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1 HUMAN & ECONOMIC

MODULE

GEOGRAPHY
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Contents

1. Introduction 5
2. Mineral Resources 11
3. Energy Resources 23
4. Water Resources 45
5. Marine Resources 55
6. Biosphere 67
7. Forest Resources 73
8. Agriculture 81
9. Industries 97
10. Economic Development 113
11. Transport 121
12. Communication 139
13. Trade And Commerce 143
14. Demography 161
15. Migration 167
16. Human Development 177
17. Urbanisation and Settlements 185

Contents 3
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1 Introduction

Introduction
mostly from the former/current centralised
About Economic Geography economies (for e.g., the former Soviet
y Geography is a study of Man and Environment bloc or China) and those that focus on the
relationship. It is concerned with providing natural resource surveys, site selection
accurate, orderly, and rational descriptions for the industrial plants & railways, land
and interpretations of the variable character use planning in the agriculture, integrated
of the earth’s surface. planning of the industrial sectors, and
y Its main aim is to describe how places industrial spatial distribution.
and areas differ from one another, and y The following are the most common
accordingly, Geography is concerned with characterisations that falls within the
the study of areal differences. second “sectoral” approach:
y Economic Geography is the branch of ⚪ Transport & Communication Geography.
Geography which is essentially concerned ⚪ Geography of Agriculture.
with the economic pursuits of mankind and ⚪ Geography of Industry.
their spatial pattern on the surface of the ⚪ Labour Geography.
earth. ⚪ Geography of Leisure & Tourism.
y It studies places where economic activities ⚪ Environmental and Development
occur and also why it occurs. Geography.
y The two major components of the field of ⚪ Geography of Services, Trade and Retail.
economic geography are as follows: ⚪ Geography of Resources.
⚪ Economy as a distinct spatial object. ⚪ Rural & Urban Geography (economic
⚪ Economy as the delimiter for sub-fields aspects).
in geography. ⚪ Health Geography.
y With respect to the first major approach ⚪ Geography Entrepreneurship.
(which includes economy as a separate ⚪ Globalisation.
spatial object), Maryá and Vystoupil argue y In general terms, the following are common
that the most important goal of economic denominators for the majority of economic
geography is to shed some light on the geography definitions:
spatial organisation as well as differentiation ⚪ It is a branch of geography that focuses
of the social-economic systems and also on the location as well as distribution of
to comprehend the specific economic human economic activities.
phenomena within the geographical context. ⚪ It investigates not only the instant
y According to the second major approach, geographical manifestations of such
economic geography is split up into types of activities but also their
different in which various types of interactions with other kinds of social
geographical approaches are assigned and political phenomena.
to the specific themes with a major ⚪ It is an open discipline with no distinct
focus on the economic aspects, such as paradigm that is very adaptable to
resource geography, tourism geography, ongoing changes and development.
transportation geography, labour ⚪ Theories & approaches are spatially as
geography, rural geography, etc. These are well as temporally dependent.

Introduction 5
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Fundamental Concepts of Economic 2. Economic Landscape

Geography a) It expresses overall economic
Every discipline has some basic concepts that characteristics of a specific region or
are fundamental to that subject and are central regional economic organisation.
for a good understanding of that discipline b) It refers to physical forms of economic
activities or emerges from the cultural
1. Economic Activity landscape as a result of interactions of
a) An Activity that generates income or Human activities
through which one earns a livelihood. c) Each economic landscape is dominated
In this sense, activities related to the by a particular economy and is different
production, exchange, and consumption from other landscapes. For example,
of goods and services are called the Industrial landscape is dominated
economic activities by Industries and trade, while the
b) Economic activities are of different agricultural landscape is dominated by
types and can be classified from simple farming and allied activities.
to complex on a continuum. d) Economic landscapes are dynamic in
Primary activities: These activities are nature, and they change with time in an
concerned with obtaining products from evolutionary process
nature directly. It involves hunting and rearing
3. Location of Economic Activity
of animals, gathering of plant products,
harvesting of crops and trees, obtaining a) It involves analysis of the location of an
minerals from crust etc., Workers engaged element or function, not just marking
in primary activities are called red-collar the location of the element or function.
workers due to the outdoor nature of jobs b) For example, locational analysis of the
Secondary activities: It adds value to Iron and steel industry should not be
already existing products by changing their confined to just the location of industry
form. It increases the utility of the products but also analysis of the location of raw
of primary activities. It involves commercial material, labour, transport etc, which
farming, industrial production etc.. Workers makes them an ideal place
engaged in secondary activities are called
4. Economic Region
blue-collar workers.
Tertiary activities: They are concerned with a) It is an area having similar economic
providing services rather than producing activity and differing from other regions
any tangible goods. It involves a range of in terms of nature and type of economic
personal and business services. People activities.
engaged in these activities are called White- b) It is based on the concept of uniqueness.
collar workers It is the variation in the economic
Quaternary activities: These are services landscape which gives rise to the
related to a special type of work focussing concept of economic regions.
on professional and administrative services. c) Different regions like agricultural
It includes financial, health services, regions, mining regions, and industrial
education services, entertainment services regions are delimited on the basis of
etc.. specific elements or criteria.
Quinary activities: Very small number of
About Resources
people are engaged in Quinary activities.
It involves chief executives and top y Earth is a source, and all tangible and
administrators of the government. These intangible products of the earth having
workers are also called Gold-collar workers. economic value are called resources.

6 Introduction
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y Utility is a basic criterion for anything y Animals (which include microbes) and
being considered a resource. Things or plants are examples of the ‘biotic’ or
substances having no utility for humans are living parts of nature. Plants and animals
not considered a resource. involve specialised abiotic conditions
y Perceived resource set varies over time and to survive, and they can only exist as the
space to reflect variation in knowledge, communities of different organisms that
technology, social structure, economic are all closely linked to each other in their
condition and political systems. own habitat. Forests, grasslands, rivers,
y Resources may be developed or potential deserts, mountains, lakes, and the marine
resources. Developed resources are environment, for instance, provide a habitat
one that is being utilised with available for the specialised communities of animals
technology and knowledge. The potential and plants.
resource is one which cannot be utilised y The interaction of the abiotic aspects of nature,
with the present state of technology and as well as specific living organisms results in
knowledge. the formation of numerous different types of
y Resources are the basis of all economic ecosystems. Most of these ecosystem’s living
activities. In terms of spatial development, organisms serve as the direct food sources
resources are very much critical for for humans. Others are less directly related to
the firms’ technological and also for its our food, such as soil animals such as worms
economic development. Natural, man- (which are responsible for recycling nutrients
made, and human resources are the three for the plant growth), fungi & termites (which
types of resources. are responsible in breaking down the dead
y Our environment comprises of earth and plant material so that microorganisms can
the atmosphere which surrounds it. This act on the detritus in order to reform the
environment provides us with a wide range soil nutrients), pollinators, as well as plant
of goods & services that we require in dispersers.
our day-to-day lives, which are known as
natural resources. Soil, air, water, minerals, Classification of Resources
climate, and solar energy are examples of y Resources can be classified into three
natural resources that are non-living or types based on their origin & utilisation:
‘abiotic’ in nature. renewability, indigenous, and utility.

Resource

Renewability Origin Utility

Renewable Cyclic
non Renewable

Biotic Abiotic

Energy Raw Material

Non Replenishable Replenishable

Stuff
Minerals Vegetation Food

Fig. 1.1: Types of Resources

Introduction 7
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y There are also macro and micro classifications. y Non-renewable resources are those
Like the resources which are utilised as food energy sources that have a finite supply
resources, mineral resources, and energy and, therefore, will eventually deplete. It
resources. Then, these are classified at could take thousands or millions of years
the micro level as the ferrous, non-ferrous to renew or replenish these depleted
etc., for the mineral resources. For the resources. Because the replenishment
food resources, this classification can be period is much longer than compared to
vegetables, non-vegetables, organisms etc. human life spans, such type of resources is
y The main objective of classification would considered non-renewable. For instance,
primarily determine how we place a resource Coal, petroleum, natural gas, and so on.
in a specific category. y Some natural substances only become
y Natural resources are those particular resources after they have been altered by
resources that are obtained from that nature humans. Iron ore, for instance, was not
and used without much of their modification. considered a resource until the people
Natural resources include the oxygen that we discovered how to extract iron from it.
breathe, the water in our rivers and in lakes, However, people have begun to use iron
the soils, and minerals. The majority of all resources to construct buildings, roads,
these natural resources are free gifts from bridges, machinery, vehicles, etc., that are
nature and can be used right away. known as man-made resources. In today’s
y Natural resources are broadly categorised world, technology is a man-made resource
as renewable or non-renewable. Renewable as well.
resources are those that can be renewed y When people have all the necessary
or replenished rapidly after they have been ingredients, such as knowledge, skill, and
used. Some of these, such as solar & wind technology, then they can make excellent
energy, are limitless as well as unaffected by use of natural resources to eventually create
human activity. more productive resources. As a result
y The indiscriminate use of renewable of this, humans are regarded as a unique
resources, including soil, water, as well as resource. People are human resources, as
forest, can harm their stock. Water, for well as better healthcare and education
instance, appears to be an infinitely renewable can assist in the transformation of people
resource. However, throughout many parts of into valuable resources. Human resource
the world today, the scarcity & drying up of development is the improvement of the
the natural water sources is a major issue. quality of people’s skills through training,
Similar is the case with air if we continue to organisation, as well as career development
degrade our environment in the way we are efforts so that they can create additional
doing. resources.

Phantom Pile
With the application of new knowledge any given substance may
produce more extra resource - this extra resource is called Phantom
pile. It suggests that it is a technology that can drive extra resource
hidden in a substance. For example earlier motorcycles of 80s ply 30
km per litre of petrol now with the advancement of technology they can
ply even more than 70 km per litre of a same petrol. Due to the scarcity
of resources unearthing Phantom Pile is important for conservation
efforts.

8 Introduction
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Uneven Distribution of Resources Conservation of Natural Resources

y Distribution of natural resources on the y Natural resources, however abundant they
surface of the earth is not found to be are, considering the population status and
evenly distributed. It is dependent upon its growth in some countries, puts a lot of
the climate of the region, the topography of pressure on these resources.
the earth’s surface, types of rocks and the y If humans do not exercise caution in their
geological activity of the region. use of these resources, even renewable
⚪ Low latitudes, for instance, receive more resources may become scarce, as well as
from the sun’s energy as well as more non-renewable resources may be depleted.
precipitation than the higher latitudes, y Resource conservation has now become
which receive less of the sun’s energy the need of the hour. The Resource
as well as also insufficient amount of conservation points out the careful use of
precipitation. resources by allowing them proper time to
⚪ Temperate deciduous forest biomes regenerate.
provide a much more temperate climate, y The term ‘sustainable development’ refers
along with fertile soil, timber, and also to the process of balancing the need/
an abundance of wildlife. requirement to use resources by the current
⚪ Because of their flat landscapes as well generations and also conserving them for
as fertile soil, plain regions also seem to future generations.
be ideal for crop cultivation. While steep y International organisations like the United
mountains and dry deserts, on the other Nations have developed the concept of
hand, are more challenging. sustainable development and have initiated
⚪ Metallic minerals appear in abundance the conservation through initiatives such
in areas with the highest tectonic as Biosphere reserves etc. Every individual
activity, whilst fossil fuels are found in can help by reducing their consumption,
the sedimentary rocks which are formed recycling, and reusing items.
by the deposition.
y Moreover, unequal distribution of natural
resources has its own set of consequences
Resource Management
for all human settlements, economic activity,
trade, and so on. This uneven distribution, y It is a system of decision, making for
many a time, becomes a source of conflict resource utilisation and conservation. It
and war, as see in the case of Sudan. involves the allocation of resources for
y In prehistoric times, human settlements various areas and uses.
were discovered near natural resources. y It emphasises the rational and optimum
Natural resources are the foundation of utilisation of resources for the goals of
a country’s economy. Agriculture, as well sustainable development.
as, industry cannot be developed without y It involves the assessment of resources,
land, water, forests, and minerals. Humans including human resources and the
have created their own world of houses, identification of priority sectors for higher
buildings, their own modes of transportation outputs.
& communication, industries, and so on by y Planning in India results in the creation of
utilising natural resources. resources and their management.

Introduction 9
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2 Mineral Resources

Introduction y Small informal artisanal mines manufacturing

small quantities mostly of the low-volume and
y Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic
high-value minerals such as gold, precious
substances with a distinguishable internal
& semi-precious minerals, and also very
structure and definite chemical and physical
large, highly mechanised industrial mining
properties. It can be found in nature in a
processes have all been part of the extraction
variety of forms, varying from the hardest
and production of the minerals & metals.
diamond to the softest talc.
y The various minerals are not evenly
y Minerals, which are inputs almost to every
distributed on the earth’s surface. It is
sector of the global economy, help to boost
because the existence of mineral resources
both the global and regional economies
is linked with certain types of geological
by providing important raw materials for
formations.
various kinds of industrial activities.
y Minerals and their ores are extracted from
y Till now, more than 2000 minerals have been
the earth’s interior for different usage, and
identified, but only a few are abundantly
minerals or metals- dependent value chains
found in most of the rocks.
can be represented through this flow chart:

Framework
conditions
Development One
Exploration Mining
Processing
Geological
resources

End-product Mrulurg/
Components Semi-products Punfleation
(e.g. aircraft) refining

end of life Production Production Production

products write Write Write Write

Recycling
Collecting XXXXX

Secondary recyling Primary recyling

Fig. 2.1: Cycle of Minerals

y In the absence of mineral resources, there Mineral Occurrence

would be no modern agriculture; means of Minerals generally occur in four main ways
transportation (aircrafts, ships, cars and depending upon the geological set-up under
trains); energy production and distribution; which they are formed:
information and communication tech­ a) Lodes and veins: Cracks and fissures
nologies; military equipments; infra­ in various igneous rocks become viens
structure establishment; satellites; or even and lodes of various minerals. Areas
contemporary modern medicine. that suffered from repeated tectonic

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movements often contain viens and lodes y Based on the total value of the minerals and
in great numbers. Many valuable minerals metals produced in different parts of the
like tin, silver, copper and gold are obtained world in 2016, it can be estimated at least
from them around 3394-billion nominal USD, including
b) Sedimentary beds: Some minerals occur in mineral fuels and at least about 1207-billion
horizontal strata through a long period of USD, if mineral fuel resources are excluded
accumulation and compression. like Banded from the calculation, infrastructure projects.
Iron formation(BIF) in ancient geosynclines, Approximately around 45-billion tonnes
coal and petroleum formations of construction materials are produced
c) Alluvial deposits: Alluvial deposits also annually.
contain minerals, usually at the base y Non-energy minerals and metals production
of hills or valley bottoms. Weathering is highly concentrated, with 10 nations across
Resistant minerals like gold and platinum the world accounting for almost around 70%
are deposited down the valley, also known of the global non-energy mineral, metals
as placer deposits and mineral fuels production in 2016.
d) Weathering products: Deep weathering y China is by far the world’s largest producer
products contain minerals. Bauxite is of minerals, metals and mineral fuels. In
formed by weathering of deep-seated 2016, in value, it produced around 37% of
rocks under hot and humid conditions. total minerals and metals (except mineral
fuels) and about 58% of cement produced
Important Facts and Information
globally.
Regarding Mineral Resources
y Though mining activities are geographically
y In 2016, the different domains of the widespread on earth, the amount of
industry extracted at least around land utilised by mining activities in the
65-billion tonnes of minerals and metal current and past is rather small when
contained in ores, including mineral fuels compared to other human activities like
and cement. agriculture.

Fig. 2.2: Types of Minerals

12 Mineral Resources
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Types of Minerals Europe

Minerals are organic or inorganic natural y Europe is perhaps the world’s leading
sub­
­ stances comprising of distinct chemical producer of iron ore.
and physical properties. Depending upon the y Russia, Ukraine, Sweden, as well as France
pro­perties and uses, it can be classified in all have significant iron ore deposits.
­various ways. y Copper, lead, zinc, manganese, and nickel
are produced in Eastern Europe and the
Occurence of Minerals Across European Russia region.
Different Continents in the World
North America
y Mineral resources can be found in a variety
of rocks. Some are formed by igneous There important zones of mineral deposits
rocks, others by metamorphic rocks and are:
still others by sedimentary rocks. y The Canadian region north of the Great
y Minerals in the case of igneous and Lakes: This particular region is famous
metamorphic rocks: Metallic minerals for its Iron ore, gold, nickel, uranium and
can be found in the large plateaus of rock copper deposits.
formed by this particular type of rock. y The Appalachian region: Important for the
y Iron ore in the regions of northern Sweden, coal deposits.
copper and nickel deposits in the areas of y The region of the western North American
Ontario, Canada, and iron, nickel, chromites, mountain ranges contains vast deposits of
and platinum in the regions of South Africa copper, lead, zinc, gold, and silver.
are just a few examples.
South America
y Minerals in the case of sedimentary rock:
It contains non-metallic minerals like y Brazil produces the most high-grade iron
limestone, and fossil mineral fuels like ore in the whole world.
petroleum and coal are also found in the y Chile, along with Peru, are the world’s
case of sedimentary strata. leading copper producers.
y Examples include limestone deposits in y Brazil, along with Bolivia, are also among
the regions of France’s Caucasus belt, the top ten tin-producing countries.
manganese deposits in areas of Georgia y Other mineral deposits on the continent
and Ukraine, and Algerian phosphate beds. include gold, diamond, silver, mica, bauxite,
zinc, chromium, manganese, platinum,
Asia asbestos, and diamond.
y Asia, India and China have large amounts of
iron ore deposits. Australia
y Asia continent itself accounts for more y Australia is one of the largest producers
than half of global tin production. Example: of bauxite in the world and also a leading
China, Malaysia, and Indonesia are among producer of diamond, gold, iron ore, tin and
some of the top tin producers in the world. nickel.
y Asian continent in itself also has huge y Continent is also quite rich in the case of
deposits of manganese, copper, zinc, manganese, lead, copper and zinc.
bauxite, and nickel. y Largest deposits of gold are found in
y Japan does not have rich mineral resources; the Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie regions of
however, it is leading in the recycling western Australia.
process.
y China is also one of the top countries when Africa
it comes to lead, antimony, and tungsten y African continent is rich in mineral
production. resources.

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y The continent is the world’s largest producer ⚪ Limonite:

of diamonds, gold, and platinum.  Yellow or light brown colour.
y South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Zaire produce  Contains around 40–60% pure iron.
a quite significant amount of the world’s ⚪ Siderite:
gold.  It is of inferior quality, which
y Copper, iron ore, bauxite, cobalt, chromium, comprises of many impurities. It
and uranium are also among the important has large iron ore.
mineral resources.  It only has about 40 to 50 percent
y Region lies south of the Sahara Desert, is pure iron.
rich with various types of mineral resources. y Distribution of iron ore across
y Oil is extracted from Nigeria, Libya and the world:
Angola. ⚪ China, Australia, India, Brazil, Russia,
Ukraine, U.S.A. and South Africa are the
Important Minerals of the World leading producers.
⚪ Other important countries: Canada,
Iron Ore
Iran, Sweden, Kazakhstan, Venezuela,
y Iron ore is found everywhere on earth Liberia, Algeria etc.
though its massive concentration is found ⚪ Some important iron ore mines/regions
only in a few places. in the world:
y Earlier production of iron ore was  Carajas and Samarco Alegria mines
synonymous with the progress of a country. in Brazil.
y Now regarded as a sunset industry but still  Russia: the Ural region, Kuzkas region
important in many developing nations. in Siberia, Angara and Krasnoyarsk.
y Iron ores are such types of rocks and  Ukraine: Kirvoj Rog region of
minerals from which metallic iron can Southern Ukraine, Kursk Magnetic
be extracted using various methods. Iron Anomaly (KMA) and Kerch peninsula.
ore can range in colour right from dark  Kiruna, Gallivare and Danmora in
grey to bright yellow to deep purple to Sweden.
rusty red.  In USA: Lake Superior area including
y Iron is usually found in various forms such Mesabi, Vermillion, Marquette,
as magnetite, hematite, goethite, limonite Cuyana, Manomimi and Gogebic;
or siderite. Alabama state including the
y Four important varieties of the iron ore are: Birmingham and red mountain area
⚪ Magnetite: of South Applatians.
 It is the highest quality iron ore, with  Canada: Including the Wright, Sept
an iron content of approximately 72 Isles and Schefferville regions.
percent.  Australia: Pilbara region, Mt.
 It has exceptional magnetic Goldsworthy, Mt. Tom Price, Mt.
properties. Newman, Tailoring peak, Kalanooka
 suitable for electrical industries region, Queensland, New South
⚪ Hematite: Wales and Tasmania.
 It is composed of 60 to 70 percent  China: It has large iron ore reserves
pure iron. in the Shenyang region of Manchuria;
 Most important for the purpose of Muhar and Tahyeh region of Xinjiang
industrial use. valley.

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Important Iron Ore Belts in India

Important iron
Description
ore belts

Odisha – y High-quality hematite ore can be found in the Badampahar mines of the
Jharkhand Mayurbhanj & Kendujhar dist. of Orissa.

y Haematite iron ore is mined in regions of Gua and Noamundi in the

neighbouring Singhbhum distt. of Jharkhand.

y Chhattisgarh & Maharashtra are included in this particular belt. The

famous Bailadila range of hills in the region of Chhattisgarh’s Bastar
district contains very high-quality hematites.
Durg-Bastar-
Chandrapur y The hills are made up of 14 deposits of super high-quality hematite iron ore.

y It possesses the finest physical properties, which are required for steel
production. These mines’ iron ore is exported to other countries, such as
Japan & South Korea, via the route of Visakhapatnam port.
Bellary-
y Karnataka comprises of a large iron ore reserve. The Kudremukh
Chitradurga-
mines, which is located in the Karnataka’s Western Ghats, are entirely
Chikmagalur
export-oriented.
Tumkur belt

y Kudremukh mines are amongst the largest iron ore deposits in the world,
and the ore from these mines is transported as slurry through the pipeline
to a port near Mangalore.

Maharashtra – y This belt comprises the Indian state of Goa and also the region of Ratnagiri
Goa Belt distt. of Maharashtra.

y The ores of this particular belt are not of very high quality, but they are
exploited efficiently, and it is exported through Marmagao port.

Table 2.1: Important Iron Ore Belts in India

Manganese y Some important regions across

y Manganese is primarily used in the the world:
production of Steel & Ferro- manganese ⚪ Kuruman area of Kalahari Basin in South
alloy. Nearly around 6 kilograms of Africa.
manganese is needed for the manufacturing ⚪ Moanda in Gabon.
of 1-ton steel. ⚪ Groote Eylandt in the Gulf of Carpenteria
y It is also utilised in the manufacturing of in Australia.
some other important things like bleaching ⚪ The Serra do Navio and Corumba district
powder, insecticides, china clay, batteries of Mato Grosso in Brazil.
and paints. y India’s manganese deposits are found in
y Important producers in the world: China, the states of Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh,
South Africa, Australia, Brazil, Gabon, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Karnataka and
Kazakhstan and India. Andhra Pradesh.

Mineral Resources 15
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Bauxite & malleable metal, copper is widely used in

y Though several ores comprise aluminium, numerous industries.
alumina, as well as later aluminium, are all y Copper is one of the few metals that occur
obtained from bauxite, which is a clay-like in nature in directly usable metallic form
substance. As a result of this, it is used in (native metals) and is an important non-
the production of aluminium. ferrous base metal.
y Bauxite deposits form as a result of the y Therefore, it has a wide variety of
decomposition of a wide range of rocks that applications and is used in different
are rich in aluminium silicates. products such as power cables, automobiles,
y Aluminium is a substantial metal because utensils, electrical equipment, radiators,
it combines the strength of metals, for refrigerators, pipes and coins etc.
instance, iron, with extreme lightness, as well y Copper mining is costly and tedious affair,
as superior conductivity and also malleability. because most of the copper ores comprise
y Important bauxite producing countries are a small percentage of the meta
Australia, China, Brazil, Guinea, Jamaica and y Chile has around 30% of the world’s copper
Russia. deposits. Followed by Australia & Peru
y Australia is the world’s largest bauxite (10% each), Russia (7%), Mexico & USA (6%
producer, accounting for approximately each) and Indonesia & China (3% each).
31.34 percent of the global output. The y India is not self-sufficient in the production
major bauxite regions in the world are the of copper ore. India imports copper
Cape York Peninsula, New South Wales, as concentrates for its smelters. The domestic
well as region of Western Australia. demand for copper and its alloys is met
y China is the second-largest producer through domestic production, recycling of
(accounting for around 18.41 percent), with scrap and imports.
the main bauxite provinces being Hunan, y HCL’s (Hindustan copper limited) mines
Sichuan, as well as Guizhou. and plants are spread across five operating
y Bauxite deposits in India are primarily found units, the Indian Copper Complex (ICC) at
in the region of the Amarkantak plateau, Ghatsila in Jharkhand, the Khetri Copper
the Maikal Hills, and also the Bilaspur-Katni Complex (KCC) at Khetrinagar in Rajasthan,
plateau region. The most significant bauxite Malanjkhand Copper Project (MCP) at
deposits are the Panchpatmali deposits, Malanjkhand in Madhya Pradesh, Taloja
which can be found in the Koraput distt. Copper Project (TCP) at Taloja in Maharashtra
(i.e. in Odisha state). and Gujarat Copper Project (GCP) at Jhagadia
in Gujarat. HCL operates four underground
Copper mines and one opencast mine, with a
y Because it is corrosion-resistant, a good combined ore production capacity of about
conductor of electricity, as well as a ductile 3.5-million tonnes per year.

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Other Important Mineral and Related Information

Name of
Related information
the mineral

Lead y Galena (the principal ore of lead) is a combination of lead and sulphur.

y Galena comprises 86% of metallic lead and occurs in regular cube crystals.

y Valuable mineral, due to its features like softness, malleability and

resistance to corrosion.

y The U.S.A., Russia, Australia, Canada, Peru, Mexico and Bulgaria are the
major producers.

y Sphalerite, a sulphur and zinc compound, is the most important zinc

Zinc
material.

y The zinc content of the ore ranges from 2 to 12 percent.

y Zinc is highly valuable, due of its important feature to make alloys and its
resistance to oxidation.

y Zinc is primarily used for purpose of galvanising or cooling iron and steel,
and it is also used to make it rust resistant.

y Canada, Russia, Peru, Australia, Spain, Zaire and the U.S.A. are the major
producers.

y It is a soft metal, with low melting point and also resistant to oxidation
Tin
and corrosion.

y Tinstone is the major mineral (ore) which usually contains 75% of tin.

y It is used in coating other metals to prevent their corrosion.

y Important producers: China, Indonesia, Peru, Brazil, Malaysia and Bolivia.

y It is made up of various types of plates or leaves which are tough and

Mica
flexible. It fragments easily into the thin sheets.

y It can be clear, black, green, reddish-yellow, or brown in colour. Mica

is one of the most essential and critical minerals, which is used in the
electric and electronic industries due to its excellent dielectric strength,
low power loss factor, insulating properties, and also for its resistance to
high voltage.

y India is the largest producer and exporter of mica in the world. U.S.A,
Canada, Argentina and Brazil are the other producers.

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Name of
Related information
the mineral

Nickel y It is very hard, most malleable and least fusible metal.

y Pentlandite is an important ore of nickel.

y It provides strength to iron and is used to increase heat and corrosion

resistance of Iron and other base metals.

y It has a variety of applications and can be used in Turbines, Jet engines

and in Rockets.

y Important producers are Canada, Cuba, Philippines, Myanmar, Indonesia

and Australia.

y Tungsten has become a very important metal because of its features

Tungsten
associated with toughness, strength, hardness, and resistance to abrasion.

y Tungsten Carbide is almost as hard as diamond.

y It is almost indispensable in modern metallurgy.

y It is used in steels for high-speed cutting tools and in hard metal for rock
drills.

y Leading producers are China, the Democratic Republic of Korea, Russia

and Bolivia.

y The precious metal occurs in alluvial or placer deposits or as reefs or

Gold
lobes underground.

y For a long time, it has been considered an international currency.

y Gold is utilised widely for jewellry, and some gold is used in dentistry, in
making glass and porcelain, in dyes, in medicines.

y Major gold producing regions are South Africa (Witwatersrand, Odendoalrus

and Lydenburg), U.S.A., Australia, China, Canada and Japan.

y Kolar in Karnataka is well-known for its gold deposits in India. Because

these gold mines are amongst the deepest in the whole world, mining this
particular ore is a very expensive process.

Silver y It is also a kind of precious metal, though much less than gold.

y It is rarely found pure and is frequently mixed with zinc blende, galena (i.e.
lead), and copper pyrites.

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Name of
Related information
the mineral

y Important applications: Silver is primarily used in the manufacture

of ornaments, but it is also used in the manufacture of chemicals,
photography, electroplating, and the colouring of glass, among other
things.

y Mexico, Peru, Australia, China and Poland are major silver producing
countries.

Table 2.2: Other Important Mineral and Related Information

Impacts of Extractive Activities on the contaminate surface waters and have

Environment many negative impacts on ecosystems,
y As we have discussed, mining is important biodiversity and human health.
for economic development and for ⚪ The negative impact of toxins can be
sustainable livelihoods. compounded in the food chain through
y Due to population growth, rising urbanisation bio-accumulation.
and an expanding middle class (particularly ⚪ Increased silt within watercourses due
in developing countries like India), the to mining activities can disrupt visibility
demand for mineral resources will continue and the migration patterns of aquatic
to increase. species.
y However, mining activities have many ⚪ Impact on ocean environment: Rivers are
negative impacts on the environment. contaminated because mining activities
Various reports mention the severe as well can flow into coastal regions, causing
as long-term effects of mining activities on lots of negative impacts on the marine
the natural environment. environment. Extractive activities in the
y Surface mining frequently involves the ocean and disposal of waste into the sea
removal of various types of vegetation, also pose many environmental issues.
the removal of topsoil, and also the use of y Solid waste produced through mining:
heavy machinery (which results in damaging Mineral extraction activity is the world’s
fragile environments). largest waste producer, specifically from
y Closed mining activities have the capacity gold, copper, zinc, bauxite and nickel mining.
to cause environmental damage as well as E.g. to mine seven grams of gold mineral,
pose a risk to safety. on average, one tonne of waste material
y Contamination of water: must be mined, excluding the overburden.
⚪ Chemicals and various other hazardous y Air pollution through mining: Since fine
materials used in the processing of ores particles and dust are often produced
can enter the waterways and results in by mining activities and dispersed by the
contamination of the water. wind action. This can lead to a range of
⚪ The liquid wastewater contains toxic environmental problems and have adverse
chemicals such as cyanide, organic human health effects, particularly if the
chemicals and leached heavy metal dust contains heavy metals in it.
oxides. y Soil erosion and contamination due to
⚪ Toxic effluent waters from the mining:
processing of mineral ores that are not ⚪ Land conversion because of mining
properly treated or retained can directly and its infrastructure destroys or

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pollutes soil cover in many cases, which for indigenous people or the tribe whose
constitutes a long-term problem or livelihoods are closely intertwined with the
even total loss of agricultural potential land.
of the land. y Growing inequalities resulting from mining
⚪ Mining processes like crushing and can be responsible for tensions between
milling significantly reduce soil particle local governments and national governments.
sizes which are responsible for soil Property rights and mining impacts can also
erosion by rainfall, runoff water or wind. lead to local-level conflicts, which can easily
This can have many negative impacts become a full-blown war. E.g. Bougainville
on downstream ecosystems and human conflict in Papua New Guinea.
health. y The health-related problems because of
y Habitat clearance during mining: mining activities are closely related to
⚪ Large-scale mining of minerals exerts or environmental challenges. For example,
may intensify pressures on biodiversity water, air and soil pollution due to mining
by directly and/or indirectly changing eventually translates into human health
habitats in an adverse way. challenges.
⚪ Growing demand for minerals and y A number of prevailing problems in India,
the consumption of easily accessible including Naxalism, can be related to the
reserves are pushing exploration negative impacts of mining in India.
and mining activities into previously
inaccessible and/or fragile regions of the Sustainable Use of Mineral Resources
world like the Arctic, and more remote y Recent analysis highlights how a well-
areas of the world’s tropical forests managed extractive industry can promote
areas. Here, the impacts of direct and the delivery of the Sustainable Development
induced habitat loss associated with Goals (SDGs) and targets.
mining activities are very severe. y The notion of sustainable development—
integrating the pillars of people, planet,
Social Impact of Mining Activities
prosperity, peace and partnership— has
y Mining activities are responsible become the organising framework for world
for disruption of livelihoods due to development cooperation.
displacement and dispossession. This has y Various steps are needed for sustainable
many negative implications as it disrupts mining:
complicated land tenure systems of the y Effective governance of the mining
people with informal and traditional rights. industry will require various mechanisms
y Social disharmony because of growing and initiatives at the local, national and
internal economic inequalities, e.g.: international levels.
⚪ Gender inequalities due to unequal y We need integrated development planning
access to jobs in the mining sector. for mining and coherent policy for the
⚪ Social disharmony between those with development of minerals across the globe
jobs at the mine and those without. at different levels of the governments.
⚪ The regional economic structure y Govts. around the world must ensure that
changes as livelihoods are lost, and core mining regulatory institutions are
local economic activity is reorganised to operational, with the support of regional
meet the regular requirement. institutions, trained personnel, as well as
y Forced eviction or relocation of local people the budgetary and material resources, and
are common features of mining. This leads to even the authority promote and to regulate
serious human rights violations, particularly the development of all the mining activity.

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Fig. 2.3: Steps for Sustainable Mining

Mineral Resources 21
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3 Energy Resources

Introduction ⚪ Gravity is generated by the earth &

moon.
y Energy is the ability to perform the particular
⚪ Nuclear fission reactions.
work that is required for doing various life
⚪ Energy in the interior of the earth.
processes. An energy resource is anything
⚪ Energy stored in the chemical bonds.
that can produce heat, power life, move
y The coal was not enough to provide all the
objects, or even generate electricity. Fuel
energy needs of humans, and they realised
refers to substances that would provide
that they could not depend too heavily on
energy.
oil and they needed to look for better energy
y Use of energy is directly proportional to the
resources.
advancement of civilisation. It is an index of
y Though in recent times, nuclear energy has
economic development.
been considered as one of the solutions
y Throughout history, human energy
but because of its destructive use in past,
consumption has gradually got increased.
it has become a political controversy.
Humans had low energy requirements in
y Therefore, overall energy provides motion
ancient times.
to our industrial machines and vehicles. It
y Humans today consume up to 110 times
is the primary input in the production of
the amount of energy per person the early
goods and services. The wheels of progress
humans did. The majority of the energy we
move with the flow of energy.
use nowadays is derived from fossil fuels
(which store solar energy). Classification of Energy Resources
y Moreover, fossil fuels have some drawbacks
because they are non-renewable on a The energy resources are classified as following:
human geological timescale and have a y Non-Renewable resources: These are those
wide variety of negative effects on the resources which become exhausted. For
earth’s ecosystem too. examples coal, petroleum, and natural gas.
y Except for some significant sources of y Renewable resources: These are those
energy, such as solar energy, humans rely which can be renewed as and when
primarily on the materials which are found required. The sun, wind, tides, hot springs,
on the earth. There are five primary sources as well as biomass, are all the infinite or
of energy: renewable energy sources.
⚪ Nuclear fusion in the sun (solar energy). The energy resources can also be classified as:

Fig. 3.1: Types of Energy Sources

Energy Resources 23
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y Conventional: These are those resources buried beneath the soil as a result of natural
which have been used by mankind for quite processes such as flooding or deglaciations or
some time now and are mostly direct forms tectonic movement.
of energy resources. y They were compressed as more soil
y Non-conventional: These are relatively was deposited over them, and also the
newer forms of energy resources. They need temperature went up as they fell deeper.
some kind of processing before extracting y Dead plants gradually got transformed into
energy from them. coal under tremendous high pressure as well
as under high temperature. Because coal is
Coal primarily composed of carbon, the gradual
Important Features and Usage process of converting dead vegetation into
coal is widely recognised as ‘carbonisation.’
y Coal is a black colour amorphous substance.
Since it was developed from the remains of
It originates from organic material and
vegetation, coal mineral is also known as a
comprises of carbon.
fossil fuel.
y It is an exhaustible natural resource. Coal,
like petroleum & natural gas, was formed
from the decomposition of living organisms Coals are classified as follows (based
(or fossils). on carbon, ash and moisture content)
y It is one of the fuels used in cooking. At y Peat:
first, it was used in the railway engines to ⚪ Decaying plants in swamps produce
generate steam used to power the engine. peat.
Coal is also used as an energy source in the ⚪ First stage of transformation, and it
case of thermal power plants in order to contains less than 40 to 55% carbon,
generate electricity. Coal is also used as a more impurities, high moisture contents
fuel in a variety of industries. and low heating capacity.
y Lignite:
Formation of Coal ⚪ It is comprised of 40 to 55% carbon and
The earth’s ecosystem had quite dense is found in the intermediate stage.
forests in the low-lying wetland regions about ⚪ It is low-grade brown coal, which is soft
300-million years ago. These forests were with high moisture content.

Fig. 3.2: Formation of Coal

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y Bituminous: ⚪ Gulf Provinces (i.e. lignite): Arkansas,

⚪ It contains around 40 to 80% carbon, Alabama and also regions of Texas.
moisture and volatile content (15 to 40%). ⚪ Pacific Province: California, Oregon,
⚪ Dense, compact, and usually black in Washington and Alaska.
colour. ⚪ Rocky Mountains (i.e. lignite & low
⚪ This particular type of coal is the grade bituminous): Wyoming, Utah,
most commonly used for commercial Colorado, New Mexico, Montana, North
purposes. Metallurgical coal is a type Dakota.
of high-quality bituminous coal that is y Canada: Prairie region – Alberta (bituminous
particularly useful for the purpose of and lignite); British Columbia Coalfields-
smelting iron in blast furnaces. Vancouver Islands; Nova Scotia Coal Fields-
y Anthracite: Cape Breton Island.
⚪ It has the highest quality hard coal. y Europe:
⚪ It contains around 80 to 95% carbon. ⚪ Donetz Coal Basin-Donbass
⚪ Very little volatile matter. (Anthracite and high-grade bituminous
⚪ Negligibly small proportion of moisture. coal); Moscow- Tula coalfields(lignite);
Karaganda fields, Caucasus mountains,
Kuznetsk (Kuzbass), Karaganda fields.
y Australia:
⚪ Sydney-Newcastle in New South Wales.
y Asia:
⚪ China: Regions of inner Mongolia, Hopei,
Kansu, Manchurian-Fushun (i.e. the
world’s longest strip mines), Shansi,
Shensi, Fushin, Kailan and Hegang.
⚪ Japan: Chikugo, coalfield in the regions
of northwestern Kyushu, Joban & Ube in
Honshu and also Ishikari fields of Honshu.
⚪ India: Damodar Valley in the Indian
states of West Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha.
Important mines are Raniganj, Bokaro
Fig. 3.3: Grading of Coal and Jharia. Other smaller deposits are
found in Chanda, Singareni and Pench.
⚪ Iran: Kermanshah.
Global Distribution of Coal Deposits
⚪ Pakistan: Quetta and Kalabagh.
North America y Africa:
y U.S.A.: ⚪ S. Africa: Vereeniging and Witban;
⚪ Eastern field: Pennsylvania anthracite Transvaal and Natal- Middleburg.
field- Scranton, Wilkes Barre and ⚪ Zimbabwe: Wankie.
Carbondale; Appalachian Bituminous ⚪ Mozambique: Maniamba.
Field- Pittsburg, Kentucky & West ⚪ Zambia: Nikandabwe and Mamba.
Virginia, Alabama and Tennessee. ⚪ Nigera: Enugu.
⚪ The Interior Provinces (i.e. Bituminous): ⚪ Zaire: Luena.
Eastern Interior field, Illinois, Indiana ⚪ Ipswitch Queensland; Gippsland in
and Kentucky; Western Interior Field- Victoria.
Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri and y South america:
Lowa; Northern Interior Field- Michigan; ⚪ Brazil: Santa Caterine and Rio Grande
Southwestern fields-Texas. de Sul.

Energy Resources 25
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Fig. 3.4: Thermal Power Plants in India

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⚪ Columbia: Coal at Cali in the Cauca Valley. Advantages of Coal Generated Energy
⚪ Mexico: Piedras Negras, Sabins and y Coal is easy to transport.
Lampazos. y Technology to generate energy from coal is
well developed.
Distribution of Coal in India
y Large supply of raw material.
y In India, there are two major types of coal
y Relatively cheap source of energy.
fields:
y High net useful energy yield.
⚪ The Gondwana coal fields (around
200-million years old) account for nearly Disadvantages of Coal
98 percent of India’s total coal reserves
y It is the most polluting fossil fuel which
as well as its production. It is found
emits dangerous toxic compounds.
primarily in the regions of Damodar (i.e.
y Problem of the surface collapse of
in Jharkhand – West Bengal regions)
underground coal mines.
and Son river valleys (i.e. in Madhya
y It is dirty to mine and awkward to distribute.
Pradesh – Chhattisgarh regions), as well
y Coal is not useful to fuel vehicles.
as the Mahanadi (in Orissa), Godavari
(in Andhra Pradesh), and Wardha river
valleys (in Maharashtra). Byproducts of Coal
⚪ Tertiary Coal Fields (about 55-million y Ammonium sulphate- used in chemical
years old)- around 2% is produced by industries, fertiliser industries, explosive
tertiary coal fields. It is found primarily and production of pesticides.
in the extra-peninsular geographic areas y Coke- created through carbonisation
of Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, process and widely used in the iron and
Meghalaya, Jammu & Kashmir, and also steel industry.
in Sikkim. y Tar- Yields several raw materials for
y Jharkhand ranks the highest in production chemical industries.
as well as in the case of reserves of coal in y Saccharin- used as artificial sweetener.
India. The coal deposits of Jharkhand region y Napthalene- Raw material in pesticide and
mainly occur in the region of Dhanbad, varnish production.
Hazaribagh and Palamau distt. y Toulene- Production of explosive, benzoic
y Lignite/Brown coal is found in the coastal acid and saccharin.
zones of the state of Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, y Pyridine- used in paints, vulcanisation of
and in the land basins of Rajasthan. rubber etc.

Energy Resources 27
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Coal and
its distribution Introduction

Most important and abundant fossil fuel in India.

It accounts for 55% of the country's energy needs.
The country's industrial heritage was built upon indigenous coal.
Commercial primary energy consumption in India has grown by about 700% in the
last four decades.

Classification of Coal

On the basis of carbon content coal can be classified into following three types:
Anthracite It is the best quality of coal with highest calorific value
and carries 80 to 95% carbon content.
It ignites slowly with a blue flame and found in small quantities in
Jammu and Kashmir.
Bituminous It has a low level of moisture content with 60 to 80% of
carbon content and has a high calorific value.
Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh
have deposits of Bituminous.
Lignite carries 40 to 55% carbon content and is often brown in colour
with high moisture content.
Rajasthan, Lakhimpur (Assam) and Tamil Nadu has deposits of Lignite.
Peat is the first stage of transformation from wood to coal with low
calorific value and less than 40% carbon content.

Distribution of Coal in India

Gondwana coal fields (250 million years old)

It makes up to 98 per cent of the total reserves and 99 per cent of the
production of coal in India.
The carbon content in Gondwana coal [250 million years old] is less
compared to the Carboniferous coal [350 million years old].
The Damuda series possesses the best worked coalfields accounting for
80 per cent of the total coal production in India.
Coking as well as non-coking and bituminous as well as sub-bituminous
coal are obtained from Gondwana coal fields.
Anthracite is generally not found in the Gondwana coal fields.
Gondwana coal is free from moisture, but it contains Sulphur and
Phosphorous.
These basins occur in the valleys of certain rivers viz., the Damodar
(Jharkhand-West Bengal); the Mahanadi (Chhattisgarh-Odisha); the Son
(Madhya Pradesh Jharkhand); the Godavari and the Wardha
(Maharashtra-Andhra Pradesh); the Indravati, the Narmada, the Koel, the
Panch, the Kanhan and many more.

Coal and its distribution 1

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Fig.3.5: Coal and its distribution

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Petroleum ⚪ It is most common along the geologically

young tectonic belts at the plate
Petroleum/mineral oil is the next major energy
boundaries, where huge depositional
source after coal. It is also known as light oil or
basins are much more likely to form.
conventional oil.
y It provides fuel for the process of heat
y Important features:
and lighting, lubricants for the machinery
⚪ It is a thick dark type of liquid consisting
and raw materials for various other
of a combination of hundreds of
manufacturing industries.
combustible hydrocarbons along with
y Some of the other important products of oil
small amounts of sulphur, oxygen and
distillation are known as petro-chemicals
nitrogen impurities.
which are utilised as the raw material for
⚪ It is an inflammable mixture of oily
the manufacture of pesticides, chemical
hydrocarbons.
industries, plastics, synthetic fibres, paints
⚪ It exists under the ground in the form of
and medicines etc.
solid, liquid and also gaseous.
y There are three grades of crude oil based
⚪ It is found in sedimentary formations,
on the gasoline yields:
which is an important factor, and as a
⚪ Paraffin: Highest yield.
result, the ancient shields of Africa and
⚪ Naphthemic: Intermediate yield.
Australia do not contain petroleum.
⚪ Asphalt: Lowest yield.
y Formation:
⚪ It is formed from the remnants of plants Global Distribution of Petroleum/Mineral
& animals that once lived in the sea. Oil Field
⚪ For millions of years, these particular
y Saudi Arabia, U.S.A., Russia, and Iran are
plant and animal remains remained
the chief producing nations.
buried under mud and rock under
y The important exporters of petroleum are
immense pressure as well as at
Saudi Arabia, Iran, Venezuela, Russia and
extremely high temperatures.
Norway, while the leading importers are
⚪ Under these conditions, marine biomass
U.S.A., Japan, Germany, Korean Republic,
progressively changed into oil and gas.
India.

Fig. 3.6: Distribution of Mineral Oil in World

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y OPEC (Organisation of the Petroleum oil reserves, providing the OPEC a

Exporting Countries): significant influence on the overall
⚪ Presently, OPEC has a total of 13 Member global oil prices.
Countries in the world.
⚪ They are Algeria, Angola, Equatorial Advantages of Petroleum
Guinea, Gabon, Kuwait, Iran, Iraq, y The technology to extract energy is well
Libya, Nigeria, the Republic of the developed.
Congo, Saudi Arabia (i.e. the De facto y The problem of disposal of ash is not faced.
leader), the United Arab Emirates and y It has a very high energy content.
Venezuela. y The transmission of petroleum through
⚪ As of Sept. 2018, the 13 member pipes makes their movement and feeding
nations accounted for an estimated 44 into machines easier.
percent of the global oil production and y It can be used in stationary and mobile
81.5 percent of the world’s “proven” systems both.

Oil Fields of India

Fig. 3.7: Crude Oil Storage and Reserves in India

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North-Eastern India East Coast

y It Includes Brahmaputra valley and y KG basin (krishna Godawari) hold

neighbouring areas. tremendous potential for oil and gas
⚪ Assam: It is the oldest oil-producing production, both onshore and offshore.
state in India and includes Digboi Oil y Tamil Nadu: The Narimanam and Kovilappal
fields and Naharkatiya Field. oilfields in the Cauvery on-shore basin
⚪ Refinery is located in Noonmati and Strategic Petroleum Reserves
Digboi.
y In compliance with IEA, a country has an
⚪ Oil from Naharkatya is also sent to
obligation to maintain 90 days reserve of
Barauni refinery in Bihar.
net oil imports.
⚪ Arunachal Pradesh: Manabhaum,
y Currently India’s strategic oil storage
Kharsang and Charai.
facilities are located at Visakhapatnam
⚪ Tripura: Manmumbhanga, Manu, Ampi
(Andhra Pradesh), Mangaluru (Karnataka),
Bazar.
and Padur (Karnataka).
Western India onshore field:
y Approval for setting up of two additional
y Gujarat: Here Gulf of Khambat is the main
facilities at Chandikhol (Odisha) and Padur
oil belt from Surat to Amreli. Important
(Karnataka) is also given
oilfields of this region are.
y Most of these reserves are underground
⚪ Ankleshwar: Located south of Vadodara.
below sea level for easy flow from ships.
It is an anticline of about 20 km long
and 4 km wide. Oil from here is refined
at Trombay and Koyali.
⚪ Khambhat or Lunej field , Ahmedabad
and Kalol fields: They all are part of
Khambat Basin and include Nawgam,
Kosamba, Mehsana, Sanand, Kathana as
important producers.
y Rajasthan: Oil was discovered in the Barmer
district of Rajasthan in 2004. Sarswati and
Rajeshwari, are important oil fields here.

