Bommalata.
also boasts a thriving martial arts tradition that y Glove puppet: Pavakoothu.
can be found throughout the country. y Rod puppet: Yampuri, Putul Nachh.

Indian Puppetry String puppets

y The puppets are made of wood and are 9
y Puppetry is a type of entertainment that
inches tall. Oil colour is used to match the
dates back thousands of years.
colour of the wood to the colour of the skin,
⚪ Puppetries, with their indication
as well as to paint features like eyes, noses,
of a master controlling them, are
and other facial features. Small pieces of
a captivating experience. However,
jewellery and strings are attached to the
performances, with their low cost of
puppets’ hands, heads, and backs, and a
production, are popular with freelance
puppeteer controls the strings to give them
artists.
a lifelike appearance.
⚪ One of the most brilliant innovations of
⚪ Kathputli: Kathputli, which means
mankind is artistic expression, which is
“wooden doll”, refers to traditional string
granted freedom in form, design, colour,
puppets from Rajasthan. The puppets
and movement.
are dressed in traditional Rajasthani
⚪ The relevance of puppetry has increased
attire that is bright and colourful. The
due to its higher influential capability,
show is accompanied by dramatic folk
particularly in education and awareness
music. Puppets have string attachments
about social issues.
on their fingers and no legs.
Origin of Puppetry in India
y India has long been fascinated by puppetry,
both for educational and entertainment
purposes. Puppets with sockets have been
discovered in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro,
suggesting that puppetry was a kind of art.
y The first known reference to puppetry is
found in the Tamil classic Silappadikaram,
written between the 1st and 2nd century
BC.
y Even though there exist some references to Fig. 14.1: Kathputli
puppetry in mythology and art.
y The lack of a dedicated audience for this art ⚪ Kundhei: Wooden puppets from Odisha
form, as well as financial insecurity, have are called Kundhei. They’re composed
been significant factors in its demise. of light wood and wear short skirts.
They feature more joints, which allows
the puppeteer to move around more

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freely during the performance. Strings Shadow puppets

are tied to a triangular prop that serves y The leather figures are constructed of
as a prop. leather and are flat, painted on both sides.
When a white screen is lit from behind by
a puppet scene, a shadow effect is formed
on the screen. The puppets are positioned
on the blank screen to create intriguing
silhouettes. Some examples of this style of
form are as follows:
⚪ Togalu gombeyaata
 Karnataka’s most popular theatre
performances.
 The size of the puppets changes
depending on the social status of
the figure.
 As a result, rulers are shown as
being larger than ordinary people.
⚪ Ravan chhaya
 This is a popular kind of
entertainment in Odisha.
 Puppets with no joints are used in
the show, which necessitates a high
Fig. 14.2: Kundhei Nata
level of talent in order to operate.
 There are other puppets that aren’t
⚪ Gombayetta: This is a traditional theatre
human.
from the state of Karnataka, influenced
by the Karnataka Yakshagana theatre.
⚪ Bommalattam: It is Tamil Nadu’s
original form of art. In most situations,
more than one puppeteer is present to
handle each puppet. The strings of the
puppet are held together by an iron ring.
This ring is worn by the puppeteer on his
head. The Bommalattam puppets are
India’s largest and heaviest marionettes.
Some people stand up to 5 feet tall and
weigh up to 10 kilogrammes.

Fig. 14.4: Ravan Chhaya

⚪ Tholu Bomayatta
 Andhra Pradesh’s theatre is shadow
puppetry. It is based on Purana
mythical legends and is performed
with classical music. Puppets are
larger and have coloured surfaces
on both sides.

Fig. 14.3: Bommalattam

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is popular in Eastern India.

⚪ Yampuri
 Traditional rod puppet from Bihar.
 Puppets are made entirely of wood
and have no joints.
 They are made of wood and are
colourfully painted and ornamented.

Fig. 14.5: Tholu Bomayatta

Glove puppets
y The puppets are worn on the puppeteers’
Fig. 14.7: Yampuri
hands like gloves, and the puppeteer
controls the puppet with his index and ⚪ Putul nach
thumb.  The puppeteer manipulates the
y The performances are accompanied by puppets with a rod linked to his
dholaks or rhythmic beats. waist in this traditional style of art
y Pavakoothu is an example of this form of from Bengal, Odisha, and Assam.
puppetry.  Along with the show, a musical
⚪ It’s a puppet show from Kerala that’s ensemble performs.
been passed down through the
generations.
⚪ This theatre has been influenced by the
Kathakali dance genre.
⚪ The plays are based on the Ramayana
and Mahabharata in a broad sense.

Fig. 14.8: Putul Nach

Martial Arts in India

y The majority of ancient civilisations around
the world possessed a well-trained and
disciplined militia. The preservation
Fig. 14.6: Pavakoothu
and security of indigenous traditions
necessitated an understanding of such
Rod puppets combat skills.
y Shaolin was developed in ancient China
y It comprises a variety of hand puppets and

Indian Puppetry and Martial Arts in India 207

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to safeguard the Shaolin monastery from

bandits. Traditionally, Japanese Samurai
were expected to be proficient in a wide
range of weapons, but also in unarmed
combat, and to attain the highest degree
of proficiency. Gladiators with their combat
knowledge in sword, spear and shield were
famed in Rome. India, too, had a variety of
martial arts at the time, many of which have
survived the test of time.

Kalaripayattu
Fig. 14.10: Silambam
y Kalaripayattu, a well-known Kerala-based
Indian martial art, is considered one of y Animal motions such as snake, tiger, and
the world’s oldest combat techniques. It is eagle shapes, as well as walking patterns,
practised in most parts of South India. A will be included in Silambam art. Kuttu
Kalari, or martial arts training hall, school, varisai, a sort of unarmed martial art, is the
or other sites where martial arts are taught, other half.
is known as a Kalari.
Gatka

Fig. 14.9: Kalaripayattu Fig. 14.11: Gatka

y Kalaripayattu includes strikes, kicks, and y Gatka is a weapon-based Indian martial art
some weapon-based activities, but footwork that was primarily established by Punjabi
patterns are the most significant feature. It Sikhs. Gatka’s weapons include the stick,
is the best Indian martial technique, and it talwar, kirpan, and kataar. Depending on the
has been popularised because of films like hand or foot stance and the weapons used,
Ashoka and the Myth. the attacking and defending techniques
will change. It is also presented during
Silambam numerous festivals and fairs in Punjab.
y It is a weapon-based Indian martial art
from Tamil Nadu. Silambam employs a Musti Yuddha
variety of weapons, some of which have no y Punches, kicks, knees, and elbow blows are
counterparts anywhere else on the earth. used in this unarmed martial art form from
“Varanasi”. It consists of a combination of
physical, mental, and spiritual development.
y Despite its lack of visibility, this artwork
was highly popular in middle age.

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Thang-Ta Pari-Khanda
y The sword and shield fighting method
of Bihar’s Pari-khanda. This work of art
was created by the Rajputs. Pari Khanda’s
motions and methods are included in Chau
dance.

Kathi Samu
y Kathi Samu is an ancient Indian martial
style that originated in Andhra Pradesh and
was utilised by masters of the state’s royal
troops.
y The martial art is also acknowledged as
Fig. 14.12: Thang Ta Sword Fighting.

y Thang-Ta is the ancient Manipuri Martial Inbuan Wrestling

Art, also known as Huyen Langlon. This y In Mizoram, it is an unarmed kind of wrestling
Manipuri martial art, which employs swords in which the opponent attempts to knock
and spears, is a formidable yet gracefully the opponent off his feet strictly according
complicated skill. to the rules; no kicking, stepping out of the
circle, or knee bending is permitted.
Lathi
y The earliest armed martial art in India is
the lathi, and there are many other forms
of stick martial arts practised in India’s
Punjab and Bengal regions.

Fig. 14.14: Inbuan Wrestling

y A wrestler’s belt must be tight around the

waist at all times when wrestling.

Cheibi Gadga
y It is a weapon Based martial art in Manipur.
Fig. 14.13: Lathi y Plays with a sword and shield; victory is
based on skill rather than muscle power.
y In martial arts, the lathi is one of the oldest
weapons. In many Indian communities, it is Sarit-Sarak
still a popular pastime.
y It is an unarmed Type of martial art of
Mardani Khel
Manipur.
y Mardani Khel is a Maratha-developed armed
y It may be used to battle armed or unarmed
martial art system. Kolhapur is the home of
opponents, and it excels at both evasive
Maharashtra’s traditional martial art.
and attacking manoeuvres.

Indian Puppetry and Martial Arts in India 209

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Thoda Karra Samu

y It is a Mahabharata-era weapon-based y It is a stick fight in Andhra Pradesh.
martial technique that originated in
Himachal Pradesh. Conclusion
y It is generally based on archery skills. Various ancient war skills gave way to many
y The arrow’s head is fastened to a spherical Indian martial arts. It also finds and inspires
piece of wood. Indian yoga, dance and performing arts. As
with Indian dances, many of the routines of
Mukna
the martial arts have influenced Indian dance.
y It is a Manipuri form of unarmed wrestling Likewise, Indian puppetry is as diverse as the
in which two men wrestle while wearing many cultures in India. Several regional genres
cloth bands around their waists, with the make it one of the richest Indian cultural
winner always on top of the loser. heritages

Lakna-Phanaba
y It is the unarmed wrestling of Manipur.

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15 Indian Culture, Festivals, and

Calendars
Introduction is compensated for by intercalation or
suppression, which aligns the lunar and
India is famous all over the world for its culture
solar calendars. An intercalary month is
and tradition. It is a country where people of
added to the lunar calendar every two
more than one religious culture live together.
years and six months to match it with
It is amongst the oldest civilisations globally,
the solar calendar. Adhik Masa is the
with the vital components of Indian culture
name given to this extra month, also
being etiquette, civilised communication,
known as an intercalary month.
rituals, beliefs, values, etc. In India, people are
⚪ Solar year: It denotes the amount of
highly devoted to their culture and believe in
time the earth spends rotating in its
maintaining social relations. Different religions
orbit around the Sun, passing through
have their own culture and tradition in India,
a point on the ecliptic, such as the
along with their festival and fair, and they
solstice or equinox, to which it returns
celebrate it according to their rituals.
after its journey is completed. There
Calendars In India are 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and
46 seconds in a solar year. The closest
y In a calendar, each day is designated by correspondence between the year
its corresponding time cycle, usually day, and the seasons is maintained by this
week, month, or year. Under such a scheme, method. The solar year has a total of 12
each date is designated by a single word. months.
A calendar is a tangible record of such a ⚪ Luni-solar year: As in Hindu calendars,
method (often made of paper). the year is determined by the solar
y Various systems for marking the start of a cycle, and lunar divisions calculate the
new year have become common in India months; the change between the two is
multiple times. The method used to frame made by intercalation and suppression
calendars in different parts of India falls of days and months.
into one of three categories:
⚪ Lunar system Hindu Calendar
⚪ Solar system y Year, month, paksha, tithi, and ghatika,
⚪ Luni-solar system or alternatively, tithi, vaara, nakshatra,
y These systems are based on astronomical yoga, and karana, are all considered by
years, which observe the passage of Panchanga, or the Hindu Calendar. The
celestial bodies, and are used in various twelve rashis through which the Sun moves
calendars. These systems are responsible each year are named after a constellation
for the following names: of stars known as the Nakshatras.
⚪ Lunar year: The lunar year comprises 12 y There are a total of 28 nakshatras or
months, or lunations, much like the solar constellations. Because of their different
year. On the other hand, each lunation sizes, Nakshatras do not all have the same
is a synodic month, as defined by the number of stars; some only have one or
time between two consecutive full two. Two to three nakshatras make up each
moons or new moons. As the duration Rashi. The Hindu Calendar splits the solar
of a lunar month ranges from 29.26 year into two halves:
to 29.80 days, it has 354 days, 11 days ⚪ Uttarayana: It lasts six months, from
less than the solar year. This disparity Makar Sankranti to Karka Sankranti, or