Western Coast Off-Shore Oilfields

y Mumbai High:
⚪ Discovered in 1974, located on the
continental shelf off the coast of
Maharashtra in the rock strata of the
Miocene age.
⚪ Sagar Samrat is a specially designed Fig. 3.8: Strategic Petroleum Reserves
platform for oil drilling here.
y Bassein: Located south of Mumbai High, Natural Gas
this is a recent, one and production has y Natural gas (also known as fossil gas) is a
started. naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas mixture
y Aliabet: It is located in Gulf of Khambhat that consists primarily of methane gas but
about off Bhavnagar. Huge reserves have can also contain significant quantities of
been found in this field. the other higher alkanes. Sometimes it also

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comprises a small percentage of carbon could be categorised into the following two
dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulphide, or categories:
helium. ⚪ Economic:
y It is usually found in association with  Market: Large demand for
mineral oil and sometimes in the coal beds hydroelectric power.
also. But it may also occur separately.  Huge capital outlay.
y Although natural gas is a form of fossil fuel, it  Technological knowledge and skill.
is a cleaner burning source when compared ⚪ Physical Conditions:
with gasoline, but it does produce CO2, i.e.,  Appropriate quantity of water is
Carbon Dioxide (i.e. the main greenhouse required; thus, areas of heavy rainfall
gas). Similar to that of petrol and diesel, distributed throughout the year are
natural gas is also a finite source, though required.
it is available in larger quantities than  A seismologically less sensitive area.
compared to the former ones.  Existence of the rapids & falls
y Vast reserves of natural gas are found in favours the development of power
Russia, Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Iraq, Indonesia, by rising the velocity of the stream.
Australia and Malaysia.  Great altitude with a steep slope in
y The top producers: Russia, U.S.A., Canada, order to enhance the water velocity.
Netherlands and Indonesia.  Narrow steep-sided valley to
y The major exporters are Russia, Canada facilitate dam construction.
and Algeria, while the leading importers are  The absence of coal, petroleum etc.
U.S.A. and Germany. expedites the development of water
power.
Hydroelectricity (Significant Component y Certain specific areas which are favourable
of Electricity Production) for the generation of hydroelectric power:
y Process: ⚪ Mountainous areas: These are areas
⚪ Hydropower, or Hydroelectricity, is a where the rivers have rapids, waterfalls
type of renewable energy that utilises and lakes in their courses and are fed by
the water stored in dams along with glaciers such as the Appalachian, Alps
the water flowing in rivers to generate and Rockies.
electricity in the hydro-power plants. ⚪ Tropical and temperate areas where
⚪ The falling water helps to rotate fairly heavy and well-distributed rainfall
the blades of a turbine, which then occurs, and major rivers exist.
spins a generator that transforms the ⚪ The industrial regions have a large
mechanical energy of the spinning demand for power.
turbine into an electrical form of energy. Distribution of Hydel-Power:
⚪ A steady flow of sufficient water at a y Continent-wise, Africa has the largest
high velocity creates an environment hydropower potential, accounting for
for the development of hydroelectricity. around 41% of the total world potential.
The amount, as well as the regularity of, Africa is followed by Asia (23%), North
flow are determined by the amount of America (13%), Europe (11%), South America
rainfall; meanwhile, the velocity of flow (8%) and Oceania (4%).
is determined by the slope. y But actual production differs widely from
y Conditions necessary for developing the potential because of the variations in
hydroelectric power: economic growth. With around 41% of the
There are some important conditions which total world production, North America is
are to be met for the economically viable the largest producer of hydro-electricity in
pro­
duction of hydroelectric power. These the world. This is followed by Europe (40%),

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Asia (14%), South America (3%), Oceania y India:

(1.4%) and Africa (0.6%). ⚪ The development of hydroelectric
y North america: power actually started at the end of the
⚪ USA and Canada are the largest nineteenth century, with the foundation
producers of hydroelectricity in the of a hydroelectric project in the year
world. 1897 in order to supply electricity to the
⚪ Reasons for growth: Darjeeling region. Recently in 2019, India
 Development of advanced overtook Japan as the 5th largest global
technology for the production of hydropower producer by capacity.
hydroelectricity. ⚪ India has around 100 hydropower
 Presence of a large number of plants above 25 MW, and under New
waterfalls, such as the Falls of Hydroelectricity Policy in 2019, the Indian
Appalachian, along the great lakes, government officially recognised large
Niagara Falls and St. Anthony Falls hydropower as renewable. (Previously,
in Minneapolis, Rocky mountains just smaller hydel projects of less than
and the Laurentian shields are 25 MW in capacity were considered
important. renewable energy).
 Support of Government in providing ⚪ Rivers originating from the northern
necessary inputs such as Tennessee mountainous region of India are the
Valley Scheme and St. Lawrence most important ones for hydropower
seaway. plants. Multiple Ganga tributaries in the
 Large demand for electricity to Himalayas have a combined potential of
support industries such as Aluminium almost 11,000 MW.
smelting, pulp and paper etc. ⚪ Some of the important hydroelectric
y Europe: Plants are located in the different states
⚪ Norway, Sweden, France, Germany, of India.
Switzerland and Italy.
⚪ Norway is the leader in per capita
Name of the
hydroelectric power. Hydroelectric plants
state/UT
y Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS):
⚪ Irkutsk, Bratsk, Krasnoyarsk in Siberia Lower Jhelum, Salal on
and Beloyarsk on the shores of the J&K the Chenab river, Dool
Caspian Sea. Hasti and Karrah.
⚪ Kuybyshev and Volgograd on the river
Volga. Bhakra-Nangal on the
Satluj river, Dehar on
y Asia:
the Beas river, Giri
⚪ Japan:
Punjab and Bata, Bhabanagar,
 Abundant rainfall, which is very
Himachal Andhra, Binwa, Rukti,
well distributed, mountainous
Pradesh Rongtong, Bassi, Baira
topography, lack of coal and the
Siul, Chamera, Nathpa-
need for industrial power provided
Jhakri on the Satluj
suitable conditions for the very well-
river.
developed hydropower plants in the
country.
Tehri dam on the
 The eastern and southern slopes Uttarakhand
Bhagirathi river
of the central Honshu region have
most of the power plants in Japan.

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advancement in technology, capital and

Name of the government support, it has not been
Hydroelectric plants
state/UT able to advance towards its potential in
the field.
Bihar Kosi
⚪ Kafue River, Kariba Dam: Zambia; Sennar
Dam: Sudan; Kainji Dam: Nigeria; Aswan
Uttar Pradesh Rihand
Dam: Egypt.
Jawahar Sagar and y Australia:
Rajasthan
Ranapratap Sagar ⚪ Hydroelectric power stations are mostly
located in areas of highest rainfall and
Hirakud on Mahanadi elevated regions in New South Wales
Orissa
river and Tasmania.

Madhya Pradesh Gandhi Sagar, Bargi

Disadvantages of Hydroelectricity
Dikhu and Doyang Though this energy source provides a lot of
in Nagaland, Loktak benefits as it is one of the cleanest forms of
(Manipur), Gomuti energy provider however it has the following
(Tripura), Kopili issues related to it:
Northeastern (Assam), Khandong y Requirement for a large capital and time
states and Kyrdemkulai in investment.
Meghalaya, Serlui and y Lake destroys the land ecosystem behind
Barabi in Mizoram, dams and also those below dams.
Ranganadi (Arunachal y Dams slowly get the problem of silting.
Pradesh). y The common problem is the conservation
of energy generated.
Koyana, Khopoli, Bhira, y Hydroelectricity cannot be transmitted over
Maharashtra
Purna, Bhivpuri long distances.
Saravati, Tungabhadra,
Karnataka Kalinadi, Mahatma New Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP)
Gandhi y The Govt. of India developed the New
Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP) in the
Pykara, Kodayar, year 1997–98 in order to provide a level
Tamil Nadu Sholayar, Mettur, playing field for both the public & private
Aliayar sector companies in the hydrocarbon
exploration and its production, with the
Upper Sileru, Lower
Directorate General of Hydrocarbons (DGH)
Sileru, Nagarjuna
Andhra Pradesh serving as the coordinating body for its
Sagar, Nizam Sagar,
implementation.
Machkund
y The Govt. of India’s commitment to the
Table. 3.1: Hydropower Plants in India liberalisation process is reflected in the
NELP, which was designed with the instant
⚪ Some of the regions of China and South- need for increasing domestic production.
east asian countries are also favourable. To encourage more investment in the field
y Africa: of oil exploration and production, NELP
⚪ This continent possesses the greatest has consistently emphasised a healthy
potential for the generation of hydro- competitive spirit between the National
electric power, but due to a lack of Oil Companies and private companies.

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This has been a watershed moment in the Nuclear Energy

development of India’s upstream oil sector.
y Nuclear energy is that energy which is
Drawbacks of New Exploration Licensing contained within an atom’s nucleus or core.
Policy (NELP) Radioactive minerals are used in high-
tech methods in order to generate nuclear
y Oil and gas, coal-bed methane, and shale
energy.
oil & gas all have their own policies.
y Radioactive minerals used to generate
y Multiple policies resulted in inefficiencies
energy are indeed a viable alternative to
in the extraction of natural resources. For
fossil fuels. The availability of radioactive
instance, while searching for one type of
ore, like that of the other minerals, is finite
hydrocarbon, if another is discovered, it will
as well as limited. A very small amount of
necessitate separate licensing, increasing
radioactive minerals, on the other hand,
the cost.
can generate enormous amounts of energy.
y The problem of gas pricing has resulted in
y There are two types of techniques, which
a great deal of litigation. Previously, there
can be utilised to release energy from the
was the probability of gold plating the
radioactive minerals which can be used for
investment as well as defrauding the govt.
various purposes.
by way of ‘manipulating profit.’
⚪ Nuclear Fission: The nucleus of a heavy
atom, such as Uranium (i.e. U235) or
Lutonium (i.e. P239), breaks apart into
smaller fragments during this particular
process, resulting in releasing a large
amount of energy.
⚪ Nuclear Fusion: Small nuclei, like those
of hydrogen isotopes such as deuterium
& tritium, fuse or join together in order
to form heavier nuclei, releasing huge
amounts of energy.
y Heavy minerals like uranium, thorium, radium,
plutonium, etc., the important sources of
Fig. 3.9: Hydrocarbon and Licensing Policy (HELP) nuclear energy.

Fig. 3.10: Nuclear Fission

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`
Fig. 3.11: Nuclear Fusion

y Atomic minerals can be segregated into y The ultimate goal of the programme is to
two groups: enable India’s thorium reserves to be used
⚪ Primary minerals: These are made directly in order to meet the nation’s energy needs.
from magmas, hydrothermal solution and y Thorium is especially appealing to India
groundwater. E.g.: Uraninite, Thorianite. because it has only about 1 to 2% of the
⚪ Secondary minerals: These are global uranium reserves, however one of the
made because of remobilisation of largest shares of the global thorium reserves.
elements from primary minerals, their y Moreover, thorium is not currently
transportation in solution and later economically viable even though global
precipitation due to over-saturation in uranium prices are much lower.
oxidising or supergene environment. y The latest Indo-US Nuclear Deal, as well
E.g.: Thorogummite. as the NSG waiver, which ended India’s
civil nuclear program’s more than three
India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Power Programme decades of international isolation, have
created numerous previously unexplored
y Homi Bhabha developed India’s three-stage
alternatives for the accomplishment of the
nuclear power programme in the 1950s
three-stage nuclear power programme.
in order to ensure the country’s long-
term energy independence by utilising the Major Atomic Minerals in the World
uranium as well as thorium reserves found The essential atomic minerals are uranium
in the monazite sands of South India’s & thorium. Other atomic minerals include
coastal regions. beryllium, lithium, and zirconium.

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Uranium
It is the most prominent source of atomic
minerals used in atomic energy:
y Important Features
⚪ One of the heaviest naturally occurring
elements.
⚪ Uranium has an atomic number of 92
and the chemical symbol ‘U.’
⚪ Silvery-gray metallic element having
high radioactivity.
⚪ The most common natural uranium
isotopes are uranium-238 (that has 146
neutrons and also it accounts for more
Fig. 3.12: TOP 5 Uranium Producer & Consumers
than 99 percent of all the uranium on
the Earth) and uranium-235 (it has 143
neutrons). Uranium Reserve
⚪ All isotopes of the uranium are
radioactive & fissionable. Only 235U, Thorium
moreover, is fissile (i.e. it will support a y The chemical element having the symbol
neutron-mediated chain reaction). “Th” and the atomic number 90 is a weak
⚪ Heavy metal element that occurs radioactive metallic chemical element.
naturally in the Earth’s rock, soil, rivers, y When exposed to the air, it turns silvery as
and oceans. well as tarnish black, producing thorium
y World distribution and production of dioxide.
uranium: y It has a high melting point and also is
⚪ In the year 2018, more than 95 percent moderately hard.
of the world’s uranium production y Thorium-232 accounts for nearly all natural
was only from ten nations, with the thorium, and it is the most stable isotope
top four nations among them being of thorium.
Kazakhstan, Canada, Australia and y Thorium is primarily obtained from the
Namibia comprising 75 percent of the beach sands of Kerala as well as Tamil Nadu
global production. state, which contain monazite and ilmenite.
 Australia: Olympic Dam & the Ranger y The world’s richest monazite deposits are
mine in Southern Australia. found in Kerala’s Palakkad and Kollam distts.,
 Canada: Athabasca Basin, Cigar near Visakhapatnam in the state of Andhra
Lake, McArthur River basin. Pradesh, and in Odisha’s Mahanadi river delta.
 Kazakhstan: Chu-Sarysu basin alone
accounts for more than half of the Problems Related to Nuclear Energy
nation’s known uranium resources. Apart from being advantageous in many aspects,
⚪ India: Uranium ores are widely- such as clean energy, location independent,
recognised to occur in multiple abundant raw material, and developed
locations along the region of Singhbhum technology, there are many problems related
Copper belt. It is also found in Durg to it, such as:
district of Chhattisgarh, Udaipur, Alwar y Though radioactive material is sufficiently
& Jhunjhunu district of Rajasthan, available, to use it for nuclear energy, the
Bhandara district of Maharashtra and raw material needs to be processed through
Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh. very advanced technology.

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Fig. 3.13: Distribution of Nuclear Power Plants

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y Thus, it requires a lot of capital for the Energy Crisis and Need of Renewable
development of nuclear plants. Sources of Energy
y Though it is said to be clean energy if, y World has seen instances when it faced an
accidentally, the radioactive material is energy crisis at a big level, such as the 1970,
leaked, it can cause pollution in the long and 1990s crude oil crises which created
run, which is very harmful to human beings disturbances within the countries and at
in the long run. the world level. Also, we have seen that
y It can be used to produce Hydrogen, which each energy type has its disadvantages like
is an alternate energy source for powering our conventional resources such as coal,
the vehicle. hydroelectricity, and petroleum have their
y It requires an enormous amount of water limitations, it may cause big issues in the
for cooling purposes. long run.
y Because of the accidents of Three Mile y Countries all over the world are facing twin
Island in the USA and Chernobyl in Ukraine problems of fast increasing demand for
caused much fear among people, and thus, it energy and limited supplies of and rapidly
became a political issue on the world stage. depleting conventional sources of energy
like mineral oil, coal, natural gas and wood.
Nuclear Energy & Technology can Contribute y To address the issues, human beings have
to all of the United Nation SDGs been continuously in search of alternative
y There are approximately 440 nuclear power energy resources, and under such
reactors in operation in the 30 countries circumstances, different non-conventional
of the world, providing approx. 10 percent sources of energy have assumed much
of the world’s electricity. Nuclear power importance: Solar energy, wind energy,
has reduced CO2 emissions by almost 60 geothermal power, ocean power, tidal
gigatonnes over the last 50 years, or nearly energy and, biomass energy are some of the
two years’ worth of the total global energy- Important examples of non-conventional
related emissions. sources of energy.

Fig. 3.14: Cumulative CO2 Emissions Avoided by Nuclear Power by Region

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Geothermal Energy come in contact. It is harvested with the

y It is the energy found inside the earth’s help of photoelectric cells. The energy
surface through the process of radioactive obtained from the sun is abundant, safe,
decay of radioactive elements. The rocks clean and renewable.
lying deep below the earth’s surface are y The daily average global radiation is about
heated through radioactive energy. 5 kWh per sq. m. per day with sunshine
y It can be considered a renewable source hours ranging between 2300 and 3200
of energy. It is harvested in regions where per year. This amount of energy is much
favourable situations are found. more than the total energy requirements
y It is harvested by heating water or directly of the world at the recent level of
in heating spaces used for agriculture consumption.
and domestic purposes. It has some y Different usage of solar energy in the
disadvantages such as: present-day life are heating of domestic
⚪ It cannot be used to power vehicles. and commercial buildings, street lighting,
⚪ It is location bound and thus is available food cooking by using solar cookers, power
only in certain locations of certain generation, agricultural and industrial
countries. operations, green house technology,
⚪ Sometimes, cost becomes an issue in desalination of water and generation of
utilising these resources. fuels like ethanol and hydrogen.
y Major producers:
⚪ The U.S.A., Iceland, Italy, Japan, New y Important regions
Zealand etc. are the main producers of ⚪ Tropical nations are lucky to receive a
this energy. sufficient amount of sunshine and can
⚪ The U.S. has the world’s largest harness solar energy to their benefit.
geothermal power plant. The Geysers ⚪ U.S.A., China, Japan and India are the
in California is the largest geothermal major investors in developing technologies
power plant in the world. for the development of solar energy.
⚪ However, desert regions with less
Solar Energy
clouds and more sunshine provide
y It is the energy gained from the rays of the great opportunities for developing solar
sun which heat up an object when they energy.

International Solar Alliance (ISA):

y The launch of the International Solar Alliance (ISA) was announced by India and France
on 30th November 2015 at the 21st session of the United Nations Climate Change
Conference of the Parties (COP-21) in Paris, France.
y The International Solar Alliance (ISA) was envisioned as a coalition of the solar-resource-
rich countries (whether entirely or partially located between the Tropics of Cancer &
Capricorn) to resolve their unique energy needs.
y This particular dedicated platform will facilitate collaboration among the solar-
resource-rich countries, enabling the global community, including govts., bilateral &
multilateral organisations, corporations, industry, as well as other stakeholders, to make
a contribution to the common aim of expanding the use & quality of the solar energy
in meeting the energy needs of potential ISA member countries in a safe, convenient,
affordable, equitable, and sustainable manner.

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Fig. 3.15: Solar Energy Production

Wind Power ⚪ Consistent wind, as well as wind speeds,

y Wind blowing consistently at high speed are required for continuous power
(usually between 25 and 35km/ hr) in a generation.
particular direction contains great power, ⚪ Wind farms, whether on or off the coast,
which can be utilised with the help of wind are unsightly and noisy and result in
farms. A wind farm is a cluster of wind polluting the environment.
turbines which produce electricity through
windmills. Energy from Ocean- Wave, Tide and
y It is free, unlimited, clean and safe energy. It Difference in Temperature
is being harvested through well-developed
technology. Wave Energy
y Important Regions: y The various wave movements, such as
⚪ The world’s largest wind farm is situated back-and-forth or up-and-down, can be
in Altamont Pass in California. captured to generate wave power by forcing
⚪ Scandinavian nations like Norway, the air into and out of the chamber in order
Sweden, Finland, Netherlands etc., have to drive a piston or spin a turbine that
great potential for wind energy. provides power to the generator.
⚪ India is emerging as an important wind y In a real sense, kinetic energy exists in
power producer in Asia, while China has the ocean’s moving waves. This particular
an ambitious plan to set up wind farms. energy can be harnessed and also used to
y The current installed capacity of wind power a turbine.
power generators in the world is around y Waves have been used to generate energy
160 gigawatts (one gigawatt is equivalent in Japan, Norway, and the United States of
to 1000-million watts). Around 2% of the America. Waves can generate roughly five
world’s electricity is obtained from wind times the energy required by the United
energy. Kingdom.
y Disadvantages:
⚪ It is not obtainable all time, at all places.
Tidal Energy
It can’t be stored, and must be used y A tide is the periodic rise & fall of the sea
while being manufactured. level that occurs once or twice per day,

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primarily due to the attraction of the sun & y The important gases produced from
moon. biomass are methane, carbon dioxide, and
y The energy can be generated from these hydrogen sulphide.
tides 4 times a day. It is harvested with the y Biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils.
help of turbines. Biogas is the gas which is generated by
y A tidal range of 3 meters is enough to fermentation of biodegradable materials
produce energy. like biomass manure, sewage, municipal
y Actual production is carried on at the mouth waste, green waste etc. It mainly consisted
of the Rauce river in Northern France, of methane and carbon dioxide.
Kislaya Guba near Murmansk, around the
coast of the Barents Sea and in China. Tar Sands
y Fundy Bay in Canada and Severn Estuary in y Tar Sands are big areas of swamps of fine
Britain have huge potential for tidal energy. clay and sand mixed with water and variable
amounts of black molasses. Canada has the
Using Ocean Water Temperature Variations world’s largest known tar sand deposits.
to Generate Energy Heavy oil is extracted for human needs
y It is the energy generated due to the or upgraded to synthetic crude oil and is
temperature difference of sea layers which purified by removing sulphur impurities.
is also used to obtain energy from the flow
of heat. The process is referred to as the Oil Shale
“Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion” (OTEC). y It is an underground formation of malt-
This temperature difference can be used stone sedimentary rock which contains
to generate energy in the power plants. varying amounts of a rubbery solid mixture
y Such conditions prevail in the tropical of Hydrocarbons known as kerogen.
zone, and this zone holds great potential Technology to develop energy fuel from it is
for producing sea thermal power. Efforts still being researched.
to harness this energy have been made
in Cuba, U.S.A. (Miami coast and Hawaii Energy Conservation
islands) and Japan. Energy conservation is important considering the
y Energy is generated at a high cost, and very consequences of the generation of energy which
little output is gained. Therefore, we need involves cost, technology and the impact of
to invest more in this technology for better causing pollution. Energy is required for fulfilling
output. human needs of food, living, communication
and overall in any economic activity.
Some Other Important Resources
Bio-energy The Energy can be Conserved by Following
y This energy is produced from plant synthesis Three Basic Steps
and is one of the most versatile energy y Using energy justifiably, minimising the
sources, which is capable of providing waste in our uses.
high-quality gaseous, liquid and solid fuels. y Adoption of new lifestyles for lesser
Wood and wood processing residues, crop wastage and conservation of energy.
residues, animal waste, seaweed etc., y Development of new energy resources.
provide the basic raw materials for biomass
energy generation. India’ Effort and Progress in Renewable
y Biomass can be transformed into other Energy
usable forms of energy, such as biogas/ y The govt. intends to build a renewable
methane, ethanol and also in biodiesel. energy capacity of 500 GW by the year 2030.

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As of Nov. 30, 2020, the installed renewable Recent Efforts

energy capacity was around 90.39 GW, with y With a capacity of 1.5 MW, the largest
the solar and wind accounting for around solar power project established under
36.91 GW and around 38.43 GW, respectively. the central govt’s ‘Make In India’ initiative
Biomass power accounted for around 10.14 was completed in Nov. 2020 at the Leh
GW, while small hydropower accounted for Indian Air Force Station in the UT of
around 4.74 GW. Ladakh.
y Solar power is a rapidly growing industry y The govt. announced a production-linked
in India. The country’s solar installed incentive (PLI) scheme worth Rs. 4,500-Cr.
capacity was around 35.12 GW as of 30th for the manufacturing of high-efficiency
June 2020. Installing solar power plants in solar PV modules over a duration of five-
India has the world’s lowest capital cost year period in Nov. 2020.
per MegaWatt. y The Indian Railways is stepping up its
y Rooftop solar power generates 2.1 GW, with efforts to reduce emissions by 33 percent
70% of it being industrial or commercial. by the year 2030 by implementing long-
India is developing off-grid solar power for term energy efficiency measures as well as
local energy needs in addition to its large- maximising the use of clean fuel.
scale grid-connected solar photovoltaic
(PV) initiative.

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4 Water Resources

Introduction y Although around 3/4th of the earth’s

surface is occupied with water, however,
y Water (H2O) is a tasteless, colourless, and
human beings cannot use all of it to fulfill
odourless chemical substance made up
their requirement. Only a small proportion
of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen
of water is freshwater that can be put to
atoms. In most cases, water contains other
use. Freshwater is mainly acquired from
dissolved chemicals that affect its colour,
surface runoff and groundwater that is
taste, smell, acidity, and conductivity.
continually being renewed and recharged
y The evolution of life on earth itself took
with the help of the hydrological cycle.
place in the water. Water has played a
significant role in the evolution of all types
of life. Water is of major importance to all
Water Cycle Important Source of
living things; in some organisms, up to 90%
Fresh Water
of their body weight comes from water. Up
to 60% of the human adult body is water. y The hydrologic cycle involves the
y Hydrosphere contains the water component continuous circulation of water in the
of the earth, which comprises oceans, seas, Earth-Atmosphere system. At its core,
glaciers, rivers, underground water, lakes the water cycle is the motion of the water
and ponds. The Hydrosphere comprises from the ground to the atmosphere and
water in all its forms, that is, ice, water and back again. It is the circulation of water
water vapour. within the earth’s hydrosphere in different
y It is reported that about 71% of the earth’s forms, i.e. the liquid, solid and gaseous
surface is covered with water and the rest phases. It also refers to the continuous
29% is land. Earth is often referred to as a exchange of water between the oceans,
water planet or blue planet because of the atmosphere, land surface and subsurface
abundance of water on its surface. and organisms.
y Since ancient times, ocean waters have y Some main processes involved in the water
been used for transportation, fishing and cycles are:
defence. People living around seashores ⚪ Evaporation and evapotranspiration.
heavily depend upon ocean water resources ⚪ Condensation and precipitation
for their survival. ⚪ Surface runoff

Components Processes

Evaporation

Water storage in oceans Evapotranspiration

Sublimation

Condensation
Water in the atrnosphere
Precipitation

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Components Processes

Water storage in ice and snow Snow melt runoff to streams

Surface runoff Stream flow freshwater storage in filtration

Groundwater storage Groundwater discharge springs

Table 4.1: Components and Processes of the Water Cycle

y The need for freshwater for human needs Distribution of Water

and the conservation of the natural As discussed, about 3/4th of the earth’s surface
environment and ecosystem is provided is covered with water. More than 97% of the
by the hydrological cycle through the earth’s water is found in the oceans and is too
continuous flow of water in its three salty for human use.
forms.
y Water accumulates in clouds and then falls
to the earth in the form of rain or snow. Water Resource of the Ocean
This water accumulates in rivers, lakes and y The total volume of water on Earth is
oceans, after which it evaporates into the estimated at 1.386-billion km³ (333-million
atmosphere and resumes the cycle. cubic miles), with 97.5% being salt water
y Solar energy is driving the whole process. and 2.5% being freshwater. Of the fresh
This involves the continuous recycling water, only 0.3% is in liquid form on the
of water between different components surface.
(atmosphere, land and oceans) through y The important oceans of the world in
various processes. descending order of area and volume are:

Fig. 4.1: Water Cycle

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Fig. 4.2: Distribution of Water

Pacific ocean > Atlantic ocean > Indian ocean ⚪ Snow and freshwater:
> Arctic ocean ⚪ Artificial water bodies:
 Nearly 70 per cent of this freshwater
Name of the Area Volume occurs as ice sheets and glaciers
ocean (%) (%) in Antarctica, Greenland and the
mountainous regions of the world,
Pacific ocean 45.77 51.63 while a little less than 30 per cent is
stored as groundwater in the world’s
Atlantic ocean 22.83 23.61
aquifers. (The UN World Water
Indian ocean 20.34 21.23 Development Report, 2003)
y Fresh Water Resources at Continent Level:
Arctic ocean 3.9 11.23 ⚪ America (45%)
⚪ Asia (28%)
Table 4.2: Comparison of Oceans
⚪ Europe (15.5%)
y Fresh water resources of the world (only ⚪ Africa (9%)
around 2.5% of the water): y Brazil, Russia, the USA, Canada, and China
⚪ Fresh water is contained in: are among the water-rich countries.
 Rivers and streams y Kuwait, Bahrain, Jordan, Libyan Arab
 Lakes Jamahiriya, Maldives, Malta, Qatar, Saudi
 Glaciers:

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Fig. 4.3: Water Resources

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Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Yemen ⚪ Precipitation is relatively high in the
are water-poor countries. catchment areas of the Ganga, the
y Some of the important basins are the Brahmaputra and the Barak rivers;
Amazon and Orinoco Basins, Yangtze Basin, these rivers, although account for only
Brahmaputra Basin, Irrawaddy Basin, and about one-third of the total area in the
Yenisei River Basin. country, have 60 per cent of the total
surface water resources.
Water Resources of India y Most of the annual flow of water in rivers like
India accounts for about 2.45 per cent of the the Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery in South
world’s surface area, 4 per cent of the world’s India has been well utilised. (Compared to
water resources and about 16 per cent of the the northern rivers).
world’s population. y Groundwater resources in India:
y The total water available from precipitation ⚪ The total replenishable groundwater
in the country in a year is about 4,000 cubic resources in India are about 432 cubic
km. km. The level of groundwater utilisation
y The availability of surface water and is relatively high in the river basins lying
replenishable groundwater is 1,869 cubic in the north-western region and parts of
km. Out of this, only 60 per cent can be put south India.
to beneficial uses. Thus, the total utilisable The groundwater utilisation is very high in
water resource in the country is only 1,122 the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and
cubic km. Tamil Nadu. However, there are states like
Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Kerala, etc., which utilise
Surface Water Resources (Rivers, Lakes, only a small proportion of their groundwater
Lakes and Tanks) potentials. States like Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh,
In the country, there are about 10,360 rivers Bihar, Tripura and Maharashtra are utilising their
and their tributaries longer than 1.6 km each. groundwater resources at a moderate rate.
The mean annual flow in all the river basins in
How Safe is Our Water?
India is estimated to be 1,869 cubic km.
y However, due to topographical, hydrological y About 70% of the surface water resources
and other constraints, only about 690 cubic in India are polluted.
km (32 per cent) of the available surface y The major contributors to water pollution
water can be utilised. are wastewater from various sources,

Fig. 4.4: Water Utilisation Across the World

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intensive agriculture, industrial production, y The availability of water also faces pressure
infrastructure development and improper from pollution. E.g. Eutrophication of
sewage disposal. surface water and coastal zones is expected
y Every day 2.9-billion litres of waste water to grow almost everywhere until 2030.
from industrial and domestic sources y The recent trends of climate change will
is dumped into the river Ganga without exacerbate the risks linked with variations
treatment. in the distribution and availability of water
y In India, especially in cities, waste resources.
management has not been as efficient as is y Economic losses because of water-related
required to manage the increasing amount hazards have increased greatly in the
of waste generated every day. past decade. Since 1992, different natural
hazards like floods, droughts and storms
Sector Wise Water Utilisation Across the have affected 4.2-billion people (95% of
World all people affected by all disasters) and
y Globally, across most of the region, over 70% caused US$1.3 trillion of damage (63% of all
of fresh water is used for the agriculture damage).
sector and because of population growth,
urbanisation, and climate change, competition
for water resources is expected to grow, with Composite water management index
a particular impact on the agriculture sector. (NITI Aayog Report), 2019:
y It is estimated around 22% of worldwide y Thirteen of the 28 States and Union
water is utilised in the industrial sector, Territories have improved their
which includes power plants (use water for water management practices from
cooling or as a power source), ore and oil last year.
refineries (use water in chemical processes), y Gujarat, though it dropped a point,
and manufacturing plants (use water as a topped the rankings for the 2nd year
solvent). in a row with a score of 75 out of a
maximum possible 100.
Problems Associated With Water y Six States did worse as compared
Resources to last year — with Delhi, which was
assessed for the first time this year,
y Due to population growth, urbanisation,
garnering the lowest score.
and climate change, competition for water
y The 16 low-performing States
resources is expected to increase, with
collectively account for around 48%
a particular impact on agriculture. The
of the population, close to 40% of
population is expected to increase to over
agricultural produce, and about 35%
10-billion by 2050, and whether urban or
of economic output for India.
rural, this population will need food and
fibre to meet its basic needs.
y Example: India’s urban population is
expected to grow from 410-million in 2014 Various Reasons for Water Stress and Water
to 814million by 2050. Scarcity (Particularly in India)
y Out of 263 transboundary basins across y Inefficient water management and uneven
the world, 158 lack any typeof cooperative distribution: Fresh water across the world
management framework. is not evenly distributed, and some areas
y Around 20% of the global aquifers are have a surplus amount of water for their
being over-exploited, leading to serious needs while some areas are facing drought
consequences such as land subsidence problems or have less amount of water
and saltwater intrusion. simultaneously.

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Impact of Climate Change on Water

Water scarcity and water stress: Resources
y Water Scarcity: Insufficient y Water use has been increasing worldwide
availability of water resources to the by about 1% per year since the 1980s,
demands of water usage within a driven by a combination of population
region or a country. growth, socio-economic development and
y Water Stress: Water stress can be changing consumption patterns. Global
seen when the deterioration of water demand is expected to continue
fresh water takes place in terms of increasing at a similar rate until 2050,
quality and quantity. It is difficulty in accounting for an increase of 20 to 30%
accessing the sources of fresh water above the current level of water use, mainly
for use over a period of time which due to rising demand in the industrial and
may result in further depletion of domestic sectors.
water in the region. y Along with the more erratic and uncertain
supply of water, climate change will further
worsen the situation in currently water-
scarce areas around the world and cause
y Improper water irrigation: India is one of water scarcity in areas where water sources
the top agricultural countries in the world, are still abundant today.
so the requirement of water for irrigation is y Physical water scarcity is often regarded
very high. Some of the traditional methods as a seasonal phenomenon rather than an
of water irrigation resulted in the loss of old phenomenon, and climate change is
water because of evaporation, drainage, likely to cause changes in the availability
excess use of groundwater, etc. of seasonal water throughout the year in
y Poor government policies: Several some places.
government policies providing free y The increasing frequency and intensity of
electricity and financial support to the extreme natural events such as heatwaves,
farmers for the extraction of water through unprecedented rains, storms and storm
tube wells and bore wells resulted in the surges are also associated with climate
exploitation of water. change. More risk is associated with water
y The overall requirement for water in pollution and pathogenic contamination
India will grow due to rapid urbanisation, caused by flooding or by higher pollutant
industrialisation, and population growth, concentrations during drought season.
and in the absence of proper planning, y Changes caused by climate change in
people across the world and in India will precipitation patterns are expected to grow
face more issues in future. the intensity and frequency of flood and
y Water pollution: It is associated with the drought events in many areas, which may
disposal of various types of industrial waste, have lots of secondary effects. E.g., along
the disposal of domestic waste in fresh with changes in natural vegetation, it will
water sources such as rivers, lakes, etc., also lead to the destabilisation of slopes
resulting in the pollution of water bodies. and thus higher potential for sudden floods
y Poor water storage: Desilting of reservoirs, and landslides.
dams etc., during the monsoon rainy season. y Due to the high water temperature, the lack
It is not done at that time, so it is affecting of dissolved oxygen will have a negative
India’s water storage capacity. effect on water quality, thereby reducing

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the self-purifying capacity of freshwater y At the same time, dryland areas around the
sources. world are expected to expand into tropical
y Important ecosystems around the world, regions. The melting of glaciers due to
especially forests and wetlands, are also climate change is expected. The Himalayan
at risk. Not only will the over-exploitation ecosystem is rapidly melting due to climate
of natural resources by humans and change.
the degradation of ecosystems destroy y Although we can observe the impact of
biodiversity, but at the same time, it will climate change on water distribution, some
also affect the provision of water-related uncertainties remain, especially at the local
ecosystem services such as carbon capture and basin scale.
and storage, water purification and natural
Demand and Supply Side Solution
flood conservation. There is also a provision
of water for fisheries, agriculture and y Looking at the current situation related
recreation. to the use of water resources, there is a
y Impact on the tropical region: Most of the requirement for a paradigm shift. We urgently
negative effects of climate change can be require a transition from this ‘supply-and-
seen in the tropical regions where most of supply-more water’ provision to measures
the developing countries of the world are which lead towards sustainable use of
located. The regions most vulnerable to water resources like water use efficiency,
climate change are small island developing reducing leakages, cooperation at different
states that will experience rising water levels of governments and recharging/
stress. restoring local water bodies etc.

Demand side solution Supply side solutions

Metro water and groundwater use should

Various authorities at the national and
be assessed and priced progressively, like
regional levels should monitor and regulate
the electricity tariff, where the quantity of
groundwater.
electricity used determines the price.

The water resources connected with the

Regional and national governments should
supply through private tankers should also
cooperate, and they can practice differential
be controlled with the prices at which their
pricing.
services have reached a high level.

Need to put more focus on less water-

intensive crops, e.g., millets, pulses and Additional desalination plants should also be
oilseeds, especially in India’s drylands, taken up. Desalinated water is less expensive
farmers would have the incentive to than water supplied by private tankers.
cultivate them.

Spread awareness with respect to the benefit

of organic farming (e.g.. - decomposed Beds of existing ponds can be deepened
organic matter helps to improve the for more water harvesting and better water
water-holding capability of the soil) structure.
and conservation tillage etc.

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More use of micro-irrigation systems like drip There is a need to focus on restoring water
and sprinkler irrigation systems. bodies.

Focusing on optimisation of water harvesting

techniques and more water harvesting
methods such as buildings within the
complex can be equipped with facilities for
artificial groundwater recharge.

Table 4.3: Comparison of Demand Side Solutions and Supply Side Solutions for Water Resources

Some of the Important Initiatives Taken ⚪ Accelerated Irrigation Benefit

by India Programme (AIBP) of Ministry of Water
Resources, River Development & Ganga
Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABHY)
Rejuvenation.
y It focused on sustainable groundwater ⚪ Integrated Watershed Management
management with community participation Programme (IWMP) of the Department
in select over-exploited and ground water- of Land Resources.
stressed regions in seven States (Gujarat, ⚪ On-Farm Water Management (OFWM)
Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, component of the National Mission
Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh). on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) of
y It is a central sector scheme of the the Department of Agriculture and
Ministry of Jal Shakti to improve ground Cooperation.
water management through community
participation. y Major objective of PMKSY
⚪ To achieve convergence of investments
Jal Jeevan Mission
in irrigation infrastructure at the field
Jal Jeevan Mission is envisioned to provide safe
level.
and adequate drinking water through individual
⚪ Increase cultivable region under assured
household tap connections by 2024 to all
irrigation.
households in rural India. The programme will
⚪ Improve and enhance on-farm water use
also implement source sustainability measures
efficiency to reduce wastage of water.
as mandatory elements, such as recharge and
⚪ Enhance the adoption of precision-
reuse through grey water management, water
irrigation and other water-saving
conservation, and rainwater harvesting. The Jal
methods, which will fulfil the aim of
Jeevan Mission will be based on a community
‘More crop per drop’.
approach to water and will include extensive
⚪ Enhance and improve recharge of
Information, Education and communication
aquifers and introduce sustainable
as key components of the mission. The Jal
water conservation techniques by
Jeevan Mission will be based on a community
exploring the feasibility of reusing
approach to water and will include extensive
treated municipal wastewater for peri-
Information, Education and communication as
urban agriculture and attracting greater
a key component of the mission.
private investment in a precision
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee irrigation system in agriculture.
Yojana (PMKSY)
y It has been formulated by amalgamating
ongoing schemes like:

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5 Marine Resources

Introduction economic and commercial development –

thereby improving human well-being and
y Since ancient times, many resources of the
social equity while significantly reducing
oceans have been used, which were mostly
environmental risks and ecological scarcity.
associated with transportation, fishing and
conservation. The people living around the Marine Resources are Linked to
beach depend heavily on marine resources Marine Deposits and their Sources
for their survival.
The sea deposits are spread across the sea
y Marine resources can be divided into two
floor, and these deposits are mostly linked to
parts, namely biotic and abiotic resources
the following sources.
that are found within the oceans and are
beneficial to humans. Terrigenous Deposit
y According to the United Nations, The These deposits are derived from soils and are
economic value of marine resources mostly found in shallow depths, which may
involved in various activities in the world’s include volcanic materials derived from soil
oceans is estimated to be between US$3 deposits, decomposition of continental rocks,
trillion and US$6 trillion (Rs 20 lakh to Rs sand and gravel.
40 lakh crore). y There are many sources by which these
⚪ It is derived from many services and deposits are brought into the oceans.
resources, such as: ⚪ Example:
 Maritime transport (90 percent of  Due to the work of the river.
the world’s trade passes through the  Through the waves and currents of
sea), the sea.
 Global telecommunications (sub­  Due to the work of the wind.
marine cables carry 95% of total  Due to the work of glaciers.
digital data worldwide),
 Various sources of food, for example, Pelagic Deposit
fisheries and aquaculture, feed a This sediment is found on the floors of the
population of 4.3-billion - more than deep oceans and oceans. These deposits are
15% of the annual consumption of derived mainly from the life of marine plants
animal protein. and animals. Sediments include marine flora
 Oil and gas (more than 30% of the and animal shells, and skeletons.
approximately are produced from y Deposits and deposits from submarine
offshore), volcanoes:
 Maritime tourism (about 5% of world ⚪ In volcanic regions, the deposits of
gross domestic product (GDP) and continental shelf and slope consist
6–7% of global employment) chiefly of products of volcanism, which
 Coast-based economic activities (13 are subject to chemical and mechanical
of the world’s top 20 metropolises weathering and are carried to the ocean
and more than 40% of the world’s by actions of running water and wind.
population (about 3.1-billion) live in The volcanic deposits differ from the
about 150 coastal cities and island ordinary terrigenous deposits in one
countries within 100 km of sea.) respect—they are made of pyroclastic
y Recently the idea of the blue economy has volcanic products and lava rather than
gained prominence, linked to ocean-based quartz.

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United Nations Conference on The Law of rules and regulations apply to setting the
the Sea Resources and the Sea (UNCLOS) baseline under different circumstances,
y The United Nations Convention on such as creeks, river mouths, harbours,
the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is an deep-seated beaches, fringe reefs, and
international treaty which was adopted roadsteads.
and signed in 1982. It replaced the four y Internal waters.
Geneva Conventions of April 1958, which ⚪ Waters on the landward side of the
respectively concerned the territorial sea baseline of the territorial sea form part
and the contiguous zone, the continental of the internal waters of the State. Each
shelf, the high seas, fishing and coastal country has absolute sovereignty
conservation of living resources on the over its inland waters as if it were part
high seas. The various terms associated of its land area.
with UNCLOS are: y Territorial water:
y Baseline: ⚪ Every State has the right to establish
⚪ A common baseline can be defined as the breadth of its territorial sea up to
the low-water line along the coast as a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles,
marked on large-scale charts officially measured from baselines determined in
recognised by the coastal state. Different accordance with this Convention.:

Fig. 5.1: Maritime Zones (UNCLOS)

 The coastal country exercises customs laws within its territory and
sovereignty over its territorial water. territorial sea.
y Contiguous zone: y Unlike the territorial sea, the contiguous
⚪ The contiguous zone extends seaward zone only gives jurisdiction to a state on
up to 24 nm from its baselines. the ocean’s surface and floor. It does not
⚪ It is an intermediary zone between the provide air and space rights.
territorial sea and the high seas.
⚪ The coastal state has the right to Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
both prevent and punish infringement y States may claim an EEZ that extends 200
of fiscal, immigration, sanitary, and nautical miles from the baseline. In this

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zone, a coastal State has the exclusive right below). As with the EEZ, continental
to exploit or conserve any resources found shelf rights do not grant a State the
within the water, on the sea floor, or under right to restrict navigation.
the sea floor’s subsoil. These resources
encompass both living resources, such as Important Marine Resources and Related
fish and non-living resources, such as oil Information
and natural gas. States also have exclusive
FreshWater Resources
rights to engage in offshore energy
generation from the waves, currents, and y Saline seawater can be converted into
wind within their EEZ. fresh water through various processes.
⚪ Unlike the territorial sea and the Desalination is one such process.
contiguous zone, the EEZ only allows for y Desalination is the process of removing salts
the above-mentioned resource rights. It or other minerals and contaminants from
does not give a coastal state the right to seawater, brackish water, and wastewater
prohibit or limit freedom of navigation effluent, and it is an increasingly common
or overflight, subject to very limited solution to obtain fresh water for human
exceptions. consumption and for domestic/industrial
y Continental shelf: utilisation. The techniques used for this
⚪ The continental shelf is a natural purpose are as follows:
seaward extension of a land boundary. y Reverse osmosis:
This seaward extension is geologically ⚪ Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water
formed as the seabed slopes away purification technology that uses partially
from the coast, typically consisting of impervious membranes to separate
a gradual slope (the continental shelf undesirable molecules, ions, and large
proper), followed by a steep slope particles from water.
(the continental slope), and then a y Flash distillation / Balance distillation:
more gradual slope leading to the ⚪ In this method, the liquid mixture feed
deep seabed floor. These three areas, is pumped through a heater to increase
collectively known as the continental the mixing temperature and enthalpy.
margin, are rich in natural resources, ⚪ After this, it passes through the valve
including oil, natural gas and certain and the pressure is reduced, due to
minerals. which the liquid partially evaporates.
⚪ States are allowed to conduct ⚪ After the mixture enters a sufficiently
economic activities for a distance of large amount, the liquid and the vapour
200 nautical miles from the baseline or separate. Since vapour and liquids are
the continental margin where it extends in such close contact until they “flash”
beyond 200 nautical miles. the product fluid and vapour phases,
⚪ The economic rights within the equilibrium is reached.
continental shelf extend only to non- y Electro-dialysis:
living resources and sedentary living ⚪ Electrodialysis is a separation process in
resources, such as shellfish. It also which charged membranes and electrical
allows the coastal State to build potential differences are used to separate
artificial islands, installations, and ionic species from an aqueous solution
structures. The other States can harvest and other uncharged components.
non- sedentary living resources, such ⚪ Electrodialysis systems use a selectively
as finfish; lay submarine cables and permeable membrane to move ions
pipelines, and conduct marine research from one side to the other under the
as if it were international waters (see influence of an electric potential.