Indian Culture, Festivals, and Calendars 211

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from Paush (January) to Ashadh (June). known as Adhik Masa added to it every
⚪ Dakshinayana: It lasts six months, from 3 years and every 5 years, 13 months, to
July to December. compensate for the discrepancy of 11 days
with the solar year. Under Vikram Samvat,
Indian Forms and Their Classification the zero years is 56 BC.
y Various types of calendars emerged in India,
based on the various eras to which they Saka samvat
pertain. The following are some of them: y In the year 78 AD, King Shalivahan
developed this calendar type. The Saka
period was also known as the Shalivahan
era because Shalivahan belonged to this
tribe. Historians disagree about whether
Shalivahan was a Saka or a defeated Saka.
⚪ Like the Vikram Samvat, the Saka
Fig. 15.1: Classification of Indian Calendar Forms
Calendar is solar and lunar, with lunar
months and solar years and the same
number of months as the Vikram period.
Vikram samvat
⚪ The months, on the other hand, start at
y There is still a Vikram era in almost all of
different times in this country. It is zero
India, although the Bengal region has failed
year starts around the year 78 AD, near
to embrace the era. It began 56 years before
the vernal equinox.
the Christian era, in the year 56 BC.
⚪ Every year, the Saka Calendar begins on
⚪ According to historians, this period was
22nd March, except in Gregorian leap
created by King Vikramaditya of Ujjain
years, when it begins on 21st March.
to commemorate his victory over the
Each month in the Saka calendar has
Saka rulers.
a fixed number of days. In a Saka year,
⚪ However, many historians believe that
there are 365 days.
Vikram Samvat was founded by the
⚪ Hijri Calendar: This calendar was
Malwa Ganarajya, and thus known as
produced in Arabic. Originally known as
the Malwa Gana period and that it was
Amulfil, it was renamed Hijri or Hejira
named after Chandragupta Vikramaditya
after Prophet Mohammed’s death to
when he conquered Malwa around 400
commemorate his hijrat, or journey from
AD.
Mecca to Medina, which occurred in the
y It is a Lunisolar calendar based on Hindu
52nd year of his life in 622 AD This year
rituals from the past.
was declared the Hijri era’s zero years.
y The solar Gregorian calendar is 56.7 years
 This calendar uses a lunar year,
behind the calendar. The new year begins
which is split into 12 months and has
with the first day after the new moon in
354 days. This year, the day begins
the month of Chaitra, which falls in the
with a sunset. During the reign
Gregorian calendar months of March–to
of the Muslim rulers in India, this
April. It starts in mid-April in Nepal, marking
calendar was adopted. Muharram is
the start of the solar new year. There are
the first month of the Hijri period,
354 days in a year, split into 12 months. The
during which no business or travel is
Vikram period begins with Kartika as the
allowed. 1st Muharram is the Islamic
first year in most parts of Indian territory.
New Year.
y The light half and the dark half of each
⚪ Gregorian calendar: It is derived on the
month are split into two halves (fortnights).
birthday of Jesus Christ, the father of
Vikram Samvat has an additional month
Christianity. It is a solar year that begins

212 Indian Culture, Festivals, and Calendars

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on 1st January and lasts for 365 days, Awards Given by the Government of India
5 hours, 48 minutes, and 46 seconds.
Adding one day to the month of February Bharat ratna
every four years was introduced as a y The title Bharat Ratna literally translates
means of intercalating the new hours to “Jewel of India”, which is the Republic
since they couldn’t be used in the of India’s highest civilian honour.
calendar for a year. A civil year is a year y The Bharat Ratna is granted to outstanding
that follows this calendar format. people who have excelled in their fields.
It was issued for the first time in 1954.
National Calendar of India
Originally, this award was presented
y It is formulated based on the Saka Calendar, to artists who had made significant
which is used as the country’s official civil contributions to art, research, literature,
calendar. It is used in news broadcasts by All or public service; however, the standards
India Radio, calendars, and correspondence were extended in December 2011 to include
documents published under the control “any area of human endeavour”.
of the Government of India, as well as via
notification in the Official Gazette.
y Saka Samvat was the original name of the
Saka calendar, which is a Hindu calendar.
In the Hindu religion, it is often used to
calculate days of religious significance.
y The Calendar Reforms Committee was set
up by the Indian government and adopted
the Saka calendar as the National Calendar
in 1957.
y After correcting some local errors, the
Committee worked to align the astronomical
data and harmonise the use of this calendar.
According to the Gregorian calendar, it
was first used on 22nd March 1957, which
corresponded to Chaitra 1, 1879 in the Saka
Samvat.
y It was chosen as India’s National Calendar to
harmonise 30 different types of calendars Fig. 15.2: Bharat Ratna
in the country at the time.
y The Prime Minister of India makes
Awards And Honours recommendations to the President of India,
y Person and community awards and honours who selects no more than three individuals
are granted as a token of gratitude or for the award in any given year. Although
recognition for extraordinary work. Every the awardees do not receive any money,
year, the Government of India bestows they receive a peepal-leaf shaped medal
many honours on those who have excelled and a certificate (sanad).
in their fields. y Those who receive the Bharat Ratna are
numbered seventh in the Indian Order of
Precedence. According to Article 18(1) of
the Constitution, the award cannot be used
as a prefix or suffix to the recipient’s name.

Indian Culture, Festivals, and Calendars 213

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Padma awards of India’s third-highest civilian honour,

granted to those who have contributed
to India’s international reputation. The
President of India bestows the award
at a lavish ceremony at the Rashtrapati
Bhawan in March or April.
⚪ Padma shri: It is the Republic of India’s
fourth highest civilian honour, granted
Fig. 15.3: Padma Awards by the government for outstanding
contributions to various fields such as
y These awards, founded in 1954, are given to literature, arts, politics, sports, industry,
deserving individuals for their outstanding social service, medicine, and so on. The
achievements in social work, art, sports, awardee receives a certificate and a
civil service, education, public relations, medallion with a three-leafed flower on
literature, science and technology, trade one side and Padma (lotus) and Shri (Mr.
and industry, and others. Every year on or Ms.) written in Devanagari script on
Republic Day, the awardees’ names are the other side.
revealed.
y The Padma awards are subject to a variety Sahitya akademi award
of rules, including the following:
⚪ In order to receive a higher degree of
the Padma award, anyone who has
received a lesser degree must have
been awarded that award for the last
five years or more.
⚪ Second, awards are seldom granted
posthumously, but exceptions may be
made if the case is compelling.
⚪ Third, the accomplishments of the
individual to be chosen should include
a component of public service. It should
not be focused solely on exceptional Fig. 15.4: Sahitya Akademi Award
performance in any area but rather on
exceptional performance plus. y This is an award presented to those who
⚪ Government employees, including those succeed in the field of literature. This
employed by Public Sector Undertakings, award was established in 1954 and is
are not eligible for these honours, except granted by the ‘Sahitya Akademi’, which is
for physicians and scientists. our country’s National Academy of Letters.
y According to the Government of India, the y It is awarded annually to such persons
awards are of three categories: who have achieved literary merit and
⚪ Padma vibhushan: It is the Republic of developed new trends by publishing their
India’s second most prestigious civilian works, whether prose or poetry, in any of
award. Those who are honoured with the Akademi’s 24 major languages.
the award are presented with a citation y The Sahitya Akademi has recognised English
certificate and a badge with a lotus and Rajasthani as languages that can be
flower in the centre and the words considered for the award, in addition to
“Desh Seva” embossed on the obverse. the 22 languages mentioned in the Indian
⚪ Padma bhushan: It is the government Constitution.

214 Indian Culture, Festivals, and Calendars

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⚪ The competition includes a cash prize is part of the Ministry of Information

of Rs. 1 lakh and a plaque in Devanagari and Broadcasting, bestows the award.
script that reads “Sahitya”. The plaque ⚪ The award is presented for outstanding
was designed by Satyajit Ray, a well- contributions to the growth and
known Indian filmmaker. development of Indian cinema and is
chosen by a committee of eminent film
Other Literary Honours industry figures.
y Sahitya akademi fellowship: The Sahitya
Akademi Fellowship is a prestigious Cultural Institutions In India
fellowship offered by the Akademi. The y India’s Constitution entrusts the Indian
Akademi’s highest distinction is bestowed Government with the responsibility
upon the ‘Fellows and Honorary Fellows’, to preserve, conserve, and propagate
who are selected solely for their exceptional Indian culture, and there are a number
contributions to the literary arts. of government and non-government
y Bhasha samman: Sahitya Akademi also organizations committed to conserving
awards these prized authors every year for India’s long cultural traditions. The
their contributions to languages other than following are some of the most well-known
the 24 protected languages by the Sahitya institutions:
Akademi prize, as well as for classic and
medieval literature. The Archaeological Survey of India
⚪ A plaque and a cash reward of Rs. 1 lakh y The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is
are included in the Bhasha Samman. the leading institution for archaeological
y Jnanpith award: The Jnanpith Award (Seat research in India, and it is directly under
of Knowledge) is given for outstanding the Ministry of Culture’s aegis.
literary achievement. The Bharatiya y The protection of physical and tangible
Jnanpith, a trust run by the Jain family heritage accumulated in ancient ruins and
famous for establishing the newspaper archaeological sites is its main priority.
Times of India, was founded in 1961. y ASI is regulated by the 1958 Ancient
⚪ The winner gets a bronze statue of 144 Monuments and Archaeological Sites
Goddess Saraswathi in addition to a and Remains Act. The Antiquities and Art
plaque and a cash reward of Rs. 11 lakhs. Treasure Act of 1972 is another significant
This award is not offered to those who piece of legislation that governs the ASI’s
have passed away. operations.
y Saraswati samman: It is an annual award y The ASI’s mandate under this Act is to avoid
granted in any of the 22 Indian languages the illicit export of Indian antiquities.
specified in Schedule VIII of the Indian
Constitution for outstanding prose or Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts
poetry literary works. (IGNCA)
⚪ It is considered one of India’s top literary y In 1985, the IGNCA was created. IGNCA is
awards and is named after an Indian a self-contained agency that focuses on
Goddess of learning. arts research, restoration, exhibition, and
y Dada saheb phalke award: The Dada Saheb dissemination.
Phalke Award was created in 1969 to y Despite their emphasis on visual and
honour Dada Saheb Phalke (1870–1944), performing arts, they also encourage critical
the legendary film director who produced and creative writing. IGNCA’s main aim is to
India’s first full-length feature film, Raja become a major resource centre for India’s
Harishchandra (1913). oral and visual art forms.
⚪ The Directorate of Film Festivals, which

Indian Culture, Festivals, and Calendars 215

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All India Radio the nation’s structure, despite being an