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Fig. 5.2: Electro-Dialysis Cell

Marine Fishing tuna, shrimp, mullet, squid, crab, salmon,

y Fisheries are obviously a major part of the lobster, scallop and oyster.
global economy. Over 15 % of the blue economy y A good fishing area depends on:
sector is represented by the fisheries sector, ⚪ Shallow coastal waters. Adequate
which contributes to nearly 60-million jobs sunlight penetration supports the
globally (FAO, 2018). Additionally, fish provide photosynthesis process required for
the primary, consistent source of protein plants.
consumed by nearly 50% of the world’s ⚪ Beaches that pit gives favourable
population (FAO, 2018). coastal conditions for fishing activities.
y Fish consumption increased from 5.2 kg The mixture of cold and hot seawater and the
per person in 1961 to 19.4 kg in 2017, at an formation of the corresponding plankton are
average annual rate of 2.4%. important foods for fish.
y In 2017, the share of fish consumption was ⚪ Coastal upwelling areas where there is a
about 17% of the animal protein intake of high rate of primary production.
the world’s population, and 7% of all protein ⚪ Access to forest resources that support
was consumed. fishing production boats.
y The top seven producing countries of global
capture fisheries accounted for almost Major Fishing Grounds
50 percent of total captures, with China Fishing grounds are categorised as
producing 15 percent of the total, followed y Temperate fishing grounds
by Indonesia (7 percent), Peru (7 percent), y Tropical fishing Grounds
India (6 percent), the Russian Federation
(5 percent), the United States of America Temperate Fishing Grounds
(5 percent) and Viet Nam (3 percent). The
top 20 producing countries accounted North West Pacific Region
for about 74 percent of the total capture It covers an area between the east china sea
fisheries production. and Bering sea factors responsible for the
y The most common species of global impressive development of fishing industry in
fisheries are herring, cod, cove, flounder, this region are:

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y Wide expanse of the continental shelf of y Different ports like st. jones Portsmouth
N.W. pacific, which is below 200 meters of provide excellent marketing facilities
depth near Okhotsk sea, China and Sakhalin y Insurance against the disaster is, also
island very important along with Government
y Presence of shallow water incentives
y Confluence of warm Kuroshio current
North East Atlantic
with cold Oyashio current and subsequent
growth of abundant plankton y This region extends from Iceland to the
y The traditional skill of Japanese and Chinese Mediterranean sea
people in fishing y Factors responsible for the growth of fishing
y Large population of the country and here are
absence of food proteins ⚪ Presence of extensive shallow
y Absence of alternative occupation continental shelf within 200 meter
y Broken coastline provides excellent facilities ⚪ Broken coastline providing protection
of port and fishing harbour building to fish. Numerous fish species, both
y Deposition of an abundant product by Demarshal and pelagic variety, are found
inland rivers like Hoang ho, Kitakami that is abundantly in the submerged areas or
consumed by fish banks like Rockfall bank, Goowin bank,
y Cold climate facilitates preservation Doggers bank etc. beside usual tuna cod
facilities Herring, Mackerel plentiful salmon also
enters the area through English Channel
North-West Atlantic and Bay of Bengal
y It extends from Newfoundland to New ⚪ Inland rivers like Rhine and Seine
England provide food for fish
y Newfoundland was one of the largest whale ⚪ Convergence of cold polar current with
catching center warm North Atlantic drift helps in the
growth of plankton
Major Factors for the Growth of the
⚪ Cool climate helps the preservation of
Region are
fish
y Convergence of warm gulf stream with cold ⚪ Nearby Coniferous forest supplies wood
Labrador Current facilities Plankton growth. for construction of fish boats and jetties
y Extensive, and shallow Continental Shelf ⚪ Consistent demand throughout the year
extends from Florida to Newfoundland - for export and domestic consumption
Several shallow banks like Georges bank, ⚪ The region has sound internal fertiliser ,
Seble bank are the home of thousands of detergent oil industry that requires fish
species as raw material
y The cooler Lawrencian climate of N-E. USA ⚪ Numerous ports in this region facilitate
helps fishing and preservation facilities export-import facilities
y Several inland rivers of the area, like st.
Lawrence, provide the supply of fish food North-east Pacific
y Nearby coniferous forest supports the y It stretches from Alaska to California
construction of harbours and jetties at a y Major factors responsible for the growth of
cheaper rate. these regions are
y Highly developed adjacent countries like ⚪ Convergence of warm pacific current
USA and Canada provide extensive market with cold Alaska’s current
as most of the people here consume a lot ⚪ Cooler temperature
of fish in their normal diet Beside food, fish ⚪ Lack of fertile agricultural land
also used as raw material to fertiliser soap ⚪ Consistent demand
and cod liver oil preparation ⚪ Indented coastline

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South East Pacific Region percent) is generally too low to permit

y Peru and Chile coastal areas direct economic extraction.
y Factors responsible are ⚪ Potassium salts, however, occur in
⚪ Upwelling due to Humboldt’s current many thick evaporite sequences
⚪ Huge amount of anchovy along with common salt and mined
⚪ Cool climate from these beds at rates of tens of
⚪ Enterprising people and Government millions of metric tons per year. The
potassium salts were deposited when
South East Atlantic seawater had been evaporated down
y Angola to South Africa to about one-twentieth of its original
y Factors responsible are volume.
⚪ Wide continental shelf Magnesium:
⚪ Convergence of warm Agulhas and cold y It dissolves in seawater at a concentration
Benguela current of about 1,000 parts per million.
⚪ Export demands ⚪ It is the only metallic mineral that is
extracted directly from seawater.
Tropical Fishing Grounds ⚪ Magnesium and dolomite are important
y Confined to 30-degree north and south of minerals.
equator
Sand and Gravel
y China, Indonesia, India, Thailand and
Srilanka are major countries y The ocean basins constitute the ultimate
y High temperature, lack of plankton growth, depositional site of sediments eroded
shallow shelf, lack of indented coastlines, from the land, and beaches represent the
transportation bottleneck, and low largest residual deposits of sand. Although
investment are major issues here beaches and near-shore sediments are
locally extracted for use in construction,
Marine Mineral Resources they are generally considered too valuable
y These minerals either dissolve in seawater as recreational areas to permit removal for
or can be found as deposits. These construction purposes.
resources are found on the surface or y Older beach sand deposits are abundant
below the surface. Some marine mineral on the continents, especially the on
resources are as follows: coastal plains, where they are extensively
Salt, or sodium chloride: mined for construction materials, glass
y Salt, or sodium chloride, occurs in seawater manufacture, and preparation of silicon
at a concentration of about 3 percent and metal. Gravel deposits generally are more
hence constitutes more than 80 percent heterogeneous but occur in the same
of the dissolved chemical elements in manner and are processed extensively for
seawater. building materials.
y The availability of salt in all oceans is so
high that it can meet all human needs for Limestone and Gypsum
hundreds, perhaps thousands of years. y Limestone (rocks made of calcium
y In most mineral resources, salt can be carbonate) is formed in large quantities in
extracted effectively at a commercial level. the world’s tropical to semitropical ocean
Potassium: regions.
y Potassium occurs in vast quantities in ⚪ It is formed as a result of precipitation
seawater, but its average concentration by biological organisms, from molluscs
of about 1,300 parts per million (or 0.13 to corals and plants.

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y Gypsum (calcium sulfate hydrate) forms island nations of the western Pacific. It is
during evaporation of seawater and thus estimated that one seabed mine site could
may occur with evaporite salts and/or provide up to 25 percent of the annual global
with limestones. The gypsum deposits are market for cobalt (used to make corrosion-
mined and generally converted into plaster resistant, light, strong metal alloy, and paints),
of paris and used for construction. contingent on the development of mining and
refining technology.
Cobalt-Rich Ferommanez Crusts (CFCs)
Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts are the Seafloor Massive Sulfide (SMS)
second of the two metallic mineral resources y Seafloor massive sulphides are the only
that incorporate metals from both land and metal-bearing deposits of (current)
sea sources. These precipitate from seawater commercial significance that form at active
as thin layers (up to 25 centimetres thick) on plate boundaries.
volcanic rocks of seamounts and submerged y Though they are mostly located in association
volcanic mountain ranges at water depths with oceanic ridges, massive sulphide
between 400 and 4,000 metres. deposits can also be found near volcanic
The richest of these crusts lie within and island sites and in island-arc systems at
beyond the exclusive economic zones of the depths ranging from 800 to 5,000 m.

Principal
Type Description Volume Metals
deposits

Concentrated Red Sea, back-

deposits of Up to arc basins, mid-
sulphidic minerals several oceanic ridges
Pb. Zn.Cu,Co
Seafloor Massive (>50- 60%) km2; up and other plate
+/- Au, Ag, As,
Sulphides (SMS) resulting from to tens boundaries.
Al, Si, REEs
hydro- thermal of metres Oceanic
activity on the thick hotspots (intra-
seabed plate volcanoes)

Concretions of Nodules:
Clarion-
layered iron and average
Mn, Ni, Cu, Co Clipperton Zone.
manganese oxides 5–10 cm;
Polymetallic +/- Mo, Zn, Zr, Peru Basin.
with associated deposits:
nodules Li, Pt, Ti, Ge, Y. Central Indian
metals from the up to
REEs Ocean and
water column or thousands
Penrhyn Basin
sediment of km2

Layered
manganese and
Up to
iron oxides with Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Equatorial Pacific
several
Ferromanganese associated metals Te, Mo, Zr. Ti, Ocean and
km2;
crusts on hard substrate Bi, Ni, Pt, W, Central Atlantic
<0.3 m
rock of subsea REEs Ocean
thick
mountains and
ridges

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Fig. 5.3: Deep Ocean Minerals

y The deposits contain high concentrations y The mission is mostly aimed at deep-sea
of copper, zinc, lead, arsenic, cobalt, silver, mining, underwater vehicles and underwater
gold and other metals, depending on their robotics.
tectonic context, but not all are of economic y Related technologies and marine climate
interest. change advisory services.
y Two of the most important projects planned
Polymetallic Manganese Nodules (PMN)
in the ‘Deep Ocean Mission’ report include
y Polymetallic manganese nodules (PMNs) a recruiting energy-powered desalination
are often found very deep (3,500–6,000 m). plant and a submarine vehicle that can
y PMNs can contain manganese and a limited explore a depth of at least 6,000 metres of
amount of cobalt, copper, iron, lead, the ocean.
manganese, nickel, zinc and rare earth y The mission will support India’s vision of
elements. harnessing the resources of the Central
y They are potato-shaped, and abundant Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB). India has
porous nodules are found at the bottom been allotted 75,000 sq km in CIOB for
of the oceans of the world’s oceans in the the discovery of polymetallic nodules by
deep sea. the United Nations International Seabed
Authority (ISA).
India’s Deep Ocean Mission y It is estimated that about 380-million metric
y This will help India enter the hitherto tons of polymetallic nodules containing
unexplored 75,000 sq km of international 4.7-million tonnes of nickel, 4.29-million
waters to exploit vast marine resources. tonnes of copper and 0.55-million tonnes

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of cobalt and 92.59-million tonnes of hot shallow or surface seawater to

manganese are available at the bottom of generate power and useful work.
the central Indian Ocean basin. ⚪ The production of energy is at a higher
y Challenges associated with the exploitation cost, and the production is much
of polymetallic manganese nodules (PMS): lower. Better production requires more
⚪ Will develop a major technological investment in this technology.
challenge, the specific drill and extraction ⚪ However, the temperature difference
technology that will be required to is small, and it significantly affects the
extract metals from the deep sea. economic viability of marine thermal
y Mining in the deep sea without a holistic energy for power generation because
approach can cause great disturbances and the energy in the process is generated
imbalances in the biosphere of the ocean. at a high cost and output is obtained at
y They are regarded as the ultimate resources a very low cost.
to rely on this: there are different mountain
ranges, mountain ranges, forests, sea Marine Biotechnology
waves, volcanoes and a special ecology that y Marine biotechnology is the creation of
challenges common sense. products and processes from marine
⚪ Deep-sea mining can distract the organisms through the application of
attention of various keystones and base biotechnology, molecular and cell biology,
species. and bioinformatics. It is the field of science
that deals with ocean exploration for the
Marine Energy development of new pharmaceutical drugs,
There are various phenomena and elements of chemical products, enzymes, and other
the oceans such as waves, tidal current, tidal products and processes. It also deals
boundary, ocean thermal, sea stream, river with the advancement of aquaculture
flow and salinity, etc., through which energy and seafood safety, bioremediation, and
from seawater can be utilised. biofuels, among others.
y Tidal energy: y Some of the most important products of
⚪ The tidal limit of 3 meters is enough to biotechnology:
generate energy. ⚪ Biopolymer is very useful in dental
⚪ For many centuries, tidal barrages biomaterials, wound dressings, bio-
and lagoons have been used to power adhesives, tissue regeneration, and 3D
smaller mills in Europe. tissue culture scaffolds.
⚪ One of the major limitations of the ⚪ Specific marine fish species are used for
development of tidal technology is its site drug production to treat cancer, malaria,
specification, which will always limit tidal Alzheimer’s, pain and inflammation,
technology and limit its total capacity. various forms of infection, schizophrenia,
y Wave energy: and neovascular diseases.
⚪ Waves associated with various ocean ⚪ Sponges are useful for making
water movements, such as back-to- medicines for diseases such as cancer,
back or up-down, can be captured to malaria, viral infections, inflammation
produce wave power and cardiovascular problems.
⚪ In fact, moving waves of seawater
present kinetic energy that can be used Marine Pollution
to power the turbine. y Globally, various land-based such as
y Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC): agricultural shortages, discharge of
⚪ OTEC heat engine uses temperature nutrients and pesticides and untreated
differences between a cold deep and sewage water including plastic) account for

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about 80% of marine pollution. The various ⚪ The Nairobi conference deals with the
water habitats of the sea are contaminated protection and preservation of the coastal
with man-made debris. environment of the East African coast ;
y A large amount of nutrients from sewage ⚪ The International Maritime Organisation
water and agricultural flows is responsible (IMO) has its own regulatory framework
for ocean pollution. Example: The increasing ⚪ Relating to the shipping sector, ensuring
incidence of low oxygen (hypoxic) areas is the safety and security of maritime
known as dead zones, where most marine navigation as well as the safety of the
life cannot survive, resulting in the collapse marine environment.
of some important marine ecosystems. y Ramsar convention on wetlands of
y There are currently about 500 dead zones, international importance.
with a total global surface area of more ⚪ The International Convention for the
than 245,000 square kilometres (roughly Prevention of Pollution from Ships
equivalent to the United Kingdom). (MARPOL) is the main international
y Some of the important sources of marine conference which deals with the
pollution: prevention of marine ecological pollution
⚪ Eutrophication by ships for operational or incidental
 Eutrophication is the process by reasons.
which an entire body of water, or y African maritime transport charter on
parts of it, becomes progressively regional integration and the promotion of
enriched with minerals and best practices in maritime transport.
nutrients, particularly nitrogen and y International Whaling Commission (IWC):
phosphorus. The International Convention for the
 The side effects of eutrophication on regulation of whaling provides for the proper
marine ecology include the following: conservation of whales and thus enables
algal blooms, oxygen depletion in the systematic development of the whaling
the lower water level, increased industry.
sediment and oxygen consumption, y The World nvention also seeks to protect
and, sometimes, mortality of benthic and protect human heritage sites on the
animals and fish. high seas.
⚪ Contamination by ship-borne or ship
source pollution and dumping. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
⚪ Offshore petroleum exploration and Related to Marine Resources
exploration (pollution from sea floor y Sustainable development presents an
activities). international challenge that will require
⚪ Deep-sea mining activities have adverse consistent, coherent and effective
effects on benthic organisms by cooperation among countries and
destroying habitats. institutions. To this end, the United Nations’
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
Important International and Regional (2030 Agenda) was adopted in 2015. The
Conventions/Rules 2030 Agenda builds on the foundations of
y Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): the Millennium Development Goals and
There are three main goals - the conservation provides a comprehensive set of objectives
of biological diversity (biodiversity), the by which businesses, governments and
sustainable use of biodiversity components, individuals may focus their efforts for
and the fair and equitable distribution of the betterment of society. The objectives
benefits from genetic resources. are built on 17 wide-ranging SDGs, which,

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among other objectives, aim to end all forms (cities and human settlements), SDG 12
of poverty, reduce inequality and tackle (sustainable consumption and production),
climate change. Inclusive development is SDG 13 (on climate change), SDG 15 (related
at the heart of all policies. to biodiversity), and SDG 17 (partnerships for
y Fisheries and aquaculture are integral to the goals).
sustainable development and have a key y Various countries are collaborating on policy
role to play in achieving the objectives initiatives and action plans to promote
set out by the 2030 Agenda. Sustainable various mechanisms for the conservation
Development Goal 14 (Conserve and of marine ecosystems and their resources.
sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine In island countries, Seychelles and
resources for sustainable development) has Mauritius are leading the discourse, while
clear implications for marine fisheries and the European Union (EU) has developed a
aquaculture, providing actionable objectives sophisticated policy to use the resources of
that require international collaboration. the oceans.
The strong linkages that exist between the y Similarly, various multilateral bodies such
SDGs mean that achieving the targets set as APEC, EAS, SAARC and IORAA have
out in SDG 14 will have positive knock-on highlighted the growing importance of the
effects that are felt across society and blue economy in their policy framework.
that achieving SDG 14 will be dependent on y India is also emerging as a major maritime
good progress being made toward the other and naval power. It has placed the blue
closely related SDGs. economy high on its agenda for economic
y Goal 14 of SDGs is also associated with other growth. India’s essential objective is to
Goals like as SDG 1 (No Poverty), SDG 2 (Zero promote the blue economy and protect
Hunger), SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation for the marine ecosystem through a robust
all), SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy), SDG regulatory framework, which is in the
8 (economic growth), SDG 9 (infrastructure), sustainable use of existing natural
SDG 10 (reduction of inequality), SDG 11 resources.

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6 Biosphere

y The trend of the population of different

Introduction species of plants and animals is important
y The biosphere consists of all biological because it is a measure of overall ecosystem
components (living organisms), and health.
abiotic components (energy and physical y The COVID-19 pandemic has pointed to the
environment), and there is a constant importance of the relationship between
interaction between organisms and the people and the components of nature.
physical environment and also between y The soil ecosystems comprise the largest
organisms. reservoirs of biodiversity on earth and in
y Human life and socio-economic well- terrestrial ecosystems, including some
being depend on access to various natural types of pollination, as 90% of living
resources (both abiotic and biological). organisms spend a part of their lifecycle in
y Various natural resources and their land habitats.
components have immense value to
Component of Ecosystem
humans, and they perform various direct or
indirect functions for humans. y The earth’s ecosystem is composed of both
For example, the most important thing is living and non-living components. Living
climate regulation. organisms cannot live without the inanimate
y Biologicalresources include microorganisms, environment around them because the
fungi, plants and various species of animals inanimate environment gives material and
living on the surface of the earth. energy for the survival of organisms.
y The Convention on Biological Diversity y Biotic component: The living component
(CBD) defines biodiversity as the variations can be divided into three parts.
in living organisms from all sources , ⚪ Producers (autotrophs): Make your own
among other things, terrestrial, marine and food:
other aquatic ecosystems and ecological  Producers mainly include green
complexes, among which they are part; this plants, algae and some bacteria etc.
includes diversity within species, between  Plants make their own food through
species and ecosystems. the process of photosynthesis in

Fig. 6.1: Component of Environment

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which they receive their energy from y Currently, there are 36 recognised
the sun i.e. the primary source of biodiversity hotspots in the world, of which
energy on the planet. eight are the hottest hotspots:
 In the chemosynthesis process they ⚪ Madagascar
derive their energy from chemicals ⚪ Western Ghats/Ghats
and make their own food. For
y The Atlantic Forest of Brazil
example, cyanobacteria.
⚪ Caribbean
⚪ Consumer (heterotroph)
 It includes organisms that consume ⚪ India-Burma
other plants or animals for energy ⚪ Sundaland
and nutrients. y Tanzania / Tanzania Kenya’s Eastern Arch
 Vegetarians get direct nutrition from and Coastal Forests
the intake of producers or green ⚪ Philippines
plants. e.g., antelope, Rabbits, cows y Four such hotspots have been identified in
and goats, etc. India:
 The carnivorous animal gets nutrition 1. Himalayas: The entire Indian Himalayan
from the manufacturers indirectly region is covered.
by eating vegetarian food.
2. Indo-Burma: The whole of Northeast
 Organisms that can feed both plants
India except Assam and one group of
and animals are known as omnivores.
Andaman islands has been included.
⚪ Decomposer:
3. Sundaland: The Nicobar Group of
 These include saprophytes that live
Islands is included.
on dead or decaying material.
 They are microorganisms that are 4. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: The entire
mostly bacteria, fungi, protozoa, etc. Western Ghats are included.
y The North American coastal plain was
Biodiversity Hotspots identified as the world’s 36th biodiversity
hotspot by the Critical Ecosystem
y The biodiversity of the world is not evenly
Partnership Fund (CEPF).
distributed among the geographical areas
of the earth. Some regions of the world are
Significance of Biotic Resources
very rich in biodiversity. Ex. India accounts
Associated with Ecosystem Services
for only 2.4% of the world’s total land area.
y Humans depend heavily on biological
However, it provides habitat to about 8% of
resources driven by ecosystems.
species for global diversity.
y In 1988 Norman Myers (a British ecologist) Four Types of Ecosystem Services
introduced the concept of hot spots
to designate priority areas for in-situ y The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
conservation, suggesting that hot sites are (MA), a major UN-sponsored effort to analyse
the richest and most dangerous reservoirs the impact of human actions on ecosystems
of biodiversity in earth’s ecosystem. and human well-being, identified four
y The important criteria for identification of major categories of ecosystem services:
hotspots are as follows: provisioning, regulating, cultural and
supporting services.
⚪ It must contain at least 1,500 species
of vascular plants (>0.5% of the world’s
1. Provisioning Services
total) as endemics;
When people are asked to identify a service
⚪ It has to have lost ≥70% of its original
provided by nature, most think of food.
native habitat.
Fruits, vegetables, trees, fish, and livestock

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are available to us as direct products fundamental. Ecosystems themselves

of ecosystems. A provisioning service is couldn’t be sustained without the
any type of benefit to people that can be consistency of underlying natural processes,
extracted from nature. Along with food, such as photosynthesis, nutrient cycling,
other types of provisioning services include the creation of soils, and the water cycle.
drinking water, timber, wood fuel, natural These processes allow the earth to sustain
gas, oils, plants that can be made into basic life forms, let alone whole ecosystems
clothes and other materials, and medicinal and people. Without supporting services,
benefits. provisional, regulating, and cultural services
wouldn’t exist.
2. Regulating Services
Ecosystems provide many of the basic
Loss of Biodiversity and Reasons
services that make life possible for people.
Behind it
Plants clean air and filter water, bacteria
decompose wastes, bees pollinate flowers, y The idea of biodiversity is also linked to
and tree roots hold soil in place to prevent species richness (which counts species
erosion. All these processes work together in the region) – and thus, the loss of
to make ecosystems clean, sustainable, biodiversity is also linked to the loss of
functional, and resilient to change. A species from the ecosystem or even the
regulating service is the benefit provided whole biosphere, which can also be termed
by ecosystem processes that moderate as species extinction.
natural phenomena. Regulating services y A species cannot be removed from the
include pollination, decomposition, water ecosystem or the biosphere, even though
purification, erosion and flood control, and its composition decreases when its number
carbon storage and climate regulation. is reduced. Specific locations occupied by
a single species or group of species are
3. Cultural Services important for the proper functioning of
As we interact and alter nature, the the ecosystem. Thus, a sudden decrease
natural world has, in turn, altered us. It in number can cause significant changes
has guided our cultural, intellectual, and in the structure of the ecosystem. (Nish, in
social development by being a constant ecology, is the role that a species plays in
force present in our lives. The importance the ecosystem it inhabits).
of ecosystems to the human mind can be y For example, clearing trees from the
traced back to the beginning of mankind, forest removes the temperature of
with ancient civilisations drawing pictures services provided to the ecosystem, such
of animals, plants, and weather patterns as shedding, moisture regulation, animal
on cave walls. A cultural service is a non- housing and nutrient transport services.
material benefit that contributes to the y More than half of the world’s habitable land
development and cultural advancement of has been converted into agriculture, and
people, including how ecosystems play a more than 70% of the agricultural land is
role in local, national, and global cultures; used for grazing cattle, sheep, goats, and
the building of knowledge and the spreading other livestock. This massive conversion
of ideas; creativity born from interactions of forests, wetlands, grasslands and other
with nature (music, art, architecture); and important terrestrial ecosystems has led
recreation. to a decline in the number of vertebrates
worldwide, with the greatest losses
4. Supporting Services occurring in vertebrate populations and in
The natural world provides so many freshwater habitats in South and Central
services sometimes we overlook the most America.

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y Activities such as agriculture, forest sustainable use of biological resources, and

clearing, wetland filling, stream channelling conservation of species diversity.
and routing, as well as roads and building y Conventions and initiatives related to
construction, are often part of a systematic biodiversity
effort that produces a significant change in ⚪ Five globally accepted mitigation plan
the ecological path. of REDD+ related to sustainable use of
y Large-scale commercial agricultural forest are:
activities (cattle farming and soybean and  reducing emissions from
oil palm farming, etc.) accounted for about deforestation
40% of tropical deforestation between 2000  reducing emissions from forest
and 2010, and local subsistence agriculture degradation
accounted for another 33% of deforestation.  conservation of forest carbon stocks
y The important factors responsible for the  enhancement of forest carbon
degradation and depletion of biological stocks
resources include habitat change and various  sustainable management of forests
unstable agricultural practices. Invasive ⚪ Endangered Species and Flora of Wild
species; Low resource-use efficiency and Fauna (CITES)
over-exploitation of resources, including  Its aim is to ensure that ‘international
illegal logging and trade in wildlife. trade in samples of wild animals
and plants does not endanger their
Sustainable use of Biotic Resources
very existence.’ Through its three
and Conservation of Biodiversity
appendices (Appendix I, II, and III),
y The six principles agreed globally for the CITES preserves more than 30,000
restoration of forests and landscapes are species of animals, and plants to
as follows: varying degrees.
y Focus on the landscape scale.
⚪ Engaged stakeholders and supportive
Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar Convention)
governance.
y Restore multiple forest functions for y It provides a framework for the conservation,
multiple benefits. and use of wetlands and their resources.
y Maintenance and human ecosystems within It operates on the basis of national action
the landscape. and international cooperation.
y Tailor-made restoration approach to the y The Convention covers all aspects of wetland
local context. protection, and their use accordingly. The
⚪ Manage adaptively for long-term Convention recognises wetlands as an
flexibility. ecosystem, which is extremely important
y It depends on the diversity of organisms to for biodiversity conservation in general, and
keep the biosphere balanced. We protect the well-being of human communities.
and enrich this biodiversity to ensure that
we collect, and disseminate the necessary International Treaty on Plant Genetic
knowledge that can empower people, Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA)
industries and governments. Knowledge y The treaty aims to be ‘conservation and
is an essential component to help all sustainable use of plant genetics’
stakeholders adjust to nature. y Resources for food and agriculture. The
y Species diversity ensures environmental treaty also aims at a fair and equitable
resilience, providing humans with the life sharing of benefits from their use in line
system they rely on and enriching life on with the Convention on Biological Diversity
Earth. Therefore, various governments (CBD) for sustainable agriculture, and food
need to enact strict laws that ensure the security.

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⚪ The treaty also aims to recognise the animals within their natural habitats or
immense contribution of farmers to in protected areas. Protected areas are
crop diversity that feeds the world. land or sea dedicated to protect, and
⚪ The treaty covers the genetic resources maintain biodiversity.
of all types of plants for food and ⚪ Ex-situ (off-site) conservation method
agriculture. focuses on the protection of plants and
⚪ The Treaty’s ‘multilateral arrangement’ animals outside their natural habitats.
for access, and profit sharing puts These include botanical gardens, zoos,
our 64 most important crops into the gene banks, seed banks, tissue culture,
global pool of genetic resources. This and cryopreservation.
pool is freely available for certain uses y Biosphere Reserves
to potential users in treaty-ratifying ⚪ Biosphere reserves are in-situ procedure
countries. These crops account for 80% to preserve biodiversity, and promote
of the food they get from plants. sustainable use.
⚪ The concept of Biosphere reserves
World Heritage Convention (WHC) (BR) was introduced by UNESCO’s
y Through this conference, the United Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme,
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural dealing with the conservation of various
Organisation (UNESCO) aims to identify, and ecosystems, and the genetic material
preserve the cultural and natural heritage of they contain.
the world. This is done by compiling a list of ⚪ It provides local solutions to global
sites whose outstanding values are ‘preserved challenges. Biosphere reserves
for all humanity’ and their safety is ensured comprise terrestrial, marine and coastal
through cooperation between nations. ecosystems.
y By signing the convention, each country ⚪ Planning and management of Biosphere
promises not only world heritage sites, reserves involve local communities,
which are located in its territory , but also and all interested stakeholders. They
protects its national heritage. integrate three main “functions”:
y International Whaling Commission (IWC)  Conservation of biodiversity and
⚪ The purpose of the IWC is to provide cultural diversity.
for the proper conservation of the  Economic development which
whale mass, and thereby enable the is socially, culturally and
systematic development of the whaling environmentally sustainable.
industry.  Logistic support, underpinning
y Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) development through research,
⚪ The Convention on Biological Diversity monitoring, education and training.
(CBD) is an international legally binding ⚪ Three zones of Biosphere reserves
treaty. It was signed at the ‘Earth Summit’ through which the above functions are
in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992, and its achieved:
implementation began on 29 December y Core zone: It has a strictly protected area,
1993. It has three main objectives: which contributes to the conservation
 Conservation of biological diversity of landscapes, ecosystems, species and
 Sustainable use of biodiversity. genetic diversity.
⚪ Fair and equitable distribution of benefits ⚪ Buffer zone: It surrounds or connects
arising from the use of genetic resources. the main area. It is used for activities
y Conservation methods can be grouped into that are compatible with sound
two categories: ecological methods that can strengthen
⚪ In-situ (on-site) conservation methods scientific research, monitoring, training
comprise the protection of plants and and education etc.
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Fig. 6.2: Structure of Biosphere Reserves

⚪ Transition zone: It is the outermost ⚪ Dibru-Saikhowa, Assam

part of the biosphere reserve. It is the ⚪ Nokrek, Meghalaya
region of active cooperation between ⚪ Similipal, Odisha
the reserve management and the local ⚪ Pachmarhi, Madhya Pradesh
people. Here, various activities like ⚪ Achanakmar-Amarkantak, Madhya
settlements, forestry, recreation, and Pradesh-Chhattisgarh
other economic that are in harmony with ⚪ Kutch, Gujarat (largest area)
the conservation goals, are allowed. ⚪ Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu-Kerala (first
y At present, there are a total of 18 biosphere included)
reserves in India: ⚪ Gulf of Mannar, Tamil Nadu
⚪ Nanda Devi, Uttarakhand ⚪ Cold Desert, Himachal Pradesh
⚪ Sundarbans, West Bengal ⚪ Seshachalam, Andhra Pradesh
⚪ Khangchandzonga, Sikkim ⚪ Agastyamala, Karnataka-Tamil
⚪ Panna, Madhya Pradesh Nadu-Kerala
⚪ Dehang-Devang, Arunachal Pradesh ⚪ Great Nicobar, Andaman and Nicobar
⚪ Manas, Assam Islands

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7 Forest Resources

Introduction a land of more than 0.5 hectares, with trees

more than five meters high, and a canopy
y The forest ecosystem is a very complex
cover of more than 10%, or trees can reach
version of an ecosystem that has many
these limits. It does not include land that
different trees and supports a vast number
is primarily under agricultural or urban land
of life forms.
use.
y As we know, trees are an important part
y Much of terrestrial biodiversity is found in
of the Earth’s environment that purifies
the world’s forests, from boreal forests in
the air, acts as sound absorbers and also
the far north to rainforests.
maintains the earth’s temperature.
y Together, these forests include:
y A forest consists of plants and animal
⚪ More than 60,000 different species of
communities, but is usually identified
trees.
based on its dominant vegetation, which
⚪ Provide habitat for 80% of amphibians
usually makes up the bulk of the biomass.
species.
y Some of the critical factors that affect the
⚪ 75% of bird species and 68% of mammal
size, location and character of the forest
species.
are:
⚪ Periods of daylight and darkness Six Important Types of Forest Resources
(responsible for the duration of in the World
photosynthesis).
y Equatorial wet evergreen or rainforest
⚪ Total duration of the growing season.
y Tropical deciduous forest
⚪ Precipitation: Changes in total amount,
y Clear and mixed temperate deciduous
weather and intensity.
forest
⚪ Soil, slope and type of drainage.
y Mediterranean forest
y Forests perform many essential functions,
y Coniferous forest
such as:
y Mangroves
⚪ Plant roots help in soil retention on-site
and reduces soil erosion. Equatorial Wet Evergreen or Rainforest
⚪ The leaves of trees that fall around y Distribution
prevent the water from drying out, and ⚪ Located between 5° to 10° north and
allow the water to seep into the ground. south latitudes of the equator.
⚪ Provide habitat for different types of ⚪ The Amazon Basin in South America.
organisms. ⚪ Regions spread over equatorial Africa,
⚪ Dead plants decompose to form humus, including Zaire and the Congo.
and organic matter that retain water ⚪ Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, etc., in
and provide nutrients to the soil. Southeast Asia.
⚪ Forests produce huge amounts of ⚪ Parts of India (the Western Ghats and
oxygen and absorb carbon dioxide, Andaman and the Nicobar Islands), and
thus maintaining the temperature, and Sri Lanka.
composition of the Earth’s atmosphere. y Weather Conditions
⚪ Transpiration from trees affects the ⚪ Temperature:
relative humidity, and precipitation of  Temperature uniformity throughout
the area. the year.
y The Food and Agriculture Organisation of  The average monthly temperature is
the United Nations has defined a forest as around 27 °C with very little variation.

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 Cloudy skies and heavy rains soften y Brazil nut as a source of protein
the daily temperature. Therefore, at y Tagua nut for button making
the equator itself, the weather is not y Barasu to produce soap and margarine
unbearable. y Chickle from the juice of zopota tree, which
 The daily, and annual temperature is used in chewing gums
range is small. y Wild rubber from rubber trees
⚪ Rain: y Balata for cable making and other industrial
 Heavy rainfall, more than 200 cm, is purposes
well distributed throughout the year. y Babassu palm in the paint industry
 There is not a single month without y Cohune nuts for perfume manufacturing
rain. A different dry season, such y Toquilla palm for hat-making
as savannah or tropical monsoon y Quinine, Camphor, and tannin for the drug
climate, is absent. industry
 Due to the heavy heat in the
equatorial belt, the morning is bright Tropical Deciduous Forest
and sunny. y These deciduous and semi-perennial
 Evaporation, and convection air forests are common in an area where
currents are accompanied by heavy rainfall is seasonal, and has a certain dry
rainfall. season.
y Natural vegetation: y Deciduous trees are due to the obvious dry
⚪ Types of vegetation - tropical forests - period during which they shed their leaves
rainforests are found. to cope with drought periods.
⚪ Light cannot enter the undergrowth y Compared to rainfall, fewer, and well-
layers filled with weeds. defined dry seasons are found in this forest.
⚪ It consists of many types of evergreen y Distribution:
plants that produce tropical hardwoods. ⚪ Asia: India and Myanmar (Burma),
⚪ For example, mahogany, ebony, and Indonesia, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia,
green heart. There are also lianas, and South China, Philippines, etc.
epiphytic and parasitic plants. ⚪ Northern Australia region.
⚪ There are very few trees of different ⚪ In Africa
species in such vegetation. ⚪ Some regions of Central and South
y Life and wildlife in equatorial forest areas: America.
⚪ Macaw, hummingbird, and toucan are y Natural vegetation:
some of the important birds of this ⚪ Compared to the equatorial forest, this
forest area. forest is more open, less lush, and there
⚪ The reservoirs of the equatorial areas are very few species in the forest.
are also rich in wildlife with crocodiles, ⚪ Most forests are valuable for the
cleverness, fish, frogs, hippos, etc. production of valuable wood, and
⚪ Most primitive peoples are here are their good quality and longevity of
hunters and gatherers. hardwood.
⚪ Indigenous tribes from the Amazon ⚪ Important tree species are Sal, Teak,
basin collect wild rubber, pygmies in mahogany and neem etc.
the Congo basin collect nuts etc. y Lions, tigers, pigs, deer, and elephants are
some of the animals found in the Indian
Economic Importance deciduous forest.
y Teak and mahogany used in the furniture
industry Economic Importance
y The wood used as fuel y Useful wood from teak, Sal and mahogany

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y Many handicraft industries depend on these ⚪ Central Chile.

forest produce ⚪ South and Southwest Australia.
y Source of tribal livelihood y Natural vegetation:
y Also, for matchboxes, the paper industry, ⚪ It mainly consists of deciduous trees, such
furniture industry etc. as oaks and mixed sclerophyll forests.
⚪ Pine, and deciduous oak forests are
Deciduous and Mixed Temperate Deciduous found throughout California.
Forest ⚪ Eucalyptus forests of southwestern
y Distribution: Australia.
⚪ These forests found in central China
Economic Importance
and the eastern part of North America,
y For creating bottle caps from barks of oak
the Caucasus, southern Europe, the
and cork
Himalayas, Australasia, the Russian Far
y Perfume industry from lavender
East, and southern South America, along
y Olive oil extraction
with some other distinct ecological
y Wine industry.
zones globally.
y Natural vegetation: Coniferous Forest
⚪ Northern Hemisphere: The major
y They are mainly found in areas with warm
broadleaf trees in this forest include
summers and cold winters, and vary in the
oaks, bees, maples or birches.
types of plant life.
⚪ The term “mixed forest” comes from
y This type of forest is common in coastal
the inclusion of coniferous trees as a
areas of areas where there are heavy
component of the canopy observed in
rainfall and light winters, or inland in the
some of these forests.
arid climate or mountainous areas.
⚪ Examples of coniferous trees: pines,
y This forest is dominated by needle-shaped
cedars.
leaves, while some other areas also have
⚪ In the southern hemisphere, Nothofagus
broadleaf evergreen trees, or a mixture of
and Eucalyptus occupy these forest
both types of trees.
areas, and most coniferous broadleaf
y Many species of plants are found in these
trees are found in mixtures with species.
forests, including pine, cedar, spruce and
redwood.
Mediterranean Forest
y This variety of trees has a conical shape,
y Weather conditions: as it helps to prevent the accumulation of
⚪ In general, there are dry summers and snow on the trees.
rainy winters, although, in some areas, y This type of forest extends across Europe,
the rainfall may be similar. Asia, and North America in the Northern
⚪ Summers are warm in the low-lying Hemisphere and Chile, Argentina and New
areas of the interior, but can be cold Zealand.
near the cold seas. y The Southern Hemisphere.
y Distribution:
⚪ Countries adjacent to the Mediterranean Mangroves
region, such as France, Italy, Spain, y These are salt-tolerant shrubs and trees
Portugal and Albania. that grow along the coasts in the tropical,
⚪ Extreme southwest of Africa (around and subtropical regions.
Cape Town). y In this area, they play an important
⚪ California (around San Francisco). environmental and socio-economic roles.

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y These forests provide a variety of woody Forest Resources and Related

and non-timber products, protect coastal Information in India (India State of
areas, and provide habitat for terrestrial Forest Report 2019)
and aquatic species.
Forest and Tree Cover in India
There are mangrove forests in the
countries. y The total forest cover of the country is
y Asia (5.55 million hectares) > Africa (3.24 about 7,12,249 square kilometres (21.67% of
million hectares) is > North and Central the geographical area of India).
America (2.57 million hectares) > South y The country’s tree cover is about 95,027
America (2.13 million hectares). square kilometres (i.e., about 2.89% of the
y The Oceania region has the smallest geographical area).
mangrove area (1.30 million hectares). y The total forest and tree cover of the country
y More than 40% of all mangrove forests is 8,07,276 square kilometres (24.56% of the
are reported to have fallen in only four geographical area of India).
countries: Indonesia (19% of the total), y Increase in forest cover as compared to
Brazil (9%), Nigeria (7%) and Mexico (6%). 2017:
y The Sundarbans mangrove forest is one ⚪ Increase of 3976 square kilometres
of the largest mangrove forests (140,000 (about 0.56%) forest area and cover
hectares) in the world, located in the delta 1,212 square kilometres (1.29 per cent)
of the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Meghna of trees.
rivers in the Bay of Bengal. ⚪ The top five states to increase the forest
cover are Karnataka (1025 sq..m. km)
Global Forest Area by Climate Zone > Andhra Pradesh (990 sq km) Kerala >
y Globally, there are five important climatic (823 sq km), Jammu and Kashmir > (371
zones: tropical, temperate, boreal, polar, sq km) > Himachal Pradesh (334 sq km)
and subtropical. > km).
y Most of the forest (45%) is in the tropics, ⚪ The mangrove forest area in the country
followed by boreal, temperate, and has increased by 54 square kilometres
subtropical climate domains. (1.10%).
⚪ Bamboo area increased by 3,229 square
kilometres.
y The decline in forest cover in north-eastern
region:
⚪ The total forest cover in the North-
Eastern region of India is 1,70,541 square
kilometres (65.05% of its geographical
area).
⚪ The 2019 report shows a reduction in
forest cover by 765 square kilometres
(0.45%) in the North Eastern region.
⚪ Except for Assam and Tripura, there has
been a decrease in the forest cover in
Fig. 7.1: Global Forest Area by Climatic Domain the States of the region.

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Fig. 7. 2: Forest and Tree Cover in India

y Classification of forest area (7,12,249 Forest and Food Security

square kilometres, which represents y The natural vegetation of trees outside
21.67% of the total geographical area): forests and forests include all important
⚪ Very Dense Forest Cover Area (VDF) aspects of food security, namely nutritious
99,278 sq km (3.02%), medium dense food, income, employment, energy and
forest (MDF) is 3,08,472 sq km (9.39%), ecosystem services.
and open forest (OF) is 3,04,499 sq km y Worldwide, about 1 billion people depend
(9.26%). on forests to some extent for food, such as
⚪ Very dense forests, and medium dense wild meat, edible insects, fish, edible plant
forests account for more than 57% of foods, and mushrooms.
India’s total forest cover. y Outdoor trees, and natural forest vegetation
also support the availability of food by
Benefits from Forests and Biodiversity
providing feed for livestock, either as a
Importance of Forests for the Poor survey or as animal feed.
y Areas of low and middle-income countries y Nutrients are absorbed from food during
with high forest areas and high forest the cooking process, and by one-third of
biodiversity have low populations, but the population worldwide.
poverty rates are higher in these areas. For ⚪ That is, about 2.4 billion people use
example, the income of 252 million people wood fuel for cooking, and one in ten
living in forests, and savannas was less people in the world use wood fuel to boil
than $1.25 per day. and sterilise water, hence it can be risky.
y In general, these poor people are more y The tibia tree is important to provide large
dependent on biodiversity, and ecosystem amounts of vitamin B, vitamin C, beta
services. carotene, magnesium, iron and protein.
y A variety of forest foods usually form a Multipurpose baobab trees, and their fruits
small (in terms of calories), but important contain up to 300 mg of vitamin C per 100
part of the diet consumed by poor people, grams of fruit pulp, which is about six times
and also add variety to the predominantly higher than the level of vitamin C present in
traditional diet. oranges.

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Ecological Balance and Support for Forest Degradation and Deforestation

Agriculture y Economic growth has helped lift billions of
y Forests have much higher levels of plant and people out of poverty in many parts of the
animal biodiversity than agricultural areas, world. However, at the same time, nature
which regulate the ecological balance. has changed significantly in the process,
y Biodiversity and forest services have a which negatively affects the biodiversity of
positive impact on the productivity, and forests, including indigenous ones.
sustainability of agricultural production y A recent study has confirmed that
systems located near forests; for example, deforestation and forest degradation
about 75% of the world’s available continue at alarming rates around the world,
freshwater comes from forest basins that leading to a sustained loss of biodiversity.
are used for agricultural activities. y The expansion of agricultural activities
y Forests also play an important role in remains a major factor in deforestation
mitigating, and adapting to climate change, in the world. Large-scale commercial
thus also contributing to the prevention of agricultural activity (mainly due to cattle
climate-related food insecurity. rearing and cultivation of soybean and oil
y Some 87 of the world’s top 115 food crops, palm) was attributed around.
accounting for about 35% of global food y The rate of deforestation has decreased
production by volume, are aided to varying in the last three decades. However, since
degrees to produce habitat for fruits, 1990, an estimated 420 million hectares of
vegetables or seeds and many pollinators forest have been lost to conversion to other
are provided by forests by animal pollination. land uses.
y The rate of deforestation (between 2015
Potential Medicinal Value of Forests and 2020) was estimated to be around 10
y More than 28,000 plant species, many of million hectares per year, up from 16 million
which are part of the forest ecosystem, are hectares per year in the 1990s.
now registered as medicinal. y More than 100 million hectares of forests
y Medicines derived from the forest are adversely affected by forest fires, pests,
ecosystem are widely used in Ayurvedic, diseases, droughts, invasive species, and
traditional Chinese and other local health adverse weather events.
systems. y Therefore, the important factors responsible
y For example, quinine, derived from several for forest degradation are habitat change,
species of Andean forest trees of the various unstable agricultural practices;
genus Cinchona, has been widely used in invasive species; Low resource efficiency
antimalarial therapy in the world. and over-exploitation of resources, including
illegal deforestation and wildlife trade.
Cultural Services Provided by the
Forest Ecosystem
Various Initiatives to Tackle
y There are links between many forest
Deforestation and Forest Degradation
populations, especially indigenous tribes,
generations and specific forest areas, and Major Global Initiatives and Conferences
trees. y Several REDD+ mitigation schemes, namely
y Indigenous peoples also derive abstract reducing emissions from deforestation and
benefits from forest ecosystems and forest degradation, the role of sustainable
deep spiritual ties with native species, forest conservation management and
expressed in beliefs, customs, cultures, and the increase in forest carbon stocks in
traditions. developing countries, are now included in

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the measures recommended in the Paris international cooperation and partnership

Agreement on climate change. agreements. It is the only legally binding
y Five global mitigation plans REDD+ related international agreement that integrates
to sustainable forest management are: environment and development with
⚪ Emission reduction from deforestation. sustainable land management. The
⚪ Reduction in emissions due to forest Convention pays special attention to arid,
erosion. semi-arid and arid sub-humid areas.
⚪ Carbon conservation in forests. y The Convention on Biological Diversity, i.e.
⚪ Increased carbon stock in forests. CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity):
⚪ Sustainable forest management has three important goals and objectives:
y The New York Declaration on Forests (2014) ⚪ Biodiversity conservation.
now has more than 200 supporters: ⚪ Permanent use of your components.
⚪ Voluntary and non-binding international ⚪ Fair and equitable sharing of benefits
declaration on action to end various arising from genetic resources.
global actions on deforestation. y The CBD aims to develop national
y It is composed of national and sub-national strategies and policies for conservation,
governments, TNCs, NGOs, and groups and sustainable use.
representing indigenous communities.
y A specific provision of the declaration Biodiversity
includes commitments, and support for the
private sector to eliminate deforestation Forest Conservation in India
from the supply chains of essential y The Forest Policy of the Government of
agricultural products by 2020. India pays special attention to sustainable
y CITES: forest management for the conservation
⚪ The Convention on International Trade and expansion of forest reserves on the one
in Endangered Species of Wildlife and hand, and to meet the regular needs of the
Flora, also known as the Washington local population on the other.
Convention, is a multilateral treaty y In 1976, the National Commission for
signed to protect endangered plants Agriculture classified social forestry into
and animals. Its main objective was to three types: urban forestry, agriculture and
ensure that international trade in wild agroforestry.
animals and plants did not threaten the y Social forestry advocates the conservation
survival of these species in the wild. and management of forests, and affores-
y TRAFFIC: tation on wastelands to assist in environ-
⚪ This is the wildlife business monitoring mental, social and rural development.
network. y Urban forestry: This type of forestry is
⚪ It is an NGO, related to the management of trees on
⚪ Working internationally in the wildlife public and private land in and around urban
trade in both biodiversity, and sustainable centres, such as industrial and commercial
development. It was created to ensure green belts, green belts and parks.
that the wildlife trade does not pose a y Agriculture: This approach focuses on
threat to nature conservation. promoting agroforestry, and community
y United Nations Conference to Combat forestry.
Desertification, i.e. UNCCD: ⚪ Agroforestry (combines forestry with
⚪ The aim is to combat desertification, and agriculture): The emphasis is on growing
mitigate the effects of drought through trees and crops on the same land, including
national action programmes that landfills. It helps in the simultaneous
include long-term policies supported by production of feed, food and fruit.

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Agroforestry plays an important role in nature conservation

y It provides a habitat for species that can withstand a certain level of disturbance.
y Contributes to the preservation of the germplasm of sensitive species.
y Reduces the rate of transformation of natural habitats by providing a more productive, and
sustainable alternative to traditional farming systems
y Helps to provide connectivity between habitat residues.
y Provide various ecosystem services, such as erosion control and water recharge, which
are responsible for preventing the erosion and damage of surrounding habitats.

⚪ Community forestry: includes the of wastelands to assist environmental,

cultivation of trees in public or social and agricultural development for the
community sector or communal lands, traditional goal of income generation. The
such as near the railway line, in a term “social forestry” was first used in India
religious place, a village pasture, a road, by the National Commission for Agriculture
a canal edge, and in schools, etc. in 1976, for commercial and non-commercial
y Agroforestry: Refers to the agricultural purposes on their agricultural land. A variety
process by which farmers grow trees. of lands, such as agricultural areas, the
y Social forestry: It can be described as outskirts of grasslands and pastures, and
“forestry for people, people, and people”. land around houses, can be used to grow
Social forestry means the rational use and trees for the purpose of non-commercial
conservation of forests, and afforestation agroforestry.

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8 Agriculture

y In the coming years, demand growth will

Introduction
slow even further. The world’s production
y Over the centuries, the growth of agriculture potential is more than sufficient to meet
contributed to the rise of civilisations. escalating demand. However, emerging
Agriculture is the primary source of the nations will become increasingly reliant
world’s food and fabrics. on agricultural imports, and food
y Agriculture for over 80% of the world’s poor, security in many impoverished regions
who live in rural regions and work mostly in will not improve until the local output is
agriculture, may alleviate poverty, enhance significantly increased.
wages, and improve food security.
y Agricultural growth is a critical instrument Whittlesey’s Contribution Towards the
for alleviating extreme poverty, boosting Classification of Agricultural Region
wealth, and feeding an estimated 8 billion y Whittlesey has made significant contributions
people by 2045. to our knowledge of agricultural types and
y Growth in the agricultural sector is four their distribution, as well as to a global
times more effective than growth in the categorisation of agricultural regions.
industrial, and service sectors in improving y Climate, soil, slope, population density, level
per capita income of the poorest. Various of technology, and tradition are the primary
polls revealed that agriculture provided characteristics in differing agricultural
a livelihood for over 65 percent of poor areas in general.
working people in 2016. y Whittlesey’s classification is based on five
y Agriculture has an equal role in economic principle criteria:
growth. In 2018, it generated around 4% of ⚪ The crop and livestock association.
global gross domestic product (GDP), while ⚪ The methods used for growing the crops
in certain underdeveloped nations, it might and intensity of land use.
account for more than 25% of GDP. ⚪ Structures that were used to house and
y Instead, agriculture-driven development, support agricultural activities.
poverty reduction, and food security are ⚪ Processing and marketing of farm
jeopardised Crop yields may be reduced as produce.
a result of climate change, particularly in ⚪ Degree of mechanisation.
the world’s most susceptible areas. y There are thirteen types of agricultural
y Agriculture, forestry, and land-use change occupancy of the agricultural land are
account for 27% of total greenhouse gas recognised:
emissions; hence agricultural mitigation ⚪ Nomadic herding
strategies are an important element of the ⚪ Livestock ranching
climate change answer. ⚪ Shifting cultivation
y The growth rates of global agricultural ⚪ Rudimental sedentary tillage
output, and crop yields have decreased in ⚪ Intensive subsistence tillage with rice
recent years. However, one of the major dominant
causes of the slowdown is a decrease in ⚪ Intensive subsistence tillage without
agricultural product demand, which is also paddy rice
linked to global population growth rates, ⚪ Mediterranean agriculture
which have been dropping since the late ⚪ Commercial grain farming
1960s. ⚪ Commercial livestock and crop farming

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⚪ Subsistence crop and stock farming all examples of what we call “livestock.” A
⚪ Commercial dairy farming few work animals are maintained alongside
⚪ Specialised horticulture them, such as horses, asses, camels, or
⚪ Commercial plantation agriculture reindeer, to help with herding, roundups,
and camp movement.
Important Types of Agriculture in the y A wide variety of species in a variety of
World habitats:
y Agriculture is practised under multiple ⚪ Cattle are the most significant animal in
combinations of physical & socio-economic tropical Africa;
conditions, and different methods of ⚪ In the Sahara and Asiatic deserts, sheep,
farming give rise to different types of goats, and camels are grown.
agricultural systems. The following are the ⚪ Yaks and llamas inhabit the Tibetan, and
important agricultural systems. Andean mountain ranges.
⚪ Reindeer are the most important animals
in the Arctic, and Sub-Arctic regions.
Nomadic Herding y Pastoral nomadism may be split into three
y One of the oldest subsistence vocations, categories:
nomadic herding/pastoral nomadism, relies ⚪ From the Atlantic coast of North Africa to
on animals for everything from food to clothing the Arabian Peninsula and into Mongolia
to housing to tools and transportation. and Central China, the core area spans
y The most rudimentary form of business is eastward.
nomadic herding. ⚪ The tundra region of Eurasia is the
y They move their animals around based second main zone.
on the quality, and quantity of pastures ⚪ In the southern hemisphere, there are
and water available to them. According to little areas of South-West Africa, and
folklore, each nomadic tribe is believed to Madagascar’s island.
live in a certain geographic zone. y Transhumance: Livestock is transported
y The stock that helps the agricultural from plains to mountains during summer,
business sheep, cattle, goats, camels, and back again during the winter months as
reindeer, and other types of livestock are a part of transhumance.

Fig. 8.1: Nomadic Herders

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⚪ Example: It is common for people ⚪ Areas lying east of the Caspian Sea and
living in highland places, such as the north of the Aral Sea, i.e. steppes of
Himalayan region to roam between high Eurasia.
altitude pastures, and lowland areas in y Animals graze over enormous areas known
order to provide their livestock with a as ‘ranches’ in the Prairies and ‘estancias’
year-round supply of nutritious food. in the Pampas.
y Nomadic herders in polar locations across
the globe do the same thing, moving from
north to south in the winter and south to Name of Primitive
north in the summer. subsistence
Name of the
Pastoral nomads are negatively impacted agriculture/
y region/ country
by the creation of political frontiers, as well Shifting
as new colonisation plans by neighbouring Cultivation
countries.
India Jhum/Bewar/Podu
Commercial Livestock Rearing
y Commercial cattle husbandry is more Srilanka Chena
organised, systematic, and capital
Malaysia Ladang
demanding than nomadic herding.
y Commercial livestock rearing’s key features: Philippines Kaingin
⚪ Cattle ranching is usually connected
with western cultures, and is done on Vietnam Ray
permanent ranches.
y These ranches span vast areas, and are Indonesia Humah
separated into a number of fenced portions
to keep grazing under control. Myanmar Taungya
y After grazing the grass on one piece, the
Congo Masole
animals were transported to another.
y A pasture’s carrying capacity should be Brazil Roka
proportionate to the number of animals in
it. This is a specialised occupation in which Mexico and
only one kind of animal is raised. Milpa
Central America
y Sheep, cattle, goats, and horses are the
most important animals. Uganda, Zambia
Chitmene
y Meat, wool, hides, and skin are just a few and Zimbabwe
of the goods that are carefully prepared
Table 8.1: Names of Shifting Cultivation in
and packed before being sent to different
Various Regions
international markets.
y Animal breeding, genetic improvement,
disease control, and animal health care are
Subsistence Agriculture
all founded on scientific concepts. Subsistence farming is a kind of agriculture in
y The following are important regions/ which smallholder farmers raise food crops to
countries for commercial cattle production: feed themselves and their families. The two
⚪ Pampas of the Brazilian plateau and types of subsistence agriculture are primitive
Argentina. and intensive.
⚪ Llanos of Venezuela.
⚪ Veldt area of South Africa. Primitive Subsistence Agriculture
⚪ Temperate grasslands of Australia, and y Changes in agricultural practices/primitive
New Zealand. food production, Numerous tropical tribes,

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including those in Africa, South and Central ⚪ On both sides of the Equator, the
America, and Southeast Asia, engage in biggest regions of shifting agriculture
Primitive subsistence agriculture/Shifting are in central Africa.
cultivation ⚪ North-eastern India, including the
y Vegetation is removed by setting a fire, and states of Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur,
ash generated improves the soil’s fertility Tripura, Nagaland, and Mizoram, and
by removing much of the vegetation. South-East Asia.
y As a result, slash-and-burn farming is
another name for shifting farming. The Intensive Subsistence Agriculture
farming fields are limited, and the simplest This style of farming is mostly seen in monsoon
instruments are used, such as sticks and Asia’s highly inhabited regions. China, India,
hoes, to cultivate the land. Pakistan, Bangladesh, South East Asia, and Japan
y A farmer moves on to another region of the are among these countries. Intensive subsistence
forest, where the soil has lost its fertility farming may be divided into two types:
after a few years (about three to five years). y Intensive subsistence agriculture is
y It is not uncommon for the farmer to go dominated by wet paddy farming:
back to the prior patch. y The rice crop is the dominant crop, and
y Changing agricultural practises may have landholdings are quite tiny due to the high
a negative impact on the jhum cycle, population density.
which diminishes as the fertility of the soil y Farmers divide labour among family
declines. members, resulting in more efficient use of
y In various parts of the globe, shifting agricultural resources.
agriculture is referred to by different names. y Agriculture mechanisation is modest, and
y The following are some of the most the majority of agricultural labour is done
significant areas for shifting cultivation: by hand.

Fig. 8.2: Shifting Cultivation

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y Manure from the farm is utilised to keep y Plantation crops include tea, coffee, cocoa,
the land fertile. rubber, cotton, palm, sugarcane, bananas,
⚪ In this style of farming, the yield per and pineapple.
unit area is great, but the per labour y The following are important characteristics
productivity is poor. of this form of farming:
y Intensive subsidence farming in ⚪ Large estates or plantations.
combination with other crops: ⚪ Single crop specialisation.
⚪ Despite the fact that rice is the ⚪ Significant financial investment,
dominating crop throughout Monsoon management and technical assistance.
Asia, paddy cultivation is difficult or ⚪ Scientific farming techniques.
impossible in certain regions due to ⚪ Low-cost labour.
climatic variances, relief differences, ⚪ A better transportation infrastructure
soil differences, and other geographical connects the estates to the factories, and
factors. markets for the export of the goods.
⚪ Wheat, soybean, barley, and sorghum y In west Africa, the French established cocoa
are grown in Northern China, North and coffee plantations.
Korea, and North Japan. y In India and Sri Lanka, the British constructed
⚪ Wheat is cultivated in India’s plains, massive tea gardens, rubber plantations
whereas millets are grown in the drier in Malaysia, and sugarcane and banana
areas of western and southern India. plantations in the West Indies.
⚪ With the exception of irrigation, the bulk y In the Philippines, Spanish and American
of the features is equal to those of wet investors mostly invested in coconut, and
paddy agriculture. sugarcane plantations.
y The Dutch used to have a monopoly on
Plantation Agriculture
sugarcane production in Indonesia.
y Plantation agriculture was a colonial y Some coffee fazendas (big plantations) in
agricultural pattern implemented by Brazil are still managed by Europeans today.
Europeans in tropical colonies. Currently, the government or citizens of the
y Plantations are mostly profit-driven large- respective nations own a vast number of
scale manufacturing processes. plantations.

Fig. 8.3: Farm Mechanisation

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Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation Types of Mixed Farming Agriculture

y Grain cultivation is done commercially in the y Land size, crop and animal kinds, geo-
interiors of semi-arid mid-latitude zones. graphical distribution, market orientation,
y It was the introduction of different agricultural and other factors may all be used to classi-
technology that enabled farmers to produce fy mixed agricultural systems. The following
grain on a vast scale, and it is also linked to are the three main categories:
wheat monoculture specialisation in many ⚪ Difference Between-Farm mixing and
places. On-farm mixing:
y Important characteristics of commercial  On-farm mixed farming refers to
grain cultivation on a large scale resource exchange between farms,
⚪ The most common crop is wheat, whereas inter-farm mixed farming
although maize, barley, oats, and rye are refers to resource exchange between
also farmed. farms.
y The farm is rather large. As a consequence,  Individual farmers will want to
the whole growing process is now recycle the resources they have on
automated. When opposed to intensive their own farm, therefore on-farm
farming, this form of agriculture is mixing is common.
associated with a low production per acre,  Between-farm mixing is used in
but a high yield per person. areas where it is utilised to alleviate
⚪ From ploughing to harvesting, the specialised farming’s waste disposal
whole agricultural process is often issue
mechanised. ⚪ Mixing within crops or animal systems:
y Important regions of this type of agriculture:  Multiple crops are seeded throughout
The most developed and pronounced are a certain time period in a season, or
the Eurasian steppes, North American various sorts of animals are housed
Prairies, Argentina’s Pampas, South Africa’s together, mainly on-farm, under this
Velds, Australia’s Downs, and New Zealand’s type of arrangement.
Canterbury Plains.  Crop rotations are practised over
and within years, resulting in
Mixed Farming within-crop mixing. A farmer may,
y Mixed farming is a farming method in for example, use a grain-legume
which a variety of agricultural operations rotation to deliver nitrogen to the
are carried out on the same crop yield. grain or a potato-beet-grain rotation
A farmer’s income, crop production and to prevent disease in the potatoes.
animal husbandry may be combined.  Chicken excrement fertilises the fish
y Mixed farming is a kind of agriculture that pond in chicken-fish pond systems,
is influenced by external as well as internal while pigs consume the undigested
factors. Examples of external variables grains in beef cow dung in beef-pork
include weather patterns, market pricing, systems.
political stability, technological progress, ⚪ Diversified versus integrated systems:
and other factors. Local soil conditions,  Diversified systems are made up of
family structure, and agricultural innovation crops, and cattle that coexist without
are all internal factors. interfering with one another. Pigs,
y The most developed regions of the globe, dairy, and crops, in particular, maybe
such as northern Europe and eastern North run as separate units by farmers. In
America, as well as the temperate latitudes this situation, blending crops and
of the southern continents, practise this cattle helps mostly to reduce risk
kind of agriculture. rather than recycle resources.

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 Integration is carried out in order husbandry are given equal weight in

to recycle resources as effectively mixed farming, and fodder crops are
as possible. In this system, one an essential part of it.
component’s products or by- y Cattle, sheep, pigs, and poultry, as well as
products are used as a resource for crops, are the primary sources of revenue.
the other, such as manure for crops y Mixed farming is characterised by a
and straw for animals. significant financial investment in a variety
 In this situation, the integrated of farm equipment and structures, a heavy
system is used to make the best reliance on chemical fertilisers and green
possible use of the available manures, as well as the skill and knowledge
resources. of the farmer.
 Unfortunately, these systems grow
increasingly prone to disruption when Dairy Farming
resource flows are mixed, making y Around 150 million people live in these
the system more complicated, and homes. Milk manufacturing employs over
reliant internally. 750 million people worldwide.
 Wheat, barley, oats, maize, fodder, y Dairy farming is the most modern, and
and root crops are the most common effective method of raising milch cows.
crops grown on small mixed y This kind of farming is very capital
farms. demanding, necessitating the purchase
 Animal husbandry is a necessary of animal housing, feed storage facilities,
part of mixed farming. and feeding and milking equipment.
 Crop rotation, and intercropping y A lot of attention is dedicated to cattle
are crucial for maintaining soil breeding, veterinary services, and health
fertility. Crop cultivation and animal care.

Fig. 8.4: Dairy Farming

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y It is labour intensive since it needs attentive raisins and currants. This region also
feeding and milking. produces olives and figs.
y Dairy farming, unlike crop farming, does not y Mediterranean agriculture has the benefit
have a seasonal off-season. of being able to produce higher-value goods
y Fresh milk, and dairy products are made like fruits and vegetables when demand is
available to the public in urban areas by highest in Europe, and North America.
establishing a local market. y Traditional mediterranean agriculture has
y As a result of advancements in transporta- developed as a result of the following
tion, refrigeration, pasteurisation, and other factors:
preservation methods, dairy products have ⚪ The long-running summer drought; rain
seen an increase in their storage lifespan. only falls during the winter months.
y Commercial dairy production is separated y Drought-resistant crops must be sowed in
into three areas: the autumn and harvested by early summer
y the largest is in North-Western Europe, if they aren’t irrigated.
followed by Canada. ⚪ Comparatively mild winters.
y South Eastern Australia, New Zealand,
and Tasmania make form the continent of Market Gardening and Horticulture
Australasia. y After the mid-1990s, expansion in the
y Smallholders produce milk in almost all horticulture industry boosted horticultural
developing countries, and milk production commerce, per capita availability, and share
helps to support household livelihoods, in agricultural systems.
food security, and nutrition. Milk is a key y The Horticultural Revolution (HR) benefitted
source of financial gain for small-scale the poor by creating jobs and income
farmers, and provides them with relatively possibilities, increasing resource efficiency,
quick returns. stimulating agricultural commercialisation,
y Global milk consumption is rising by and increasing the availability of health-
15 million tonnes per year, mostly in promoting micronutrients.
developing nations. If the additional y To cultivate high-value urban commodities
volume were provided by smallholder dairy including vegetables, fruits, and flowers,
farmers, 3 million new employment would market gardening and horticulture are two
be generated each year. disciplines of study. For this reason, small-
scale farms in metropolitan locations with
Mediterranean Agriculture easy access to affluent consumers are
y In the Mediterranean, commercial being used.
agriculture is highly specialised. y The use of irrigation, HYV seeds, fertilisers,
y Countries on both sides of the Mediterranean herbicides, greenhouses, and artificial heat
Sea, southern California, central Chile, in colder regions are all part of this labour
southwestern South Africa, and Australia’s and capital-intensive farming method.
south and southwest regions are examples y In densely populated industrial areas
of this style of agriculture. spanning northern Europe, the Northeastern
y This region is well-known for the cultivation United States, and the Mediterranean, this
of citrus fruits. kind of agriculture has evolved tremendously.
y Viticulture (grape growing): The y Floral and horticultural harvests from the
Mediterranean region has a unique Netherlands, notable tulips, are flown to
strength top-quality grapes are utilised every major European city.
to manufacture world-class wines in y Truck farming: Truck farming refers to places
numerous countries in the region. Lower- where farmers focus only on vegetable
grade grapes are dried, and made into production. The distance between the

88 Agriculture
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truck farm and the market is equivalent to y Origin: The cooperative movement has
the distance travelled by truck in one night, a long history in Western Europe, having
thus the name “truck farming.” achieved success in nations like Denmark,
y Factory farming, in addition to market the Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, and Italy.
gardening, is a recent development in y In Denmark, the cooperative movement
Western Europe, and North America’s has grown to such proportions that almost
industrial areas. every farmer is a member.
y Stalls and pens are used to raise livestock,
notably poultry and cattle. Collective Farming
y They are all given artificial feedstuffs
y This agricultural concept is built on the
and are closely monitored for illnesses,
principles of communal resource ownership,
which necessitates a significant financial
and worker cooperation.
expenditure.
y Origin: The Soviet Union introduced
y Vegetable farming alone is estimated to have
community farming as a way to improve
provided almost 80 million employment
agricultural efficiency, and increase
globally in 2003, compared to 53 million
agricultural output for self-sufficiency (The
less if this land had been dedicated to rice.
Kolkhoz model).
y In contrast to the green revolution, the
y A group of farmers combined all of their
horticultural revolution’s expansion was
resources to produce a better product.
hampered by the effective relationship
However, they were allowed to keep small
between farmers and the market, rather
plots of land where they could cultivate
than the availability of technology.
their own food for daily use.

Types of Farming According to Farming Major Crops of the World

Organisation
y Maize, wheat, rice, and potatoes are all high
Co-operative Farming in calories, and are staple foods in most
y Method and benefits: parts of the globe. Sugar cane, which is
⚪ When a group of farmers pool their mostly grown in tropical and subtropical
resources freely for more efficient and countries, is, nonetheless, the world’s
profitable farming, they establish a greatest crop in terms of output volume,
cooperative society. Individual farms owing to its usage as a biofuel.
are unaffected, and agriculture is a y Argentina and New Zealand were the world’s
collaborative endeavour. leading agricultural, and food producers in
⚪ Cooperative societies help farmers 2017.
receive all required agricultural inputs, y In terms of absolute monetary worth,
trade items at the lowest available rates countries with the highest gross per capita
and manufacture high-quality products monetary value (for example, China, India,
at low costs. and the United States) dominate.

Agriculture 89
 Major crops of
3 India and the world
· Contact Admin ·

Classification
Food crops- Rice, Wheat, Millets, Maize and Pulses.
Cash crops- Sugarcane, Oilseeds, Horticulture crops, Tea, Co�ee, Rubber, Cotton
and Jute.
Rice

Temperature: Between 22-32°C with high humidity.

Rainfall: Around 150-300 cm.
Soil Type: Deep clayey and loamy soil.
Top Rice Producing States: West Bengal > Punjab > Uttar Pradesh >
Andhra Pradesh > Bihar.
It is the staple food crop of the majority of Indian people.
India is the second largest producer of rice in the world after China.
In states like Assam, West Bengal and Odisha, three crops of paddy are
grown in a year. These are Aus, Aman and Boro.

Major crops of
Wheat
India and the world

Temperature: Between 10-15°C (Sowing time) and 21-26°C (Ripening &

Harvesting) with bright sunlight.
Rainfall: Around 75-100 cm.
Soil Type: Well-drained fertile loamy and clayey loamy (Ganga-Satluj plains and
black soil region of the Deccan)
Top Wheat Producing States: Uttar Pradesh > Punjab > Madhya Pradesh >
Haryana > Rajasthan.
India is the second largest producer after China.
This is the second most important cereal crop and the main food crop, in
north and north-western India.
Success of Green Revolution contributed to the growth of Rabi crops
especially wheat.
Millets

Temperature
Between 27-32°C
Rainfall
Around 50-100 cm.
Soil Type
Can be grown in inferior alluvial or loamy soil because they are less sensitive to
soil deficiencies.
Jowar
Rain-fed crop grown in the moist areas with less or no irrigation.
Bajra
Sandy soils and shallow black soil.
Ragi
Red, black, sandy, loamy and shallow black soils. (dry regions

Major crops of India and the world 1

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Agriculture 91
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92 Agriculture
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Rice y The “Black Earth” area of Ukraine, as well

as the dark brown prairie soils of North
Climatic Condition
America, have some of the finest soils.
y Rice needs a high temperature (over 25°C) y China, India, the United States of America,
and high humidity, as well as an annual Russia, France, Germany, Canada, Australia,
rainfall of at least 100 cm. Pakistan, Argentina, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan
y Rice thrives in regions with rich soil and a are the world’s major producers.
humid, warm environment.
y The best soils are those in the delta and Maize
valley. Clay-rich soils are favoured for Climatic Condition
agriculture because they have a greater
y Maize is both a food, and a fodder crop. It
moisture retention capacity. Irrigation is a
can only be cultivated in semi-arid climates,
useful method for growing rice in locations
and on poor soils.
when rainfall is scarce.
y Temperature must be between 21°C and
y Rice is a labour-intensive crop due to the
27°C. During its development, it requires at
lack of automation utilised in its production.
least 140 frost-free days.
As a result, inexpensive, plentiful labour, is
y Maize may be cultivated in a variety of soils,
required for its effective cultivation.
but the optimal soil for this crop is well-
y As a result, it is farmed in highly populated
drained deep loamy soil.
places with ample inexpensive labour and a
y Corn is the name given to it in the United
ready market for rice.
States and Europe.
y Rice accounted for 21% of global cereal
consumption by weight in 1997–99. Since
Coarse Grains
the mid-1980s, average consumption per
capita in emerging nations has remained y These include sorghum, maize, rye, barley,
flat, reflecting economic expansion and millet and oats, and some other regionally
income growth in key East Asian countries. important grains like tef (Ethiopia) or quinoa
y Rice-growing regions of importance (Bolivia consumption of coarse grains is
utilised for animal feed.
Wheat y However, where food insecurity is high,
these crops remain very important in direct
y Wheat thrives on well-drained clayey, and
human consumption. Example: In sub-
loamy soils.
Saharan African region, around 80% of the
Climatic Condition grain harvest is used in this way.
y It is a crop that thrives in a temperate y Consumption of coarse grains has been
environment. Because this is a rabi crop, it increasing fast, driven mainly by growing
requires a cool growing season, and lots of use as animal feed in developing nations.
sunshine when ready to harvest. y Major maize producing countries: The
y Wheat cultivation requires 50 to 75 cm of United States of America, China, Brazil,
rain each year, evenly distributed throughout Mexico, France, Argentina, Brazil, Indonesia,
the growing season. India, South Africa, Ukraine, Canada,
y It can be cultivated in arid locations thanks Egypt, and Russia are among the countries
to irrigation infrastructure. represented.
y Winter wheat accounts for over 80% of
the world’s wheat production. In higher Sugarcane
latitudes, when winters are too cold for y It takes 10 to 15 months, and even 18
wheat, cultivate spring wheat. months, for a crop to develop.

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Climatic Condition Climatic Condition

y Sugarcane grows in both tropical, and y For its development, it needs mild rainfall
subtropical climates. or irrigation, a high temperature, 210 frost-
y It thrives in humid and hot climates, with free days, and bright sunlight.
temperatures ranging from 21°C to 27°C, y Cotton takes 6 to 8 months to develop, and
and annual rainfall ranging from 75cm to needs a clear sky throughout the blooming
100cm. period.
y In low-rainfall areas, irrigation is required. y It may be cultivated in low-rainfall settings,
y It may grow in a variety of soil types, With the help of irrigation
including loams, clayey loams, black cotton ⚪ It demands strong sunlight throughout the
soils, brown or reddish loams, and laterites. growing season, and cold temperatures
y After Brazil, India is the world’s second- during the ripening season.
largest sugarcane producer. Sugar, gur y Drier environments offer the benefit of
(jaggary), khandsari, and molasses are all preventing pests like the boll weevil from
produced there. spreading.
y Ratooning: y Cotton fibre is classified into three
⚪ It’s a unique feature of sugarcane categories based on the length of the staple.
farming that allows a second crop to ⚪ A lengthy staple (length of fibre 24–27
sprout from the leftovers of a previously mm)
harvested one. ⚪ Short staple (fibre length 20–24 mm)
⚪ The new plants are grown from the ⚪ Medium staple (fibre length 20–24 mm)
stubble of the harvested crop are known (length of fibre less than 20 mm).
as stubble cropping. y World cotton day: World Cotton Day will
⚪ Ratooning cannot be done indefinitely be celebrated for the first time in October
because the yield, and quality decrease 7, 2020, according to the World Trade
with each cycle. Organisation. World Cotton Day is an annual
⚪ Two or three ratooning harvests are event that recognises the significance of
feasible in sugarcane, after which new cotton as a worldwide crop farmed in more
planting is required. than 75 nations across five continents, as
⚪ Sugar consumption is increasing at a well as its vital role in job creation, and
quicker rate, driven mostly by emerging economic stability in numerous least-
nations. Policies limiting access to developed countries.
markets, as well as policies favouring ⚪ Trade reforms are required to eliminate
alternative sweeteners like corn syrup, cotton subsidies and high trade barriers,
have limited the revenues of poor as well as aid to the cotton industry in
countries from sugar exports. developing nations.
y Major sugarcane-producing countries: ⚪ Egypt is known for producing long staple
Brazil, India, China, Thailand, and Mexico fine quality cotton, and it is one of the
are some of the most populous countries world’s major cotton producers.
in the world. Pakistan, the Philippines, ⚪ The majority of cotton grown in the
Australia, Argentina, the United States of United States is a medium staple.
America, Egypt, South Africa, and Myanmar ⚪ Short and medium staple cotton is
are among the countries represented. produced in India, although long-staple
cotton is becoming more popular.
Cotton ⚪ China, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, and Brazil
With the help of irrigation. are all on the list.

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y World cotton production: y Coffee was first imported from Yemen, and
⚪ In 2028, global output is expected to cultivated in the Baba Budan Hills.
increase by 16 % to 29.2 million tonnes. y Hills with a well-defined shade canopy of
The majority of the growth will come evergreen leguminous trees give the ideal
from an increase in cotton area (by 9%), conditions for coffee growth, which is why
while average worldwide yields would it is mostly grown in hilly areas.
remain flat. y Brazil, Vietnam, Indonesia, Columbia, India,
⚪ The economy is expected to rise by 6%. Ethiopia, Peru, Guatemala, Uganda, and Sudan
are among the world’s major producers.
Tea y Liberia, Equador, Venezuela, El Salvador,
y The temperature fluctuates between 20 Ghana and Nigeria.
and 30 degrees Celsius. y The Indian coffee variety ‘Arabica’ is well-
y The annual rainfall ranges between 150 and known around the world.
300 centimetres.
y Soil type: A deep, fertile, well-drained soil Pulses
that is rich in humus, and organic matter. y The temperature is between 20 and
y Assam, West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu are 27 degrees Celsius.
the primary tea-producing states. y Rainfall is expected to range between
y India is the world’s second-biggest producer 25 and 60 cm.
of tea. y In its natural state, the soil is sandy-loamy.
y The British introduced it to India’s eastern y Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra,
hill slopes. Uttar Pradesh, and Karnataka are the states
y Tea terrace planting flourishes in the humid that produce the most pulses.
environment, and evenly distributed rainfall y India is both the greatest producer, and
found on the eastern slopes of the eastern consumer of pulses in the world.
highlands. y These are the primary sources of protein
y Making a cup of tea takes a long time. It in a vegetarian diet. In India, the most
requires a vast supply of inexpensive skilled extensively farmed pulses are tur (arhar),
labour. Tea is processed in the tea garden moong, urad, masur, gram, and peas.
to keep its freshness. y All of these crops, with the exception
y China, India, Kenya, Sri Lanka, Turkey, of arhar, are leguminous plants that
Vietnam, Iran, Indonesia, and Japan are the contribute to soil fertility restoration by
world’s biggest producers. fixing nitrogen from the air. As a result,
they are usually planted in rotation with
Coffee
other crops. Canada, Myanmar, China,
y Throughout the day, the temperature Nigeria, Brazil, Australia, the United States,
fluctuates between 15 and 28 degrees and Russia are among the important
Celsius. producers.
y Rainfall varies between 150 and 250
centimetres.
y Soil type: Friable loamy soil that is dense, Oilseeds
friable, and well-draining. Karnataka, Kerala, y Temperature: Between 15–30°C
and Tamil Nadu are the top three coffee- y Rainfall: Around 30–75 cm.
producing states. y Soil type: Clayey loams and well-drained
y India is the world’s seventh-biggest sandy loams range from loam to clayey
exporter. loam.

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y Top oilseeds producing states: Madhya are grown in the Philippines, Indonesia,
Pradesh > Rajasthan > Gujarat > Maharashtra India, and Sri Lanka.
> Uttar Pradesh.
y Mustard, groundnut, sesamum (til), Rubber
coconut, castor seeds, soybean, linseed, y Temperature: Above 25°C with a moist, and
cotton seeds, and sunflower are the most humid climate.
often cultivated oilseeds in India. y Rainfall: More than 200 cm.
y The overwhelming majority are edible, y Soil type: Rich, well-drained alluvial soil.
and may be used in the kitchen. On the y Top rubber producing states: Kerala > Tamil
other hand, some of them are used as raw Nadu > Karnataka.
materials in soap, cosmetics, and ointments. y It is an equatorial crop that may also be
y Groundnut in India, Soyabean in the cultivated in tropical, and subtropical
United States, Brazil, and China, Olive regions under certain circumstances.
in California (United States), Italy, Spain, y Rubber is employed in a wide range of
Greece, Tunisia, Turkey, Portugal, Morocco, industrial processes.
and Syria, Linseed is grown in Argentina, y Major producers of Rubber in the world:
Canada, India, the United States, Russia, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, India,
and the Baltic countries; caster seed is Philippines, Vietnam, Ivory Coast, Nigeria,
grown in India and Sri Lanka; and coconuts Sri Lanka, Liberia, Brazil and Guatemala.

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9 Industries

Introduction Classification of Industries

y Secondary activities, often known as Industries can be categorised on the basis of:
manufacturing activities, transform basic y Size
resources into more valuable goods for y Inputs/raw materials
consumers. The transformation of pulp into y Output/products
a notepad is one example. y Ownership.
y At each level of the production process, value
has been added to paper manufactured Industries Based on Size
from pulp and cotton fabric made from
The amount of money invested, the number of
cotton. As a result, the final product has
people employed, and the amount of product
more value and usefulness than the raw
produced define the size of the industry. Based
material from which it was created.
on this, industries may be classed as domestic
y Industry refers to any economic activity
or cottage, small-scale, or large-scale.
that focuses on the following:
⚪ Large-scale production of commodities,
such as the iron and steel industry; Household Industries or Cottage Industry
⚪ Mineral extraction from mineral ores, y It is the smallest unit of industry, and is
such as the coal mining business; or distinct from small-scale industries.
⚪ The provision of services, such as the y Pots, bamboo basket weaving, textiles,
tourist industry. mats, curtain making, furniture building,
y Modern societies’ lives have been founded and gold or silver jewellery manufacturing
on the economic foundations created by are all typical goods.
industrialisation from the early nineteenth y Bamboo, as well as wood obtained locally
century. from the forests, are used to construct a
y Millions of people have been pulled out variety of artefacts and crafts. Important
of poverty as a result of industrialisation qualities of household industries:
during the previous 200 years. ⚪ Local raw materials and basic equipment
y Countries that have had consistent economic are used to create ordinary things for
development, fueled by industrialisation, everyday usage.
international commerce, and allied services, ⚪ The cottage business uses the dwelling
have been forerunners in reducing poverty. residence as an economic area.
y In reality, no nation in the world has ⚪ The cost of setting up a local tool is
moved to a high level of economic, and quite low.
social development without developing a ⚪ Indigenous technologies and expertise
sophisticated manufacturing sector. are used.
y On the other hand, one of the most ⚪ Using family members for assistance or
significant effects of industrialisation is working part-time.
significant environmental deterioration. ⚪ The finished items might be eaten
Effective waste management and adequate within the same home or sold in local
control of soil, water, and air pollution are markets.
still issues that need to be addressed. ⚪ Role of cottage industries in the economy:

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Fig. 9.1: Classification of Industries

 The rural economy relies heavily on ⚪ While there is no distinct economic

the cottage industry. sector for small businesses, there is
 In the rural area, this is a major often a distinct economic sector for
source of employment. cottage industries.
 Non-polluting. ⚪ It strengthens local buying power and
 Use of local resources generates jobs. As a result, nations such
 Millions of people in rural areas as India, China, Indonesia, and Brazil
will have a better quality of life as have established labor-intensive small-
a result of the reduction in rural- scale manufacturing to provide jobs for
urban migration. their populations.
y Small scale manufacturing: y Large scale manufacturing:
⚪ Small-scale manufacturing and cottage ⚪ A diverse market, a range of raw materials,
enterprises are defined by their a lot of energy, and specialised labour,
manufacturing processes, and location modern technology, assembly-line
(a workshop located outside the mass production, and a lot of money are
producer’s home/cottage). required for large-scale manufacturing.
⚪ Small-scale manufacturing employs ⚪ This industrial practise developed during
locally sourced raw materials, the previous 200 years in numerous
rudimentary power-driven equipment, regions of the United Kingdom, the
and semi-skilled labour. northeastern United States, and Europe.

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It has now spread to practically every y Chemical-based Industries:

country on the planet. The world’s most ⚪ Utilisation of natural chemical minerals,
industrialised zones may be divided e.g. mineral oil (petroleum) is used in
into two categories (depending on the the petrochemical industry.
production system): ⚪ Salts, sulphur, potash, synthetic
 Industrial zones on a large scale that fibre, and plastic are some additional
are densely concentrated in a few prominent chemical-based businesses.
highly industrialised countries. y Forest-based: Forests provide timber for
 Large-scale high-tech industrial the furniture business, wood, bamboo, and
zones with a long history grass for the paper industry, and lac for the
 They have the ability to cut the cost lac industries.
of products because of their large- y Animal-based Industries like leather for
scale activities. the leather industry, and wool for woollen
 They may also provide an opportunity textiles are procured from animals.
for small-scale, and cottage
enterprises to grow and develop. Industries Based on Output/Product
y Basic industries, such as iron and steel,
Industries Based on Inputs/Raw Materials copper smelting, and aluminium smelting,
y Based on the raw materials used, the are those whose products are utilised as
industries are classified as: (a) agro- based; raw materials to manufacture other sorts
(b) mineral based; (c) chemical based; (d) of commodities.
forest based: and (e) animal based. y Consumer goods or non-basic industries
y Agro-based Industry: create commodities that are directly
⚪ It comprises the conversion of raw consumed by consumers, such as industries
materials from the field and farm into that manufacture bread, tea, soaps, and
finished commodities suitable for sale paper.
in rural and urban markets.
⚪ Food processing, sugar, pickles, Industries Based on Ownership
fruit juices, drinks (tea, coffee, and y Public sector industries:
chocolate), spices and oils, fats and ⚪ These are owned and governed by
textiles (cotton, jute, silk), rubber, and governments. E.g. ONGC and SAIL in
other agro-processing industries are India. Socialist countries have many
important. state-owned industries, and on the
⚪ Some preserving techniques like drying, other side, mixed economic countries
fermenting and pickling are used for a allow both private and public sector
long time industries.
y Mineral-based Industries (use minerals as y Private sector:
a raw material): ⚪ They are owned by one or more
⚪ It mainly uses the ferrous metallic investors, and a small group of
minerals which contain ferrous (iron), individuals pool their financial resources.
such as iron and steel industries These industries are run by private
but some use non-ferrous metallic firms. In capitalist nations, private
minerals, such as aluminium and copper companies control the vast majority of
industries. industries.
⚪ Many industries also use non-metallic y Joint sector industries:
minerals such as cement and pottery ⚪ These are often handled by joint-stock
industries. companies that are jointly held by the

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government and private persons, or by ⚪ Iron and steel plants should be

significant commercial companies that positioned near raw material sources
have given funds. since iron ore, and coal are both weight-
losing raw materials.
Location of Industries and Factors ⚪ As a result, the majority of iron and steel
Responsible for its Establishment mills are located near coalfields (Bokaro,
Durgapur, and so on), or iron ore reserves
y Because of many reasons that optimise
(Bhadravati, Bhilai, and Rourkela).
profits and give ease of doing business,
industries are not formed uniformly over the Power
globe and are observed to be concentrated
y For the localisation of industries, a reliable
in particular places.
power supply is required. The three most
y Certain basic facilities, such as electricity,
important conventional power sources
water, and an integrated transportation
are coal, mineral oil, and hydroelectricity.
system, are required by industry and may
The placement of the power industry is
be given in a considerably shorter period in
determined by the source of electricity.
specific locations than in the whole nation.
y Because coking coal is used in such large
y Industrial location theory assists in
quantities in the iron and steel industries, it
determining the optimal location for certain
may be found all over the globe, coal fields.
industries as well as the greatest industries
y Other sectors that rely heavily on
for a specific place.
inexpensive hydroelectric power, such as the
y In 1909, Alfred Weber (a German economist)
electro-metallurgical and electrochemical
proposed the notion of industrial location.
industries, are often located near hydro-
The “Pull forces” that draw industries to
power generating regions, such as the
a certain place were highlighted in this
aluminium industry.
hypothesis.
y According to Weber, labour costs, Market
transportation costs, and agglomeration y Until the completed items reach the market,
regions surrounding major cities all impact the whole production process is useless.
site selection. The major component The ability to quickly dispose of produced
is transportation costs, whereas the items necessitates proximity to the market.
secondary variables are labour costs, and It aids in the reduction of transportation
agglomeration. costs, and allows consumers to get items
y Factors like raw material availability, at lower prices.
electricity, market, capital, transportation, y Cotton is a non-weight-losing raw material
and labour determine the location of used in the cotton textile industry, and it
industries. Furthermore, the relative is mostly produced in cities like Mumbai,
importance of these elements varies Ahmedabad, Surat, and Kanpur.
throughout time and location. y Because crude oil transportation is easier
and many products made from it are
Location of Industries Mainly Depends on utilised as raw materials in other industries,
Raw Materials petroleum refineries are also placed near
markets. For example, refineries at Koyali,
y The industries that use weight-losing raw
Mathura, and Barauni.
materials are located close to the raw
materials. Transport
y Three industries come to mind: sugar, pig
y The transfer of raw materials, and the
iron, and pulp.
marketing of completed goods both need
y Iron and steel industries:
land or sea transportation.

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y For example, the placement of numerous from the benefits of proximity. The world’s
industries surrounding Kolkata, Mumbai, and primary industrial regions are Western and
Chennai was dictated by the establishment Central Europe, Eastern North America,
of railroads in India by colonial Britishers Eastern Asia, and Eastern Europe.
linking port cities with the countryside. y Temperate locations or seaports, especially
y Industry did not go to the interior until near coal deposits, are preferred by major
railway links were built. All of the major industrial regions.
industrial locations are served by trunk rail y India’s several industrial areas
networks. ⚪ Mumbai-Pune cluster
⚪ Bangalore-Tamil Nadu region
Labour ⚪ Hugli region
y Industries are more likely to set up shops in ⚪ Ahmedabad-Baroda region
areas with a large labour force. ⚪ Chottanagpur industrial belt
y Labour supply is crucial for companies in ⚪ Vishakhapatnam-Guntur belt
two ways: ⚪ Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut region etc.
⚪ Large numbers of employees are often y The following are some of the common
required. Experts or technical expertise characteristics of industrial regions:
are required. ⚪ Specialisation of skills/methods of
y The Indian labour is relatively transportable production;
and available in huge numbers due to our ⚪ Mechanisation and Automation;
massive population. ⚪ Technological advances via R&D strategy.
y The government has also launched a number Large organisations and executive bureaucracies,
of programmes to help them improve their are examples of organisational structure and
skills. stratification. Access to transportation and
communication facilities.
Historical Factors ⚪ Access to the market.
y Because of our colonial past, cities like ⚪ Access to energy sources.
Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, and Dhaka have ⚪ Access to raw materials.
become heavily industrialised. ⚪ Access to labour supply.
y Because of European traders and merchants, ⚪ An industrial cluster is within reach (A
industrial industries gained a boost during large number of industries benefit from
the early stages of colonialism. Dhaka, nearness to a leader-industry and other
Murshidabad, Surat, Bhadohi, Vadodara, industries).
Coimbatore, Kozhikode, and Mysuru, among
others, have become key manufacturing Distribution of Major Industries
centres.
Textile Industries

Some of the Other Important Factors are y Textile industries supply us with clothes,
which is man’s second most essential need
Climate change, political policies, capital and
after food. Cotton, woollen, silk, jute, and
financial resources, and so forth.
synthetics are some of the most prominent
textile industries.
Industrial Region of the World y India is the world’s second-largest producer
y Industrial regions are locations where of cotton, as well as textiles and clothing,
industries have consolidated as a result after China. India is also the world’s biggest
of good geoeconomic circumstances. jute producer. It directly employs 51 million
Industrial districts arise when a group of people, and indirectly employs 68 million
enterprises cluster together, and benefit people.

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Fig. 9.2: Cotton Mill use in World

Cotton Textile Industry ⚪ As a result, it is not too reliant on raw

y Cotton textile manufacturing is one of the materials, despite the fact that cotton
oldest businesses on the planet. Cotton plays a key part in its location.
fabric was manually spun (wheels), and ⚪ The market, power supply, and mode
looms were seldom employed prior to the of transportation all have a role in its
industrial revolution. placement. The market is the most
y The invention of the spinning jenny in the significant of all of these considerations.
18th century led to the creation of power
looms. This aided the growth of the cotton Other Important Textile Industries
textile industry, initially in the United
Cotton Industry in India
Kingdom, and then in other areas of the
globe. y In 1854, Mumbai became the site of the first
y China, the United States, India, and Russia successful mechanised textile factory. The
make the majority of cotton fabric. Because cotton textile industry in the nation grew
cotton is imported, the United Kingdom, rapidly due to the country’s warm, humid
Japan, and Germany have developed this environment, proximity to a seaport for
industry. importing machinery, the abundance of raw
y World: Cotton Textile Manufacturing materials, and trained labour.
Regions y Maharashtra and Gujarat’s humid
⚪ Cotton textile is the most significant of climate was ideal for the industry’s early
all textile industries in the world since development. The company has extended
it meets the demands of the average to other regions of India now that humidity
person’s apparel. Cotton is used as the can be artificially created, and raw cotton
primary raw material for making textile is a pure, non-weight-losing raw material.
since, it is a pure raw material that y Example: Coimbatore, Kanpur, Chennai,
does not lose weight throughout the Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Kolkata, Ludhiana,
production process. Puducherry and Panipat.

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Woollen Textile y Sheep and goat hair are used to make wool. This is a market-oriented
Industry business that does not rely much on raw material supply.

y The fact that Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa produce the
majority of the world’s wool, but the majority of the woollen industry
is centred in cold temperature locations in Europe and North America
demonstrates this.

y Nearly two-thirds of the world’s woollen mill capacity, and output are
located in Europe. Russia, China, Japan, the United States of America,
and the United Kingdom are all major producers.

Silk Textile y The silk business is mostly focused on raw materials. Silk is a luxury
Industry commodity that only the wealthy can purchase.

y The global output of silk has been dropping in recent decades, owing
to two factors: 1) high manufacturing and maintenance costs, and
2) the development of synthetic fabrics that are less expensive, and
simpler to maintain.

Jute Textile y Important producers: Japan, China, U.S.A., France, Germany, Italy,
Industry U.K. and India.

y Jute is a strong, coarse, and inexpensive fibre that is used to make a

range of items, such as gunny bags, hessian, ropes, and carpets.

Synthetic Textile
y India and Bangladesh produce almost all of the world’s goods.
Industry

y In the early twentieth century, it rose to prominence. « Cellulosic fibres

are derived from natural cellulose, such as rayon, and are the most
common form of synthetic fibre. Bruce synthetics, including nylon,
acrilon, and polyester, are made from coal or petroleum molecules.

y The major manufacturers are the United States of America, Japan,

Germany, Russia, and the United Kingdom.

Table 9.1: Other Important Textile Industries

Problems Associated with Textile Industry y Along with these ongoing issues, garment
y Synthetic fibres are posing a serious threat to manufacturers must also contend with
cotton textiles. Consumers choose textiles a significant rise in raw material costs.
with synthetic mixes because man-made Following the closure of numerous plants
fibre is much less expensive than cotton. in China due to environmental regulations,
y Farmers begin to face moisture loss after prices have risen.
two to four cycles of cotton cultivation in y The coronavirus epidemic has hampered
the same soil, which is damaging to cotton global logistics, which has further slowed
harvests. Cotton quality suffers as a result rates.
of erratic harvesting in the latter stages in y The textile sector has been under growing
several drought-stricken areas. strain as a result of the worldwide market’s

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strict social, and environmental standards. Process of Making Steel and Its Usage
The textile industry uses a lot of chemicals, y The transformation of iron ore into steel
and uses a lot of them. involves many stages. The raw material is
⚪ a slew of non-biodegradable compounds put in the blast furnace where it undergoes
that are damaging to the environment; smelting.
when significant amounts of unneeded y Following that, it’s refined. Steel is
chemicals are dumped in water bodies, manufactured, and may be utilised as a raw
the problem becomes much worse. material in other industries.
y Another issue in emerging and undeveloped y Small quantities of other metals, such
nations is the poor quality of infrastructure. as aluminium, nickel, and copper, may
be added to make special steel alloys.
Iron and Steel Industry Alloys give steel its remarkable hardness,
y The iron and steel business is recognised toughness, and corrosion resistance.
as the foundation industry since it serves
as a foundation for all other sectors. It gives Changes in the Location of Iron and
contemporary civilisation, a firm basis. It is Still Industry
primarily dependent on the use of heavy and y Before 1800 A.D., the iron and steel industry
weight-losing raw minerals, such as coal, was located in areas with easy access to
iron ore, and manganese as the primary raw raw materials, electricity, and flowing water.
materials. y After some time, the business found its
y This industry is also known as heavy perfect site among coal resources, canals,
industry because it employs vast volumes and trains.
of bulky raw materials, and generates hefty y After 1950, the iron and steel industry
products. established itself on large swaths of land
y Steel is a necessary component of our near seaports. This is due to the fact that
civilisation. Steel is also essential to a steel mills at the time had grown to be
successful circular economy since, it is a fairly large, requiring the importing of iron
permanent material that can be recycled ore from other nations.
several times without losing its qualities.
y The iron and steel industry is continuing Distribution of Iron and Steel Industry
to extend its offering of sophisticated The sector is one of the most complex and capital-
high strength steels that lower the weight intensive in the world, and it is concentrated in
of applications, and stimulate circular advanced countries in North America, Europe,
economy activities, from transportation and Asia.
systems, infrastructure, and housing to y USA: The bulk of the product is produced in
manufacturing, agriculture, and energy. the North Appalachian region (Pittsburgh),

Fig. 9.3: Raw Material For Steel Industry

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Fig. 9.4: Steel Production

the Great Lakes region (Chicago-Gary, Erie, y Electricity supply disruptions in many
Cleveland, Lorain, Buffalo, and Duluth), regions of the globe, particularly in
and the Atlantic Coast (Sparrows Point and underdeveloped nations.
Morrisville). The company has extended y In comparison to other nations, developing
to Alabama in the south as it has grown. and undeveloped countries have a lower
The city of Pittsburg is losing ground at the level of technical progress.
moment. It has subsequently been termed y Another significant issue is the poor per
the United States of America’s “rust belt.” capita labour productivity. For instance,
y Europe: India’s per capita labour productivity is
⚪ The United Kingdom, Germany, France, between 90 and 100 tonnes, which is among
Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, the lowest in the world. In Japan, Korea,
and Russia are the main producers. and a few other major steel-producing
Steel centres include Scunthorpe, Port nations, labour productivity is about 600–
Talbot, Birmingham, and Sheffield in the 700 tonnes per man per year.
United Kingdom; Duisburg, Dortmund, y Other significant issues include low
Dusseldorf, and Essen in Germany; Le potential utilisation, poor product quality,
Creusot and St. Ettienne in France; and and environmental deterioration, among
Moscow, St. Petersburgh, Lipetsk, Tula, others.
and Krivoi Rog in Ukraine. y As a result, resources for research and
y Asia: development are needed to make steel
⚪ Jamshedpur, Kulti-Burnpur, Durgapur, more competitive and enhance standards,
Rourkela, Bhilai, Bokaro, Salem, especially in emerging and impoverished
Visakhapatnam, and Bhadravati in nations.
India; Shanghai, Tienstin, and Wuhan in
China; and Jamshedpur, Kulti-Burnpur, Chemical Industry
Durgapur, Rourkela, Bhilai, Bokaro, Salem,
Visakhapatnam, and Bhadravati in India. It is a varied and complicated business with
a significant number of goods. The chemical
Challenges Associated with Iron and Steel industry is organised into six distinct branches.
Industry y Heavy chemicals like sulphuric acid, soda
y Iron and steel production requires a ash, caustic soda, chlorine, nitric acid,
significant capital expenditure, which hydrochloric acid etc.
emerging, and impoverished nations cannot y Electro-chemicals such as fertilisers,
afford. nitrate, ammonia, carbides, wood pulp etc.