y All India Radio is the country’s most well- autonomous entity.
known public service radio station. It is y The CCRT, with its headquarters in New
run by the Indian government’s Ministry of Delhi and three regional centres in Udaipur
Information and Broadcasting. Its slogan is (the west), Hyderabad (the South), and
“Bahujan Hitaya: Bahujan Sukhaya”, which Guwahati (the Northeast), aims to promote
literally translates to “Serve, Teach, and the broad diffusion of Indian art and culture.
Entertain the Audience”. y CCRT focuses on students and raises
y AIR hits nearly 99.19 per cent of the awareness of the diversity of regional
population in terms of demographics. AIR cultures and languages in India among
has worked to protect citizens’ interests teachers, principals, and non-teaching/
by keeping them updated on all issues of administrative actors.
public concern since its inception. Only by y This diversity must be expressed in the
providing them with a fair and balanced flow curriculum and strengthened by modern
of knowledge will this be accomplished. and creative teaching methods.
y They generate programming in approximately
23 languages. The Prasar Bharati Act, National Archives of India (NAI)
which was amended in 1990, regulates the y This is one of the oldest British institutions,
material, goals, and objectives of AIR. which was founded to keep the
y The key goals of AIR, according to the Act, administrative records of the Indian state.
are to: The main goals of NAI, according to the
⚪ Pay more attention to education and Ministry of Culture’s Memorandum on the
literacy, the environment, health National Archives of India, are as follows:
and family welfare, agriculture, rural ⚪ To assist in preserving Indian
development, and other issues that documentary cultural heritage and
promote national integration and uphold ensuring that it is passed onto future
the values enshrined in the Indian generations, with greater access to
Constitution. archival holdings.
⚪ Attempt to study and extend ⚪ Gathering a large number of records and
broadcasting faculties, as well as create managing them scientifically.
new broadcast technology. ⚪ To foster closer ties between archival
⚪ Emphasis on women’s problems, as institutions and archivists, especially at
well as children’s, disabled, minority the national and international levels.
community, tribal, or any other ⚪ Finally, to foster a scientific mindset
disadvantaged segment of society. among archivists, custodians, and
⚪ Focus on celebrating Indian culture’s users of records about India’s rich
diversity and promoting youth activities documentary heritage.
such as sports and other games.
Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR)
Centre For Cultural Resources and Training y The ICCR was established under the
(CCRT) Ministry of Culture’s auspices to conduct
y India’s Ministry of Culture founded the programmes that promote Indian culture
Centre for Cultural Resources and Training globally. It was established in 1950 by
(CCRT) to link education and culture. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, who believed
y It was established in 1979 by Dr Kapila strongly in promoting cultural exchanges
Vatsyayan and Smt. Kamala Devi with other countries and cultures.
Chattopadhyay at their request. The y Globalisation has resulted in several forums
government has required CCRT to reinforce for cultural exchange between nations. The

216 Indian Culture, Festivals, and Calendars

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ICCR develops and implements policies y The Sangeet Natak Akademi also oversees
deeply rooted in India’s international a variety of institutions that specialise in
cultural ties. dance, music, and drama.
y The ICCR supports a variety of visual and
performing arts programmes that have a Lalit Kala Akademi
global reach. They fund events such as the y The Government of India founded the
New Delhi Jazz Festival and the Guwahati National Academy of Art in 1954 to promote
North-East Music Festival. fine arts in India.
y The services are an important part of forming y The academy is a self-governing body
and sustaining partnerships with other sponsored by the Ministry of Culture.
national and international organisations in They promote the appreciation and
the cultural field. understanding of fine arts. Even though
y The ICCR’s key aim is to foster international they deal with both national and foreign
friendship, cultural interaction, healthy art, they are primarily concerned with
competition, and exchange. As a result, to promoting and preserving Indian art.
combine the new and old aspects of Indian y Its main centre is in Delhi with regional
culture. centres in Kolkata, Chennai, Lucknow,
Shillong, Shimla and Bhubaneswar.
Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR)
y It was established in 1972, following the Festivals of India
passage of the Societies Registration Act. y Festivals are a substantial part of Indian
y It is a self-supporting group that receives culture, acting as a vehicle for presenting
funding from the University Grants our values and emotions. While each
Commission (UGC). community has its festivals and holy days,
y It was founded to promote and preserve all religious groups can participate in these
Indian culture. It served as a gathering celebrations. India is a secular nation,
place for historians to explore new ideas. and holidays are observed for a variety of
religious and community celebrations.
Sangeet Natak Akademi
y The Government of India founded the National Festivals
Sangeet Natak Akademi (SNA) in 1952 as y On the occasion of major historical events of
the first national academy for the arts. It national significance, national holidays are
was inaugurated by Dr Rajendra Prasad, commemorated. Through these festivals,
India’s first President. Indians are instilled with a deep sense of
y In addition to creating an environment patriotism. India celebrates three National
for Indian music, drama, and dance, the Festivals namely:
academy had the daunting task of promoting ⚪ Republic Day: 26th January
India’s intangible heritage besides creating ⚪ Independence Day: 15th August
an environment for Indian music, drama, ⚪ Gandhi Jayanti: 2nd October
and dance, which was manifested in the
forms of music, dance, and drama. Religious Festivals
y They are not only meant to be the central y People of all faiths can attend these
body in charge of overseeing the protection festivals, as they are celebrated by specific
of our cultural heritage, but they also have groups of people who adhere to a particular
to work with state and union territory belief system. Holi, for example, is mainly
governments to conserve and encourage a Hindu religious festival, but non- Hindus
their cultures on a national level. also enjoy it in secular countries like India.

Indian Culture, Festivals, and Calendars 217

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Hindu festivals is set as the dates for the Eid-ul-Fitr

y Diwali or Deepawali: It is a light festival held festival, which is determined through a
on the day of the New Moon (Amavasya) complicated procedure.
in the month of Kartik that falls between y Eid-ul-zuha or eid-al-adha: Bakr-Eid, or
October and November. the Id that includes the sacrifice of a goat
⚪ Naraka Chaturdashi is the day before or Bakra, is another name for this. This is
the festival. commemorated on the tenth day of Dhu-
y Holi: Holi is a Hindu festival which is al-Hijjah, the Islamic calendar’s 12th month.
celebrated in the month of Phalguna ⚪ It commemorates the Prophet Ibrahim’s
(February-March). It is known as the Festival unwavering devotion to Allah, which was
of Colours, and it is observed by citizens of put to the test when God asked him to
all faiths. It represents the victory of good sacrifice his son.
over evil, i.e., the burning of Holika and the  Ibrahim is said to have readily agreed
rescue of Bhakt Prahlad. to have his son’s head cut off, but
⚪ It is known as Dol Jatra in West Bengal God was merciful and accepted the
and parts of Assam. offering of a goat’s head.
y Dussehra: It is a Hindu holiday. It is  As a result, a goat’s head is
also known as Vijaya Dashami, and it is sacrificed on the day of Eid-ul-Azha,
celebrated all over India to commemorate and the meat is distributed as ritual
Lord Rama’s victory over Ravana. Ravana offerings among family members
Dahan is a popular sight on this day, and neighbours. A third of the
especially in North India. sacrificed meat is also distributed
y Durga puja: It is a Hindu festival to the needy.
commemorating the Goddess, Durga. It is ⚪ This Eid also marks the start of the holy
mainly observed in India’s eastern regions time during which many people perform
(especially West Bengal). It commemorates the Hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca.
Goddess Durga’s victory over the demon y Milad-un-nabi: This festival, also known
Mahishasura. as the Barahwafat, commemorates the
y Ganesh chaturthi: It is a Hindu festival Prophet Muhammad’s birth anniversary.
commemorating the birth of Lord Ganesha. According to the Quran, the Prophet was
This festival is held all over India to born on the 12th day of Rabi-al-Awwal, the
commemorate Lord Ganesha’s birth third month of the Muslim calendar. Milad-
anniversary, but it is mainly celebrated in un-Nabi is the name of the day.
Maharashtra because it is the state’s main ⚪ This is also the day that the Prophet is
festival. believed to have left the world, so the
festivities are very lowkey on this day.
Muslim festivals The day falls under the category of
y Eid-ul-fitr: This is one of the many festivals national holidays.
observed by Muslims around the world. ⚪ It is observed with solemnity and
The festival takes place after the end respect. People meet in Mosques to hear
of the Islamic holy month of Ramadan the Holy Quran read aloud. At special
(Ramzan), which is the ninth month of the gatherings, religious scholars recite the
calendar. People fast for the entire month Qasida al- Burda Sharif, a very sacred
of Ramadan, starting at sunrise and ending poem written by Arabic Sufi Busiri in the
at sunset. 13th Century.
⚪ The first day of the month of Shawwal ⚪ They also perform Nats, which are
and after the appearance of the moon traditional poems written in the
at the end of the month of Ramadan Prophet’s honour and portraying his