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y Petrochemicals Plastics, synthetic fibres, made possible by information technology.

fertilisers, synthetic rubber, explosives, and In this era of globalisation, information
other materials are included. technology is the catalyst for global
y Light chemicals Insecticides, colours, integration.
tars, carbolic acid, explosives, fertilisers, y The IT sector employs skilled labour forces
artificial fibres, synthetic rubber, and other since it is a knowledge-based enterprise.
chemicals are all of concern. y Economic expansion, and services in a
y Pharmaceuticals, including medicines and variety of different industries may be done
drugs. quickly with the support of the IT industry.
y Derived chemicals are concerned in paints, y Building resilient infrastructure, promoting
leather tanning products, soap, glass, and inclusive and sustainable industrialisation,
paper, among other things. and fostering innovation are all goals nine
of the Sustainable Development Goals.
Information Technology (IT) and High-Tech y Bridging the digital divide, often known
Industry as the digital gap, has made significant
y The information technology industry is progress. Even in the poorest nations, the
concerned with the storage, processing, fast rise of mobile phones is transforming
and delivery of data. This industry has now the way individuals contribute to their
gone worldwide. A succession of technical, communities’ economic, and social well-
political, and socioeconomic factors have being.
contributed to this. The availability of y ICTs have the ability to integrate millions
resources, cost, and infrastructure are of individuals into the global economy, and
the primary determinants of where these create new social networks.
industries are located. y Global absolute poverty is decreasing, but
y Technology, in general, makes ICT penetration is increasing.
communication easier, whether it’s for y Despite such growth and all of its promise,
social networking or delivering scientific ICTs remain inaccessible, and expensive
data. IT is the backbone of good internal, for the bulk of the world’s population.
and external communication. The task is to give not just economical
y The easy transmission of information access to information and communication
across borders, as well as the extension of technology, but also to do it in a socially
resources from nations all over the globe, is acceptable manner.

Fig. 9.5: Indian IT Industries

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Fig. 9.6: Relation Between ICT & Poverty

y Millions of individuals want to make a bigger

contribution to the global economy, but y Many IT businesses have sprung up all
their existing circumstances prevent them over the world. Google, Microsoft, Infosys,
from doing so. Accenture, and IBM are just a few of the
y In this scenario, the international major IT companies.
community recognises that the ICT y Silicon Valley, California (USA) and
community can help to facilitate a new Bengaluru, India, are two prominent IT
change that is required. centres.

Some of the Other Important Industries

y Because the majority of pulp and paper is made from softwood from
Pulp and
coniferous forests in northern Canada and Eurasia, it is a forest-based
Paper Industry
business.

y Esparto grass, sabai grass, bhabar grass, bamboo, cotton lint, cotton
waste, wastepaper, and rags are among the various raw materials
utilised.

y For coaster paper, such as newspaper, softwood is utilised, whereas

other raw materials provide higher-quality paper.

y This sector also relies on sufficient clean water, low-cost electricity,

chemicals such as caustic soda, soda ash, chlorine, china clay, and
others, as well as inexpensive and trained labour and a ready market.

y Canada, the United States of America, Sweden, Finland, and Russia are
the top manufacturers of mechanically produced pulp.

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y The largest producers are the United States of America, Canada,

Sweden, Finland, Japan, and Russia.

Fertiliser y This sector supplies the fundamental input for enhancing agricultural
Industry productivity, and improving soil fertility.

y Phosphate, potash, and nitrate are the three most essential raw
ingredients.

y It also relies on nitrogen from the atmosphere. As a result, chemical

fertilisers are divided into three categories.

y Urea, ammonium sulphate, and nitro-limestone are examples of

nitrogen fertilisers. China, the United States of America, and India are
the top three manufacturers.

y Phosphatic fertilisers (such as nitro-phosphate and ammonium

phosphate, which are superphosphates): The largest producers include
the United States of America, China, India, Russia, Australia, and Brazil,
among others.

y Fertilisers containing potassium (in the form of potassium): Canada,

Germany, Belarus, the United States of America, and Russia account for
over 75% of the potassic fertiliser produced.

y At the end of the nineteenth century, the automobile industry grew

Automobiles
in Europe. It now includes a huge variety of vehicles, including
Industry
automobiles, lorries, buses, three-wheelers, and two-wheelers.

y Steel, rubber, plastic, and a vast variety of components are all readily
available, resulting in the emergence of a slew of subsidiary businesses.

y The United States of America, Japan, Germany, France, and Italy are the
major manufacturers.

Electronics y It is mostly focused on electronic devices, such as computers and other

Industry commonplace items.

y It creates the most jobs in relation to capital investment. It is solely

dependent on technical advancement, and is unaffected by raw
material availability.

y The United States of America, Japan, China, and a few European nations
are among the industry’s leaders.

y Some south-east Asian nations, such as South Korea and Indonesia,

have recently emerged as major producers.

Table 9.2: Other Important Industries

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Industrial Corridors in India Five Industrial Corridors

y Essentially, an industrial corridor is a swath y Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya
of multi-modal transportation that runs Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra are all
across many states. Rail and road feeder part of the Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor
lines, which offer last-mile connectivity, (DMIC). Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and
transport freight goods from industrial, Karnataka are all part of the Chennai-
and NIMZ zones situated up to a distance Bengaluru Industrial Corridor (CBIC).
of 100–150 km on each side of this major Economic Corridor between Bengaluru and
artery. Mumbai (BMEC)
y As a result, logistical expenses will be y Punjab, Haryana, Uttarakhand, Uttar
reduced, allowing businesses to concentrate Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West
on what they do best. Bengal are all part of the Amritsar-Kolkata

Fig. 9.7: Major Industrial Regions in India

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Industrial Corridor (AKIC). West Bengal, and complementarity in the production

Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu of many developing technological
are all part of the East Coast Economic domains: digital production technologies,
Corridor (ECEC). nanotechnologies, biotechnologies, and
novel materials.
New Technologies Shaping the y The phrase “advanced manufacturing” is
Industrial Landscape often used to describe the usage of these
y Since the first industrial revolution, many technologies in manufacturing.
waves of technical improvements have
spurred economic progress. Inclusive and Sustainable Industrial
y Between 1760 and 1840, the 1IR was driven Development
by the discovery of the steam engine, the y Inclusive and sustainable industrial
automation of basic activities, and the development addresses three components
building of railways. of sustainable development: social fairness,
y Between the late nineteenth and early economic prosperity, and environmental
twentieth centuries, the assembly line, protection.
along with mass production, ushered in the y There are two fundamental pillars to
second industrial revolution. inclusive and sustainable industrial
y The third industrial revolution was pro- development: the first is about providing
pelled by the invention of s
­ emiconductors, shared wealth for everyone, and the second
and mainframe computing in the 1960s, is about environmental protection.
as well as personal computers and the y While implementing inclusive and
internet. sustainable industrial growth, the following
y Recent technology developments seem issues must be considered:
to be ushering in yet another wave of the ⚪ A higher degree of industrialisation, and
fourth industrial revolution. The notion market globalisation should benefit the
is based on the rising convergence, products and service industries.

Fig. 9.8: Use of Technology in Manufacturing

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Fig. 9.9: Inclusive & Sustainable Industrial Development

⚪ Broader economic and social progress is y If the world is to progress towards equitable
fostered within an ecologically sustainable and sustainable development, energy
framework, leaving no one behind while efficiency improvements and scaling up
sharing gains earned from industrial the use of renewable energy for productive
expansion, and prosperity is shared purposes, and industrial applications are
among women and men in all nations. critical.
y New ways or strategies for capturing and y For developing nations to share information
sharing accessible information, technology, and advance their economic growth,
and innovation. effective knowledge networks are critical.
y Multi-stakeholder partnerships promote all Multilateral stakeholders, national and
of the aforementioned reasons. local governments, as well as commercial
y Mitigating risk, developing new markets, companies are better positioned to tackle
and cultivating long-term partnerships with development processes in a more effective,
suppliers, consumers, and investors may all inclusive, and transparent manner by
be aided by adopting more socially inclusive working via an integrated, and networked
and ecologically sustainable company strategy.
practises.

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10 Economic Development

y Earlier cultures were hunter-gatherer production with the emergence of industrial

communities, in which individuals made societies.
a living by hunting animals and collecting y Whole industries developed to make the
vegetation. These two items took up the machines, build the factories and use the
majority of their time. As a result, there machines and factories to produce clothing,
could be no distinct institution for the household goods, and many other important
production and distribution of commodities products. Gradually the secondary sector of
and services. the economy became the dominant sector.
Perhaps inevitably, it led to a growth in the
tertiary (service) sector to respond to the
demands of an industrial economy.

Economic Development
y According to Michael Todaro, “Economic
development is an increase in living
standards, improvement in self-esteem
needs and freedom from oppression as well
as a greater choice”.
y No one definition encompasses all aspects
of economic progress. It is generally defined
Fig. 10.1: Earlier Hunter Gatherers by goals.
y Job creation, Wealth generation, and
y Next horticultural and pastoral societies
enhanced quality of life are the most
were developed, in which people raised
common goals of economic expansion.
animals and grew crops. Although they were
y Economic development affects the growth,
better than their hunting and gathering
and reorganisation of an economy in order
counterparts, but families as a unit was
to increase the economic well-being of a
involved, so no separate institution of the
community.
economy could be evolved.
y The ultimate goal of economic development
y This separate institution, i.e. ‘the economy’
is to improve a community’s economic
finally did appear with the advent of
well-being via diverse measures, such as
agricultural societies about 5,000 years
Employment retention, Job creation, and
ago. The societies started producing the
Tax base increases, among others.
food surpluses due to the invention of the
⚪ There is no one policy, method, or
wheel and the plough; these surpluses gave
programme for attaining effective
rise to inter and intra-society trade.
economic growth since economic
y The rise of trade marked the appearance of
development has no single meaning.
a separate economy. To repair the broken
Geographic and political strengths and
wheel and ploughs, new crafts jobs evolved,
weaknesses vary in each community. As
and subsequently, job profiles diversified.
a result, each town will face its own set
But despite these developments, people
of economic development obstacles.
still worked near their homes. ⚪ “The ultimate resource in economic
y During the 1700s and 1800s, work and home development is people, it is people nor
finally began to separate, as machines and capital or raw material that develops an
factories became the primary means of economy” —Peter f. Drucker.

Economic Development 113

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Introduction
Defined as a sustained improvement in society's material well-being.
It encompasses a broader range of concepts than economic growth.
Aside from national income growth, it includes social, cultural,political,
and economic changes that contribute to material progress.
Contribution

It includes changes in resource supplies, capital formation rates, population

size and composition,technology, skills, and e�ciency, as well as institutional and
organizational structure.
These changes contribute to the larger goals of ensuring more equitable income
distribution, increased employment, and poverty alleviation.
It is a long chain of interconnected changes in fundamental supply factors and
demand structure that leads to an increase in a country's net national product
in the long run.

Economic Features of Economic Development

development

It entails changes in income, savings, and investment, as well as gradual changes

in the country's socio-economic structure (institutional and technological changes).
Development related to human capital growth, a reduction in inequality numbers, and
structural changes that improve the population's quality of life.
To assess economic development, qualitative indicators such as the HDI (Human
Development Index), gender-related indexes, Human Poverty Index (HPI), infant
mortality, literacy rate, and so on are used.
It results in both qualitative and quantitative changes in the economy.
It reflects progress in a country's quality of life.

Factors A ecting Economic Development

Infrastructural Development
Infrastructure development improves people's quality of life.
As a result, an increase in the rate of infrastructural development will
result in a nation's economic development.
Education
Improving literacy and technical knowledge will result in a better
understanding of how to use various pieces of equipment.
This will increase labor productivity and, as a result, a country's
economic development.

Increase in capital formation

An increase in capital formation will result in more productive output
in an economy, which will have a positive impact on economic
development.
Economic development 1

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Economic Development 115

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Measurement of Economic Development economic and environmental shocks,

and their human capital is limited. LDCs,
y Economic development is a concept and
enjoy priority access to some foreign aid
activity in general to assess the core
programmes, particularly in the fields of
competencies of a nation, its innovation
development and trade.
and the use of the available resources. This
y Despite the fact that such a large
process improves the political, economic,
regionalisation strategy is likely to be unduly
and social well-being of the people.
simple, it is often utilised and may be highly
y When we discuss economic development,
beneficial.
we often discuss terms like modernisation,
industrialisation, and so on. Many times,
we confuse industrial development with Most Commonly Used Measures
economic development. of Economic Development
y The globe is often divided into two groups 1. GDP per capita.
of countries: 2. Population growth.
⚪ The More Developed Countries (MDCs): A 3. Occupational structure of the labour force.
developed economy is one that is found 4. Urbanisation.
in a developed nation with a high degree 5. Consumption per capita.
of economic development, and security. 6. Infrastructure.
Developed nations have sophisticated 7. Social conditions
technical infrastructure as well as a y GDP per capita: The entire market value
wide range of industrial and service of all products and services generated
industries. As a result, nations are inside a nation in a year is referred to as
referred to as industrialised countries. GDP. GDP may also be used to assess
⚪ The Less Developed Countries (LDCs): the county’s economic activity. The
Least developed countries (LDCs) are more a nation produces per person, the
low-income nations that face significant more it is considered “developed.”
structural challenges to long-term y Population growth: In general, poorer
development. They are very sensitive to countries see a faster population

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increase. Even while population growth y Infrastructure: A country’s

rates seem to be minor (1 percent, 2 infrastructure acts as the foundation
percent, 3 percent, or maybe 4 percent), for its economic development. Urban
they have a significant influence. areas, transportation networks,
y Occupational structure of the labour communications, energy distribution
force: Primary activities, secondary systems, farms, industries, mines, and
activities, and tertiary activities are the institutions such as schools, hospitals,
three types of economic activity. (Some postal services, and police and armed
people include quaternary, and quinary forces are all included.
activities as well.) There are no alternatives for
⚪ Primary activities: These are infrastructure development, and
activities that extract different there are no shortcuts to faster
resources from the earth directly. economic growth. Unless developing
Agriculture, fishing, mining, and countries invest in various elements
lumbering are only a few examples. of the infrastructure component,
⚪ Secondary activities: These entails their development would be slow and
procedures aimed at transforming retarded, and they would lose out in the
raw materials into final goods. race for economic competitiveness.
This encompasses a wide range of y Social conditions: Better social
manufacturing operations. conditions are necessary for Increasing
⚪ Tertiary activities: It encompasses the well-being of every person in
the numerous service sectors of society so that they may achieve
the economy and includes services, their greatest potential. To improve
such as transportation, education, social circumstances, obstacles must
banking, and commerce, among be removed so that all people may
others. pursue their goals with confidence and
y With the advancement of the nation, the dignity. It’s about assisting individuals
occupational structure of the workforce in advancing on their road to self-
has evolved as well. The majority of sufficiency.
individuals in Less Developed Countries ⚪ Literacy rate
(LDCs) are involved in a range of primary ⚪ Life expectancy
activities. On the other hand, in high- ⚪ Health care calorie intake
income nations, such as the United ⚪ Infant mortality
States, the tertiary sector employs the y Human Development Index The United
majority of the population. Nations Development Programme
y Urbanisation: It is the proportion of a publishes the Human Development
country’s total population who lives in Index (HDI), which is a statistical
cities. Urban areas now house fewer instrument that measures a country’s
than half of the world’s population. overall success in social, and economic
Typically, as a nation develops, so does aspects (UNDP). People and their
its urbanisation. capacities, not only economic progress,
y Consumption per capita: Per capita should be the final criterion for judging
consumption is the yearly use of goods a country’s development, according to
and services by each person, derived HDI. Human development is based on
by dividing the number of goods and three basic dimensions:
services used by the total population. y A long and healthy life,
Consumption per person is a key y Access to knowledge, and
indicator of economic progress. y A decent standard of living.

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y Long and healthy life Secondary Activities

The dimension of a long and healthy life y Secondary activities increase the value
is calculated using life expectancy at of natural resources by converting raw
birth. The life expectancy at birth is a materials into useful products through
statistical estimate of how long an average manufacturing, processing, and building
individual will live based on demographic (infrastructure) processes and methods.
characteristics, such as birth year and y Secondary production includes the
current age. manufacturing and assembly processes. It
y Access to knowledge entails the transformation of raw resources
Education is the HDI’s second dimension. into components, such as the production of
The education indicators are the predicted polymers from oil. It also includes putting
years of schooling, and the mean years of the product together, such as constructing
schooling. The average maximum number homes, bridges, and roads.
of years of education is 18 years, whereas
the mean maximum number of years of
Tertiary Activities
schooling is 15 years, according to the
United Nations. y Tertiary activities include both production
y Standard of living and exchange. The production involves the
The Gross National Income (GNI) per capita ‘provision’ of services that are ‘consumed’.
is commonly used to assess the standard The output is indirectly measured in terms
of living. The Gross National Product (GNP) of wages and salaries. Exchange involves
is a measure of a country’s total domestic, trade, transport and communication
and international production. facilities that are used to overcome
distance.
Type of Economic Activities y Tertiary activities, therefore, involve the
commercial output of services rather than
y Economic activities are classified as
the production of tangible goods.
primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
y They are not directly involved in the
Primary Activities processing of physical raw materials.
y Common examples are the work of a
y Natural riches and the environment are
plumber, electrician, technician, launderer,
closely related to primary activities since
barber, shopkeeper, driver, cashier, teacher,
they refer to the efficient use of earth’s
doctor, lawyer and publisher etc.
resources, such as water, flora, land,
construction materials, and minerals.
Hunting and gathering, pastoral activities, Quaternary Activity
fishing, forestry, agriculture, and mining, y The ‘knowledge-oriented’ service business
and quarrying are all included. includes quaternary activities.
y The acquisition of raw materials is linked y This industry may be divided into two
to primary production. Metals and coal categories: quaternary and quinary activities.
must be mined, the oil must be dug from y The quaternary sector: It is said to be
the earth, the rubber must be plucked from the intellectual aspect of the economy.
trees, foods must be cultivated, and fish It includes education, training, the
must be caught. development of technology, and research
y People engaged in primary activities are and development. More than half of all
called red-collar workers due to the outdoor workers in developed economies are
nature of their work. involved in the knowledge Sector and From

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mutual fund managers to tax advisors, 4. Global imbalances: The modern, networked
software engineers, and statisticians, world is on the unexplored ground. The
demand for and consumption of United States, as the world’s lone hegemon,
information-based services has increased is hooked on foreign currency, but developing
dramatically. Quaternary tasks, like certain nations such as China and oil exporters
tertiary services, may be outsourced. have expanding surpluses. Some fear that
y Quaternary activities involve some of the globe has reached a tipping point where
the following: the collection, production only drastic adjustments in economic policy
and dissemination of information, or would be able to alter the projected trend.
even the production of information. Others believe that underlying structural
Quaternary activities centre around problems are responsible for long-term
research, development, and may be seen gross imbalances.
as an advanced form of services involving 5. Rise of new powers: The growth of
specialised knowledge and technical “emerging powers” (a term that commonly
skills. refers to the BRIC countries (Brazil,
y Quinary Activities (Also known as ‘gold Russia, India, and China), but may also
collar’ occupations) The highest level of refer to South Africa, Mexico, and other
decision-makers or policymakers implement countries) is reshaping the global economy
quinary activities. Quinary activities are and international politics. These nations’
services that centre on the development, economies are rising at a considerably
reorganisation, and interpretation of new quicker rate than the rest of the world,
and existing ideas, data interpretation, and affecting the structure of international
the use and assessment of new technology. production and commerce, the form and
They represent affluent and well-paid top direction of capital flows, and consumption
company leaders, government officials, patterns of natural resources.
researchers, financial and legal advisors, 6. Economic exclusions in some areas:
and others. Economic exclusion is a multifaceted
process that prevents some people from
Challenges of Economic Development
fully and equitably participating in the
1. Energy and environmental security: economic life of their city or metropolitan
Insecure energy supplies and environmental region. It happens when individuals face
disasters have lately created a consensus severe economic disadvantage over a
on the potential for long-term economic, lengthy period of time, resulting in an
national security, and social harm, as inability to better one’s financial situation
well as the critical need for technology or allow one’s children to escape it.
developments that might supply low- 7. Global corporations, global impact: The
polluting, and secure energy sources. private sector is becoming an important
2. Conflict and poverty: Globally, where player-indeed some might say the dominant
boundaries and borders have blurred, player-in shaping the world economic and
and where seemingly distant threats can development agenda. Various multinational
metastasize into immediate problems, the corporations with operations that span the
fight against global poverty has become a globe, and in some cases, capacities and
fight for global security. networks that match those of governments,
3. Competing in Era of Globalisation: have a particularly important part to play in
Multinational corporations are entering a new spreading the opportunities and mitigating
age of globalisation marked by divided forces some of the risks of globalisation.
of collaboration and rivalry. This is a moment 8. Global health crises: Various governments
of disjointed, multi-speed globalisation. across the world have begun to realise that

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global health issues are relevant for any to be more representative, and thus more
citizen, regardless of nationality, residence effective by encouraging and enabling the
or status. Despite developments in the key affected countries to take an active role
world’s collective ability to battle the disease in generating solutions.
with advances in the field of medicine and 10. Global poverty: new actors, new
technology, global health needs remain approaches: The challenges related
unmet, making the entire world vulnerable to global poverty are more urgent than
to a variety of health crises. Particularly poor ever. More than half the population of
people continue to suffer disproportionately the world (nearly 3-billion people) lives
from inadequate health services, exacerbating on less than $2 per day. Nearly around
their struggle out of poverty. 30,000 children die each day, and close
9. Global governance stalemate: Recent global to about 11-million per year because they
challenges-nuclear proliferation, the threat of are very poor to survive. With such a
pandemic flu, the fight against global poverty toll, addressing poverty in new and more
and the deadlock of global trade negotiations effective ways must be a priority for the
cannot be solved by the previous approaches global policy agenda. Fortunately, various
of international institutions. Therefore, to new actors are bringing new perspectives,
resolve the world’s most pressing problems, new approaches and new energy to the
which touch all corners of the world; we must challenge. Ex: Cooperation from the UN,
adapt our global governance approaches World bank, SDGs, etc.

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11 Transport

Introduction Important Factors that Will Shape the

Mobility
y Transport is a service or facility that
moves people and things utilising Humans, Mobility will be shaped by three factors:
Animals, and Vehicles. These motions
occur on land, sea, and air. Some important Demographics
modes of international transportation are: y By 2030, around 1.2-billion people with a
⚪ Land transport (roads and railways) radically changed socio-economic makeup
⚪ Water transport will fuel different new demands for mobility
⚪ Air transport solutions, and by that time, around 16.5%
⚪ Pipelines of the world’s population will be aged 60
y Better, safer, and faster transportation, or older.
together with effective communication, y This Demographic trend—led by countries
promote collaboration and unity among of OECD and joined by various transition
dispersed peoples, while simultaneously economies—calls for new solutions that are
improving billions of peoples’ lives and affordable, responsive and age-appropriate.
livelihoods.
y Transport sector is an essential driver of Preferences
various economic and social development. y People wish to stay in a society where they
It helps to bring opportunities for the poor can move easily from one place to another,
people and enabling economies across the travel and relocate as needed, and have
region to be more competitive. quick, easy and affordable access to a
y Infrastructures associated with variety of services.
transportation connects people to, y As the physical movement of people and
education, health services and jobs. Various goods are increasing, due to which various
types of transport service enable the supply new opportunities are developing that
of goods and services around the world; allow the “virtual” movement of people and
and it also allows people to interact and goods as well.
generate the knowledge and solutions that y Some of the important examples are
foster long-term growth. telecommuting, which helps employees
y Example: Rural services can prevent large across the globe to work away from
number of maternal deaths with the help traditional offices and e-commerce that
of timely access to childbirth-related care, allows consumers to order various goods
improve girls’ enrollment in school, and online.
increase and diversify farmers’ income by
connecting them to markets. Technology
y According to the Global Mobility Report y Future mobility also depends on the
2017, mobility will increase as more goods progress and development of digital
and people move across the towns and technology. Various reports estimated that
the globe. It is estimated that by 2030 (as by 2020, the global population will have
compared to 2015), annual passenger traffic around 26.3 billion digital devices and
will increase around 50%; global freight connections— this is expected to be more
volumes will grow by 70%; and an additional than three times of the world’s population.
1.2-billion cars will be on the road. Approximately more than 60% of global

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mobile traffic will be in Africa, Asia Pacific distances, it is the most practical mode of
and the Middle East. transportation.
y Attached with transport systems, can y The roads link the fields and farms to
lead to more safer, equitable and efficient factories and markets, and the goods can
mobility. It also offers huge prospects for be distributed right at the doorsteps of the
countries to reshape the way people, goods, consumers.
and services travel. y They are very useful for short distances
y In many urban areas, the utilisation of and can be built in hilly and remote areas,
smartphones has catalysed a move away where railways cannot reach.
from vehicle ownership and toward vehicle y World distribution of roads is very uneven.
sharing, ride hailing and carpooling. All around the globe, the road infrastructure
is not up to the required standards and
Land Transport expectations. The world’s entire length
y Land transport of goods and services is of motorable roads is just approximately
common. Initially, human palanquins (palki/ 15-million kilometres. Around 33% of this
doli) were used, then animals. is concentrated in North America alone
y With the invention of the wheel, carts and (The highest road density and the highest
wagons lost importance. The steam engine quantity of vehicles are registered in North
revolutionised transportation in the 18th America as compared to Western Europe).
century. y In recent times, traffic on roads has
y Railways were the most popular and quickest increased dramatically. The congestion
means of transit in the 19th century, and the occurs when the road network is not able
internal combustion engine revolutionised to cope with the demands of traffic, which
road transportation. Perhaps the first is responsible for long- standing traffic in
public railway line (between Stockton the city. Most of the important cities in
and Darlington in northern England) was the world have been facing the problem of
established in 1825. congestion.
Important land transport consists of:
Road Density Across the World
Roads and Highways y Developed countries have a better network
y The road is a vital mode of land transportation. of highways as compared to developing
It is made up of several types, ranging from countries. Example: The road network in
walkways and unpaved roads to national Europe is quite dense, because of which every
and international highways. For shorter port and city in Europe is linked by highways.

Region/Continent Important information about road density

North America y Highway density is really high (close to around 0.65 km per sq km).

y The majority of the locations are within 20 kilometres of a

highway.

y Cities are well-connected throughout the continent. For example,

the Trans-Canadian Highway links Vancouver, British Columbia, on
the west coast, with St. John’s City, Newfoundland, on the east
coast, while the Alaskan Highway connects Anchorage, Alaska,
with Edmonton, Alberta, on the west coast (Canada).

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Region/Continent Important information about road density

y Because of the frigid temperature in the north, Canada has fewer

highways than the rest of the world. To connect Canada and
Mexico, a large number of roads have been built on the north-
south route.

y United States of America:

y A network of sixty lakh kilometres of road, which is the largest in

the world.

y Nearly one-third of the world’s autos are produced in this country.

Because of the significant degree of urbanisation and industry in
the eastern region of the United States, the majority of highways
have been built there.

y This area has around 20% of the world’s roadways and 25% of the
Europe
world’s autos.

y All the important cities of Russia are connected by highways. In

European Russia, Moscow is the focal point, whereas in Asiatic
Russia, Irkutsk, is the important centre.

y In the industrialised area west of the Urals, a dense highway

network is being built, with Moscow as the core.

y Highways in Russia are not as essential as trains due to the

Russia
country’s extensive geography.

y Australia’s major roadways are located along the shore. The

Australia
Transcontinental Stuart Highway is Australia’s main highway.

y Darwin, in the Northern Territory, is connected to Melbourne,

Victoria, through Alice Springs and Tennant Creek.

y It has a large land mass, and its main cities are connected by
China roadways. Beijing is the main centre which has been linked with
Shanghai and Tsungtso city near the Vietnamese border.

y Shanghai has also been linked with Guangzhou in the south.

y A highway has recently been constructed to join Lhasa with

Cheugdu.

Africa y Highways are mostly located around the continent’s coasts.

y A roadway connects Cairo in the north with Cape Town in the

south.

Table 11.1: Road Density Across the World

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Important Information of Road and Highways in India

y The road transportation system in India accounts for the largest share in the movement of both
freight and passenger.

Fig. 11.1: National Highways Network in India

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y The main highways connect Mumbai,

Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi and other major India Road Network 2020
cities of India.
The most important is Sher Shah Suri Marg. Length
y S. No. Road category
Now, it is called National Highway No. 1 in Km
between Delhi and Amritsar and National
National
Highway No. 19 (earlier National Highway 2) 1. 136440
Highways
between Delhi and Kolkata.
y The longest National Highway is National
State
Highway No. 44, which links Varanasi with 2. 176818
highways
Kanniyakumari via Rewa, Jabalpur, Nagpur,
Hyderabad, Kurnool, Bangalore and Madurai. 3. Other roads 5902539
Its total length is 2,325 kms.
y Besides the National Highways, there are Total 6215797
state highways which are maintained by the
states. Source: Ministry of Road Transport and Highways

y A Golden quadrangle has been developed Annual Report 2020–21. For latest data, see

will link Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and website morth.nic.in

Kolkata, India’s four major cities. Table 11.2: India Road Network 2020
y The north-south corridor connects Srinagar
to Kanniyakumari and the East-West Railway
corridor connects Porbandar to Silchar. y The railway transport system is a long-
y Driven by a rapidly growing economy distance means of land transport for large
accompanied by better access to vehicle products and people. When transferring
finance and better road connectivity, the road large amounts of commodities, it is a more
mobility demand has grown continuously, cost-effective and convenient means of
which is responsible for a strong rise in the transportation than highways.
number of roads transport vehicles. y Railways developed much after the
y India’s total car registrations climbed from development of roadways and railways
58.9 million in 2001–02 to 182.4 million in became the fastest and most popular
2012–13. mode of transport system for both goods
y The world’s longest highway tunnel — and passengers in the 19th century.
Atal Tunnel (9.02 Km) has been built by y Commuter trains are very popular in India,
the Border Road Organisation. This tunnel Japan, U.K. and U.S.A. These carry millions
connects Manali to Lahaul-Spiti valley of passengers daily to big urban centres
throughout the year. Earlier, the valley from the surrounding areas in the morning
was cut off for about 6 months each year and back in the evening.
owing to heavy snowfall. The tunnel is y There are around 13 lakh km of railways
built with ultra-modern specifications in open for traffic in the world. The density
the Pir Panjal range of the Himalayas at an of railway network changes from one
altitude of 3000 metres from the Mean Sea country to another due to the high cost of
Level (MSL). construction and maintenance.

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Continent/Region/Country Information about rail network

y North America has the world’s largest railway network,

North America
accounting for roughly 40% of all rail networks.

y The railway network is now widely utilised for long-

distance transit of substantial freight such as minerals,
cereals, and manufactured goods.

y The majority of rail networks are found in the heavily

industrialised and urbanised area of East Central United
States and neighbouring Canada.

y Railways in Canada are owned by the government and

run across the country’s sparsely inhabited areas. The
majority of coal and wheat tonnage is transported by
transcontinental railway networks.

y European region has one of the densest rail networks in

Europe
the world.

y There are around 4,40,000 km of railways in the country,

the majority of which are double or double tracked.

y Paris, Berlin, London, Brussels, Milan, Warsaw, and

Moscow are all important rail hubs.

y Belgium has the highest density, with one kilometre of

railway for every 6.5 square kilometres of land.

y In many European nations, passenger rail travel is more

important than freight.

y London, Paris, and Moscow all have significant

underground train systems.

Asia y India, Japan and China have good railway work in Asia.

y India boasts Asia’s densest railway network, with 64,015

miles of route, 87,040 km of operating track, and roughly
7030 stations.

y Given China’s immensity, the country’s 35,000-kilometer

route length is insufficient.

y Japan has 28,000 kilometres of railroads. Other Asian

nations have a limited number of train lines.

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Continent/Region/Country Information about rail network

y West Asia has the least developed rail infrastructure.

Because of extensive deserts and thinly inhabited areas,
West Asia has the least developed rail infrastructure.

y Australia has over 40,000 km of railroads, with New

South Wales accounting for almost a quarter of them.
Australia and New Zealand
From Sydney to Perth, the west-east Australian National
Railway network stretches across the country.

y The railway lines in New Zealand are mostly on the

North Island, serving the different agricultural districts.

y Although Africa is the second-largest continent of the

Africa world after Asia, this continent has only 40,000 km of
railways.

y Some of the important routes include:

⚪ The Benguela Railway runs from Angola to the copper

belt of Katanga-Zambia. From the Zambian copper
belt to the sea in Dar-essalaam, the Tanzania
Railway line.

⚪ Railway lines operate from coastal ports to interior

centres in other countries, including Algeria, Senegal,
Nigeria, Kenya, and Ethiopia, although they do not
constitute a strong network or connect with lines in
other countries.

y Due to the gold, copper, and diamond mining operations,

South Africa has the densest rail network, with 18,000
kilometres of track.

y Railway transportation accounts for around 90% of

Russia Russia’s total transport, with a very dense network
established in the west of the Ural Mountains.

y Moscow is the important centre from where major lines

radiate to other parts of the country.

y Underground railways and commuter trains are also

playing an important role in Moscow.

Table 11.3: Railway Network Across the World

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Trans–Continental Railways Across the World y It comprises of two arms:

y These are the railway lines which have ⚪ Western Dedicated Freight Corridor
contiguous railway trackage that crosses a (WDFC): It is a 1,500-kilometer railway
vast continental land mass and has terminals corridor that runs from Dadri in Uttar
at different oceans or continental borders. Pradesh to Mumbai’s Jawaharlal Nehru
y Following are the important trans- Port Trust, passing through all of the
continental railways lines of the world country’s major ports.
y Trans-Siberian railway line ⚪ Eastern Dedicated Freight Corridor
y Trans–Canadian railways (EDFC): EDFC begins at Sahnewal
y The Australian Trans–Continental railway (Ludhiana) in Punjab and ends at
y The Union and Pacific railway Dankuni in West Bengal.

Railway Network in India

y Indian Railways (IR) is the world’s fourth
Diamond Quadrilateral Bullet Train
biggest railway network. Between 2019 and
Network Project:
2020, 22.15-million passengers used the
y In Budget 2014–15, Union government
Indian Railways network daily. In the same
had announced to undertake
period, 3.32-million metric tons of freight
development of high-speed rail
was also shipped daily on the IR network
connectivity on Diamond Quadrilateral
y In March 2020, the national rail network
network joining important metros and
comprised 126,366 km (78,520 mi) of track
growth centres of the nation.
over a route of 67,368 km (41,861 mi) and
y Similar to the Golden Quadrilateral
7,325 stations. It is the fourth-largest
expressway project, the Diamond
national railway network in the world
Quadrilateral will connect the four
(after those of the United States, Russia,
major mega cities in India, i.e. Delhi,
and China). 36.83% of routes are double
Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai.
or multi-tracked. As of April 2022, 52,247
km (32,465 mi) or 80% of the broad-gauge
routes have been electrified with 25 KV AC
electric traction. It is one of the busiest Water Transport
networks in the world, transporting 8.086
y One of the oldest types of transportation is
billion passengers and 1.208 billion tonnes
water travel. Since ancient times, man has
of freight annually. Indian Railways is the
navigated seas, rivers, and lakes.
world’s eighth, largest employer, with more
y This is the most cost-effective means of
than 1.254-million employees as of March
transport, and it is particularly good for
2020. As of March 2020, IR’s rolling stock
transporting large freight.
consisted of 293,077 freight wagons, 76,608
y Water transportation is the most cost-effective
passenger coaches and 12,729 locomotives.
because: Water friction is significantly lower
(INDIAN RAILWAYS YEAR BOOK 2020 – 21)
than that of land or air, and the energy cost of
transportation is substantially lower.
Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC) y There is no need to invest cash in the
y DFC is a high-level capacity and high- construction and maintenance of the tracks,
speed railway corridor that is completely as there is with railways or motorways.
meant for the transportation of freight i.e. y It is capable of transporting huge goods at
transportation of commodities and goods. a minimal cost.

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Fig 11.2: High-speed-rail-corridors

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Fig. 11.3: Transportation Cost of Various Routes

y Water transportation can be divided into y When compared to the previous marine
two groups: route around the Cape of Good Hope, the
⚪ Sea routes Suez Canal has substantially reduced the
⚪ Inland waterways time and distance.

Sea Routes
The Suez Canal
The natural ocean water provides a smooth
y The Suez Canal is a human-made waterway
roadway that may be travelled in both directions
constructed in 1869 that cuts north-south
and requires no maintenance. Its conversion
across the Isthmus of Suez in Egypt.
into a sea-going shipping route represents a
y The Suez Canal connects the Mediterranean
remarkable advancement in human adaptability
Sea to the Red Sea, making it the shortest
to the physical environment. The following are
maritime route to Asia from Europe.
some of the major maritime routes:

The North Atlantic Route (Big Trunk Route) The Cape of Good Hope Route
y It Connects the two industrially developed y It connects highly industrialised and
regions of the world, i.e. North-eastern developed Western European countries
U.S.A. and Northwestern Europe. with Southeast Asia, South Africa, West
y It is the busiest route in the world and 1/4th Africa, and New Zealand and Australia’s
of the world’s foreign trade moves on this commercial agricultural and cattle sectors.
route. y Because of the growth of rich natural
resources such as gold, diamonds, copper,
The Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean Route tin, groundnut, oil palm, coffee, and fruits,
y Port Said, Aden, Mumbai, Colombo, and the overall amount of commerce and
Singapore are some of the important ports transportation between East and West
along this route. Africa is expanding.

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The South Atlantic Route Inland Waterways

y Links West European and West African y Inland waterways are mostly comprised of
nations bordering on South America’s Brazil, rivers, canals, and lakes.
Argentina, and Uruguay. y These were formerly highly important
y The low development and population in modes of transportation, but they have lost
South America and Africa are the reasons most of their relevance as a result of the
for less travel on this route. development of motorways and railways,
y Because Africa and South America have as well as a shortage of water owing to
comparable goods and resources, there irrigation diversion and poor maintenance.
is little traffic on the route between Cape y In the world’s deep jungles, rivers are the
Town and Rio de Janeiro and Cape Town. sole route of transportation. Inland rivers
can convey very heavy goods, such as
The North Pacific Route lumber, coal, cement, and metallic ores.
y Trade route across the vast North Pacific
Ocean moves by various routes, which Worldwide Important River Waterways
converge at Honolulu. y North America: In North America, there are
y The direct route on the Great Circle two major inland waterway systems:
connects Vancouver and Yokohama and ⚪ The Great Lakes–St. Lawrence waterway:
reduces the travelling distance (2,480 km)  Great Lakes of North American
by half. region, i.e. Huron, Superior, Michigan,
y It links the ports on the west coast of North Erie and Ontario are linked by
America with those of Asia. Welland and Soo Canal to form an
y Example: Vancouver, San Francisco, Seattle, inland waterway.
Portland and Los Angeles on the American  The estuary of the St. Lawrence
side and Yokohama, Kobe, Shanghai, Hong River, together with the Great
Kong, Manila and Singapore on the Asian Lakes, constitutes an extraordinary
side. commercial waterway in northern
North America.
The South Pacific Route ⚪ Mississippi River System:
y It links Western Europe and North America  It links the interior of the United States
with Australia, New Zealand and the to the Gulf of Mexico in the south.
scattered Pacific islands via the Panama y Europe:
Canal. ⚪ Dnieper, Don, Volga etc.
y Also, utilised for reaching Hong Kong, ⚪ Inland waterways have been created
Philippines and Indonesia. in France, Germany, Belgium, the
y Honolulu is a major port on this route. Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and
European Russia, to name a few.
Ports in India ⚪ Along the rivers Rhine, Rhone, Seine,
y India has a 7,500-kilometer coastline, making Meuse, Weser, Ems, Elbe, Oder, and
it one of the world’s largest peninsulas, and Danube, a well-knit network of inland
ports handle roughly 90% of the country’s waterways, has emerged.
foreign trade by volume and 70% by value. ⚪ A large number of rivers are linked
y India now has 12 major ports and about together via canals. From the
200 intermediate and small ports. The Mediterranean Sea to the North Sea, one
Union government decides the policy and may travel through rivers and canals.
performs regulatory functions. In the case ⚪ The Rhine Waterways:
of the minor ports, policy and functions are  It passes through the Netherlands
regulated by the government of the states. and Germany on its way to the North

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Fig. 11.4: Major Ports and Sea Routes in India

Sea. From Rotterdam (Netherlands)  From the east, the Ruhr river meets
to Basel (Switzerland), it is the Rhine. It runs through a rich
navigable for about 700 kilometres coalfield, and the basin as a whole has
(Switzerland). become a thriving industrial centre.

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 This interior canal is the world’s  Russia boasts a number of well-

busiest, with more than 20,000 developed waterways, including the
ocean-going ships and 200,000 Volga, which is one of the country’s
inland boats trading goods every most significant.
year.  It flows into the Caspian Sea
 It connects the North Atlantic Sea and provides an 11,200-kilometer
Route with the industrial areas navigable river.
of Switzerland, Germany, France,  The Volga-Moscow Canal connects
Belgium, and the Netherlands. it to Moscow, while the Volga-Don
⚪ Volga Waterway: China has many large Canal connects it to the Black Sea.
rivers but some of them, especially in y Asia:
the eastern part, are more developed ⚪ Inland rivers in China and India are more
for water transport. The Huang He, developed than in other nations on the
Chang Jiang rivers are navigable. continent.

Fig. 11.5: Inland Water Ways in India

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Inland Water Ways in India to west. The United States alone accounts
y India’s Inland Water Transport (IWT) for over 60% of the world’s airways.
transports less than 2% of the country’s y Air services are unavailable in Africa, Russia’s
organised freight traffic and very little Asiatic region, and South America. Because
passenger travel. of the low population, limited landmass,
y In 2016–17, the yearly freight volumes and low level of economic development in
transported on inland waterways utilising the Southern Hemisphere, aviation services
National Waterways (NW-1, NW-2, and between 10 and 35 degrees latitude are
NW-3) and Goa Waterways was 21.91 MMT. restricted.
Inland waterways in Maharashtra alone y Due to its high-speed, it is selected by
carried about 33.29 MMT. passengers for long-distance travel.
y The Inland Waterways Authority of India Valuable cargo can be moved rapidly on a
(IWAI) is in charge of developing and worldwide scale. It is often the only means
maintaining fairway, navigational aids, and to reach inaccessible regions.
terminal infrastructure. y In contemporary time, no place in the world
y In addition, the IWAI creates an environment is more than 35 hours away. Supersonic
that encourages private investment in cargo aircraft can cover the distance between
boats and operational services. London and New York within three and a
y Until 2015, there were just five NWs in the half hours.
nation. In April 2016, 106 new streams were
Air Transport/ Civil Aviation in India
designated as NWs across 24 states.
y The civil aviation sector in India currently
contributing Rs 33,000 crore or 0.5% of
Air Transport
India’s GDP and supporting 1.7-million jobs in
Important Global Information about Civil the country, besides creating much-needed
Aviation critical assets. (Oxford Economics for the
y It is the most expensive and time- International Air Transport Association
consuming means of transportation. (IATA) DATA).
y The modern era is known as the Air Age. y In 2010, 79 mn people travelled to/from/or
y The development of air transportation within India. By 2017 that doubled to 158 mn,
began in the early twentieth century, and and this number is expected to treble to 520
World Wars hastened the speed of progress. mn by 2037. With the air passenger traffic
During the previous fifty years, aviation projected to increase, the Indian aviation
travel has grown at a spectacular rate. industry is on a high-growth path. India
y The world distribution of air transport is witnessed double-digit growth in domestic
very unequal. air cargo of 12.1% in 2018–19 over 2017–18.
y A dense network of aviation routes connects Total cargo handled reached 3.56MMT.
Western Europe, Eastern America, and y The Ministry of Civil Aviation’s initiative
Southern Asia. UDAN (Ude Desh ka Aam Nagrik, a regional
y The major nodal points of the world are connectivity scheme), is a 10- year scheme,
London, Paris, Rome, Moscow, New Delhi, which will encourage balanced regional
Mumbai, Bangkok, Karachi, Singapore, growth and make flying affordable for the
Tokyo, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Chicago, people of India. It will also help to enhance
New York and Rio de Janeiro etc. connectivity to the country’s unserved and
y Soviet Air services are few in Asia and Africa. underserved airports.
In the Northern Hemisphere’s mid-latitudes, y India’s civil aviation industry has been
a distinct belt of air routes runs from east continuously expanding, with 158 million
passengers in 2016–17.

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Fig 11.6: Air Network in India

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Sagarmala Seaplane Service ⚪ Important pipeline is the ‘Big Inch’ which

It is a fixed-wing aeroplane designed for take transfers oil from the Gulf of Mexico to
off and landing on water. It is executed by the north-eastern part.
Sagarmala Development company limited y Pipelines in middle east
(SDCL), and routes will be subsidised under the ⚪ It has a large number of pipelines.
UDAN scheme. Some of these pipelines cross the
y It will help faster transportation across the desert and transfer oil from Iran, Iraq
nation and will also boost tourism. It will and Saudi Arabia to the refineries at the
generate employment opportunities. Mediterranean coast.
⚪ The most significant is the Trans-
Pipeline Transport Arabian Peninsula pipeline (Tap-line).
y Along with ropeways and cableways, This is 1,600 m long and has a diameter
pipelines are among the more recent of 750 mm.
advancements in transportation. Pipelines ⚪ It transfers oil from Ras Tanura to Sidon.
convey important resources such as mineral ⚪ Russia has one of the longest pipelines.
oil, natural gas, water, sludge, and sewage. This is a 4,800 km long trans-continental
y Even solids can also be moved through ‘COMECON’ pipeline. It carries oil from
pipelines after transforming them into Ural and Volga regions to the East
slurry. European countries.
y Pipeline in the United States of America: ⚪ In Europe, Italy, France, Netherlands,
⚪ It is the world leader in pipeline and some other countries have laid gas
transportation, with around 1,60,000 pipelines.
kilometres of pipeline. A large number y Pipelines in India:
of pipelines transport petroleum from ⚪ India has also laid pipelines to transfer
producing locations to consuming areas. oil from Assam oilfields to Barauni and
⚪ In the United States, pipelines carry from Gujarat oilfields to Mathura and
around 17% of all freight per tonne Bhatinda. Pipelines are an essential
kilometre. form of natural gas transportation.

Fig. 11.7: Statistic on Civilaviation in India

136 Transport
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⚪ India has also constructed 1,700 km long cut the overall income of the poor who
Hazira-Bijaipur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) gas often lack reliable and affordable public
pipeline. It supplies to fertiliser plants transportation.
at Bijaipur, Sawai Madhopur, Jagdishpur, y Road safety: According to various surveys,
Shahjahanpur, Anwala and Babrala. more than 1.25-million people in the world
⚪ Another gas pipeline connects Jamnagar are killed, and up to 50-million are injured
to Loni near Delhi. on the world’s roads every year. Low and
⚪ Pradhan Mantri Urja Ganga project: The middle-income countries account for 90%
project’s goal is to provide piped cooking of the deaths, although they own just half
gas to Varanasi inhabitants, and then to the world’s motor vehicles.
millions of people in states like Bihar, y Air pollution: The pollution from motorised
Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Odisha. road transport has been associated with a
According to GAIL, the Urja Ganga wide range of health conditions, including
project would provide PNG connections cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases.
to 20 lakh homes. Each year, almost 185,000 deaths can
⚪ Pipelines have relieved the growing be directly attributed to pollution from
pressure on the existing surface vehicles.
transport system and can go a long way
as the future mode of transportation of Important Attributes of Transportation
essential materials, particularly in India, for Better Future
as it is aiming to move towards a gas- y Mobility should have four important
based economy by increasing the share attributes: It should be equitable, efficient,
of natural gas in India’s energy basket. safe and climate responsive. If these four
aims are satisfied, the present generation’s
Important Challenges Associated with
mobility requirements will not be addressed
Transportation
at the cost of future generations.
y Climate change: Various transportation
services accounts for close to around 64%
Universal Access
of global oil utilisation, 27% of all energy
use, and around 23% of the world’s energy- y Universal access takes into account
related CO2 emissions. As motorisation distributional considerations and assigns a
rates are increasing, the environmental minimum value to everyone’s travel needs,
impact of this sector is also expected to ensuring that everyone, including the most
grow drastically. vulnerable young, old, women, and disabled,
y Rapid urbanisation and motorisation: has at least some basic level of access to
Cities will be the home of around 6.7 billion transportation services in both urban and
residents by 2050, which is equivalent to rural areas, and leaving “no one behind.”
2/3 of the projected global population. The
total number of different types of vehicles Efficiency
on the road will double to reach around 2 y Its goal is to ensure that transportation
billion by 2050. demand is supplied efficiently and at the
y Accessibility and affordability: lowest feasible cost.
Approximately 1-billion people in low- y Focus of this objective is related to
income nations still lack access to an all- the optimisation of resources (energy,
weather road. In many cities, time lost technology, space, institutions, and
to congestion is responsible for eroding regulations) to generate an efficient
prosperity. Very high cost of mobility costs transport system or network.

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Safety
in vulnerable circumstances, such as women,
y Road transport is responsible for the children, and people with disability. To realise
majority of transportation-related fatalities, the numerous promises of the 2030 Agenda
accounting for around 97 percent of deaths for Sustainable Development, sustainable
and 93 percent of expenses worldwide. transportation and mobility are required (17
y Its goal is to promote mobility safety SDGs).
across all forms of transportation by y Some of the Sustainable Development
preventing injuries, deaths, and collisions Goals (SDGs) that are closely connected to
caused by transportation incidents. There transportation
are worldwide objectives for road and air ⚪ Target 11.2: By 2030, provide access to
transport safety that have been agreed safe, affordable, accessible and older
upon globally. persons.
⚪ Target 3.6: Reduce the number of people
Green Mobility
killed or injured in road traffic accidents
y In 2012, transportation was the greatest by half by 2020.
energy-consuming industry in 40% of ⚪ Target 9.1: Developing high-quality,
nations globally, and it was the second- dependable, long-lasting, and resilient
largest energy-consuming sector in the infrastructure, including regional and
remaining countries. According to one trans-border infrastructure, to promote
estimate, energy-related CO2 emissions will economic growth and human well-
increase by 40% between 2013 and 2040. being, with an emphasis on affordable
y As a result, the goal is to mitigate and adapt and equitable access for everyone.
to climate change, while also reducing air y Global progress in reducing greenhouse gas
and noise pollution. emissions (SDG 13) will be impossible to
achieve without decisive action on energy
(SDG 7) and sustainable transportation,
and countries will be unable to provide
food security (SDG 2) or healthcare
(SDG 3) without reliable and sustainable
transportation systems.
y Young people cannot attend schools (SDG
4), women cannot be assured opportunities
for employment and empowerment (SDG
5), and people with disabilities and elderly
people cannot maintain their independence
and dignity without safe transport that is
accessible itself, and that enables access
to all that people need (SDG 9 and 11).
y Personal security for all passengers is
Fig. 11.8: Global Mobility critical. Goals of biodiversity (SDG 15) and
ocean health (SDG 14) also have significant
intersections with the promotion of smart,
Transportation Linked with Sustainable
sustainable mobility practices across
Development Goals (2015–2030)
regions and across modes.
Sustainable transportation networks for all, y Finally, strengthening the means of
improved road safety, particularly via the implementation (SDG17) of the SDGs with
expansion of public transportation, with coherent policies are also central for
specific attention to the requirements of those transportation.

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12 Communication

Introduction to start steering their own course of

change. But it is vital to stimulate their
y Communication means the exchange of
awareness, participation and capabilities.
information by speaking, writing, or other
Communication and technology are central
means. Example: Technological devices are
to this task.
used to transfer information. Important
technologies of communication are radio, Types of Communication
telecom, print media, books, message,
computers, and the internet. Personal Communication
y Over the course of history, humans have
y A letter, a phone call, a telegram, a fax, an
developed a variety of communication
email, and the internet are all examples
systems. Messages were delivered in
of personal communication systems, with
ancient times by the following:
the internet being the most essential and
⚪ Drumming or hollow tree trunks are two
advanced.
examples.
y The internet is linked to a massive central data
⚪ Giving signals using smoke or fire, or
warehouse containing detailed information
with the assistance of quick runners.
on a variety of topics, allowing for quick
Example Animals such as horses,
access to information at a minimal cost.
camels, dogs, birds, and other animals
were used to deliver messages. Mass Communication
y The world has become a global village
y The method by which information can
as a result of modern communication
be communicated to a very large number
systems. Post offices, telegraphs, printing
of people is known as Media or Mass
presses, telephones, satellites, and other
Communication
innovations have made communication
y Example, radio, television, newspaper,
considerably faster and easier.
cinema, books, magazines, public
y The advancement of science and technology
meetings, seminars, conferences, satellite
has played a vital role in bringing about a
communication, etc.
revolution in the sphere of communication.
y Man has been able to use satellites y Origin of modern mass communication and
for communication purposes thanks to its role:
modern technologies. Many developed ⚪ The initial modern mass media
and developing countries are working on institution started with the development
satellite communication. In the sphere of the printing press.
of space research, the United States of ⚪ Although printing history in some
America and Russia are pioneers. societies dates back to many centuries,
y In today’s new climate of social change, a however first attempts at printing books
crucial role can be played by various modes using modern technologies started in
of communication in promoting human Europe.
development. As the world advances ⚪ This technique was first introduced
towards greater democracy, market by Johann Gutenberg in 1440. Initially,
economy and decentralisation, conditions printing was restricted to religious
are becoming more favourable for people books.

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⚪ Print industry grew along with ⚪ The APPLE (Arian Passenger Payload
the Industrial Revolution. Initial Experiment) satellite was launched on
development of the press was June 19, 1981.
restricted to an audience of literate ⚪ Bhaskar-2 was launched into space on
November 20, 1981.
elites and gradually in the mid-19th
⚪ INSAT-1A was launched on April 10, 1982.
century, with further development
(However, in September same year it
in technologies, transportation, and
stopped working).
literacy newspapers started to reach ⚪ INSAT-2B was launched into space
out to a mass audience. on the Challenger space shuttle on
⚪ Growing print industry and newspaper August 30, 1983. INSAT-1B has improved
was also responsible for the growth the efficiency and effectiveness of
of nationalism. Due to development radio, television, and long-distance
in this field, the feeling that people communication.
who did not even know of each other’s
existence feel like members of a family. Remote Sensing Satellite
A sense of togetherness is provided to y The act of obtaining information about a
the people who have never met each phenomenon or object that is not in close
proximity to the data gathering instrument
other.
is known as remote sensing.
⚪ Example: Growth of Indian nationalism
y Satellites are used to perform remote
emerged in the wake of some of the
sensing, which covers a huge area of the
institutional changes brought about globe.
by British rule in India. Anti-colonial y Landsat satellites of the National
public opinion was nurtured and Aeronautics and Space Administration
spread by the nationalist press to the (NASA) of the United States give the
people of our country, which provided greatest satellite photos.
the actual information associated y NASA took a huge stride forward in remote
with the oppressive measures of the sensing when it launched the Earth
colonial state. Resources Technology Satellite (ERST-1)
into space in July 1972. In 1975, its name
Important Means of Communication was changed to LANDSAT-1.
y In April 1999, NASA and the US Geological
Satellite Communication
Survey launched Landsat, a satellite
y Satellites are both a mode of communication controlled jointly by NASA and the US
in themselves, and they control the use of Geological Survey.
other modes of communication.
Cyber Space-Internet
y Since, the early 1970s, the satellite
communication system has made y The phrase “Information and Communication
Technology” (ICT) nowadays, generally
communication units cost and time-
refers to computers, computer networks
invariant with distance. The expense of
and systems, and other information
communicating through satellite over 600
distribution or delivery methods like land
km is the same as it is over 6,000 km. and underwater cables, satellites, the
y Initial India’s effort: telephone, and even television.
⚪ 19th April 1975: Aryabhata launched. y Increasingly, these networks, technologies,
⚪ 7th June 1979: Bhaskar-I and delivery systems are referred to as
⚪ 18th July 1980: Rohini “cyberspace.”

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Fig. 12.1: Remote Sensing Satellite

y Telecommunications gradually joined with Internet. Internet dependence will not just
computers to establish interconnected be a concept, but rather a new reality.
networks through the internet as y There has been a movement in internet
information digitalisation increased in the usage from the United States to developing
late twentieth century. countries. The United States of America’s
y The internet and related technologies, percentage share dropped from 66 in 1995
such as the World-Wide Web (WWW), to merely 25 in 2005. The United States of
allowing anybody with a microcomputer America, the United Kingdom, Germany,
and modem to connect to cyberspace, the Japan, China, and India now account for the
world of electronic computerised places bulk of foreign internet users.
encompassed by the internet and similar y Every year, millions of new people log on
technologies. to the internet, and cyberspace, including
y The internet is the world’s largest electronic e-mail and electronic commerce, has grown
network in contemporary times. By 2025, dramatically in size, use, and importance.
more than 91% of people in developed Therefore, cyberspace exists ‘everywhere’.
countries, and nearly 69% of those in y Increasing connectedness, on the other
emerging economies will be using the hand, did not only provide the potential

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Table 12.1: Internet Penetration

for human advancement; it also caused y The Financial Stability Board (in April 2020)
technological gaps between states, as advised that “cyber incidents pose a huge
well as increased vulnerabilities and threat to the stability of the global financial
risks, or “cyber instabilities” or “digital system.” It also said that in recent times,
uncertainties,” as they are commonly there have been a number of major cyber
referred to. incidents that have negatively impacted
y Cybersecurity: The effort to secure ICT is financial institutions and the ecosystems in
defined as “the protection of ICTs against which they operate.
unauthorised access or attempted access,” y Now different countries and organisation
which affects the “CIA” triad of Confidentiality, at the national and international levels
Integrity, and Accessibility of ICT. The term coordinate with each other to put forward
“unauthorised access” implies the presence some comprehensive techniques and
of an opponent, capturing deliberate threats codes which will provide security to a large
(such as sabotage and damage). number of internet users.

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13 Trade And Commerce

y “Trade-related activities have existed for became colonies. Kings tried to pillage the
as long as people have required something wealth of other nations and empires as rivalry
that others did not have.” Bartering for for resources and valuable trade routes rose,
goods and trade in kind evolved into which frequently culminated in wars.
increasingly intricate forms of exchange
using commodity currencies such as Trade in Contemporary Times
bronze or copper ingots or even cowry y International Trade refers to the exchange
shells. of various goods and services as well as
y However, these were typically only resources from one country to another,
suitable for large-scale trading dealings, it can be done by governments or firms
necessitating the use of a different method that have the stamina to operate on an
for smaller transactions: international scale.
y Coinage Coins were first used as a practical
way to pay warriors in ancient nations, but Factor Impacting International Trade
the concept gradually expanded to civilian
life. 1. Impact of national income: The impact
y Early trade centred mostly on luxury of national income can be determined by
things such as precious metals, spices, looking at a country’s balance of payments.
and fine linens, but as shipping got faster, When a country’s exports exceed its
more reliable, and less expensive, even imports, a flow of money income enters
commonplace items such as olives and the country, raising national income and
fish paste were sent over long distances.
employment levels.
y Trade aided the spread of ideas and
For example, certain countries, such as
cultural practises, particularly in the areas
of language, religion, and art. Canada, the United Kingdom, and Australia,
y Trading emporiums evolved as a result of subtract moreover 20% of their national
international trade, and several of them later income from international commerce.

Fig. 13.1: Trade Flow Across Region and Change in 2015 -2016

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2. Impact of government restriction: These 4. Geographical location: Geographic features

are usually in the form of the quota such as mountains, deserts, and water
system, tariff, subsidies, voluntary export bodies, among others, have a direct impact on
restriction, safety standards, labelling the movement of people and consequently
requirements, pollution control, quantity the movement of trade, so geography and
restriction etc. economy are inextricably linked.
For example, the imposition of duty on For example, Central Asia is currently
steel and aluminium products by the confronted with a number of hurdles to
United States on China. international and extra-regional commerce.
3. Impact on the exchange rate: The exchange The former republics of Kazakhstan,
rate influences the trade surplus or deficit, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and
which influences the exchange rate and Uzbekistan had economic barriers arising
so on in general. A weaker home currency from the region’s geography and individual
promotes exports while making imports state policies and trading regimes nearly
more expensive, whereas a strong domestic 2–3 decades after independence.
currency hinders exports while making 5. The level of economic development:
imports cheaper. International trade enables a country
For example, when the value of one dollar to enjoy the advantages of International
is rupee 70, then export of alphonso mango specialisation according to comparative
would be 1000 cartoons, however when costs every country specialises in and
the value of one dollar increases to rupee exports those commodities that it can
80, the demand for alphonso mango may produce cheaper than what others can
increase to 1200 cartoons in the market(due provide at a lower cost.
to the depreciation of currency) further For example, cheap labour at the start
leads into an increase in exports. of 1980 in China has led to becoming

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a manufacturing hub leading to an For example, Mcdonald’s going vegetarian

improvement in GDP, thus contributing to in Gujarat during Navratri.
economic development. 11. Patterns of international trade:
6. Lack of the restriction on piracy: The International trade patterns have shifted
piracy affects international trade through as a result of globalisation, reflecting
increasing insecurity related to prompt continuous structural changes in the global
delivery of the goods transported, piracy economy. These trends may be seen in
increases the cost of international maritime regional trade blocs, de-industrialisation in
transport, since higher prices should be many industrialised economies, the growing
paid to the crew of ships passing through participation of former communist nations,
dangerous waters, which raises the and China’s ascent in India. For example,
associated insurance cost of merchandise in 1995, the United States controlled
carried on those ships. approximately 25% of the hi-tech goods
7. Competitiveness: It can be defined trade, while China had only 3%. By 2005,
as a process in which higher levels of the United States’ share of the market had
competitiveness are achieved at different fallen to 15%, while China’s had increased
levels that is at the firm, regional and to 15%.
national levels, it is the ability of a region
to export more value than its import. For Role of WTO and Regional Trade Blocs
example, the competitiveness of the United y The World Trade Organisation (WTO) is a
States in the field of technology disruption. multilateral body that regulates global trade.
8. Political factors: This can include The company’s headquarters are located in
government policies, political stability/ Geneva, Switzerland (Switzerland). It was
instability, corruption, foreign trade policies, established to replace the GATT (General
tax policies, labour laws, environmental Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) (GATT).
laws etc. For example, the impact of Brexit y It is a forum where member countries can
on India-EU relations. negotiate trade agreements and resolve
9. Language: It assists in conducting trade disputes. It oversees 60 global trade
business studies in the global economy agreements and around 300 regional trade
and overcoming communication barriers. accords. The World Trade Organisation
In international business, a common (WTO) has 164 members. There are a few
(official or spoken) language is critical for observer governments in the WTO who are
collaboration and increasing awareness of not signatories to the WTO accords and do
objectives. For example, results show that not participate in free trade.
on average, a common (official or spoken)
language increases trade flow directly by The Ministerial Conference
44%. y The WTO Ministerial Conference meets every
10. Culture: It has to do with what professional two years to make important decisions about
behaviour is usual and accepted in one current trade agreements. The Ministerial
place versus another. What is considered Conference has the power to make decisions
an acceptable business practice in one on any aspect of all multilateral agreements
country may differ from the approach taken handled by the WTO.
by businesses in another, so understanding y The conference is made up of representatives
organisational culture is important to avoid from all WTO members, and it ensures
misunderstandings between colleagues that all countries are represented equally,
and clients, as well as to ensure that regardless of the size of their economies or
businesses present themselves to their their participation in global commerce. It
new market in the best possible light. can be termed the WTO’s legislative branch.

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Functions of WTO labour forces, and management talent across

y It plays an important part in international countries that share geographical proximity,
trade, global economics, politics, and while reducing transaction costs associated with
legal concerns that arise in international legal, financial, and administrative differences
business as a result of globalisation. in adjacent nation-states, such as currencies,
y The WTO’s purpose is to offer a level playing regulations, and other government issues.
field for its member countries to help with These markets form economies of scale,
services such as exports and imports, as bringing manufacturers from various
well as to do business in a peaceful manner. economies resulting in greater competition
y Facilitating the implementation which promotes efficiency within firms.
administration operation and furthering the
objectives of agreements establishing it 1. European Economic Area (EEA):
and other multitude trade agreements and a) It is made up of member states of the
providing the framework. European Union (EU) and three nations
y Provides a venue for its members to from the European Free Trade Association
negotiate their multilateral trade ties (EFTA) (Iceland, Liechtenstein and
on topics covered by the agreements Norway; excluding Switzerland).
in the annexes to the accords that b) The EEA Agreement went into effect on
established it, as well as the outcome of January 1, 1994. It is primarily concerned
such negotiations as determined by the with the four pillars of the internal
ministerial conference. market: free movement of commodities,
y It is also cooperating with the International people, services, and capital, and strives
Monetary Fund and International Bank of to strengthen trade and economic
Reconstruction and Redevelopment with linkages between contractual parties.
a view to achieving greater coherence in
global policymaking. 2. North American Free Trade Agreement
y For example, the eleventh ministerial (NAFTA):
conference of the WTO was held in Buenos a) It is a 1992 trade agreement between the
Aires Argentina during 10–13 December US, Canada, and Mexico that gradually
2017. In the run-up to the ministerial eliminated most tariffs and other trade
conference decisions were expected on obstacles on goods and services moving
food security, agricultural issues, and other between the three nations.
fisheries subsidies. Some of the members b) The agreement effectively established
were also pushing for the outcome in the a free-trade zone between the three
area of e-commerce domestic regulations major North American countries.
investment facilitation and MSME. c) NAFTA went into force in 1994 and was
y Another example is the WTO aid for trade replaced in 2020.
initiative encourages developing countries’
development and donors to recognise the 3. The Southern Common Market
role that trade can play in development, in (MERCOSUR):
particular, the initiative seeks to mobilise a) Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay
resources to address the trade-related founded the Southern Common
constants identified by less developing and Market, which has since been joined by
least developing countries Venezuela and Bolivia.
b) It was founded on the ideals of
Regional Trade Blocs democracy and economic development,
Regional trade blocs enable more efficient which serve as the foundation for
combinations of technology, natural resources,

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the basic values of human-centred services, and investments, as well as

integration. the free flow of capital and skills, once
c) Its fundamental goal has been to the AEC is implemented.
develop a common space that provides c) The new community offers new
commercial and investment possibilities opportunities while also offering new
by competitively integrating national challenges for businesses operating in
economies into the international market this wide yet often opaque sector.
since its inception. d) The AEC facilitates the implementation
d) It has made numerous agreements with of reforms in the fields of investment,
countries or groupings of countries, commerce, and services by each ASEAN
providing them with the status of member state.
Associated States in some situations - e) At the regional level, the AEC is critical
as is the case with the South American for ASEAN’s development as one of the
countries. world’s most competitive economic
blocs.

5. The Common Market of Eastern and

Southern Africa (COMESA):
a) The Common Market for Eastern
and Southern Africa (COMESA) is
Africa’s largest regional economic
organisation, with 19 member states
and a population of almost 390 million
people.
b) COMESA is a free trade zone with 19
member states, a population of over 583
million people, a GNP of $805 billion,
and global commerce in goods worth
US$ 324 billion.
c) COMESA, with a surface area of 12
million square kilometres, spans about
two-thirds of the African continent and
Fig. 13.2: Mercosur Members serves as a key marketplace for both
internal and external trade.
4. THE ASEAN economic community (AEC):
a) It is the region’s long-term goal of 6. Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC):
economic unification. The ASEAN a) It was established in 1989 as a regional
Economic Community (AEC) intends to business forum to capitalise on the Asia-
create a unified market and production Pacific region’s growing interconnectivity.
base for the free movement of Its mission is to promote regional
commodities, services, capital, money, prosperity by promoting balanced,
and skilled labour throughout the region. inclusive, sustainable, innovative,
b) The ASEAN region will be characterised and secure growth, as well as greater
by the free movement of commodities, regional economic integration.

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b) It functions as a multilateral, cooperative global land area, 21% of worldwide

economic, and trade platform. It is people, and 3.8 percent (US$2.9-trillion)
the only worldwide intergovernmental of global GDP.
organisation dedicated to lowering c) Poverty, illiteracy, starvation, natural
various trade and investment obstacles disasters, internal conflicts, industrial,
without requiring its members to engage and technological backwardness, low
in legally binding discourse or make GDP, and poor socioeconomic conditions
decisions by consensus, giving equal affect all SAARC countries.
weight to the views of all members.
APEC accomplishes its objectives 8. The Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA):
through boosting. a) IORA is an inter-governmental
c) APEC’s 21 member economies are: organisation, which was set up in 1997.
Australia, Japan, Republic of Korea, b) IORA was conceived during a visit to
Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua India by late South African President
New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Russian Nelson Mandela in 1995. The Council of
Federation, Singapore, Chinese Taipei, Foreign Ministers (COM), IORA’s highest
Thailand, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, body, meets once a year.
Chile, People’s Republic of China, Hong c) The fact that the Indian Ocean transports
Kong, Indonesia, Vietnam, and the 1/3 of the world’s bulk cargo, 12% of the
United States of America are among the world’s container ships, and 2/3 of the
21 economies that make up APEC. world’s oil exports gives credence to the
association.
d) The Indian Ocean region is knitted
Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on APEC: together by trade routes and commands
APEC region is expected to post around control of important sea lanes, making
2.7% economic decline in 2020 due to it a lifeline for world trade, and
the impact of Covid-19. The region’s transportation.
unemployment rate is estimated to e) From November 2019 to November 2021,
rise to around 5.4% in 2020 from 3.8% the United Arab Emirates (UAE) served
in 2019, or an additional 23.5-million as the Chair, followed by the People’s
workers being unemployed in 2020. Republic of Bangladesh.
f) A CSO (Committee of Senior Officials)
meets twice a year to advance IORA’s
7. The South Asian Association for agenda, and discuss ideas from Working
Regional Cooperation (SAARC): Groups and forums of government
officials, corporate leaders, and
a) The South Asian Association for Regional
academics on how to put policies
Cooperation (SAARC) is an economic,
and programmes in place to enhance
and political grouping comprising eight
people’s lives.
countries in South Asia. The charter
was formally adopted in 1985 by the
heads of state of Bangladesh, Bhutan, Limitation of International Trade
India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri y Rapid depletion of exhaustible resources:
Lanka. In 2007, Afghanistan became the It may result in a faster depletion of natural
SAARC’s eighth member. resources. As countries continue to expand
b) The SAARC is the world’s most densely their output, natural resources tend to
populated region, and one of the most diminish over time, posing a serious threat
fertile places, accounting for 3% of to future generations.

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⚪ For example, the virtual export of raw materials for manufactured goods
water through the export of water- lose out, and are exploited. The standard
intensive crops like rice and cotton to of living is still low in these countries. As
the international market leads to the a result of this circumstance, developing
depletion of water resources in India. countries may experience dissatisfaction
y Import of dangerous goods: Foreign and instability.
commerce may result in the import of y Political risk: Different countries around
harmful goods such as cigarettes, narcotics, the world pose different levels of political
and other items that may endanger the risk, while domestic political developments
health of the country’s citizens. The over time pose an ongoing challenge by
Chinese people, for example, have suffered amending laws in a discriminatory manner
immensely as a result of opium imports. and enacting restrictions that directly
y Control of price through monopoly: affect a certain organisation. For example,
Controlling the prices of specific goods can after becoming office, Donald Trump
be used to exploit the importing country by dramatically modified trade policies as well
the exporting country. as visa policies with India, China, and the
y Crude oil, for example, cannot be European Union.
produced by every country, which is why y Intellectual property theft: The more broadly
crude importing countries are always at a a product is distributed, the more likely it is
disadvantage due to oil-exporting countries’ to be illegally copied by a competitor. This
near-monopoly. can be done in a number of ways, including
y Economic dependence: For economic the use of proprietary information, market
development, underdeveloped countries branding, and reverse engineering. Because
must rely on wealthy countries, which of the various legal systems in each country,
may lead to economic exploitation of the it is incredibly difficult for governments to
developing country. Countries that trade prosecute further.

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14 Demography

y Population Distribution ⚪ China (almost 1.4-billion people), and

⚪ The space-wise manner in which India (1.3-billion) are the two most
the population is scattered is populous countries on the planet,
known as population distribution. accounting for 19 and 18 percent of
In most countries, the population the global population, respectively.
distribution varies significantly by India’s population is expected to
region. The environment in Antarctica continue to grow for several decades.
is challenging to live in because of its It is anticipated to reach 1.5-billion in
frigid temperatures, lack of flora, and 2030, and 1.7-billion in 2050, whereas
geographical isolation. China’s population is expected to
⚪ Western Europe, the Deccan Plateau, remain relatively stable before dropping
and Ganges plain, and the East Coast slightly. As a result, India’s population is
of the United States are examples of predicted to eventually surpass China’s.
densely populated areas with livable
ecosystems. Flat relief, a good climate, y Population Density
and the availability of natural resources, ⚪ The measurement of the number of
and freshwater may all contribute to people in a given region is known as
this. population density. It’s a typical figure.
⚪ The distribution of people inside a The number of people divided by the
country is also uneven. Areas with area equals population density. The
favourable conditions are frequently number of persons per square kilometre
more densely populated than those is commonly used as a measure of
in more difficult ones. For example, population density.
Northern states like Uttar Pradesh have ⚪ According to United Nations 2010
higher population density as compared Population Data, the average density of
to the Himalayan States. the world population is 44 persons per
⚪ The world’s population had climbed sq. km.
to 7.3-billion people by mid-2015, an ⚪ Asia is the most densely populated
increase of around 1-billion people in continent having 110 persons per square
the previous 12 years. The population kilometre. Europe got the second rank
of the globe is spread out among seven with a population of 102 persons per
continents. Around 60% of the world’s square km. The continent of Latin
population (approximately 4.4-billion America with a density of 20 persons
people) lives in Asia, while 16% live in per sq. km, ranks third. It is followed
Africa (nearly 1.2-billion people), 10% by Africa, Anglo-America, and Oceania,
live in Europe (around 738-million having a density of 21, 14, and about 3
people), 9% live in Latin America and the persons per sq. km., respectively.
Caribbean islands (around 634-million
people), and the remaining 5% lives Factors Affecting Population Density
in North America (around 358-million There is a range of human and natural factors
people) and Oceania (around 39-million). that affect population density.

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Factors (Physical) High-Density Low-Density

Relief Low-lying ground that is The land is mountainous and

(Shape and height of a naturally flat. Example: high.
particular land) Ganges Valley of India. Eaxmple: Himalayas.

Areas with abundant natural

resources (coal, oil, wood, Population density is lower in
Resources fishing, etc.,) have a high areas with limited resources.
population density. Example: The Sahel region.
Example: Western Europe.

Areas with moderate climates Areas with extreme climatic

are generally highly populated, conditions of hot and cold,
Climate of the region as there is ample rain, and such as the Sahara Desert, the
heat for crop development. Arctic, or the Antarctic, are
Example: UK. often sparsely populated.

Factors (Human)

Population density is often People migrate out of

high in countries with a unstable countries, resulting
Political Factor
stable government. Example: in decreased population
Singapore. densities.
Example: Afghanistan.

For security reasons, a group Other people, such as

Social Factor of people tends to live close Scandinavians, prefer to be
to one another. Example: USA. alone.

Due to a lack of job prospects,

High population densities are
certain localities are sparsely
encouraged by good work
Economic Factor populated.
possibilities, especially in
For example, the Amazon
large cities.
Rainforest.

Table 14.1: Factors Affecting Population Density

y Although the global average population kilometer population density, which is more
density is 44 people per square kilometre, than 200 times that of the United States and
there are significant variances among 2000 times that of Australia.
countries. Many small islands or isolated y Bangladesh has the highest population
nations have huge populations for their size. density among the bigger countries. It has
The five most densely inhabited countries a population density of 1,252 persons per
in the world, for example, are Macao, Hong square kilometre, about three times that of
Kong, Monaco, Singapore, and Gibraltar. its neighbour, India. Lebanon (595 per km2),
Singapore has an 8,000-persons-per-square- South Korea (528), the Netherlands (508)

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and Rwanda (495 per km2) round out the this time, our species was frequently on the
top five countries. verge of extinction.

How has the Population Growth of the History of Population Growth

World Changed Over the Timeline?
In the Beginning
y From 10,000 BC to the present day, the
world’s population has been: y About 200 thousand years ago, homo
y Over the previous twelve thousand years, sapiens appeared in Africa. Around 100
the number of humans living on Earth has thousand years ago, humans left Africa and
increased. colonised Asia, Australia, and Europe.
y Around the year 1800, historians estimate y Homo sapiens populations had entered the
that the world’s population was close to New World some 15 thousand years ago.
one billion people. This suggests that the y Throughout this time, humans lived in
population grew relatively slowly on average small groups of nomadic hunters and
from 10,000 BCE to 1700 CE (i.e. around gatherers, and human population growth
0.04 per cent per annum). This substantially was extremely slow.
changed after 1800. The world’s population y Life was dangerous, and about as many
was about one billion people in 1800, and it people died each year as were born due to
has grown nearly sevenfold since then. starvation, accidents, or sickness.
y The population had barely increased to
roughly five or six-million individuals by ten
thousand years ago.
y Some researchers believe that this was the
maximum number of people that hunting
and gathering could maintain, and that
increasing human population numbers
necessitated new food production methods.

Population Growth following the Agricultural

Revolution
y Agriculture was first found about ten
thousand years ago. Agriculture ensured a
steady supply of food.
y Scholars believe that this new food-
production technique offered the extra food
needed to feed a larger human population.
y For the first time in history, it also assisted
people in settling down in villages and cities.
These improvements may have resulted in
Fig. 14.1: World Population Projection
lower death rates, and higher birth rates,
y On our planet, about 108-billion people resulting in faster growth of the human
have ever lived. This means that the current population than in the past.
population makes up 6.5 percent of all
people who have ever been born. Between Population Growth Early in the
the appearance of modern Homo sapiens Common Era (CE)
and the start of this chart in 10,000 BCE, it is y By 0 CE, the human population was believed
estimated that the entire world population to be over 200-million (0.2-billion) (AD). Up
was frequently under one million. During until around 1000 CE, population growth was

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modest, owing in part to frequent plague Death Rates Fall

epidemics that killed significant numbers y Several scientific and technological
of people. Around the year 1000 AD, the rate discoveries beginning in the 18th century
of population expansion began to pick up may have resulted in lower death rates. For
again. By 1300 AD, the world’s population example, improved water supply, sanitation,
had swelled to about 500-million people. and personal hygiene have emerged from
y Because of multiple disease pandemics, the new scientific understanding of the
the human population increased slowly causes and transmission of infectious
between 1300 and 1750. In the mid-1300s, diseases. As farming techniques and
for example, a plague pandemic known agricultural machinery developed, so did
as the Black Death swept across Asia and the availability of food.
Europe. This was one of the world’s most y The Industrial Revolution of the 1800s
deadly pandemics. It is estimated that more resulted in even more significant
than 100-million people throughout Eurasia improvements in health. The efficiency of
died as a result of it in just a few years. new agricultural machines was improved
y The human population had fallen below by new energy sources such as coal and
400-million people by 1400, and it took electricity. It also made train transportation
more than a century for it to recover. possible, which boosted food distribution.
y In the 1500s, Spanish explorers introduced Because of all of these factors, death rates
smallpox to human populations in the New have continued to decline, particularly
World. among youngsters.
y Original inhabitants of America had never y In London in the mid-1700s, roughly three-
been exposed to the disease before, and quarters of children died before the age of
they lacked any immunity to it. The disease five. By the early 1800s, in contrast, less
spread from a handful of Spaniards to than one-third of London children died
millions of Native Americans, causing before the age of five. Lower childhood
severe illness and immense rates of death. death rates led to more young adults in the
population, so birth rates increased.
Demographic Transition
y The 1700s saw substantial transformations Birth Rates Fall
in the human population of Europe. y In Europe, birth rates did not begin to
y While death rates have fallen, birth rates decline until the late 1800s or early 1900s.
have remained high. Europe’s population Large families were no longer advantageous
rose fast until birth rates began to decline for a variety of reasons, therefore people
roughly a century later. began to have fewer children.
y Other developed countries, such as the y As child mortality rates fell and machines
United States, Canada, and Australia, saw did more labour, farming families didn’t
similar demographic fluctuations a little need as many children to work in the fields.
later. Laws were passed forcing children to
y Similar shifts occurred throughout most of attend school. As a result, they were unable
the emerging world beginning around the to work and support themselves, and they
mid-1950s. While mortality rates were low became a financial burden to the family.
and birth rates were high in each case, the y By the late 1900s, birth rates in Europe
population growth rate accelerated, and finally fell to about the same low levels as
the population surged. death rates. Recently, birth rates in many

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European countries have fallen even lower, for women), and economic development
so they are now lower than death rates. to low birth rates and low infant mortality
rates in societies with advanced technology,
Stages of the Demographic Transition education, and economic development is
y The historical shift from high birth rates and referred to as the demographic transition.
high infant mortality rates in societies with y The major shifts in the demographic
limited technology, education (especially transition are often divided into five stages:

Fig. 14.2: 5 Stages of the Demographic Transition

y Stage 1: Slow population expansion is y Stage 3: As women have fewer children,

caused by a high birth rate combined the birth rate begins to decline, yet
with a high death rate. Despite the fact fertility remains above the replacement
that women have a large number of level. The rate of population increase is
children, many of them die before reaching slowing.
adulthood, therefore the fertility rate is near y Stage 4: As the fertility rate approaches
to replacement. This is the stage before the replacement, the birth rate falls to the
shift. same low level as the mortality rate. The
y Stage 2: Death rates decline, but birth rates rate of population increase drops even
remain high. Women are still having a lot of more, eventually nearing zero.
kids, but more of them live to be adults, so y Stage 5: Because fertility is below
the fertility rate is still substantially above replacement, the birth rate continues to
replacement. The population is rapidly fall until it is less than the mortality rate.
increasing. The population grows at a negative rate.

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Exploding Population and the Green the industrial revolution, resulted in the
Revolution systemisation of production through the
y Between the years 1950 and 1984, the green use of power-driven machines. As a result,
revolution transformed agriculture around there was a high level of output per capita
the world. and rapid wealth creation. Fossil fuels, coal,
y Grain production alone increased by more were primarily responsible for this rapid
than 250%. Like the agricultural revolution expansion.
before it, the green revolution allowed more y In Europe and North America, the industrial
people to be fed. revolution ushered in a new era in which
y Since the beginning of the green revolution, primary activities (agriculture, fishing,
the world’s population has increased mining, and forestry) began to decrease
by nearly five-billion people, and food and secondary (manufacturing) and
production has maintained pace with this tertiary (services) industries began to gain
growth, while there are local food shortages prominence.
due to distribution, and access issues. y It led to a rapid increase in the urban
y It is likely that without the green population. Poor people witnessed abysmal
revolution, there would be greater levels of living standards in new industrial towns. As
malnutrition than what currently exists. a result, disease thrived in overcrowding
y There are fears that the global food supply and filthy urban environments. Death rates
could soon fall behind population growth. were often catastrophic when certain
There are some reasons for it that are as diseases broke out such as Cholera.
follows: y The education system was underdeveloped,
⚪ One issue is that more cropland is being medical facilities were inadequate, literacy
used to generate biofuels rather than rates were low, and per capita and standard
food for human consumption. of living were similarly low during the early
⚪ Residential and industrial growth are years of the Industrial Revolution.
also displacing agricultural land. Even y The industrial revolution demanded more
if human population growth slows, labour hands, and it was compensated in
growing living standards in developing the form of a high birth rate. There was
countries are expected to increase the also low awareness about family planning,
demand for resources. sustainability of future generations, etc. All
⚪ While childhood malnutrition has this resulted in high population growth.
improved in recent decades, hundreds
of millions of children, particularly in Factors Influencing the Distribution of
South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, World Population
continue to be malnourished. y The lack of large-scale inhabitation in some
y Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) locations is mostly due to harsh physical
predicted that the world will have to circumstances, and a lack of appropriate
produce 70% more food by 2050 to feed livelihood options. The following major
the more than nine-billion people that are categories can be used to categorise the
projected to be alive by then. factors that influence population distribution:
⚪ Physical factors
Industrial Revolution and Population Growth ⚪ Socio-economic factors
y The second significant turning point in ⚪ Demographic factors and
the history of population expansion, ⚪ Political factors

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Physical Factors Affecting the Water

Distribution of Population y Water is essential for the life of humanity.
Climate Nearly all of the world’s ancient civilisations
arose and flourished near rivers and coasts.
y Climate is one of the most significant natural
Along the banks of the Amazon, Nile, and
phenomena. It has an impact on agriculture
Ganges river systems, many magnificent
and determines the flora, and fauna of the
civilisations flourished.
region. Humans look for favourable climatic
y Appropriate rainfall encourages vegetation
conditions in the locations where they
and agriculture, which has an impact on a
want to live. Climate belts are, in reality,
location’s human occupancy potential. Due
the epicentres of most human endeavours.
to a shortage of water, humans do not live
The world’s most populous countries are
in large areas of deserts.
all located in tropical regions, as can be
y In the same way, while the rain-shadow side
shown.
of every hill or mountain has fewer people,
y A pleasant, inviting climate attracts people.
the leeward side is often densely populated.
Climates like this promote local life systems
by providing perfect conditions for a varied Soil Quality
range of species to thrive. Agriculture and
y Soil quality has an impact on population
animal husbandry are the primary sources
density and distribution. Agriculture, which
of food for a vast population.
is heavily dependent on soil quality, supplies
y Human life is difficult to sustain in such
a substantial amount of the population’s
surroundings, hence places with extreme
income.
and harsh climatic conditions are often
y Because food crops are grown on it, the
sparsely populated.
soil is one of the most important basic
y Temperate climates are cooler than tropical
materials.
climates but warmer than polar climates.
y The alluvial region, deltas, and coastal
The Arctic and Sub-Arctic polar regions
regions of India have high population
are still sparsely populated. The extremely
densities.
low temperature makes it impossible for
y On the other hand, mountainous areas
humans to live there. There isn’t much in
where soil erosion is a concern, such as
the way of greenery. Life is challenging due
Uttarakhand’s Tarai region or the sandy soil
to the harsh winters and short summers.
of Rajasthan’s desert, cannot support large
populations.
Topography
y The population density in navigable areas is Mineral Resources
higher than that of tough places. Mountains y Mineral resources in abundance encouraged
are undesirable due to the lack of agricultural colonisation by stimulating the growth of
land. Low-lying plains and coastal regions the industry.
have more human settlements than high- y The Chhota Nagpur Plateau is a region rich in
altitude areas. minerals, and other natural resources. The
y Despite the fact that the Himalayas are greater population density in Jharkhand’s
lightly populated, the Ganga valley is one Chhota Nagpur Plateau and adjoining parts
of the world’s most densely populated of Orissa is primarily due to the richness of
locations. minerals.
y Coastal regions benefit from marine trade
and transportation, which is why the Location of a Place
majority of the world’s major cities are y The proximity of major towns and cities
located along the coast. aids population concentration.

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y Residents of the city can find affordable environment in which he can stay is
housing on the outskirts and in neighbouring essential.
cities. Mobility that is both inexpensive and
reliable provides a cheap and convenient Demographic Factors of Population
mode of transportation. Distribution

Natural Disasters Migration:

y People find it difficult to gather in the y The impact of migration on population

aftermath of natural disasters. distribution is important.
y Natural calamities, such as storms, y People are compelled to leave their
earthquakes, floods, wildfires, and other own country or region and relocate
natural disasters prevent people from due to pressures or other unfavourable
forming communities because they flee to situations in their home country or region.
safer locations. Better opportunities in remote areas can
y Several villages have been destroyed as a occasionally inspire people to migrate.
result of natural calamities. An earthquake y Because of a lack of resources, a lack
of magnitude of 8.0 struck Bichuan city in of work and other sources of income,
China’s Sichuan region in 2011, spreading insufficient remuneration, inadequate
havoc and killing a great number of medical and educational facilities, and so
people. The city was not rebuilt but rather on, the majority of people migrate to other
abandoned in order to save further human locations.
deaths in the event of a future disaster. y The anticipation of a higher quality of living
is the primary motivation for the population
Socio-Economic Factors Affecting Population shift from rural to urban areas.
Distribution: y Although migration helps to redistribute
population, it also puts strain on the
Economic activity: destination area by increasing population
y Economic activity is a good predictor of density.
job opportunities. People in rural areas rely
heavily on agriculture to survive. Fertility and Mortality
y If agriculture fails to feed the rural people y Fertility and death have an impact on the
or if better opportunities are available in population of a region.
urban regions, they may relocate to cities. y The population of a region expands when
y The enormous and diverse economic the fertility rate is high. Such environments
activities and life opportunities that major can benefit from the presence of death.
cities give lead to population concentration y Diseases and epidemics have a significant
in cities. impact on death rates. In the past, disease
y In cities, almost everybody can find a job, occurrence was higher, which resulted
but this is not the case in villages, where in more deaths. To compensate for this
opportunities are limited. As a result, urban loss, a high level of fertility was typically
regions have a larger population density maintained.
than rural ones. y As medical science developed, many
diseases could be cured and hence the
Social Organisation death rate fall down sharply and the
y The social organisation of new communities population escalated.
encourages people to move around. y However, this resulted in concerns such
y Because man is a social animal, building as high population density and strain
a community and providing a familiar on the planet’s finite resources. After

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the introduction of contraceptives, because they are terrified of it, making

and the availability of numerous family these places the least populated.
planning options, the birth rate began
to fall. Political Unrest and Discrimination
y Conflicts between political parties or
Political Factors Influencing between people of different religious views
Population Distribution have frequently resulted in population
declines in the affected area.
War and Political Conflicts y Discrimination and political unrest are usually
y War and political turmoil result in the loss negative factors in population growth.
of human life. As a result of high death y Before settling down permanently in a new
rates in some locations, people are forced location, migrants looking for a place that
to evacuate for their own safety. provides not only economic opportunities
y Mortality rates are at an all-time high in but also a safe and healthy environment in
certain areas, and out-migration reigns which to live a fulfilling life.
supreme. Safer areas enjoy tremendous y The politically unstable region is not able to
population growth as a result of the influx provide both these conditions, as such, it
of migrants from outside. discourages the incoming migrant population
y This is also true in areas near the political and also the already residing population.
borders of countries that are at odds with y In-migration is discouraged by discrimination
one another. People are pushed to relocate against migrants based on race, language,
even if there is no violence or tension food, culture, and other factors.

Fig. 14.3: Continent-wise Distribution of Population

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Policies where more than 75 percent of the world’s

y Policies that encourage migration have always population now resides between the Tropic
resulted in population expansion in that area. of Cancer and 700 degrees north. China and
India, in particular, have vast populations
Distribution of Population dating back to ancient times. Europe is
y The process of population redistribution is younger than the United States, which has
aided by migration. Policies that promote only been extensively populated in the
a reduction in fertility rates, like banning previous two centuries.
infanticide also influence the growth of the
Sparsely Populated Regions
population in a place.
y Population distribution is the way in y More than 70% of the land surface is
which the members of a population or of sparsely populated. These could be listed
a specified sub-group of a population (for as below:
example, defined by age, sex, literacy, or ⚪ Ice caps and cold regions
ethnic status) are dispersed physically in a ⚪ Deserts and arid lands
specific region. ⚪ Mountainous regions
y The distribution of population on a global ⚪ Tropical rain forests
scale is highly uneven, and is non-uniformly
distributed, with the greater part of the Future Distribution of Population
world’s population living in the northern y One of the most essential lessons to be
hemisphere, and in countries that are learned from a country’s demographic
less developed. With migration and varied history is that population surges are only
rates of population increase, population transient. And, because the global fertility
distribution has evolved throughout rate has now been halved, we know that
time and space. Almost half of the world the world as a whole is approaching the
population is clustered on just 5% of the end of a fast population increase.
land, while about 33% of the total land area y Over the period of two centuries, the world
is virtually uninhabited. Less than 10% of population increased sevenfold, amplifying
the world’s population lives in the Southern humanity’s impact on the natural
hemisphere, and 80% live between 20 environment. Every year, almost 140-million
degrees and 60 degrees North latitude. children are born and 58-million people
die; the difference is the 82-million people
Densely Populated Regions we add to the world’s population.
y There are just four places on the planet y With annual growth of 2.1 percent,
with a population density of more than 100 population growth peaked in 1968. After
people per square kilometre. that, the growth of the global population
⚪ North-West Europe(UK, France, slowed, and it now grows at a rate of slightly
Germany, Netherlands, Poland, Belgium, over 1% per year.
Luxembourg, Ireland, Denmark, Spain, y The globe will be extremely close to the
Portugal and Italy). completion of the demographic transition
⚪ Eastern-North America (North-East by the end of the century, when global
United States and South-East Canada). population growth will have decreased to
⚪ East -Asia (China, Japan, South Korea 0.1 percent, according to UN projections.
and Taiwan). The population dynamics beyond 2100 are
⚪ South-Asia (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, difficult to predict; they will be determined
Sri Lanka, Maldives and Nepal). by the fertility rate.
y All of these densely populated places y We are on a path that will lead to a new
are located in the northern hemisphere, equilibrium. Our world’s massive global

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demographic change, which began more socio-economic indicators influence the

than two centuries ago, is now drawing age structure. It is the fertility rate that
to an end. This new equilibrium differs determines the proportion of the population
significantly from the previous phase, in different age categories. Countries in
which was characterised by extremely Asia (such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh,
high mortality, which kept population Indonesia, etc), Latin America and Africa
increase in check. Low fertility will keep have high fertility.
population changes to a minimum in the
new equilibrium period. Population Pyramids
y The population pyramid of the developed
Age and Sex Structure countries shows low birth, and low death
y The number or proportion of males and rates, and high life expectancy.
females in each age category determines
a population’s composition. A population’s The Effects of this Population Structure
age-sex structure is the outcome of past are as Follows
trends in fertility, mortality, and migration. y In the future, less availability of people in
Many other types of demographic data the workforce.
require information on age-sex composition y More expenditure on old-age pension,
in order to be described and analysed. and geriatric care than other sectors like
education.
Some Demographic Concepts and Terms y Burden in the healthcare sector due to
y Birth rate (or crude birth rate): The number geriatric care.
of live births per 1,000 population in a given y More requirements of old age homes require
year. more spending.
y Death rate (or crude death rate): The y Fewer maternity hospitals and schools
number of deaths per 1,000 population in are required as the youth population will
a given year. decline.
y Infants mortality rate: It is the number of y Teachers and midwives are made redundant
deaths of infants under age 1 per 1,000 live as they are surplus to requirements.
births in a given year. y Import of foreign labour force will increase
y Life expectancy: The average the number from developing countries like India.
of additional years a person could expect y People have to work longer as the age of
to live if current mortality trends were to retirement is raised.
continue for the rest of that person’s life. In developed countries like the UK, both birth
rates and death rates are low.
Developed Countries
Reasons for Low Birth Rate
y Natural increase (or Decrease): The surplus
(or deficit) of births over deaths in a y Improved status of women.
population in a given time period. y Contraception and family planning options
y The three basic determinants of age are readily available.
compositions are: y Having a family is less crucial than having a
⚪ Mortality successful career.
⚪ Natality y The price of living has risen.
⚪ Migration y The growing tendency of late marriages
y These three factors are interdependent results in the late formation of the family.
and any change in one influences the y Increased desire for material goods, such as
other. It is through these variables that the vehicles and vacations, rather than children.