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good works. birthday, the Sikh community celebrates

y Muharram: During Muharram, the Islamic Guru Nanak Jayanti. On this day, all
New Year occurs coincidentally on the first Gurudwaras hold special services and
day of the first month of the calendar. It langar is distributed to the public. All
commemorates the death of Hussain, Ali’s the Gurpurabs are reasons to rejoice
son. The 10th day of Muharram is known and remember the Lord.
as Yaum-al-Ashura, which the Muslims ⚪ Therefore, Akhand Path is held,
observe as a day of mourning. and people sing Prabhat Pheris or
congregational singing of praise hymns
Christian festivals to the Lord.
y Christmas: The birth anniversary of Jesus y Lohri: On 13th January, in the month of
Christ is commemorated on this day all over Magh, a day before Makar Sankranti, this
the world. Every year on 25th December, it occasion is commemorated. Lohri is a
is observed. The festivities begin with the Hindu festival that honours fertility and
midnight mass held in all Churches on the the spark of creation. People congregate
night of the 24th-25th of December 151 and around bonfires, throwing candy, puffed
commemorate Christ’s birth at midnight. rice, and popcorn into the flames, singing
⚪ People flock to the Church, where a common songs, and exchanging greetings.
number of activities are organised to It also represents the triumph of light over
remind devotees of Christ’s good works. darkness.
⚪ People exchange presents and pays y Vaisakhi/baisakhi: Every year on the 13th or
visits to each other’s homes. The 14th of April, a religious festival is held. It is
Christmas Tree, which is placed in also the celebration of the Khalsa Panth’s
everyone’s home, is one of the two birthday. Gurudwaras are decorated and
traditions associated with the festival. kirtans are sung there. For the Sikhs, this
Lamps and lights adorn the room. is the spring harvest festival. Sikhs bathe in
⚪ The other legend is that of Santa Claus, the holy river, visit Temples, socialise with
who is said to be a bringer of presents. relatives, and enjoy festive foods.
On this day, people sing carols and hand
out sweets and cakes. Jain festivals
y Easter and good friday: The resurrection of y Mahavir jayanti: The festival is celebrated
Jesus Christ is commemorated on this day. by the Jain community. It is held to
According to the Bible, Jesus was reborn commemorate Lord Mahavira’s birth
three days after he was crucified, so Easter anniversary as the 24th Tirthankara and
is meant to represent the victory of life one of Jainism’s founders. It happens on
over death. the 13th day of Chaitra, the month of the
rising moon.
Sikhs festivals ⚪ The festival is marked by pomp and
y Gurpurab: It is commemorated by the Sikh circumstance, with the saffron flag
community all over the world. The birth flying high over all Jain Temples.
anniversaries of all ten Sikh Gurus are Mahavira’s idol is washed in milk and
commemorated in Gurpurabs, but Guru given a ceremonial bath (Abhishek).
Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh are the After that, it is held in a procession.
most notable. Other significant Gurpurabs y Paryushana: Paryushana is the name of the
commemorate the deaths of Guru Arjan Jains’ annual festival. The Svetambara sect
Dev and Guru Tegh Bahadur, both of whom celebrates it for eight days in the month
were killed by the Mughals. of Bhadrapada (August/September). The
⚪ On the occasion of Guru Nanak’s festival is held for ten days by the Digambara

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sect. y Ploughing festival: This festival