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Fig. 14.4: Population Pyramid of UK

Death Rates are Low Because of y More expenditure to construct educational

y Vaccinations against diseases, e.g., Malaria, institutions.
polio, and other diseases y The government may be forced to divert
y Water, hygiene, and sanitation have all expenditure patterns like reducing spending
improved. on defence and increasing spending on
y Food production and storage have improved. health and education. This may compromise
y Infant mortality rates are lower. other sectors like national security.
As a result, the population of the developed y More maternity hospitals are required to
world remains relatively steady, with no construct.
substantial increases or decreases. y More teachers and midwives are required
to be trained.
Developing Countries y In the future, there may be a huge
y The population pyramid of developing demand-supply gap in the labour force
countries shows high birth and death rates where supply will be more than demand if
and low life expectancy. economic growth and development fail to
accommodate the growing population.
The Effects of This Population Structure y Demographic waste can result in a higher
are as Follows incidence of poverty and unemployment.
y Added burden on various social sector y Slum areas will increase as people will
services like health, and education due to fail to get homes due to poverty and
higher population. unemployment.

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Male India - 2016 Female

100+
95-99
90-94
85-89
80-84
75-79
70-74
65-69
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4

65 52 39 26 13 0 0 13 26 39 52 65
Population (in millions) Age Group Population (in millions)

Fig. 14.5: Population Pyramid of India

y In many developing countries like India, Death rates are fairly high because of:
death rates have decreased while birth y There is famine and scarcity of food.
rates have remained extremely high. y Malnutrition as a result of a poor diet.
Birth rates are high because: y Poor hygiene, sanitation, and a lack of safe
y Children provide labouring hands to families drinking water are all problems.
to support the family income. For this y Crops are destroyed by natural calamities
reason, families tend to have more children. such as severe rainfall, droughts, epidemics,
y Because of the paucity of pensions, children and so on.
are expected to look after their ageing y Malaria, for example, has a high
parents. prevalence.
y There is a lack of contraceptive and family y Doctors, drugs, and healthcare are in short
planning information and knowledge. supply.
y Because of the high infant mortality rate, y Persecution, civil conflicts, and so on.
more children are created to make up for Afghanistan, for example.
the loss. In emerging countries, population growth is
y Large families are encouraged by religious rapid because birth rates are higher than death
ideas and dogmas. rates.
y Children might be seen as a sign of virility in
some poor countries. Population Theories
y In less educated sections of society, family
Malthusian Theory
planning and the use of contraceptives are
seen as taboo which results in a higher y In his classic book, Essay on the Principle
birth rate. Generally, this is observed in of Population as it Affects the Future
tribal societies. Improvement of Society, published in 1798,

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Thomas Robert Malthus expressed his Criticism of Malthusian theory

thoughts on population. y During the nineteenth and early twentieth
y In the second version of his Essay, which centuries, the Malthusian idea was actively
was published in 1803, the author integrated debated and critiqued.
his discoveries. The relationship between
population growth and food supply is Green Revolution:
described by the Malthusian theory. It y The green revolution has increased food
claims that population growth outpaces production dramatically, and today the
food supply, resulting in vice or misery if world has surplus food though there are
left unchecked. incidences of poverty and hunger. But the
point is, that the green revolution proved
The Malthusian theory is stated as follows: Malthus’ mathematical formula wrong.
y The human race has an innate sexual
desire to reproduce rapidly. As a result, Preventive Checks:
the population grows in a geometrical y Preventive checks suggested by Malthus
progression, doubling every 25 years if it is were either utopian or not practical. Forced
not regulated. celibacy or late marriage may cause an
y On the other hand, due to the operation of increase in social crimes like rapes. Even
the law of diminishing returns based on the moral restraint is not practicable after
assumption that land supply is constant, marriage.
the food supply increases in a considerably
slower arithmetical progression. As a result, Positive Checks:
the food supply will be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
y Positive checks like famine, floods, or
and 9 in subsequent identical times (after
other natural calamities were suggested by
200 years).
Malthus to control population growth. But
y Because the population grows in a
humankind has progressed so much that
geometrical progression whereas the food
it has found solutions to control or reduce
supply grows in an arithmetical progression,
the impact of natural disasters or famine or
the population grows faster than the food
epidemics.
supply.
y Malthus proposed positive and preventive Misconception about civilised society:
measures to control overpopulation caused y Malthus assumed that preventive checks
by a mismatch between food supply and are applicable or workable in a civilised
population. society. It was totally a misconception about
y A man uses various preventive measures developing countries. Even developing
to keep the birth rate under control. Late countries are adopting some preventive
marriage, celibacy, and moral restraint are measures.
examples. All of these preventive measures
appear to be utopian, and some of them Use of family planning or contraceptives:
are not feasible. y Malthus assumed that population control
y If we fail to use preventive measures to limit measures like the use of contraceptives
population increase, positive checks, such or family planning methods amount to
as suffering, starvation, war, vice, disease, moral hazard. But in almost all societies
floods, and other natural disasters will it is now an accepted norm to use family
lower the population and bring the supply planning methods to restrict the size of the
of food back into balance. family.

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Marx’s Response to Malthus’ Theory First stage:

y The Malthusian theory is still a topic of y 1st stage has high fertility and high
discussion. Others, particularly sociologists, mortality rate because people reproduce
objected to his idea, which was supported more to compensate for the deaths due to
by economists such as J. S. Mill and J. M. epidemics and unreliable supply of food.
Keynes. y Here, population growth is slow and most
y According to sociologists, the pervasive people are engaged in agriculture where
poverty and misery of working-class large families act as assets.
people are due to the misconceived y Here, people are mostly illiterate, life
organisation of society that is growing expectancy is low, and have low levels of
the gap between haves and have-nots, technology.
not to an everlasting rule of nature as
propounded by Malthus. Second stage:
y Arguments by Karl Marx: y Fertility remains high at beginning of the
⚪ Starvation was created by unequal 2nd stage, but declines as time advance.
wealth distribution and capital buildup y Reduced mortality rate accompanies this.
by capitalists. It has nothing to do with
population in the traditional sense.
Third stage:
⚪ The population is reliant on social and
economic structures. According to y This is the last stage, in this stage, both
Malthus, the problem of overpopulation fertility and mortality decline largely. Here,
and resource limits are fundamental and the population is either stable or grows
unavoidable aspects of the capitalist slowly.
system of production. y The population becomes urbanised, literate
⚪ Marx also said that after farmers were and has high technical know how and
given new technologies to help them deliberately controls the size of the family.
improve productivity, food production y This indicates that humans are extremely
began to rise. flexible and able to adjust fertility on their
y A growing population, according to French own.
sociologist E. Dupreel, would stimulate
quick invention and development to tackle Criticism:
issues, but a stable population would be y Many demographers have praised the
complacent and less likely to progress. theory of demographic transition, but it
has also been questioned for a variety of
Demographic Transition Theory
reasons. Some critics argue that it isn’t
y Demographic transition theory can be used even a theory.
to describe and forecast the population of y The following are the key grounds of
any location in the future. It states that when contention:
civilisation evolves from rural, agrarian, ⚪ It is solely based on empirical findings
and illiterate society to urban, industrial, or experiences in Europe, the United
and literate society, the population of each States, and Australia.
region changes from high births, and high ⚪ It isn’t prescriptive, and its stages aren’t
deaths to low births and low deaths. These segmented or predetermined.
changes occur in stages that are collectively ⚪ The importance of mankind’s
known as the demographic cycle. technological innovations cannot be

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overstated, particularly in the field of ⚪ Because of the varying behaviour of

medicine, which has the potential to population parameters, this demographic
reduce mortality rates. dividend window is accessible at
⚪ It neither provides a basic explanation different times in different states.
for the process of fertility decline nor
identifies the key variables involved. Steps to Reap Dividend
⚪ It does not specify when a country will
progress from one level to the next.
⚪ Finally, it is not true for the world’s To reap the demographic dividend,
emerging countries, which have recently India should focus on labour and land
experienced exceptional population reforms: International Monetary Fund.
expansion due to a sharp drop in the
death rate.
y Despite its flaws and criticisms, the y Investing in people through quality
demographic transition theory performs education, healthcare, employment, and
a good job of portraying the world’s skills helps to develop human capital,
demographic history at a macro level of which is essential for promoting economic
generalisation. The transition process for development, ending extreme poverty, and
every country can be easily understood as fostering a more inclusive community.
an empirical generalisation formed on the y Increase the employability of the young
basis of studying the demographic trend in population by skill growth: India’s labour
the West. force must be equipped with the necessary
skills for the modern economy if it is to fully
benefit from its favourable demographics.
India’s Demographic Dividend y To accommodate the influx of young
y In an ageing world, India has one of the people into the workforce, the country
youngest populations. India’s median age needs to generate ten-million jobs each
will be just 28 by 2020, compared to 37 year. Promoting business interests and
in China and the United States, with 45 in entrepreneurship would aid in job growth,
Western Europe, and 49 in Japan. allowing the vast labour force to find work.
y Since 2018, India’s working-age population y An improved healthcare system would
(people aged 15 to 64) has risen faster than result in a higher number of working days
the dependent population (children under for the young workforce, boosting the
the age of 14 and people over the age of economy’s competitiveness.
65). This enlargement. This growth in the y Robust educational pipeline: Investing
working-age population would last until wisely in primary, secondary, and higher
2055, or 37 years from now. education to raise educational standards.
y This transition occurs primarily as a result India, which has nearly 41% of its population
of a decline in the total fertility rate (TFR, under the age of 20, will only benefit from
which is the number of births per woman) the demographic dividend if it improves its
following the stabilisation of life expectancy. education system.
y Two fascinating facts emerge from a UN y Academic-industry cooperation is also
Population Fund (UNFPA) report on India’s needed to align modern industry demands
demographic dividend. with academic learning levels.
⚪ India has a five-decade window of y Ensure participation of women: With a
demographic dividend potential, from forecast of a gradually shrinking workforce,
2005–06 to 2055–56, which is longer India needs to ensure the participation of
than any other nation on the planet. women to reap the demographic dividend.

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15 Migration

y Human migration is described as people such as unemployment, poor living

moving from one location to another with conditions, political turmoil, unfavourable
the intention of establishing a new site environment, natural disasters, diseases,
permanently or temporarily (geographic and socio-economic backwardness.
region). The Pull factors make the destination
y Internal migration (movement within a location appear more appealing than the
single country) is also feasible; it is, in fact, starting region for reasons, such as better
the most common sort of human mobility employment opportunities and living
worldwide. Age has an impact on both conditions, peace, and stability, life and
work and non-work migration. Individuals, property security, and a pleasant climate.
families, and big groups of people are all
capable of relocating.
y Internally displaced people have remained
in their own country, whereas displaced
persons have been forced to leave their
homes due to a natural disaster or civil strife.
y An asylum seeker is a person who seeks
protection in another country and submits
a formal application to the government of
that country.

Factors of Migration
y If this person’s application is approved, he
will be considered a refugee.
y It is clear that a person can be both an Fig. 15.1: Push and Pull Factors of Migration
immigrant and an emigrant.
y Migrant workers who relocate to a new
country are known as immigrants.
Types of Migration
y Emigrants are people who leave their home y Human migration can be internal migration
country. (moving within a defined territory) and
y People migrate for a variety of reasons, external migration (moving outside a
including economic and societal defined territory)
improvement. There are two types y Internal migration can be short term or
of factors that drive migration. The long term
Push factors make the place of origin y External migration can be in the form of
appear less enticing due to qualities immigration, emigration, and refugees

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Definition and introduction

It includes movement of people from one place to another with intentions of
settling, permanently or temporarily, at a new location.
The movement often occurs over long distances and from one country to another,
but internal migration (within a single country) is also possible.
Migrants who move to a new place are called Immigrants. Migrants who move out
of a place are called Emigrants.

Factors of migration

People migrate for better economic and social life.

The Push factors

It makes the place of origin looks less attractive.
Unemployment, poor living conditions, political
turmoil, unpleasant climate, natural disasters,
epidemics and socio-economic backwardness.

The Pull factors

Migration It makes the place of destination seem more
attractive than the place of origin.
Better job opportunities and living conditions, peace
Causes of Migration and stability, security of life.

Unemployment.
Desertification.
Forced labour.
Ine�cient medical care.
Natural calamities.
Wishing for a better future.
Conflicts and clashes.
Discrimination.
Poverty.

Internal migration in India

The number of internal migrants in India was 450 million as per the most recent
2011 census.
Increase of 45% over the 309 million recorded in 2001.
Internal migrants as a percentage of population increased from 30% in 2001 to
37% in 2011.
Key Source States: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh.
Key Destination States: Delhi, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and
Karnataka.

Migration 1

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Causes of Migration Wishing for a Better Future

Unemployment y People want to make the world a better

place in the future. This is particularly true
y One of the most common causes of migration
for persons living in impoverished countries.
is unemployment. People in some areas
y As a result, some people prefer to relocate
may not be able to make enough money to
to more prosperous countries in order to
get by if they are unable to find work due
give better opportunities to their children.
to high unemployment. As a result, many
people feel compelled to seek employment Conflicts and Clashes
in other nations.
y It is an important factor in migration. People
who live in conflict zones are driven to flee
Desertification
because they are afraid of dying in battle.
y Due to difficult and unfavourable y As a result, many of these individuals are
environmental conditions, making a willing to leave their native nations and
living in some areas is impossible. This relocate to countries that are more liberal
is especially true for farmers who live in and libertarian.
hot, dry climates, which exacerbates the
desertification problem. Discrimination
y Discrimination is a common occurrence
Forced Labour
in many parts of the world. Women, for
y Due to difficult and unfavourable example, are frequently subjected to
environmental conditions, making a prejudice and are not treated similarly to
living in some areas is impossible. This men.
is especially true for farmers who live in
hot, dry climates, which exacerbates the Poverty
desertification problem. Poverty is one of the many reasons why people
migrate. Poor individuals are more likely to be
Inefficient Medical Care pushed to relocate to wealthy industrialised
y Medical standards are often inadequate in countries, where social security and health
poor developing countries, and ailments are care are better.
rarely treated effectively. As a result, there y Those individuals may also assume that
is a high death rate, implying that people’s there are more career opportunities outside
lives are brief. of their home country than there are within
y Many people leave their homes and relocate it, fueling their desire to relocate.
to other nations in order to improve their
health, believing that the medical care Starvation
provided in these countries is far superior. y Extreme poverty is the cause of malnutrition
and hunger. People are compelled to flee
Natural Calamities their home countries because they will
y In poor developing countries, medical starve to death if they stay due to a lack of
standards are often low, and illnesses go cash resources to buy basic food and water.
untreated. As a result, the death rate is As a result, starvation has the potential to
high, and people’s lives are short. exacerbate the migratory issue.
y Many people relocate to other countries
in order to improve their health, believing Diseases
that the overall medical care is much better y Some countries are also vulnerable to
there. epidemics or pandemics. As a result of

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inadequate health standards in some y Less developed cultures, on the other

places, many individuals die from these hand, maybe drawn to a more advanced
diseases. civilisation by the better opportunities it
y To prevent contracting deadly diseases, offers. The Romans conquered enormous
people may choose to relocate to nations swaths of Europe, North Africa, and West
with higher medical standards and fewer Asia in antiquity.
epidemics. y During this time, many people moved to
Rome in search of better economic and
Technology career opportunities.
y Technologically advanced countries and y During the Middle Ages, Arabs were
areas, on the whole, have greater economic leaders in technology and education. They
prospects and are more resourceful. As a conquered large portions of Central Asia,
result, people in these areas develop and Northern Africa, the Iberian Peninsulas of
imbibe new areas. Spain and Portugal, and Eastern Europe.

Internal migration in India:

The number of internal migrants in India was 450-million as per the most recent 2011
census. This is an increase of 45% over the 309-million recorded in 2001. Internal migrants
as a percentage of population increased from 30% in 2001 to 37% in 2011.
y Key Source States: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh.
y Key Destination States: Delhi, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Karnataka.
y Intra-State Migration: Within their own district, an estimated 400-million Indians
“migrate.” The next 140-million people move from one district to the next, all while
remaining in the same state.
y Inter-State Migration: Just about 60-million people — or about 10% of all internal
migrants — move from one state to another.

y In the 14th and 15th centuries, Europeans Economic Consequences

with better navigation ships discovered y Positive: Migrants contribute money and
America, Australia, and other unexplored remittances back to their families, which is
islands in the Arctic, Atlantic, Indian, and extremely beneficial to the economy.
Pacific oceans. y Negative: Overcrowding is caused by an
uncontrolled population rise. Consider how
Effects of Migration filthy slums have grown across prosperous
y Migration, in reality, is the result of an states such as Maharashtra, Gujarat,
unequal distribution of opportunities Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Delhi.
throughout a territory. People migrate
from areas of limited opportunity and Demographic Consequences
safety to areas with greater opportunity y Positive: Redistribution of the population
and safety. Economic, social, cultural, within a country. Individuals shifting from
political, and demographic outcomes can rural to urban regions are essential to the
all be seen. urbanisation process.

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y Negative: It causes a shift in the population y As a result, such countries will face more
structure. The age and gender mix in financial pressure, providing them a
Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, and stronger incentive to avoid confrontations.
Eastern Maharashtra has been significantly
influenced by migration. A comparable Increasing Levels of Average
situation prevails in the recipient states. Wealth in Poor Countries
y It is critical that poor countries’ average
Social Consequences wealth levels rise so that individuals have a
y Positive: Migrants bring in a new era of reason to stay in their native country rather
social development. They transport new than migrate to other countries.
ideas about science and technology, female y Rich industrialised countries should provide
education, family planning, and other topics financial assistance to poor countries
from one location to the next. People also and share their most recent scientific
bring with them new practises, habits, and breakthroughs so that impoverished
civilisations, which helps to break down countries can build their own knowledge,
mental barriers and broaden society’s resulting in increased wealth and improved
perspectives. living standards for all.
y Negative: As anonymity grows, a social
vacuum develops, as does a sense of Improving Education Status
rejection. As a result, there is an increase y Education is, in the end, a technique for
in crime, drug misuse, thieving, and other overcoming poverty, because it is linked to
anti-social behaviours. work prospects and other sources of income.
Low educational attainment is frequently
Environmental Consequences associated with high unemployment and
y Large-scale rural-to-urban migration causes poverty.
overcrowding in cities, putting pressure y As a result, boosting the educational status
on city infrastructure. It contributes to of poor countries is critical if their citizens
unplanned and chaotic city growth, resulting are to find excellent jobs and have less
in a high concentration of slums. desire to migrate to other countries.

Other Problems Fight Extreme Poverty (MDG Goal)

y When men forsake their wives in rural y The elimination of extreme hunger and
communities, women are put under poverty is one of the eight Millennium
additional physical and mental strain. Development Goals (precursor to the SDGs).
y Women’s migration for school and job It is critical to ending extreme poverty for
provides them with more independence, everyone on the planet.
but it also puts them in danger.
Stopping Discrimination
Solution for Migration y Discrimination of any kind must be
combated on a worldwide scale. Everyone
Stopping the Conflicts
deserves a fair shot at life, regardless of
y Stopping conflicts save people from being where they were born, their gender, their
forced to flee their homes, which is critical skin colour, or anything else that stands in
for reducing migration. Policymakers the way.
and governments from around the world y People from all walks of life must learn to
must work together to avoid dealing with be more tolerant of minorities and respect
adversarial countries. their cultures, customs, and ways of life.

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Fighting Global Warming a cause and a result of larger development

y As a result of global warming, people are processes, and an intricately linked
being encouraged to relocate. As a result of component of our increasingly globalised
rising air temperatures, enormous swaths society. While migration is not a substitute
of land are no longer suitable for farming for development, when it is accompanied
due to a shortage of water. Preventing by the appropriate policies, it may be a good
global warming is critical in order to save factor for progress. International migration
the livelihoods of many farmers. has become a priority for the international
community as a result of the increase in
International Migration global mobility, the rising complexity of
y It’s a global phenomenon that’s only migratory patterns, and their influence
becoming bigger in terms of scope, on governments, migrants, families, and
complexity, and impact. Migration is both communities.

Fig. 15.2: Data on International Migration

International Migration Data According

to United Nations y India remains the most popular country of
y International migrants (those who live in origin for international migrants.
a country other than their birth country) ⚪ India has the most migrants living
totaled 272-million in 2019. (This is up from abroad (17.5-million), followed by Mexico
258-million in 2017.) (11.8-million) and China (8.5-million)
y Female migrants made up about 48% of the (10.7-million).
total number of international migrants. ⚪ With 50.7-million people, the United
y There are an estimated 38-million migrant States remained the most popular
children in the United States, with three out destination for international migrants.
of every four foreign migrants aged 20 to For international migrants, India remains
64. There are 164-million migrant labourers the most frequent country of origin.
in the United States. ⚪ India (USD 78.6-billion), China (USD 67.4
y Asia accounts for 31% of all foreign billion), and Mexico were the top three
migrants, with Europe accounting for 30%, remittance recipients (USD 35.7-billion).
the Americas for 26%, Africa for 10%, and ⚪ The United States remained the top
Oceania for 3%. remittance sending country (USD

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68.0-billion), with the United Arab as adaptation allows for the inclusion of
Emirates (USD 44.4-billion) and Saudi migrants’ agency.
Arabia (USD 44.4-billion) following y Migrants’ ability to deal with crises is
closely behind (USD 36.1-billion). influenced by their immigration status.
⚪ The overall number of stateless people Flexible visa and immigration policies let
worldwide was estimated to be around people stay safe while recovering from
3.9-million in 2018. natural disasters. Return is one choice for
⚪ Bangladesh (around 906,000) had the an answer, but it isn’t necessarily the best.
greatest number of stateless persons y Global migration governance has changed
and Bangladesh was followed by dramatically in the last two years as a
Côte d’Ivoire (692,000) and Myanmar result of the creation of the United Nations
(620,000). Network on Migration and the two global
compacts on refugees and migration.
Emerging Migration Issues Despite the fact that they are not legally
y Migrants have made significant enforceable, the two global compacts show
contributions to their origin and destination a near-unanimous understanding of the
countries’ and communities’ sociocultural, challenges that require long-term international
civic-political, and economic well-being. cooperation and commitment.
y When compared to native residents,
immigrants have a higher level of International Migration in Major Area
entrepreneurial agility and capability. y In 2019, 82-million and 84-million
Migrants have made disproportionate international migrants respectively landed
contributions to innovation and discovery in Europe and Asia, accounting for 61% of
in countries like the United States. all international migrants globally.
y The integration of migrants into the receiving y With around 59-million international
society results in the establishment of migrants in 2019, North America came in
a variety of sociocultural areas that are second, accounting for 22% of the global
interrelated. Inclusion has a significant migrant pool, followed by Africa at 10%,
impact on policy areas such as language, Latin America and the Caribbean at 4%, and
family reunion, education, labour market Oceania at 3%.
inclusion, political participation, and y In 2019, international migrants made up
naturalisation. the largest percentage of the population
y Beyond crises, migration and health have a in Oceania, North America, and Europe,
complicated and dynamic interaction. accounting for 21%, 16%, and 11% of the
y According to recent estimates, the overall overall population, respectively.
number of child migrants is estimated to y In Asia and Africa (1.8 percent and 2%,
be around 31-million. Nearly 13-million respectively), as well as Latin America and
children are refugees, with 936,000 seeking the Caribbean, international migrants make
asylum and 17-million forcefully displaced up a small percentage of the population (1.8
within their own countries. percent).
y Extreme weather events’ intensity and y Asia, on the other hand, grew at the greatest
frequency are growing, affecting migration rate, with a 69 percent increase from 2000
and other types of the global movement, to 2019. (Approximately 34-million people
according to evidence. While human in absolute terms.)
migration in response to environmental and y Since 1970, the United States has been the
climate change is often framed in terms of most popular destination for international
protection and security, viewing mobility migrants. Since 1970, the country’s foreign-

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born population has more than quadrupled, who enters and stays on their territory,
from less than 12-million in 1970 to about as well as a commitment to international
51-million in 2019. migration cooperation.
y The number of migrants in Germany, the y It offers a fantastic opportunity to improve
second most popular destination for migration governance, alleviate existing
migrants, has increased from 8.9-million in migrant difficulties, and strengthen
2000 to 13.1-million in 2019. migrants’ overall contribution to long-term
development.
Refugees and Asylum Seekers y This Global Compact is aligned with Goal
y There were 25.9-million refugees worldwide 10.7 of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
at the end of 2018, with 20.4-million under Development, which calls on all countries
UNHCR’s mandate and 5.5-million under to work together to facilitate safe, orderly,
UNRWA’s Near East mandate. and regular migration.
y Approximately 3.5-million persons
petitioned for asylum or sought international Global Compact on Refugees
protection while awaiting the determination y After two years of comprehensive
of their refugee status. consultations with the various Member
y The UN High Commissioner for Refugees States, refugees, international organisations,
(UNHCR) received over 2.1-million refugee academics, civil society, and the commercial
applications in 2018. The United States sector, the United Nations General Assembly
scored first among the roughly 1.7-million (UNGA) endorsed the Global Compact on
first-instance asylum applications Refugees in December 2018.
submitted in 2018, with 254,300 fresh y The Global Compact on Refugees establishes
applications. a framework for a more predictable and
y Peru was the second-highest recipient, equitable division of responsibility.
with a significant and rapid increase in new y It lays out a roadmap for national
asylum requests, largely from Venezuelans, governments, international organisations,
from 37,800 in 2017 to 192,500 in 2018. and other stakeholders to follow in order
(190,500). to guarantee that the host community gets
the help they need.
Recent Initiatives y The four main goals of the Global Compact
on Refugees are as follows:
Global Compact for the Safe, Orderly and ⚪ To ease the burden on the host
Regular Migration countries.
y It is the world’s first intergovernmental ⚪ Increasing the self-sufficiency of
negotiated agreement, produced under refugees.
the auspices of the United Nations, that ⚪ To improve conditions in their home
addresses all aspects of international countries so that people can return
migration in a holistic and complete manner. safely and with dignity, as well as
y This is a non-binding agreement that to expand access to third-country
recognises states’ sovereign rights to choose solutions.

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16 Human Development

Introduction ⚪ People’s living conditions are improved,

as well as poverty is reduced, which
y The term ‘development’ refers to qualitative
contributes to a healthy civil society as
modification in an individual, such as a
well as to greater social stability.
change in personality or other mental and
⚪ Human development is also
emotional aspects. Therefore, the process
environmentally friendly. E.g. overall
of development continues even after the
human development associated
individual has reached his/her physical
with education will lead to poverty
maturity (growth).
reduction due to which deforestation,
y The Fundamental difference between
desertification, and soil erosion also
economic development and human
decline.
development is that economic development
⚪ The ultimate goal of all the development
mostly focuses on the increase of income,
efforts is to promote better human
and on the other side human development
conditions, and also broaden people’s
believes in overall aspects of human life be it
options.
political, cultural, economic and social, etc.
⚪ It also contributes to a slower rate of
population growth.
⚪ Overall improvement in multiple
Growth vs Development dimensions of Human development can
y Growth is related to quantitative also help to reduce civil disturbance in
changes and development is the society and in increasing political
qualitative in nature. stability.
y Growth implies to physical aspects ⚪ The most productive asset is a well-
only, whereas development is nourished, educated, skilled, healthy,
associated with broader aspects skilled, and alert labour force. As a
such as physical, emotional, social, result, investments in different fields of
cognitive and language etc. human development are premised on
y Growth stops at certain period of the idea of productivity.
life however development continues y The term “sustainable development” did
till death. refer to “development that meets the needs
of the current time without jeopardising the
future generations’ ability to meet their own
y Human development is one of the important needs.” This particular concept has four
elements in the economic aspect. The dimensions: environment, society, culture,
basic idea behind this is that it is the and economy, all of which are intertwined
use of income, and not the income itself and therefore not distinct.
that determines human choices. Because
a nation’s true wealth is its people, the Human Development Index (HDI)
goal of development should always be the y The HDI was created with the purpose
enrichment of human life. to emphasise that people and their
y Paul Patrick Streeten well-known capabilities, apart from the economic
Economists who work on development growth only, should have been the
economics suggested a few reasons in foremost criterion for assessing a nation’s
favour of human development. development.

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y The first-ever Human Development Report can have such type of disparities in the
of UNDP was introduced in the year 1990 human development outcomes.
under the inspiration and leadership of its y HDI is associated with a summary measure
architect, Mahbub-ul-Haq. of the average achievement in important
y The HDI can also be used in order to components of human development:
question the ongoing national policy ⚪ A long and healthy life
choices, for instance, how two nations with ⚪ Being knowledgeable
almost a similar level of the GNP per capita ⚪ Decent standard of living

Fig. 16.1: Components of HDI

y In the case of the Human Development together. India is ranked 131st out of 189
Index, the geometric avg. of the normalised countries in the HDI (Human Development
indices for each of the above-mentioned Index) for the year 2020. India was
three components is computed. identified as having a medium level of
⚪ Life expectancy at birth is used to human development (i.e., it falls with an
calculate the health dimension. HDI value of 0.645). In the year 2019, India’s
⚪ The educational component is measured rank was 129.
by the avg. The number of years of
schooling for the adults (aged 25 and India’s Trend Over the Years (Human
above), and the expected number of Development Index)
years of schooling for the school-age y According to the HDI report, India’s HDI
children. value got increased by more than 50 percent
⚪ The Gross national income per capita is since the year 1990, i.e., rising their score
often used for the purpose of calculation from 0.429 to 0.645. During this phase,
of the standard of living. India’s life expectancy at birth got increased
y The scores for all three dimensions are by approximately 12 years, whereas the
then made aggregated into a composite average number of years of schooling got
index using the geometric mean. increased by 3.5 years.
y The HDI simplifies and describes the subset ⚪ During this particular time, the average
of human development only. Some of the number of years of schooling got
important aspects are not reflected e.g., it increased by 4.5 years. India’s GDP per
does not reflect on the inequalities, human capita increased as well, rising by nearly
security, poverty, and empowerment, etc. 274 percent.
y India’s HDI trends in comparison with the
Human Development Report, 2020 other nations:
y The UNDP (United Nations Development ⚪ The UNDP made a comparison of
Programme) is in charge of putting it India’s HDI value to that of the other

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neighbouring South Asian countries such whereas Bangladesh and Bhutan ranked
as Pakistan & Bangladesh. In comparison 102 & 103 respectively in IHDI. Because of
to India’s rank of 131, Bangladesh was its lower ranking, India is categorised under
ranked 133rd, while Pakistan was placed the low human development category.
at 154th spot. Norway and Iceland positioned first and
⚪ In the South Asian zone, India’s HDI is second respectively which are categorised
higher than the region’s avg. of 0.641, under the very high human development
and it is also higher than the avg. value category.
of 0.631 within and between countries
in the medium HDI category. Gender Inequality Index (GII)
y The GII sheds light on the gender disparities
Inequality-adjusted Human Development in terms of health, empowerment, and
Index (IHDI) labour market participation. The higher
y The United Nations Development values in the GII, in contrast to the
Programme (UNDP) introduced the IHDI Human Development Index, indicate lower
(Inequality-adjusted HDI) in the year 2010 achievement.
with the purpose to measure human
development while they are accounting How is it Defined?
for inequality. IHDI is the HDI that is y The GII is a composite measure that indicates
adjusted for inequalities in the distribution disparities in achievement between men
of achievements in each part of the and women in three key areas: reproductive
three dimensions of the HDI (i.e., health, health, empowerment, and labour market
education and income). participation.
y The difference between both the HDI as well y The maternal mortality ratio, along with the
as the IHDI represents the overall human adolescent fertility rates are both used for
development cost of inequality or even the assessing the health dimension.
overall loss to human development which y The overall share of parliamentary seats
is caused by the inequality. held according to sections of gender, as well
y The IHDI also provides a direct link to as on the secondary and higher attainment
inequalities in different dimensions, and it levels are used in order to assess the
can also form the policies across different empowerment dimension.
regions towards inequality reduction, and y The labour dimension is calculated by the
leads to a much clearer understanding of participation made by the women’s labour
inequalities across all the sections of the force.
population and their contribution to the y The GII ranges from 0 (i.e. equal treatment
overall human development cost. of the men and women) to 1. (i.e. when
y The human inequality coefficient is men/women fare poorly compared to the
calculated as an unweighted avg. of other in all the dimensions).
inequality across three main dimensions. y It is intended to determine the extent to
y Two countries that have different which gender inequality undermines the
achievement distributions would have the national human development achievements,
same avg. HDI value. When there is perfect as well as to focus on providing empirical
equality, the IHDI equals the HDI, but then foundations for the policy analysis as well
when inequality got increased, the IHDI got as advocacy efforts.
declined below the HDI. y Women’s opportunities, as well as freedom,
y The IHDI is estimated for 151 nations. are limited by their low status, which
y In the 2020 Human Development Report results in less interaction with the others
released by UNDP, India ranked 104 and fewer opportunities for independent

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Fig. 16.2: Components of GII

behaviour, limiting the transmission of new the Oxford Poverty & Human Development
information/knowledge and harming their Initiative (OPHI) and the United Nations
self-esteem & self-expression. Development Programme (UNDP) for the
y It is a significant determinant of two care UNDP’s Human Development Reports.
resources, i.e., the mother’s physical & y Every year in the month of July, the United
mental health, as well as their autonomy Nations (UNs) High-Level Political Forum
and also to control over the household (HLPF) on Sustainable Development
resources. releases the Global MPI.
y Low status restricts women’s capacity y 3 Dimensions and 10 indicators are used
to act in their own and their children’s in MPI:
best interests. There is a demonstrated ⚪ Education (Total weightage 2/6th):
association between women’s status and Years of schooling (1/6th) and school
malnutrition in children. attendance(1/6th).
y Gender Inequality Index 2020: ⚪ Health (Total weightage 2/6th): Nutrition
⚪ In the year 2020 Gender Inequality (1/6th) and Child Mortality (1/6th).
Index, India is ranked 123rd. According ⚪ Standard of Living (Total weightage
to the report, women’s labour force 2/6th): Electricity, drinking water,
participation in the nation was around housing, sanitation, cooking fuel and
20.5 percent, while men’s was 76.1 assets. (1/18th weightage given to each
percent. In addition to this, only 13.5 indicator).
percent of the Parliament’s seats were y An individual is multi-dimensionally poor if
held by women. she/he is deprived in 1/3rd or more (means
⚪ The report also stated that the disparity 33% or more) of the weighted indicators
in the parental responses to girls & boys (out of the total ten indicators). Those who
has resulted in the higher malnutrition are deprived in ½ or more of the weighted
among the girls. indicators are recognised as living in
extreme multidimensional poverty.
Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) y MPI is a very important index as it recognises
y The Global MPI (Multidimensional Poverty poverty from various dimensions compared
Index) is a measure of multiple dimensions of to the conventional methodology that
poverty that includes in total 107 developing measures poverty only from income or
countries. MPI got set up in the year 2010 by monetary terms.

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y According to the Global MPI 2020, India the world. Between the years 2000 & 2019,
ranked at 62nd spot among the 107 countries, 65 of the 75 countries studied significantly
with an overall MPI score of 0.123 as well as decreased their multidimensional poverty
a headcount ratio of 27.91 percent. levels.
y This index also ranks India’s neighbouring y South Asia (around 530-million people)
nations such as Sri Lanka (ranked 25th), and Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for
Bhutan (ranked 68th), Nepal (ranked 65th), approximately 84.3 percent of the world’s
Bangladesh (ranked 58th), China (ranked multi-dimensionally poor people (around
30th), Myanmar (ranked 69th), and Pakistan 558-million). Middle-income countries
(ranked 73rd). are home to approximately 67 percent
of the world’s multi-dimensionally poor
Global Scenario people.
y As per the report, 1.3 billion people (i.e. y Impact of COVID-19 on Poverty: COVID-19
around 22 percent) live in multidimensional has a profound impact on the overall
poverty across 107 developing countries. development landscape. Multiple studies
Children in these particular regions have across the world projected that on avg.,
quite higher rates of multidimensional poverty levels will be set back 3 to 10 years
poverty; for example, half of the multi- amid COVID-19.
dimensionally poor (i.e. around 644-million) y Around 107-million multi-dimensionally
fall under the age of 18. poor people fall in the age category of 60
y One out of every three children is poor, years or older—a particularly significant age
compared to one out of every six adults in figure during the COVID-19 pandemic.

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17 Urbanisation and Settlements

concentrating in cities, and cities develop

Introduction as an important centre for the flow of
y Urbanisation is a very complicated socio- transport, trade and information.
economic process that changes the built y Cities also become important regions as
environment, transforming formerly rural basic needs and services are often more
into urban settlements while also shifting accessible (as compared to the Rural
the spatial distribution of a population from region).
rural to urban regions. y Over the years, cities have also become the
y It entails a complex set of economic, places where the highest quality of public
demographic, cultural, social, technological, and private services are available and where
as well as environmental processes which basic services are often more accessible
thus resulting in an increase in the fraction than in rural areas.
of a territory’s population residing in cities, y People who live in cities have higher
an increase in the population concentration levels of literacy and education, healthier
in the territory’s larger settlements, as well lifestyles, a lower fertility rate, a higher life
as an increase in population density within expectancy, better access to social services,
the urban settlements. and more opportunities for the cultural and
y Urbanisation process is influenced by also political participation.
spatial and urban planning as well as by y Between the years 1950 and 2018, the
private and public investments in the major world’s urban population more than
infrastructure. The growing share of various quadrupled, rising from about 0.8 billion to
economic activities and innovation start an estimated 4.2 billion.

Fig. 17.1: World Urban-Rural Population

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y The primary driver of urbanisation is y In the case of Italy, if more than half of
the rural-urban migration. The rural the economically productive population is
population migrates to the urban areas in engaged in non-agricultural activities, then
search of employment as well as better only just a settlement is considered urban.
living conditions. During the late part of
the 1990s, 20 to 30 million people left the Administrative Criteria
countryside each year to live in the towns y Some urban settlements also are based
and in cities. mainly on how they are administered.
y For eg., in the matter of India, urban
Classification of Urban Settlements settlements are defined as any region
with a municipality, cantonment board, or
y Definition of Urbanisation varies from
notified area.
country to country and is among the most
y Even a small administrative hub is
common basis of classification in terms
recognised as an urban settlement in the
of size of the population, occupational
Central American countries, Brazil, and
structure, and also administrative setup.
Bolivia.

Population Size Criteria for Urban Area in India

y The size of the population is used as the y In India, there are two broad groups of
primary criterion for classifying a settlement towns or urban settlements.
as an urban across the world. Although, the
number of people that even a settlement Statutory Town
should consider as an urban settlement y All areas with a municipality corporation,
varies from country to country. notified town area committee and
y Example: cantonment board, etc.
⚪ Any location in Denmark, Sweden, or
Finland, with a population of much Census Town Must Satisfy the Following
more than 250 people, is considered an Below Criteria
urban area. y a min. population of 5000
⚪ Iceland – more than 300 persons y at least 75 percent of the male working
⚪ U.S.A and Thailand- 2500 persons population engaged in the non-agricultural
⚪ India- 5000 person (along with the sector, and
size of the population, its density is y a density of population of a minimum of
an additional condition, which is 400 4,000 persons per sq. km.
persons per sq. km.)
⚪ Japan- 30000 person Types of Urban Settlements
y Urban settlements are classified as
Occupational Structure towns, cities, metropolitan cities, and
y Urban settlements are defined on an megacities based on their population and
economic basis in some countries worldwide. size. Cities can be categorised according
y E.g. Other additional criteria for the urban to their functions, such as industrial,
settlement in India: All the regions with administrative, transportation, commercial,
more than 75% of their workforce engaged mining, cantonment, educational, religious,
in non-agricultural activities. tourist, and so on.

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Type of Urban Settlement Based on the Population and Size

Type of Urban
settlement based on Features
population and size

It is quite a compact settlement that is larger than a village, with a

community that is continuing to pursue an urban way of life.
Town
A municipality is typically found in a town as well as performs
specific functions such as manufacturing, retail, as well as
wholesale trade. Professional services are also indeed part of towns.

Considered a leading town that has surpassed its competitors.

A city is significantly bigger than a town, and it engages in a broader

City range of economic activities.

The majority of cities are made up of transportation hubs along with

major financial institutions, as well as regional offices.

It is applied to a large urban development area formed by the

Conurbation merger of separate towns or cities.
(first-ever coined by
Greater London, Manchester, Chicago, and Tokyo are a few examples.
Patrick Geddes in the
year 1915) India’s conurbation of Delhi, right from Panipat to Meerut, is a good
example.

Means “great city” in Greek.,

Megalopolis it signifies “super- metropolitan area which is extending as the union

(Popularised by Jean of conurbations.”
Gottman in 1957)
For example The urban landscape extends from Boston on the north
side to the south side of Washington in the US.

A million city is a city having a population of ten lakh (or one million)
or more people.

The overall number of million cities has recently raised at an

unprecedented rate.

Million City London was the very first city to reach a population of one million in
the year 1800, followed by Paris in the year 1850 and New York in the
year 1860.

There were overall 84-million cities in the world in the year 1950,
which increased to 438 in the year 2005 (i.e. over a fivefold increase
in the overall number).

Table 17.1: Type of Urban Settlement Based on the Population and Size

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Types of Urban Settlement Based on y Examples: Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham,

Functions Administrative Town Pittsburgh, Ahmedabad, Faridabad, Surat,
y These particular towns house the Kanpur, Bhilai, Rourkela and Jamshedpur.
administrative depts. of the Central or y Other important types of functional towns
State govt. are port towns, transport towns, tourist
y This town contains a large number of govt. towns, defence towns and fishing towns
buildings for various heads of depts., as well etc.
as the parliament house and also assembly
halls. Trends and Patterns in Urbanisation
y Examples of national capitals: New Delhi, Global Trend
Tokyo, Moscow, Beijing, Washington D.C., y Global urban population has grown
London and Paris significantly since 1950. The urban
y Examples of state capitals in India: population was 0.75-billion in 1950 while in
Bhubaneshwar, Gandhi Nagar and 2018 it increased to 4.22-billion. According
Thiruvananthapuram etc. to United Nations estimates, by 2050, urban
areas will hose nearly 68% population of
Mining Town the world.
y These towns have developed in mineral- y During 1950–2025, the growth trend of
rich areas and are known as mining towns. the global population shows a consistent
y Example: Johannesburg in Africa, Coolgardie increase in urban population, but during
and Kalgoorlie in Australia and Raniganj, 2025–2050, a slowdown is projected for
Jharia, Dhanbad, Digboi, Ankaleswar and urban population growth.
Singrauli in India. y If we look at the spatial pattern of
urbanisation, it shows that the focus of
Religious Town the urbanisation has shifted to the global
y Because of their religious significance, south from the global north. Cities in Africa
these towns have increased in popularity. and Asia are growing faster as compared to
y Example: Vatican City, Mecca, Lhasa, Puri, other regions of the world, and according
Mathura, Madurai, Tirupati, Katra, Amritsar, to projected estimates, African cities will
Allahabad and Varanasi etc. experience a faster growth rate globally
during 2015–2050.
Educational Town y The highest number of large megacities
y Many places become famous due to the have increasingly proliferated in Asia and
educational facilities provided by the town. Africa. Projections indicate that this trend
It is comprised of various universities, is likely to continue. The concentration of
schools, colleges, libraries etc. small- and medium-sized cities in these
y Example: Oxford and Cambridge in England two regions have also increased over time.
and Roorkee, Pilani, Manipal, Aligarh, y Two Asian countries—China and India, will
Varanasi, etc., in India. be home to some of the world’s largest
cities in the twenty-first century.
Industrial Towns y The Following graph shows the Estimated
y Industrial towns owe their development and projected urban populations of the
growth because of the industrial growth. world between 1950–2050

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Fig. 17.2: Projection of World Urban Population

y Despite its relatively low level of dwellers), Africa (548-million) and Latin
urbanisation, the Asian region, because of its America and the Caribbean (526-million).
huge population, has the largest number of y Evolution of the urban population of
persons residing in urban areas (2.3 billion in the world (Specifically in 6 important
2018), followed by Europe(553-million urban geographical regions).

Population (millions) Percentage

Groproplic region
1950 1990 2018 2030 2050 1950 1990 2018 2030 2050

World 751 2290 4220 5167 6680 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Africa 33 200 548 824 1489 4.3 8.7 13.0 15.9 22.3

Asia 246 1040 2266 2802 3479 32.8 45.4 53.7 54.2 52.1

Europe 284 505 553 573 599 37.8 22.0 13.1 11.1 9.0

Latin America and

70 315 526 600 685 9.3 13.8 12.5 11.6 10.3
the Caribbean

Northern America 110 211 299 335 387 14.7 9.2 7.1 6.5 5.8

Oceacia 8 19 28 33 41 1.1 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.6

Table 17.2: Continent-wise Projection of Urban Population

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Urbanisation Trend in India

y 1687–88 marked the setting of the y The 2011 census was the first census to
first municipal corporation at Madras highlight data on people living in slums, it
subsequently, municipal corporation were found that around one household in every
also set up at Bombay and Kolkata. six households in the urban areas is located
y After India got independence, different five- in slums.
year plans focused on a different aspect of y Map of the urban/total population ratio of
urbanisation. Indian states, as per the 2011 census.

Fig. 17.3: Urban Population in Indian States

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National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) $1.4 trillion, there is a shortfall of at least
Statistics About Urban Agglomerations (UA) $2.5 trillion.
y Some of the UAs are at the top of the
demographic scale, with populations of Infrastructural Challenges
20-million or more. Housing
y Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, and y A major challenge associated with the
Bengaluru are the five most densely urban settlement is the availability of
populated cities in India. affordable housing with quite easy access to
y Three UAs are located in the states of transportation, jobs, and also the necessary
Maharashtra & Uttar Pradesh, two in the public services for health and safety.
states of Gujarat, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu,
and one in Bihar, Delhi, Karnataka, Madhya Issues Related to Sanitation
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Telangana, and also and Safe Drinking Water
one in West Bengal. y Some 8,27, 000 people in low and middle-
income countries die because of inadequate
Challenges related to Urban Settlement
water, sanitation, and hygiene each year,
Institutional Challenges representing 60% of total diarrheal deaths.
Urban Governance: y According to the report ‘The Economic
y Example: In India, urban governance faces Impacts of Inadequate Sanitation in India,’
various sets of challenges like urban local inadequate sanitation causes significant
bodies are not fully empowered, corruption, economic losses in India, amounting to 6.4
and lack of coordination between different percent of overall India’s GDP in the year
agencies. Therefore, ULB needs to be 2006, i.e., almost around USD 53.8 billion
supported by the state government to (or Rs.2.4 trillion).
manage urban development. y Around 785-million people do not have
access to basic drinking water, including
Poor Urban Planning around 144-million who rely on surface
y Coastal areas, for instance, are home to water for their survival.
nearly 0.5 billion urban residents, continuing y It is estimated that waterborne diseases
to increase their vulnerability to the sea have an economic burden of approximately
level rise as well as storm surges. There USD 600-million a year in India.
are 10 crores (or 100-million) people in the y Chemical contamination of water, mainly
136 largest coastal cities, accounting for through fluoride and arsenic, is present in
roughly 20 percent of the population – and 1.96-million dwellings in India.
approximately $4.7 trillion in terms of assets
are threatened by the coastal flooding. Urbanisation and Climate Change
y Nearly 90 percent of the urban growth y World’s 50% of the population lives in urban
in developing countries occurs near the areas and cities are responsible for 70% of
hazard-prone areas and is built through the global carbon dioxide emissions although
way of informal and unplanned settlements. they occupy just 2% of the land area.
y This impacts negatively on climate change
Finances and increases the climate and extreme
y The UN and the World Bank conservatively disaster events, like storm surges and sea-
estimate that it will cost $3.9 trillion dollars level rise. So cities need to do their part and
a year to achieve SDGs. Given the current contribute to a zero-carbon, risk-informed
annual investment in the SDGs is just development future.