y Mahamastakabhisheka: It takes place commemorates Buddha’s first
every 12 years in the Karnataka town enlightenment, which occurred when he
of Shravanabelagola. The holy bathing was seven years old and was watching
ceremony of Siddha Bahubali, son of ploughing with his father. The two white
Rishabhdev, is held during this festival. oxen pull a gold-painted plough, followed
Devotees holding specially prepared vessels by four white girls who throw rice seeds
sprinkle the concentrated water. The statue from baskets, and this is celebrated in the
is bathed in milk, sugarcane juice, and month of May.
saffron paste, and powdered sandalwood, y Ullambana: This festival lasts from the
turmeric, and vermilion are sprinkled on first to the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar
top. month. The gates of Hell are said to open
y Gyana panchami: “Gyana Panchami” is the on the first day, allowing spirits to enter the
name given to the fifth day of Kartika. It is earth for fifteen days. During this time, food
known as “Awareness Day”. Under Jainism, offerings are made to ease the pain of the
holy scriptures are shown and worshipped ghosts. People visit cemeteries on the 15th
on this day. day (Ullambana or Ancestor Day) to make
offerings to the departed souls.
Buddhist festivals
y Buddha purnima: The Buddha Purnima, Sindhi festivals
also known as the Buddha Jayanti, y Chaliho Sahib: In the months of July and
commemorates the birth of Lord Buddha. August, Sindhis observe a 40-day fast.
It occurs in the months of April/May and is They fast for 40 days in order to pray to
commonly observed in North-East India. In Lord Jhulelal, and then they celebrate the
Sikkim, it is known as Saga Dawa (Dasa), day like Thanksgiving Day. The people of
and in the Theravada tradition, it is known Thatta were troubled by Mirkshah Badshah,
as Vishakha Puja. Bodh Gaya in Bihar and a Muslim invader from Sindh who wanted
Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh are the major them to convert to Islam.
celebration centres in Northern India. ⚪ People performed penance on the
y In addition to the traditional prayers and river’s banks for 40 days in order to pray
sermons, the festivities include singing to Varun Devta or the God of Water.
Buddhist scriptures, worshipping the Bodhi ⚪ Varun Devta heard their prayers on the
tree and the Buddha’s image, and engaging 40th day and vowed to deliver them
in meditation. Different sects have varying from the tyrant. Jhulelal was the answer
guidelines, including: to their prayers.
⚪ A large procession of musical
instruments such as gyalings is Parsi or zoroastrian festivals
organised by Mahayana Buddhists. y Jamshed navroz: The Parsi community
⚪ Theravada Buddhists only focus on celebrates the festival of Navroz as the
offering ritual prayers to Buddha idols, New Year’s celebration. It occurs on
and they also read Kangyur text. the Roj Hormuzd or the first day of the
y Songkran: This Buddhist festival is Shehanshahi calendar’s first month (first
celebrated in the same way as spring day of Frawardin).
cleaning is. In the middle of April, it is ⚪ As this is the end of winter and the start
commemorated for several days. People of the New Year, it is believed to be the
clean their homes, wash their clothing, and start of the Universal Dawn.
sprinkle perfumed water on the monks is a ⚪ The two celestial beings who are the
common pastime. harbinger of the Light, Khorshed and

220 Indian Culture, Festivals, and Calendars

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Meher Yazads, are worshipped by Parsis. means ‘to boil’, and the boiling of the first
⚪ People pay each other visits and pay a rice is a significant ritual observed during
visit to the Fire Temple. the festival.
y It takes place in the Thai month when
Secular Festivals harvested from various crops such as rice,
sugarcane, and turpentine. During the Thai
Khajuraho dance festival month, it takes place when various crops
y A dance festival founded by the Government such as rice, sugarcane, turmeric, and
of India in 1975 in collaboration with the others are harvested. It is a time to give
Madhya Pradesh Kala Parishad, this festival thanks to the Sun God and celebrate the
showcased the eroticism and beauty of the life cycles that provide us with grain.
Khajuraho Temples while at the same time
encouraging tourism in the state. Festivals of North-East India

Tyagaraja aradhana Saga dawa (triple blessed festival)

y Every year, it is held to commemorate y It is one of the most important Buddhist
the famous Telugu Saint and composer festivals celebrated in Sikkim in the
Tyagaraja’s ‘Samadhi’ day. It is held mainly Tibetan lunar month. The full moon day
in Thiruvaiyaru, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil that falls during the middle of the lunar
Nadu (where he attained Samadhi). Leading month is called Saga Dawa. It is considered
exponents of Carnatic music attend the an auspicious day by Buddhists.
festival to pay their respects to the saint. y Saga Dawa is known as the ‘Month of
The Trinity of Carnatic music consists of Merits’ and is celebrated between May
Saint Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, and and June. The festival celebrates the birth,
Syama Sastri. enlightenment and death of the Buddha.
y At the event of Saga Dawa in Sikkim, people
Onam assemble at the monasteries and present
y Onam, Kerala’s state festival, takes place water, incense sticks and dhog.
at the start of Chigam, the first month of y On top of this, many devotees participate
the Malayalam calendar. It is primarily a in the circumambulation of the Gompas,
harvest festival, but it also commemorates in which they recite mantras and take the
the return of Mahabali, the mighty asura religious text.
king from Patala (the underground).
y The colourful and lively festival of Onam Losoong festival
includes elaborate feasts, dances, flowers, y Losoong is the Sikkimese New Year which
vessels, and elephants. The Vallam Kali is is celebrated each year in the month of
a popular feature of Onam (the Snake Boat December. Since agriculture is the primary
race). occupation in the state of Sikkim, it is
y The Nehru Boat Race Trophy is awarded to around this time of the year when the
the winners of the most famous Vallamkali, farmers honour their harvest.
which is held in Punnamada Lake. y Although this festival is a traditional
celebration of the Bhutia tribe, the Lepchas
Pongal also celebrate it with equal vigour and zeal.
y Pongal is a four-day harvest festival that y A variety of dances, including Cham Dance
Tamils all over the world celebrate. It is and Black Hat Dance, are performed at the
observed in January and marks the start monasteries, and local wines, Chaang, are
of Uttarayan, the Sun’s six-month journey served. To enhance the festival spirit, an
Northward. In Tamil, the word Pongal archery competition is also conducted.

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Bihu festival pork eating and King Chilly add flavours to