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y Even with the prevailing size of the urban y Within the cities, inequality has all kinds
population, Indian cities face a slew of of dimensions, i.e., economic, spatial, and
problems, which would include severe social. Economic inequality is primarily
traffic congestion, deteriorating air quality, greater in the cities compared to the
rising greenhouse gas, i.e., GHG emissions rural areas: the Gini coefficient of income
from the transportation sector, an increase inequality is higher in the cities than in the
in the road accidents, and an explosion in rural areas in 36 out of 42 countries.
the overall number of private vehicles. y Slums are the most visible manifestation of
the spatial concentration of urban poverty
Urban Crimes as well as disadvantage around the world.
y Urbanisation has resulted in a slew of social y Larger cities are usually wealthier but more
issues, one of which is the crime issue, inequitable than smaller cities.
which has spread to all the urban areas in
both the developed as well as in developing Sustainable Solution and Way Forward
countries. y French “Éco Quartier” and Japanese “Eco
y The recent unprecedented levels of global Model City” initiatives (already engaged in
urbanisation has coincided with an increase more than 500 towns and cities to date)
in urban crime in many parts of the world, highlighted the need for aligning local
as the unemployment has risen and also experimental practices and innovations
the poverty among the urban poor had also with formal planning and national policies;
increased. coordinating action across national,
y In October 2019, India’s National Crime regional, and local levels; facilitating
Records Bureau (NCRB) released crime knowledge exchange and practice learning
statistics for 2017. An examination of all among participating towns and cities;
of the above data reveals that among the and, importantly, providing consistent
top Urban Agglomerations, i.e., UAs in the government support across electoral cycles.
country, Delhi, Jaipur, Lucknow, Indore, and y Building cities that have the potential
Patna have the highest avg. crime rates to “work” – that is healthy, inclusive,
among all the crime categories. sustainable, as well as resilient –
necessitates strategic investment and also
Urban Poverty intensive policy coordination. The national
y Though the proportion of the urban poor and local govt can play critical roles in
got declined over the past decades, the helping to shape their development by
numbers keep on adding up, resulting in creating opportunities for everyone.
an increase in the persistent nature of the y Considering the importance of housing, the
slums linked with a high percentage of the New Urban Agenda recognises the current
poor people. need for affordable and adequate housing
y According to the National Report (India that falls within the sustainable urban
Habitat III, Ministry of Housing and Urban development framework. “The New Urban
Poverty Alleviation) of 2001, approximately Agenda” gives tremendous opportunity
23.5 percent of the urban households were to achieve the Sustainable Development
slum dwellers, which are also associated Goals (SDGs), including Goal 1 of eradication
with quite high levels of poverty. of extreme poverty by the year 2030 (it is
currently measured as the people living
Urbanisation and Inequalities on less than USD 1.25 per day) and SDG
y Inadequately planned urbanisation is also 11, which calls for the access to adequate
to blame for the rising levels of inequality & housing and also basic services along with
social exclusion. the upgrading of slums.

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Smart city Project in India

y A Smart Sustainable City is one that excels in six areas (includes Economy, Mobility,
People, Environment, Governance, and Living), and therefore is built on the ‘smart’
combination of resource endowment as well as activities of self-decisive, independent,
and aware citizens.
y India’s Smart Cities Mission is among the most transformative urban missions. The goal
is to improve citizens’ quality of life by building strong urban infrastructure with the use
of smart solutions.
y The establishment of 16 Integrated Control & Command Centres, i.e., ICCC has aided in
the provision of a variety of online services to the citizens.
y It has also aided in crime prevention, improved surveillance, and the reduction of
violence against women.
y Another 55 ICCCs, are being implemented at various stages. For now, all 100 SPVs (Special
Purpose Vehicles) have been established, 100 CLAFs (City Level Advisory Forums) have
been established, 100 PMCs (Project Management Consultants) have been appointed,
and 5,151 projects worth a total of Rs.2.05 lakh Cr. have been sanctioned.
y The overall number of projects tendered in the SCM has accelerated by almost 240%
since March month of 2018.

Sustainable Spatial Planning Associated Although there is no one-size-fits-all solution

with Urbanisation Aims at to urban problems such as inequality, some
y Promoting territorial cohesion with the governments around the world have been
help of more balanced social and economic capable of addressing the spatial, economic,
development of regions. and social aspects of urbanisation. Their
y Improved competitiveness. strategies share four common characteristics/
y Creation of jobs. elements. They are:
y Encouraging development generated by the y Establishing land and property rights, with
urban function. a focus on the security of tenure for people
y Improving the relationship between towns living in the poverty.
and the countryside. y Improving the availability of important
y Promoting more balanced accessibility. dimensions like affordable housing,
y Developing access to information and infrastructure, and basic services and
knowledge. access to these services. In India, the
y Decreasing environmental damage. Housing for All/Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana
y Enhancing & protecting the natural was launched in 2015 with an aim to provide
resources & natural heritage. affordable housing to the urban poor by
y Enhancing cultural heritage as a factor of 2022.
development. y Improve as well as promote access to
y Developing sustainable energy resources education as well as decent employment
and greater use of renewable sources of for all the city dwellers.
energy. y Initiate various mechanisms to allow for
y Encouraging high-quality, sustainable greater participation in decision-making,
tourism which can lead to better including encouraging input from all the
employment opportunities. stakeholders on the allocation of the
y Limiting the impact of natural disasters. public funds as well as the formulation,

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monitoring, and evaluation of all the govt.

policies. on natural systems connecting two or
y The AMRUT Mission (Atal Mission for more rivers through the means of Dams
Rejuvenation & Urban Transformation) and Canals. It has two components:
was launched in June 2015 with the goal the Himalayan and the Peninsular. It
of providing the universal water supply, is a mega project that engages money,
improving the sewerage network, developing resources, engineering, management,
child as well as Divyang friendly green and human understanding. It is designed
spaces & parks, improving stormwater to ease water shortages in western and
drainage as well as non-motorised urban southern India and aims to link 30 major
transport, and implementing a reform rivers.
agenda that incentivises the states and Need for Inter River Linking of river:
Union Territories, in order to implement y Large variation in rainfall and
various reforms. subsequent availability of water
resources in space and time: Because
Previous Years’ Questions (PYQs) of this variability of available water,
2020 floods and drought coexist in our
country in the same time and space.
The interlinking of rivers can provide (Kerala, T.N and South Karnataka
viable solutions to the multi- are facing drought while Rajasthan,
dimensional inter-related problems Gujarat, and Assam are reeling
of droughts, floods, and interrupted under floods) . This creates a region
navigation. Critically examine. (250 of surplus water in some areas and
words, 15 marks) creates a region of water scarcity in
Decoding the Question: other
y In Introduction, Definition of The positive implications of ILR Plan:
interlinking of rivers (ILR) and its y It will most likely lead to enhanced
components. and expanded irrigation i.e., the
y In Body, project asserts to provide additional
⚪ Assess the need, Positive irrigation to 35 million hectares
and negative side of ILR and in the water-scarce western and
elaborate them. peninsular regions.
⚪ You can also mention legal and y The river interlinking project claims
Constitutional provisions in this to generate a total power of 34,000
regard. MW (34 GW).
y In Conclusion, mention GOI’s various y It will lead to ground water
attempts and steps to expedite the recharging.
project ILR. y The inter-link would generate a path
for aquatic ecosystems to migrate
Answer: from one river to another, which
India’s National Water Development may give livelihoods to the people
Agency (NWDA) has suggested the who depend on the fishery as their
interlinking of rivers in the country. Inter income.
Linking of Rivers (ILR) refers to inter- y It also seems to promote national
basin water transfer between two or integration and a fair sharing of the
more rivers through human interventions country’s natural water wealth.

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y Render employment avenues for ⚪ The huge expenditure of the

more than 10 lakh people for the project and the maintenance
next decade. costs linked with the dams,
y It will most likely abolish the canals, tunnels, and captive
flooding problems which recur in electric power generation will
the northeast and the northern part involve huge financial burdens.
of the country every year. y Environmental Costs:
y The large canals linking the rivers ⚪ It will result in huge diversion of
are also anticipated to promote forest areas and submergence
inland navigation too.The River of land heading to deforestation
Linking Project involves multifaceted and soil- erosion. For example,
issues and challenges related to The Ken-Betwa link project lays
environmental, economic, ecological, in danger over 4,100 hectares of
political, legal, and social costs. It forest land or 8% of the Panna
has potential for disastrous and National Park)
irreversible adverse after-effects ⚪ Scientists pointed out that river
which have been widely discussed diversion may bring significant
below. changes in the physical and
The adverse effects of Inter-River chemical compositions of the
Linking Plan: sediment load, river morphology
y Ecological Costs: and the shape of the delta
⚪ Water scientists and formed at the river basin.
environmentalists have observed y Social Costs:
that the water pouring into the ⚪ Reconstruction and rehabilitation
sea is not waste. It is a crucial link due to displacement is not an
in the water cycle. With the link simple task as seen before.
broken, the ecological balance of ⚪ The construction of reservoirs
land and oceans, freshwater and and river linking canals in the
seawater, also gets disrupted. peninsular component alone be
⚪ Formation of River Basin expecting to displace more than
Authority for coordinated 5, 83,000 people and submerge
action and subsequent building large areas of forest, agriculture
up of agreement among and non-agriculture land.
concerned States is prima facie y Political Implications:
necessary. Legal provisions for ⚪ Water being a state subject, the
implementation of ILR related ILR plan further obscures existing
to rehabilitation and appropriate water sharing and management
afforestation through CAMPA is problems between the riparian
to be concurrently addressed. states.
y Economic Costs: ⚪ Some of the ILR schemes have
⚪ As per Geological Survey of international implications that
India, this project is of massive, may create strained relationships
estimated cost, a long-term with neighboring countries like
planning and a sound financial Bhutan, Nepal, and Bangladesh.
simulation are needed to meet The Constitution of India envisages a
the standard for such proposals. greater role for States in matters relating

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Previous Years’ Questions (PYQs), 

to rivers. Hence there are certain legal 2020
as well as Constitutional provisions.
Legal and Constitutional Provisions: India has immense potential for solar
y Entry 17 of List II in the Schedule VII energy though there are regional
authorizes the States to make law variations in its developments.
for water. Elaborate. (250 words, 15 marks)
y List I, Entry 56 authorizes the Decoding the Question:
Union Government to make law for y In Introduction, try to put some facts/
regulation and development of inter- data with respect to Solar Energy in
State rivers and river valleys to the India and its huge potential.
extent to which such regulation and y In Body,
development under the control of ⚪ Elaborate about solar energy
the Union is declared by Parliament regional variation in India with
in the public interest. one or two examples.
y Article 262 of the Constitution ⚪ Elaborate measures which
empowers the Parliament to make can overcome these regional
law on disputes relating to waters of variations as well as other
inter State Rivers or river valleys. problems associated with solar
y The United Nations adopted the energy.
Convention on the Law of the Non- y In Conclusion, you can quote
Navigational Uses of International Research and Development in Solar
Watercourses (CLNNUIW) in 1997. Installations and also mention
y The convention is related to the use Government’s initiative and its
and conservation of all waters that impact.
cross international boundaries.
y However, the convention is not Answer:
yet ratified. India, the USA, China, Solar power in India is a fast-developing
Canada, and Australia are major industry. As a part of its efforts under
opponents of the CLNNUIW. the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement and
The Government of India had formed Commitment of International Solar
a task force to examine the project, Alliance, India has committed to cut
comprised of experts from science, carbon emissions by a third by 2020
engineering, economics, and social from 2005 levels. Solar energy and its
sciences and including as official potential would be significant in India’s
stakeholders one member from a commitment.
water deficit state and one member India’s Potential of Solar Energy:
from a water surplus state. India’s river y India lying in the tropical belt has
linking project presents and ensures a an advantage of receiving peak solar
great concern for water conservation radiation for 300 days, amounting
and optimal use of available water 2300-3,000 hours of sunshine
resources. Indeed, it is the need of equivalent to above 5,000 trillion KWh.
the hour to have a water mission like y The country’s solar installed capacity
IRL, which will enable availability of reached 35.12 GW recently.
water to the fields, villages, towns and y India has the lowest capital cost per
industries throughout the year post a MW globally of installing solar power
comprehensive scientific assessment. plants.

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y The government of India had an panels and the sun tracking

initial target of 20 GW capacity for system, the output of solar
2022, which was achieved four years panels is enhanced substantially.
ahead of schedule. ⚪ One alternative is to use the
y In 2015, the target was raised to water-surface area on canals,
100 GW of solar capacity (including lakes, reservoirs, farm ponds
40 GW from rooftop solar) by 2022, and the sea for large solar-power
targeting an investment of US$100 plants. These water bodies can
billion. also provide water to clean the
Though India has made progress in solar panels.
terms of deploying renewables as part ⚪ The architecture best suited to
of its climate commitments, there has most of India would be a set
been a temporal and regional variation of rooftop power-generation
in terms of installed capacity due to systems connected via a local
geographical conditions, insolation grid.
received in various parts varies thus ⚪ The National Solar Mission also
affecting the solar energy potential: aimed to launch major R&D
y Rajasthan: programmes in order to create
⚪ Rajasthan clinched the top more affordable and convenient
position in the list of states solar systems with provisions for
with the highest estimated solar long term storage options.
energy potential in the country. Therefore, aggressive R&D has also been
Reason behind this achievement initiated empowering the domestic
is that Rajasthan receives manufacturing sector and creation
maximum insolation as well as of intra-state transmission lines in
has barren unculturable land. states like Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh,
That’s why it has the maximum Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
number of solar power projects. and Maharashtra. Strong financial
⚪ Most identified solar hotspots lie measures are required to fund the solar
in states like Gujarat, Maharashtra, projects, innovative steps like green
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, bonds, institutional loans and clean
and Tamil Nadu are fortunate in energy funds can play a crucial role.
receiving insolation of Sun.
⚪ The Eastern Himalayan states
like Arunachal Pradesh,
Nagaland, and Assam receive
annual average insolation below Previous Years’ Questions (PYQs),
4Kwh/meter. Sq./Day, which 2020
makes these states rely more on
power grid and electricity from Examine the status of forest resources
different states. of India and its resultant impact on
y Addressing the regional variations: climate change. (250 words, 15 marks)
⚪ This can be done through Decoding the Question:
Concentrated Solar Power y In Introduction, briefly bring out the
wherein storing heat is an option. state of forest resources in India
Due to better cooling of the solar and importance of forest resources.

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y In Body, elaborate the status y North-Eastern region: Total Forest

of forest resources of India and cover in the North-Eastern region
resultant impact on climate change. is 1,70,541 sq. km that is 65.05% of
y In Conclusion, state and mention its geographical area. The current
the government’s commitment assessment indicates a decrease of
and need to preserve the forest forest cover to the extent of 0.45%
resources. in the region. Except for Assam and
Tripura, all the States in the region
Answer: show a decrease in forest cover.
Forests help mitigate the impacts of y Mangrove cover: Mangrove cover
climate change, provide economic in the country has increased by
benefits for the country, and meet 1.10% as compared to the previous
specific facets of India’s sustainable assessment.
development goals. Besides driving y Total Carbon Stock in the forest:
sustainable growth, forests act as In the present assessment, the
a natural stabilizing agent for the total carbon stock in the forest is
climate as they regulate the carbon assessed as 7,124.6 million tonnes.
cycle significantly. India’s State of the There is an increase of 42.6 million
Forest Report (ISFR) 2019 states that tonnes in the carbon stock of the
India’s forest cover has increased by country as compared to the last
3,976 sq. km since 2017 a rise of 0.56%, assessment of 2017.
but for India to achieve its climate y 21.40% of the forest cover in India
commitments, it would need to bring 33 is ‘highly’ to ‘extremely’ fire prone.
percent of its geographical area under Fire prone forest areas of different
forest cover by 2022. severity classes have been mapped
An examination of the status of forest in the grids of 5km x 5km based on
resources of India as follows: the frequency of forest fires.
y Forest Cover of India: The total forest India’s first comprehensive climate
cover of the country is 7,12,249 sq. analysis report, ‘Assessment of Climate
km that is 21.67% of the geographical Change over the Indian Region’,
area of the country. emphasizes on the role of forests
y Increase in forest and tree cover: as effective mechanisms to mitigate
The current assessment shows an climate change impacts.
increase of 0.56% of forest cover, The impact can be seen as following:
1.29% of tree cover and 0.65% of y Forest resources of India’s resultant
forest and tree cover placed together impact on climate change:
at the national level as compared to ⚪ Forests act as a natural
the previous assessment i.e. ISFR stabilizing agent for the climate
2017. as they regulate the carbon cycle
y Increase in forest cover in states: The significantly.
top five states in terms of increase ⚪ Forests are the only unique, safe
in forest cover are Karnataka, Andhra and inexpensive carbon capture
Pradesh, Kerala, Jammu & Kashmir, and storage technology that is
and Himachal Pradesh. naturally available at scale with

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Previous Years’ Questions (PYQs),

the potential to neutralize global 2019
CO2 concentrations.
⚪ Carbon sequestration through Can the strategy of regional-resource
photosynthesis is considered based manufacturing help in promoting
one of the most potent and employment in India? (150 words, 10
inexpensive methods for climate marks)
change mitigation. Decoding the Question:
⚪ The 2019 report highlights y In Introduction, try to briefly write
increased tree cover, but, about the manufacturing sector and
according to the Global Forest need for regional-resource based
Watch (GFW) the percentage of manufacturing.
intact forest in India accounted y In Body,
for only about 6.7 percent as of ⚪ Write how regional resource-
2016. This considerably skews based manufacturing can
the perception of the actual promote employment in India.
capability of the Indian peninsula ⚪ Also, write some challenges in
for carbon sequestering. developing regional resource-
⚪ For a highly resource-dependent based manufacturing.
country such as India, any severe y In Conclusion, try to write about
degradation of forests would the overall significance of regional-
have far-reaching ramifications resource based manufacturing.
for the economy, food and water
security, and climate solutions.
According to a study by the non- Answer:
government TERI (The Energy Manufacturing sector is regarded as the
and Resource Institute), the backbone of development in general and
degradation of India’s forests economic development by reducing the
is depriving the country of 1.4 dependence of people on agricultural
percent of its GDP annually. income and providing jobs in secondary
In an attempt to restore deforested and tertiary sectors. India is highly diverse
and degraded land, India’s forest policy in terms of natural resources, which
targeted forest and tree cover for over provides employment opportunities
33% of the total geographical area. to local communities and contributes
India has also taken up various other to economic growth. but this sector is
commitments, such as the Nationally highly unorganised and underdeveloped,
Determined Contributions, and the Bonn which leads to problems like migration,
Challenge to minimise the impact of underemployment, unemployment etc.
climate change. Given the critical state Regional Resource-Based
of India’s forests, the government and Manufacturing Areas Can Promote
various stakeholders must demonstrate Employment:
a sense of urgency in proper and serious y Bamboo: India has around 30% of
implementation on the ground. the world’s bamboo resources but

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it contributes to approximately of Indian tea in the world market.

4% share of the global market. It By strengthening the existing
is used as food, wood substitute, tea industries and organising
building, construction, handicraft, new industries can address the
instrument, pulp & paper industries. issue of demand- supply gap and
⚪ India is the second leading underdevelopment of the region.
producer of bamboo. In North- y Similarly other region-based
eastern States the organised industries like food processing
production of bamboo-based industries in western States, Cotton
goods can provide dependable industry in the region of Maharashtra
and respectable employment and Gujarat etc., will enhance the
opportunities. entrepreneurship among local
y Coir (coarse fibre derived from the people, cut manufacturing cost,
outer husk of the coconut): This is increase market base and improve
used for making ropes, mats, and overall development of the region.
mattresses. Coir is available mostly in Challenges in Regional Resource Based
coastal areas like Maharashtra, Goa, Manufacturing:
Odisha, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh y It includes stiff competition in the
due to availability of coconut. At international market from synthetic
present 50% coconut husk is used substitutes and from other
for coir industries; the rest are being competitors like Bangladesh, Brazil,
used as fuel. This industry employs Philippines, Egypt and Thailand etc.
7 lakh people among whom 80% are y The growing global concern for
women according to government environment friendly, biodegradable
data. materials, has once again opened
⚪ With proper financing, Research the opportunity for jute products.
& Development, storage y Lack of skilled labour, cheap
facilities and capacity building finances, government support
it can strengthen the local etc., are also hampering growth of
economy along with women regional resource-based industries.
empowerment. y The Indian MSME sector is plagued
y Jute: India is the leading producer with various issues like lack of
of raw jute and other jute products technology, limited market base etc.
and holds second position as an Regional resource -based manufacturing
exporter after Bangladesh. Most of can greatly help generate employment in
the jute mills are located in West India especially in the case of renewable
Bengal, mainly along the banks of the resources such as agro products,
Hugli River, in a narrow belt. It has bamboo, coir, jute etc. By providing
potential to provide employment to adequate capital, finance, skills etc.
semi-skilled people of West Bengal, can help in tapping the wide potential
Bihar, Odisha and Uttar Pradesh of natural resources in the growth of
and boost the socio-economic people. The government steps like One
conditions of the region. Nation One Product, Atma Nirbhar Bharat
y Tea: The eastern and southern Abhiyan, Udhyami mitra, MSMEs Outreach
States are leading producers of Programme etc. are giving boost to
tea in India, there is huge demand regional resource-based manufacturing

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Previous Years’ Questions (PYQs), 

2016 governance are not addressed
yet.
Present an account of the Indus Water  The IWT tends to disregard
Treaty and examine its ecological, environmental and climatic
economic and political implications factors, whose impacts on the
in the context of changing bilateral Indus Basin are unravelling
relations. (12.5 marks, 200 words) gradually.
Decoding the Question:  The Indus Basin is the second
y In Introduction, try to write a brief most overstressed on the
introduction of the Indus Water Earth, as indicated by a NASA
Treaty (IWT) and its components. survey. Groundwater levels
y In Body, elaborate separately, the have fallen dismally in Punjab,
IWT’s Ecological, Economic and Rajasthan and Haryana.
Political implications in the context  Policies such as free or
of changing bilateral relations: subsidized power supply have
y Conclude with the success of the given more edge to farmers
Indus Water Treaty. to continue to abstract
groundwater which is well
Answer: beyond its recharge capacity.
Indus Water Treaty (IWT) is a  In Pakistan’s case too,
transboundary water distribution they have developed the
agreement between India and Pakistan contiguous irrigation system
mediated by the World Bank on 19 to divert waters of the Indus
September 1960. This treaty determined Basin to its farms leading to
and delimited the rights and obligations depleted groundwater.
of both countries regarding the use of y Climate change: The Indus river
the water of the Indus River system. It system is said to have maximum
addressed the waters of the western dependence on glacial meltwater.
rivers, i.e., the Indus, Jhelum, and ⚪ In the short-term, increased
Chenab, to Pakistan and those of the temperatures and glacial retreat
eastern rivers, the Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej, in the Himalayas could result in
to India. increased water availability, in
The Indus Water Treaty plays a vital role the long run water availability is
in the area of ecological, economic, and expected to plummet steeply.
political context and also it is one of ⚪ The construction of the small
the key points in the bilateral relation dams on the Indus river system
especially between India and Pakistan. will have devastating results as
IWT’ Ecological, Economic and Political these dams are built on high
Implications in the Context of Changing seismic prone zones.
Bilateral Relations: y Economic Implications: Both
y Ecological Implications: India and Pakistan, being agrarian
⚪ Groundwater depletion: The economies, are heavily dependent
IWT clearly lays out the rules on agriculture.
for the use of surface water but ⚪ The Indus river provides the key
groundwater management and water resources for the economy

Urbanisation and Settlements 201

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of India and Pakistan, especially Rajasthan would be left

the breadbasket of Punjab dry and severely hampering
province on both sides, which India’s food production was
accounts for most of the nation’s described as “a gigantic
agricultural production. achievement and a symbol
⚪ It also supports many heavy of the nation’s energy and
industries and provides the enterprise”.
main supply of potable water in y Political Implications: The Indus
Pakistan. Water Treaty (IWT) was supposed to
⚪ Many development projects reduce conflicts between India and
like In India a number of dams, Pakistan.
barrages, and link canals ⚪ India’s role as a responsible
have been built to distribute upper riparian abiding by the
water from the eastern Indus provisions of the treaty has been
tributaries to the Punjab and remarkable.
neighboring states. ⚪ The Indus Water treaty has
 The Harike Barrage, at the remained “uninterrupted”
confluence of the Beas and because India regards its signatory
Sutlej, channels water into and values transboundary rivers
the Indira Gandhi Canal, as an essential connector in the
which runs to the southwest region in terms of both diplomacy
to irrigate desert in western and economic prosperity.
Rajasthan. ⚪ There have been several instances
⚪ The fast-growing populations and of terror attacks originating and
increasing demand for hydropower planned from Pakistan soil like
and irrigation in both India and Indian Parliament in 2001, Mumbai
Pakistan means the Indus is in 2008, the incidents in Uri in
coming under intense pressure. 2016 and Pulwama in 2019 which
 The Mangla Dam on the could have prompted India, within
Jhelum River generates the Vienna Convention on the Law
some 1,000 megawatts of of Treaties, to withdraw from the
hydroelectricity. In addition, IWT. However, on each occasion,
the reservoir has been India chose not to do so.
developed as a fishing centre 19th September 2020 marked the 60th
and a tourist attraction as anniversary of the Indus Water Treaty
well as a health resort. (IWT) between India and Pakistan. As a
 The Ranjit Sagar Dam project document, the treaty may have certain
will enable the power station weaknesses which can be resolved
to act as a peaking station through both the countries will and
in Punjab, besides having its intent to resolve. Indus Water Treaty
own generation capacity of is often cited as an example of the
206 MW and irrigation benefit possibilities of peaceful coexistence that
of 37,173 hectare to Punjab exist despite the troubled relationship.
and J&K. In fact, many Scholars, diplomats
 The Bhakra Dam without dub this treaty as “uninterrupted and
which both Punjab and uninterruptible”.

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Previous Years’ Questions (PYQs),

2016 whatever infrastructure is created,
thereby spelling trouble for the
Enumerate the problems and prospects development of the sector.
of inland water transport in India. (12.5 y According to the report, “the
marks, 200 words) outcome of a National Policy
Decoding the Question: Dialogue on transboundary
y In Introduction, try to write about cooperation” related to the Ganga
the importance of Water based and the Brahmaputra rivers states,
transport. there are not many industrial units
y In Body, emphasise on two aspects on the riverside, especially not along
i.e., The problems of inland water the Brahmaputra.
transport in India and the prospects y Due to less or no development of
of inland water transport in India. special economic zones along Ganga
y Conclude with mentioning the and Brahmaputra rivers, there is
measures like micro-level review to hardly any presence of industries
assess viability need to be done. resulting in no cargo commitments
by the private players.
Answer: y The inland water transport in the
Water based transport is effective river needs enough depth throughout
as operating costs of fuel are low the year for it to be a viable inland
and environmental pollution is lower waterway.
than for corresponding volumes of ⚪ In their natural state, many
movement by road, rail, or air. Inland Indian rivers simply do not have
water transport is most promising and that level of water. This means
the cheapest modes of transport in that extensive dredging will
India. It has played an important part of be required to make the rivers
the transport system in India since early navigable.
times. However, with the expansion of  Dredging will have a
road and railway its importance has tremendous impact on the
been reduced. ecology of the rivers. Species
The Problems of Inland Water Transport like the blind Gangetic
in India: dolphin which navigates
y India is estimated to have nearly by echolocation, already
14,500 km of navigable inland endangered, may be wiped
waterways, even though the out.
exploitation of the sector has  Both for the dredging as
remained neglected. well as the infrastructure,
⚪ Inland waterways transportation very heavy investment is
in India is approximately 3% required.
whereas it constitutes 20% of y The challenges of Inland waterways
the transport sector in Germany are regional in nature.
and 32% in Bangladesh. ⚪ The Ganga has a high silt content
y Not many private players are willing as it flows through Bihar, and
to invest in inland vessels, which the concern is about dams and
have resulted in underutilization of water flow.

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⚪ Kerala, with the sea nearby, fears ⚪ A well-coordinated inland

the ingress of salt water. waterways network could bring
y The water in rivers has competing a fundamental alteration in the
demands, including dams and logistics scenario of the country.
farming. ⚪ It represents a ready built
⚪ To maintain the water levels infrastructure network, which
in the river to the degree can be utilized without any
needed for them to function further capital investment.
as inland waterways, the water ⚪ The network requires no green
use for these activities will be field investment, but only capex
curtailed. for improvement/upgradation.
The Prospects of Inland Water Transport y Waterways can decongest roads,
in India: including highways by moving cargo
y The Government of India has away. Waterways do not involve
approved the enactment of National challenges associated with land
Waterways Act 2016 for declaring acquisition, which has always been
101 additional Inland Waterways a sensitive issue, causing time
as National Waterways (NW) for and cost overruns of numerous
navigation, which would transform projects.
the inland waterways system in the y The significant investment which
country. India needs to build its roads/
y The waterways are proposed to be highways infrastructure network
linked to the eastern and western can be conserved through increased
Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs), utilization of the waterways.
as well as the Sagarmala Project, ⚪ User charges can be levied
which aims to promote port-led to meet the expenses on
direct and indirect development. maintenance of the waterways.
y Inland waterway network has no As every riverine system is unique and
continuous connectivity and requires presents diverse challenges, separate
a multimodal network comprising studies based on a detailed micro-
water bodies and roadways, level review to assess viability need
including culverts, bridges, etc., to to be done for each, before taking up
be developed. implementation. An effective waterways
⚪ This involves investment in a network would necessitate drawing up
large number of activities to be a well-coordinated strategy on lines of
carried out for infrastructure complementarity between the national
development. network and other waterways. The
⚪ State-owned Inland Waterways said strategy should closely look into
Authority of India is trying to raise the various undercurrents, including
funds through market borrowings competing uses/needs, possible local
and organize arrangements resistance and also work closely and in
through multilateral agencies coordination with local governments for
to fund the identified inland quick and successful implementation of
waterways. this important national project.

204 Urbanisation and Settlements

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Previous Years’ Questions (PYQs), 

2016 under schemes initiated by the Central
Government.
In what way micro-watershed y At the central level, the Union Ministry
development projects help in water of Water Resources is responsible
conservation in drought-prone and for development, conservation and
semi-arid regions of India? (12.5 marks, management of water as a national
200 words) resource.
Decoding the Question: y Water being a state subject, the
y In Introduction, you can write some state government has primary
facts about drought and semi-arid responsibility for use and control
regions and why a micro-watershed of this resource. The administrative
development program is required. control and responsibility for
y In Body, elaborate how micro- development of water rest with
watershed development projects the various state departments and
help in water conservation in corporations.
drought-prone and semi-arid y Watershed development is not a
regions of India. new concept in India and a peek
y Conclude with how more into history shows that the people
efforts and steps are required in of India have adapted by either living
micro-watershed development along river banks or by harvesting,
programmes. storing, and managing rainfall, runoff
and stream flows.
Answer: y Run-off Farming: System of growing
Drought-prone and semi-arid regions crops on harvested & stored water
of India involve states like Rajasthan, in the farm by earthen dam or a
Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, AP, Karnataka, bund across the gentle slope of
and Maharashtra. 11.8% of the country the farmland and shallow, gravelly
is under drought-prone and semi- and rocky uplands for grazing helps
arid regions. To tackle the problems harvesting runoff water.
of water scarcity in these regions, y Silvi-pasture: This method is used in
Micro-Watershed Management is areas with rainfall below 200 mm/yr.
required which can integrate natural and food production is very difficult.
resource management with community On the other hand, there are some
livelihoods in a sustainable way. Micro- grass species, e.g. Cenchrus cilieria,
Watershed management involves the Lasiurus sindicus etc., well adapted
judicious use of natural resources with to such climate and make natural
active participation of institutions, rangelands.
organizations, and people’s participation ⚪ Tree species like Prosopis
in harmony with the ecosystem. cineraria and Zizyphus
Micro-Watershed Development Projects nummularia come up in these
Help in Water Conservation in Drought- rangelands & make a silvipastoral
Prone and Semi-Arid Regions of India: system. Animals such as cows,
Micro-Watershed programmes have goats & sheep are part of this
been implemented in the country farming system.

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y Wind break: Wind erosion, high Answer:

thermal regime & hot desiccating India is the third largest consumer of
winds are serious problems which energy in the world after China and the
affect the establishment, growth & USA but most of this energy demand
yield of crops in arid areas. Mixtures is met through imports. These high
of trees & shrubs planted across the imports dent the fiscal stability and
wind direction help in reducing wind adversely affect the energy security of
speed. the country. Unconventional gas sources
The use of the micro-watershed as the may come to the rescue to address
basic unit for planning and intervention these issues. One of the unconventional
was found to be useful, but the larger gas sources is known as the shale oil
goals of protecting and conserving and gas, these are basically the fine
hydrologic services and/or managing grained sedimentary rocks formed of
negative downstream and groundwater organic mud in the river basins or near
impacts remained to be addressed as the bottom of the old seas.
the micro-watershed approach was Unconventional gas sources are the
carried out in isolation. A micro project ones that their production needs
(at the sub-watershed level or micro- greater effort than the other similar
watershed level) needs to be planned resources. They also require specialised
for at least five to seven years in order technology, depending on the nature of
to build sufficient social capital. their presence. The following sources
of gas have been categorised as
unconventional ones:
y Coal bed methane (CBM)
Previous Years’ Questions (PYQs),  y Coal mine methane (CMM)
2013 y Shale oil and gas
y Tight gas
It is said that India has substantial Availability of the Shale Oil and Gas
reserves of shale oil and gas, which Resources in India:
can feed the needs of the country for The Government of India has carried
a quarter century. However, tapping out studies through various national
of the resources doesn’t appear to be and international agencies for the
high on the agenda. Discuss critically identification of shale oil and gas
the availability and issues involved. 10 resources in the country. Based on the
marks-200 words data available from conventional oil/gas
Decoding the Question: exploration in the country for the last so
y In Introduction, try to define shale many years, the country holds promising
gas. reserves of Shale Gas & Oil resources,
y In Body, mention the major and the following sedimentary basins
challenges to tap the potential of are considered prospective from Shale
shale gas in India. oil and gas point of view:
y Conclude your answer by suggesting Cambay Basin
measures to use the resources y Gondwana Basin
available to meet the demands in y KG Basin
the energy sector. y Cauvery Basin

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Previous Years’ Questions (PYQs), 

y Indo-Gangetic Basin 2013
y Assam & Assam-Arakan Basin
Major Challenges Utilizing the Shale Oil With growing scarcity of fossil fuels,
and Gas Resources: atomic energy is gaining more and
Though India has substantial reserves more significance in India. Discuss the
of shale oil and gas, which can feed availability of raw material required for
the needs of the country for a quarter the generation of atomic energy in India
century, taking advantage of these and in the world. (10 marks, 200 words)
resources have never been on the Decoding the Question:
forefront. The challenges for this are: y In Introduction, start with writing
y The reserves are usually very deep, briefly on why and how atomic
exceeding 5000 feet, hence it energy can be an alternative to
becomes very tedious and risky to fossil fuel.
extract the gas. y In Body,
y Deep drillings have been detested by ⚪ Discuss the reasons why atomic
the environmentalists as they could energy can be chosen as an
permanently damage the quality of alternative to fossil fuel.
the ground water and contaminate ⚪ Mention the raw materials
them. required for the generation of
⚪ The drilling (known as fracking atomic energy.
activity) needs a lot of water y In Conclusion, mention the
consumption (around 10 times importance of atomic energy and
more needed for conventional provide some relevant statistics.
sources), a water scarce country
like India cannot afford that.
y Structural integrity of the land Answer:
remains an issue as it exposes the Rapid expansion in global energy
potential for increased seismic demand and the growing awareness of
activity. the need for sustainable development
The latest policy brief “Shale Gas in has put increasing focus on the
India: Look Before You Leap” by The environmental consequences of
Energy and Research Institute (TERI) burning fossil fuels. India imports 80%
explores the question of shale gas being of its energy demand and more than
a game changer in the context of India. half of the total electricity produced in
The Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas, the country is through thermal plants.
Govt. of India has granted permission The need to look beyond fossil fuels
for Shale gas and oil exploration and and invest more on atomic energy now
exploitation to various groups now. The seems to be a viable option. Nuclear
policy was announced with the exclusive power, which currently supplies about
purpose of promoting Shale Gas & Oil one-sixth of global electricity, is the
operations, which has the potential to principal alternative of fossil fuel that
feed the energy needs of the country for could, in the foreseeable future, provide
a quarter century. electricity on a large scale.

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Reasons why Atomic Energy can be y Uranium reserves are mostly found
Chosen as an Alternative to Fossil Fuel: in Bihar and Jharkhand. Recently, it
y The burning of fossil fuels (oil, gas, has been discovered in Arunachal
and coal) emits greenhouse gases, Pradesh as well.
there is no greenhouse emission y Across the world, Kazakhstan,
of nuclear fuel produced by atomic Canada, and Australia lead the
energy. Uranium mining production.
y Nuclear fuel is a more efficient y Apart from India, Australia, Canada
energy source. For the same volume and the US have the biggest reserve
of fuel, it produces far more energy of Thorium.
than carbon-based fuels. With raw materials available, India is
y Fossil fuel has a limited supply at a juncture where it has to take the
where nuclear fuel can be used atomic energy programme forward.
alternatively. Currently, only around 3 percent of the
y Atomic energy is a reliable source total energy is being generated through
of energy. Reactors, with a few this means. The government has signed
exceptions, spend little down time. agreements regarding this with the USA,
y Atomic energy is cost effective when Japan, the UK, Australia to increase
a standardized reactor design is energy production. Energy demand is
used. Breeder reactors are designed increasing in India about twice as fast
such that they can be used as as overall energy use and is likely to rise
renewable resources. by more than half to 2040. Nuclear deals
y Atomic energy produces fewer with these countries are a step in the
wastages as compared to fossil fuel. right direction to meet the sustainable
Raw Materials Required for the energy demands.
Generation of Atomic Energy:
There are two main processes, by which
atomic energy is generated: Nuclear
Fusion and Nuclear Fission. For Nuclear
Fission, Uranium (U- 235, U233), Previous Years’ Questions (PYQs), 
Thorium, and Plutonium are used. 2014
Isotopes of Lithium and Hydrogen are
used in the process of Nuclear Fusion. How does India see its place in the
Availability of Raw Material in India and economic space of rising natural
in the World: resource rich Africa? (10 marks, 150
y India’s Thorium reserves account words)
for one-fourth of the global Decoding the Question:
reserves. India, at 70,000 tonnes, y In Introduction, briefly write
has a significant amount of Uranium about the India-Africa ties that
available for the generation of atomic are inextricably connected by
energy as well. their shared colonial pasts and
y Major areas where Thorium is geographic, political, and socio-
found are in the States of Odisha, cultural commonalities.
West Bengal, Kerala, Jharkhand, y In Body, elaborate India’s place in
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra the economic space of rising natural
Pradesh, etc. resource rich Africa.

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y Conclusion with a holistic and long- ⚪ Energy relations are often

term approach to energy supply and strategic. They tend to be much
security is required for both Nations. easier if stronger political and
strategic relations are developed
Answer: in tandem. Renewable energy
India and Africa are inextricably and niche areas like microgrids
connected by their shared colonial could be where India contributes
pasts and geographic, political, and to Africa’s energy development.
socio-cultural commonalities. These y Africa’s renewable energy potential
similarities in their two ecosystems is already beginning to be translated
have allowed for natural synergies in into achievements. Electricity
identifying common socio-economic generation from renewable energies
and developmental challenges, (solar, hydro, wind, etc.) is being
exploring opportunities, and developing developed in Africa.
solutions. These interlinkages have ⚪ The International Solar Alliance,
been manifested in the economic India’s brainchild initiative can
space of rising natural resource rich offer a concrete platform where
Africa as well as various development India, as a major player and the
initiatives. host country of this international
India’s place in the economic space of government Organization, can
rising natural resource rich Africa: work together with African
y Africa plays an increasingly important countries to address convergent
role in the international hydrocarbon renewable energy priorities.
markets. More than half of the recent y Africa is still mainly rural. The
oil discoveries have been in Africa, combination of off-grid renewable
which accounts today for about 10% solutions and mini-grids can prove
of the world’s oil reserves. to be the most cost-effective in
⚪ India is now the fastest growing bringing customised energy supply
major importer of oil and natural solutions to diverse economies
gas in the world. It also continues and territories with low population
to be a major importer of coal densities.
from Africa. ⚪ The development of mini-grids
⚪ There are also a number of other in India, fueled by renewable
primary commodities for which energy, has been successful. This
India is a major consumer, such experience of India, and similar
as phosphates that are imported other innovations, could apply
from Africa. to some regions in sub-Saharan
y Strengthening the supply links Africa.
between India and Africa in the Africa is endowed with important oil
energy sector in both upstream and natural gas resources. Till date,
and downstream should be an revenues from these resources have
imperative. not materialised into perceptible socio-
⚪ India’s ties with large energy economic benefits for the population.
exporters like Angola and Nigeria A holistic and long-term approach to
is pertinent here. energy supply and security is required,

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where a share of revenues from fossil Water scarcity in most cases is caused
fuels is used to finance the clean by over- exploitation, excessive use,
energy transition. India can help African and unequal access to water among
countries to tap the potential of natural different social groups. An area or region
resources and further strengthen the may have ample water resources but
ties between the two. still can face water scarcity. Many of our
cities are such examples. Thus, water
scarcity may be an outcome of large
and growing population and consequent
greater demands for water, and unequal
Previous Years’ Questions (PYQs),  access to it. A large population means
2015 more water not only for domestic
use but also to produce more food.
India is well endowed with freshwater Hence, to facilitate higher food-grain
resources. Critically examine why it production, water resources are being
still suffers from water scarcity. (12.5 over-exploited to expand irrigated
marks, 200 words) areas and dry-season agriculture. It
Decoding the Question: may lead to falling groundwater levels,
y In Introduction, begin your answer adversely affecting water availability
with defining water scarcity and and food security of the people. Post-
include some data on freshwater independent India witnessed intensive
resources and water scarcity. industrialisation and urbanisation,
y In Body, creating vast opportunities for us.
⚪ Explain why India is facing water Today, large industrial houses are
scarcity despite having enough as commonplace as the industrial
freshwater resources. units of many MNCs (Multinational
⚪ State some initiatives taken by Corporations). The ever-increasing
the Government. number of industries has made matters
y Conclude your answer with some worse by exerting pressure on existing
positive way out and SDG goals. freshwater resources. Industries, apart
from being heavy users of water, also
Answer: require power to run them. Much of this
India constitutes 16 percent of the energy comes from hydroelectric power.
world’s population and has four percent Today, in India hydroelectric power
of the world’s freshwater resources. contributes approximately 22 percent of
The total renewable water resources the total electricity produced. Moreover,
of India are estimated at 1,897 sq km multiplying urban centres with large and
per annum. According to Falkenmark, dense populations and urban lifestyles
a Swedish expert, water stress occurs have not only added to water and
when water availability is between 1,000 energy requirements but have further
and 1,600 cubic metre per person per aggravated the problem. The housing
year. India ranks 133 in the world in societies or colonies in the cities have
terms of water availability per person their own groundwater pumping devices
per annum. By 2025, it is predicted that to meet their water needs. Fragile water
large parts of India will join countries or resources are being overexploited and
regions having absolute water scarcity. have caused their depletion in several

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of these cities. Over exploitation and legislative changes to promote better

mismanagement of water resources water management. As many as 256
will impoverish this resource and of 700 districts have reported ‘critical’
cause ecological crises that may have or ‘over-exploited’ groundwater levels,
profound impact on our lives. The 2018 according to the latest data from the
Composite Water Management Index Central Ground Water Board (2017). Now
(CWMI) noted that 6% of GDP will be the government is working on piped
lost by 2050, while water demand will potable water to every rural household
exceed the available supply by 2030. by 2024. In the past year, the Jal Jeevan
Food supply is also at risk as areas for Mission has served 20 million families
wheat cultivation and rice cultivation with clean water.
face extreme water scarcity. The private sector is also pitching in
In many areas water is sufficiently to put a lasting solution to this crisis.
available to meet the needs of the New water purification technologies
people, but the area still suffers from like smart water purifiers and auto-
water scarcity. This scarcity may be due maintenance systems are paving the way
to bad quality of water. More than 50% to a better future. The introduction of
of the population has no access to safe IoT technology, sensors, and data-driven
drinking water and about 200,000 people approach in water purification by Indian
die every year for lack of access to safe start-ups are showing the ray of hope to
water. Lately, there has been a growing solve this problem. With IoT (Internet of
concern that even if there is ample water Things) technology real-time tracking of
to meet the needs of the people, much input water quality, water consumption,
of it may be polluted by domestic and and filter use are being tracked which
industrial wastes, chemicals, pesticides assures safe drinking water.
and fertilisers used in agriculture, thus, The need of the hour is to conserve and
making it hazardous for human use. manage water resources, to safeguard
In urban areas, 50 million people in 15 humans from health hazards, to
cities have no access to safe, affordable ensure food security, continuation of
water. India’s rivers, especially the livelihoods and productive activities
smaller ones, have all turned into toxic and also to prevent degradation of our
streams and even the big ones like the natural ecosystems.
Ganga and Yamuna are far from being As Confucius once said, “The man who
pure. As per the Citizens’ Fifth Report, moves a mountain begins by carrying
CSE, 1999, the assault on India’s rivers away small stones”. Some small steps
– from population growth, agricultural can create a way out. Our journey is to
modernisation, urbanisation and achieve goal six of the United Nations-
industrialisation – is enormous and mandated Sustainable Development
growing by the day. This entire life Goals could just become easier if
stands threatened. we remain engaged, influential, and
Over the past years, the government productive to ensure availability and
has worked on groundwater recharging sustainable management of water and
projects, micro-irrigation, and sanitation for all by 2030.

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Previous Years’ Questions (PYQs), 

2015 y Apart from pilgrimage tourism,
“modern” tourism in the IHR
The states of Jammu and Kashmir, (Indian Himalayan region), which
Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand is represented by mass tourism, is
are reaching the limits of ecological largely limited to sightseeing and
carrying capacity due to tourism. visiting major tourism hubs.
Critically evaluate. (12.5 marks, 200 y All these activities are putting severe
words) stress on the ecology and ecosystem
Decoding the Question: services of the Himalaya as well as on
y In Introduction, begin your answer local social structures. Modern form
with some data and background of of tourism requires ever-expanding
tourism. road networks, hotels, related
y In Body, write about the ecological infrastructure, and institutional
impacts of tourism. capacities and puts huge demands
y Conclude the answer with SDG & on the water and natural resources
some positive way outs. of this fragile region. Over the years,
trekking, mountain climbing, and
Answer: nature-based tourism in the IHR
Covering around 27% of the earth’s land have been gaining popularity.
surface, mountains play a critical role in Issues of concern to IHR environments
moving the world towards sustainable are continuing to be multiple with their
economic growth. They not only provide magnitude ever becoming challenging
sustenance and wellbeing to 720 million as loss or degradation of mountain
inhabitants around the world, but also landscapes and their biodiversity
indirectly benefit billions more living because,
downstream economically as well. y Replacement of traditional eco-
Many countries are looking at tourism friendly and aesthetic architecture
to generate income and strengthen the with inappropriate, anesthetic and
national economy, India is no exception. dangerous construction,
As one of the world’s largest industries, y Poorly designed roads and associated
tourism is responsible for more than infrastructure,
one in ten jobs globally and constitutes y Inadequate solid waste management,
over 8% of domestic economic activity- y Air pollution,
as per the data of NITI AAYOG. y Degradation of watersheds and
‘Tourism’ in a broader sense of the word water sources,
has existed for a very long time. y Loss of natural resources,
y With the arrival of the British in biodiversity, and ecosystem services,
the 19th century, summer resorts, y Socio-economic development and
the so-called ‘Hill Stations’, were conservation of IHR is increasingly
established. Examples of these challenged by the mass-tourism
are Darjeeling, Nainital, Mussoorie, scenario which has also a cross-
and Shimla, which are today major border connection, thus bound
tourism destinations. to face massive climate change
y The Himalayan region has an related challenges as well as the
important spiritual meaning for conventional problems of huge
Hindus as a “sacred space”. fiscal deficits, gaps in environmental

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compliance and very minimal future development in the region, this

investments to promote sustainable will only be possible if it is developed
tourism. and implemented following principles
These challenges can get worse if the of sustainability. These round-the-
envisaged tourist load of 240 million by year tourism activities need to be
2025 becomes a reality. Moreover, the encouraged and promoted responsibly.
best practice of tourism (in Sikkim) is The prospects of tourism growth
equally threatened by mass tourism and in IHR may be great but to achieve
its fall-outs apart from losing forest Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
cover to development. 8/12, managing such growth so that it is
Sustainable aspects of tourism inclusive (focusing also on marginalized
development in IHR, where carrying areas and groups) and sustainable
capacity of potential destinations (ensuring jobs, promotion of local
should form the basis for planning long- culture and tourism product) is a proven
term investments, do not find enough challenge.
resonance to begin with. All mountain To overcome this challenge maximizing
states have developed tourism/ tourism’s positive and creative
ecotourism policies and master plans contribution to IHR local economies,
but not all of them address these the conservation of natural and cultural
challenges and harness opportunities heritage, and the quality of life of
that change brings. hosts and visitors and harnessing
While tourism is one of the main opportunities and innovative actions to
development sectors for the Himalaya make tourism sustainable are essential
and can be the engine that drives features.

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