y It comprises three major Assamese the festive mood.
nonreligious festivals: Rongali or Bohag
Bihu in April, Kongali or Kati Bihu in October, Moatsu mong festival
and Bhogali Bihu in January. y This festival of the Ao tribe in Nagaland
y Bohag Bihu is one of the major festivals commemorates the completion of the
of Assam which is celebrated to welcome sowing season. It is a three-day festival
the Assamese New Year. It calls for a huge celebrated from 1st May to 3 each year.
celebration beginning on the 14th of April y After the stressful work of burning jungles,
each year. Although the festival is observed clearing fields, sowing seeds, and so on,
for seven days, the celebration extends for the festival provides them with a time of
about a month. The first day of Bohag Bihu relaxation and entertainment.
is called Goru Bihu, in which cows and bulls y Held in the Mokokchung district, the Moatsu
are bathed and fed. Mong festival begins with cleaning wells
y The central part of this festival is observed and brewing beer.
on the second day when people greet y During the festival, people enjoy the taste
each other and provide their relatives with of local delicacies and enjoy cultural
Gamosa (hand-woven cotton towels). programs. Where men perform traditional
y On this day, young Assamese men and warrior dances, women sing songs that
women create groups and perform Bihu praise Ao villages.
Dance. Assamese delicacies are prepared y Moatsu Mong is a very colourful festival and
out of which the speciality is Pitha (a dish is also the symbol of the rich Naga culture.
made of rice powder, wheat flour, coconut, Sangpangtu is a part of the festival, where
sesame and jaggery). Stages are set in a large fire is lit, and women and men sit
several parts of the state, where the Bihu around it.
Dance is performed on a regular basis for
a month. Kharchi puja
y Kharchi is a popular festival that originated
Hornbill festival in Tripura. Though it started as a royal
y Hornbill Festival is a major festival in family Tripura festival, it is now celebrated
Nagaland which is named after a bird. Like by ordinary people as well.
many festivals in the state, this festival is y This festival takes place during the month
also associated with agriculture. of July and lasts for a week. It is a 10-day
y It is a 7 to 10 days festival that begins with long festival that is commemorated by
immense zeal on 1st December every year. animal sacrifice and worshipping 14 Gods
Held in Kisama Heritage Village, all the major as instructed by Lord Shiva.
tribes in Nagaland attend this festival. y It takes place in the month of July each
y This is an excellent opportunity for all year in Old Agartala or Purani Haveli, where
tribes to come together, as well as for the there is a Temple that houses 14 deities.
younger generation. Hornbill is a good time y Thousands of people throng Tripura during
to observe cultural vividness. the festival and enjoy cultural programmes
y The warrior log drums, colourful headgear, and fairs.
and soulful war cry, exquisite costumes are
the features of the festival. Dree festival
y All tribes use costumes, arms, bows, y Although Dree is the festival of the Apatani
arrows, and clan headgears to show their Tribe (Arunachal Pradesh), Dree festival
talent and cultural vibrancy. traditions are now being observed by an
y The Kohima Night Bazaar and contests like increasing number of tribes.

222 Indian Culture, Festivals, and Calendars

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y The festival takes place on the 5th of July

each year; however, celebrations associated and they are required to be preserved
with the festival begin on the 4th of July and cherished because once lost, they
itself. are nonrenewable. Also, there are other
y It is one of the major festivals in the Ziro factors for which this fragile wealth is
valley and is celebrated to ensure a good needed to be safeguarded:
harvest. People offer prayers to four Gods
during the festival, namely, Tamu, Harniang,
Metis, and Danyi.
y People brew wine, and women serve various Cultural Natural
Tangible and Intangible La
delicacies and rice/millet beer as a symbol Heritage
Culture
Heritage
Bio
of a good harvest. A traditional dance is
performed, and cucumbers are distributed
Buildings, Monuments, Mo
as a symbol of a good harvest. Landscape, Literature, De
Artefacts, Music, Dance, Fo
Conclusion Folklore, Traditions,
Knowledge, and
In India, culture can be seen in everything Languages

from dance, fashion, artistry, and music to

behaviour, social norms, food, architecture,
dressing sense, etc. India could be considered
a big melting pot with various beliefs and
Cultural Natural
Tangible and Intangible Landscape and
behaviours that gave birth to different cultures.
Heritage Heritage
Culture Biodiversity
A great message that forms an essential part
of our culture is “Atithi Devo Bhava”, which
Buildings, Monuments, Mountains, Rivers,
translates to always welcoming our guests Literature,
Landscape, like Desert, Coastal, Hills,
a God. The basic roots of our great culture
Artefacts, are Dance,
Music, Forest
Folklore, Traditions,
humanity and spiritual practices. Knowledge, and
Languages

Previous Years’ Question (PYQ) Fig. 15.5: Cultural and Natural Heritage
(2018, Mains)
y According to IUCN, natural world
heritage sites are important not only
Safeguarding the Indian art heritage is
for the environment, but also for social
the need of the moment. (UPSC 2018)
and economic reasons.
Answer:
y According to a WWF poll, “more
Cultural heritage refers to a group’s or
than half of the world’s population
society’s inherent cultural resources
relies on world heritage sites for
and intangible traits from previous
food, water, shelter, and medicine.”
generations. India’s cultural history is not
These environmental services and
only one of the world’s oldest, but also
the populations that rely on them
one of the largest and most diverse. The
are threatened by harmful industrial
treasures of Indian heritage include art,
growth.”
architecture, classical dance, music, flora
y Many Indian art forms are on the verge
and fauna, and the people’s innate secular
of extinction such as Tikuli art and the
philosophy.
Patna kalam Painting of Bihar to Parsi
Indian art heritage is “fragile wealth”,
Ghara embroidery.

Indian Culture, Festivals, and Calendars 223

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y Around 197 Indian languages are Preserving the heritage is enshrined as

vulnerable, endangered, or extinct. a Fundamental Duty (Article 51 A) in the
Ahom, Andro, Rangkas, Sengmai, and Indian Constitution. Also, Article 49 makes
Tolcha are extinct languages spoken in it clear that the obligation to protect
the Himalayan belt. these sites is of the State. Institutions
y A large number of historic monuments like the Archaeological Survey of India
and heritage buildings are in a pathetic (ASI) are charged with the preservation
state and need urgent attention like of physical and tangible heritage that is
the mausoleum of Amanat Khan accumulated in the ancient monuments
Shirazi and the historical site of Pul and archaeological sites.
Kanjri in Amritsar. Under the 2003 Convention, India was
y The traditional toys of India like successful in inscribing 13 Intangible
Channapatna, Kondapalli, or Galar Cultural Heritage (ICH) items on the
putul are on the verge of extinction UNESCO Representative List of Intangible
due to the inundation of Chinese toys Cultural Heritage of Humanity.Schemes
in the Indian market. like ‘Adopt a Heritage’ and Heritage
y Art heritage represents the “unity in City Development and Augmentation
diversity” of India and builds a bridge Yojana (HRIDAY) will give more thrust to
between people living abroad to get safeguarding Indian heritage.
connected with their native country.

224 Indian Culture, Festivals, and Calendars